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Page title without namespace (page_title) | 'Sumgait pogrom' |
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{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = Sumgait pogrom
| image = Sumgaitrioting.jpg
| image_size = 290px
| caption = Images captured from a videotape show burnt automobiles and the massive throngs of rioters on the streets of [[Sumgait]].
| location = [[Sumgait]], [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan]], [[Soviet Union]]
| target = Local [[Armenians|Armenian]] population
| date = February 26 – March 1, 1988
| type = [[Murder]], [[rape]], [[riot]]<ref>{{cite book|last=De Waal|first=Thomas|title=The Caucasus: An Introduction|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0195399776|page=111|authorlink=Thomas de Waal}}</ref>
| fatalities = 32 (official Soviet data)<br />200+ (Armenian sources)<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vaserman|first1=Arie|last2=Ginat|first2=Ram|title=National, territorial or religious conflict? The case of Nagorno‐Karabakh|journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism|date=1994|volume=17|issue=4|page=348|doi=10.1080/10576109408435961|quote=These events contributed to the anti-Armenian riots of February 28–29 in Sumgait near Baku. According to official data, 32 Armenians were killed during the riots, but various Armenian sources claimed that more than 200 people were killed.}}</ref>
| injuries = Unknown
| victim =
| perps =
| perp =
| susperps =
| susperp =
| weapons =
| numparts =
| numpart =
| dfens =
| dfen =
| footage =
}}
{{Campaignbox Nagorno-Karabakh War}}
The '''Sumgait pogrom''' ({{lang-hy|Սումգայիթի ջարդեր}}, {{lang|hy-Latn|Sumgayit'i ĵarder}} [[Literal translation|lit.]]: "Sumgait massacres"; {{lang-az|Sumqayıt hadisələri}} [[Literal translation|lit.]]: "Sumgait events") was a [[pogrom]] that targeted the [[Armenians|Armenian]] population of the seaside town of [[Sumqayit|Sumgait]] in the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]] in late February 1988. The pogrom took place during the early stages of the [[Karabakh movement]]. On February 27, 1988, mobs of ethnic [[Azerbaijanis]] formed into groups and attacked and killed Armenians on the streets and in their apartments; widespread looting and a general lack of concern from police officers allowed the violence to continue for three days.
On February 28, a small contingent of [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)|Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD)]] troops entered the city and unsuccessfully attempted to quell the rioting. More professional military units entered with tanks and armored personnel vehicles one day later. Government forces imposed a state of [[martial law]] and [[curfew]] and brought the crisis to an end. The official death toll released by the [[Prosecutor General of the USSR]] (tallies were compiled based on lists of named victims) was 32 people (26 Armenians and 6 Azerbaijanis), although other estimates reach up into the hundreds of victims.<ref>{{cite news|last=Remnick|first=David|authorlink=David Remnick|title=Hate Runs High in Soviet Union's Most Explosive Ethnic Feud|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|access-date=July 15, 2013|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=September 6, 1989|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329042718/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|archive-date=March 29, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Hosking">{{cite book|last=Hosking|first=Geoffrey A.|url=https://archive.org/stream/firstsocialistso0000hosk?ref=ol#page/474/mode/2up|title=The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1993|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge, Mass.|page=475|pages=|authorlink=Geoffrey Hosking}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kenez|first=Peter|url=https://www.academia.edu/24876372/_Peter_Kenez_A_history_of_the_Soviet_Union_from_t_BookZZ_org_|title=A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=|page=272|pages=|authorlink=Peter Kenez}}</ref>
The violence in Sumgait was unexpected and was widely covered in the Western press. It was greeted with general astonishment in Armenia and the rest of the Soviet Union since ethnic feuds in the country had been largely suppressed by the government, which had promoted policies such as [[proletarian internationalism]], [[fraternity of peoples]], and [[socialist patriotism]] to avert such conflicts. The massacre, together with the [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]], presented a major challenge to the reforms being implemented by Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. Gorbachev was later criticized for his perceived slowness in reacting to the crisis.
Because of the scale of atrocities against the Armenians as an ethnic group the pogrom was immediately linked to the [[Armenian Genocide]] of 1915 in the Armenian [[national consciousness]].<ref name="Hovhannisyan">{{cite web|last1=Hovhannisyan|first1=Mari|title=The Collective Memory of the Armenian Genocide|url=http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|publisher=[[Central European University]]|location=Budapest|page=21|date=2010|quote=The posters carried by the Armenians on April 24, 1988 were verifications of the fact that Armenians saw the Sumgait massacres as the continuation of the genocide.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129032803/http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pheiffer|first1=Evan|title=A Place to Live For|journal=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]]|date=June 1, 2016|url=https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/06/nagorno-karabakh-armenia-azerbaijan-four-day-war/|quote=Complicating matters, Armenians seem incapable of separating the 1988 pogroms from the 1915 Ottoman atrocities — mention of one immediately triggers talk of the other.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919051831/https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/06/nagorno-karabakh-armenia-azerbaijan-four-day-war/|archive-date=September 19, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> A number of international and Soviet sources also describes the events as [[genocide]] of the Armenian population.<ref>Glasnost: : Vol. 2, Issue 1, Center for Democracy (New York, N.Y.) – 1990, p. 62, cit. 'The massacre of Armenians in Sumgait, the heinous murders in Tbilisi—these killings are examples of genocide directed by the Soviet regime against its own people.', an announcement by USSR Journalists' Union</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich, 1925-|first=|url=https://archive.org/stream/timeofchangeinsi00medv?ref=ol#page/n11/mode/2up|title=Time of change : an insider's view of Russia's transformation|last2=Giulietto|first2=Chiesa|date=1989|publisher=Pantheon Books|others=|year=1989|isbn=0-394-58151-2|location=New York|pages=209|translator-last=Moore|translator-first=Michael|oclc=20593737}}</ref> The Sumgait pogrom is commemorated every year on February 28 in Armenia, [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|Nagorno-Karabakh]], and among the [[Armenian diaspora]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Communities Worldwide Mark Sumgait Anniversary Along with Government Officials|url=http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|work=[[Asbarez]]|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040537/http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
==Background==
[[File:Azerbaijan map sumqayit.png|thumb|right|250px|Sumgait (Sumqayit) is located about 30 kilometers (approximately {{convert|20|miles|km}}) northwest of Azerbaijan's capital [[Baku]], near the [[Caspian Sea]].]]
The city of Sumgait is located near the coast of the [[Caspian Sea]], only thirty kilometers north of the capital [[Baku]]. It had been renovated in the 1960s and had become a leading industrial city, second after Baku by its industrial importance, with oil refineries and [[petrochemical]] plants built during that era. Its population in the 1960s stood at 60,000, but by the late 1980s it had swollen to over 223,000 (with an Armenian population of about 17,000), and overcrowding among other social problems plagued the city. While there was a high rate of unemployment and poverty among the Azerbaijani residents, the Armenians comprised mainly the working and educated sector of the town's population.<ref name="Krivopuskov 2007">{{cite book|last=Krivopuskov|first=Viktor V.|url=http://www.armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html#5|title=Мятежный Карабах: Из дневника офицера МВД СССР [Rebellious Karabakh: From the diary of an officer of the USSR]|edition=2nd|location=Moscow|publisher=Golos Press|year=2007|pages=87–88|isbn=978-5-7117-0163-7|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809032141/http://armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html#5|archive-date=August 9, 2012|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
The political and economic reforms that General Secretary Gorbachev had initiated in 1985 saw a marked decentralization of Soviet authority. Armenians, in both Armenia proper and Nagorno-Karabakh, viewed Gorbachev's reform program as an opportunity to unite the two entities together. On February 20, 1988, tens of thousands of Armenians gathered to demonstrate in [[Stepanakert|Stepanakert's]] [[Renaissance Square, Stepanakert|Lenin (now Renaissance) Square]] to demand that the region be joined to Armenia. On the same day, the Supreme Soviet of Nagorno-Karabakh voted to join the Armenian SSR, a move staunchly opposed by the Soviet Azerbaijani authorities. Gorbachev rejected these claims, invoking Article 78 of the [[Soviet Constitution]], which stated that republics' borders could not be altered without their prior consent. The vote by the Council and the subsequent protests were condemned also by the state-run Soviet media; however, they resonated more loudly among Azerbaijanis. As journalist [[Thomas de Waal]] wrote in his 2003 book on the conflict, after the appeal of the Council "the slow descent into armed conflict began on the first day."{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=14}}
===Rallies and fuelling of anti-Armenian sentiments===
{{see also|Anti-Armenianism in Azerbaijan}}
[[File:Sumgait city map.jpg|thumb|240px|A map of Sumgait shows a section of the city's apartment districts, notable landmarks, and main streets.]]
The rallies in Armenia were countered by demonstrations in Baku, during which time strong anti-Armenian sentiments were voiced by citizens and officials alike. One such statement came on February 14, 1988, when the head of the department of [[Central Committee]] of the [[Communist Party of Azerbaijan]] Asadov, declared "a hundred thousand Azerbaijanis are ready to storm Artsakh (Karabakh) at any time and organize a slaughter there."<ref name="Tucha">{{cite journal|last=Vasilevsky|first=Alexander|title=Туча в горах [A cloud in the mountains]|journal=[[:ru:Аврора (журнал, Санкт-Петербург)|Avrora]]|date=1988|issue=10|url=http://sumgait.info/press/zhurnal-avrora/avrora-october-1988.htm|location=Leningrad|language=ru|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213214346/http://www.sumgait.info/press/zhurnal-avrora/avrora-october-1988.htm|archive-date=December 13, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref> According to [[Adam Schiff]], in the days leading up to the massacre, a leader of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan, [[Hidayat Orujov]], warned Armenians in Sumgait: "If you do not stop campaigning for the unification of Nagorno Karabakh with Armenia, if you don't sober up, 100,000 Azeris from neighboring districts will break into your houses, torch your apartments, rape your women, and kill your children."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://beta.congress.gov/congressional-record/2013/2/28/extensions-of-remarks-section/article/E211-2|title=Congressional Record Extensions of Remarks Articles – Congressional Record – Congress.gov – Library of Congress|publisher=|access-date=April 6, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419012445/http://beta.congress.gov/congressional-record/2013/2/28/extensions-of-remarks-section/article/E211-2|archive-date=April 19, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.a1plus.am/1184325.html | title=Congressmen commemorate 1988 Armenian pogroms and condemn anti-Armenian policies | date=February 2018}}</ref>. This however was later denied by Orujov himself who in his interview stated that not only he had never publicly made any statements aimed at igniting inter-ethnic conflict, but also he was not present in Sumgait and was not holding any political role at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://azerbaijanfoundation.az/%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%82-%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B2-%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%BF/?lang=ru|title= Hidayat Orujev in response to the claims by congressman Adam Schiff |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004094731/http://azerbaijanfoundation.az/%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%82-%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B2-%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%BF|archive-date=October 4, 2020|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
On February 26 several minor rallies were held at Lenin Square in Sumgait. Explicit calls for violence against Armenians and for their expulsion from Azerbaijan were heard and the crowds were agitated by news of Azerbaijani refugees who had fled Armenia (from the towns [[Kapan]] and [[Masis (city)|Masis]]). Certain individuals told stories of murders and violence purportedly carried out by Armenians against the Azerbaijanis. Soviet authorities would later cast these individuals as [[agents provocateur]]. One individual, according to the Soviet press, was later revealed not to be a resident of Kapan, as he had claimed, but a criminal with a prior arrest record.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kulish|first1=O.|last2=Melikov|first2=D.|script-title=ru:Черным семенам не прорасти|journal=[[Tribuna|Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya]]|date=March 27, 1988|location=Moscow|language=ru}}</ref> [[Zardusht Alizadeh]], who was active in the social and political life of Azerbaijan from 1988–1989 and was one of the founders of [[Azerbaijani Popular Front Party|Azerbaijani Popular Front]], visited Sumgait ten days after the pogrom and met with the workers from the aluminum factory, and reported that locals said that people from out of town had been inciting the violence.<ref>{{cite web|authorlink=Zardusht Alizadeh|first=Zardusht|last=Ali-Zade|url=http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm|title=Азербайджанская элита и массы в период распада СССР (Статья-мемуары о бурном времени) [The Azerbaijani Elite and Masses in the period of collapse of the USSR (An article-memoir on turbulent Times)]|publisher=Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center|quote=Рабочие Сумгаита говорили о странных, "нездешнего вида" молодых мужчинах, которые заводили толпу. Что это за "нездешнего вида" мужчины, были ли они в действительности или это – плод воображения, – на эти вопросы я не знал ответа тогда, не знаю и сейчас, по прошествии более чем десяти лет.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030014402/http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm|archive-date=October 30, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Baku's local Party leader Fuad Musayev, who was called back to Baku because of the unrest, stated in the interview given to Thomas de Waal, "Someone was provoking them, propaganda work was going on."<ref>Thomas De Waal Ch. 2, p. 31</ref>
The demonstrations in the Lenin Square were concluded with strong anti-Armenian sentiments. During the demonstrations there were apparent threats and accusations against the Armenians for distorting the territorial integrity of Azerbaijan. The Armenians were also blamed for being much better-off than most of the Azerbaijanis in Sumgait. Slogans such as "Death to Armenians!" and "Armenians get out of our city" were being voiced.<ref name="Krivopuskov">[http://www.armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html#5 Krivopuskov V. V. Мятежный Карабах. Из дневника офицера МВД СССР. Издание второе, дополненное. — М.: Голос-Пресс, 2007. — 384 с. Ил.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809032141/http://armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html |date=August 9, 2012 }} {{ISBN|5-7117-0163-0}}</ref><ref>[http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%89%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C-%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5-%D0%BC%D1%8B/ Newspaper «НОВОЕ ВРЕМЯ» N9 21 89] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008011210/http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%89%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C-%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5-%D0%BC%D1%8B/ |date=October 8, 2012 }}</ref> There were also many public figures attending the rallies, among them the head of public school No: 25, an actress of the Arablinski theatre, Azerbaijani poet Khydyr Alovlu (a strong supporter of Heydar Aliyev) and others, who called for Armenians to be expelled from Azerbaijan or killed. Almost each speech was concluded with the slogan "Death to Armenians!". Since the speakers used microphones these calls were heard not only in the square but also in the nearby streets.<ref name="Krivopuskov"/>
Efforts to calm the crowd were made by Azerbaijani figures such as secretary of the city party committee Bayramova and poet [[Bakhtiyar Vahabzadeh]], who addressed the crowd atop a platform. V. Huseinov, the director of the Institute of Political Education in Azerbaijan, also attempted to calm them by assuring them that Karabakh would remain within the republic and that the refugees stories were false. He in turn was heckled with insults and forced to step down.<ref>[[Yuri Rost|Rost, Yuri]]. ''The Armenian Tragedy: An Eye-Witness Account of Human Conflict and Natural Disaster in Armenia and Azerbaijan''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990, p. 27. {{ISBN|0-312-04611-1}}.</ref> Jahangir Muslimzade, Sumgait's first secretary, spoke to the crowd, and told them to allow Armenians to leave of their own accord. But according to witnesses, this message served to agitate the crowd.<ref>{{cite book|last=Beissinger|first=Mark R.|title=Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|page=300|isbn=0-521-00148-X}}</ref> Shortly after his speech, at around 6:30 pm, Muslimzade was handed a flag of the Azerbaijan SSR and soon found himself leading the crowd. According to Muslimzade, he was attempting to lead the crowd away from the Armenian district and toward the sea, but many Armenians saw this act as implicating him as a leader of the riot. The crowd, in any case, dispersed and several groups made for the Armenian district.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|pp=33–34}}
===Radio broadcast===
Another factor that may have ignited the violence was an announcement of the murder of two Azerbaijanis. On February 27, Soviet Deputy Federal Procurator, Aleksandr Katusev, announced on Baku Radio and Central Television, that two Azerbaijani youths, Bakhtiyar Guliyev and Ali Hajiyev, were killed in a clash between Armenians and Azerbaijanis near [[Agdam]] several days earlier <ref name="Tucha"/>{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=33}} One of the youths was killed by an Azerbaijani police officer, but Katusev neglected to mention that and would later receive a stinging rebuke for revealing the nationalities of the young men. The secretive nature the Soviet Union was still attempting to shake off led many Azerbaijanis to believe that there was something more nefarious to Katusev's report than he let on.<ref name="Tucha"/>
==Pogrom and atrocities==
[[File:Sumgaitweapons.jpg|thumb|270px|Most of the weapons during the attacks were sharpened metal objects said to be produced in the city's industrial plants.]]
The pogrom of the Armenian population of Sumgait started on the evening of February 27, one week after the appeal of the Council of People's Deputies to unify Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia and according to many sources was a direct response to the Council's decision.<ref name="Hosking"/><ref name="Cox">Cox and Eibner. "Ethnic Cleansing in Progress: War in Nagorno Karabakh" Zurich: Institute for Religious Minorities in the Islamic World, 1993 {{cite web |url=http://sumgait.info/caroline-cox/ethnic-cleansing-in-progress/contents.htm |title=Caroline Cox and John Eibner - Ethnic Cleansing in Progress: War in Nagorno Karabakh |access-date=2013-01-08 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105124741/http://sumgait.info/caroline-cox/ethnic-cleansing-in-progress/contents.htm |archive-date=January 5, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}.</ref> The perpetrators targeted the victims based solely on ethnicity — being Armenian was the only criterion.<ref>De Waal "Black Garden"</ref><ref name="Politburo">Session of Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, February 29, 1988. {{cite web |url=http://sumgait.info/sumgait/politburo-meeting-29-february-1988.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-06-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722000942/http://sumgait.info/sumgait/politburo-meeting-29-february-1988.htm |archive-date=July 22, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>"Sumgait: Evidence given by witnesses and relatives of victims of pogroms". Viktoria Grigoryan, sister of murdered Seda Danielyan: "Somebody knocked on the door and asked: "Are you Armenians?" My sister's husband answered: "No, we are Azeris", and they left." Danielyan Vitaliy, son of killed Nikolay and Seda Danielyans: "They entered the house and started to raid the flat. Then they took the parents’ passports and read a few words. One of them read out in good Russian "Danielyan", stressing "yan" turned the page, it said "Armenian". And he says: "Ok, this is enough". Then they started to shout that they had come to drink blood..."
{{cite web |url=http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/sumgait-witnesses-about-pogroms/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-01-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215044319/http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/sumgait-witnesses-about-pogroms/ |archive-date=February 15, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
Some sources speak of premeditation ahead of the break-out of violence.<ref>Zverev Alexandr. Ethnic conflicts in the Caucasus 1988–1994. In Coppieters Bruno (ed.) Contested borders in the Caucasus. Brussels: Vubpress, 1996. pp. 13–71.</ref><ref>Rieff David Nagorno Karabakh: case study in ethnic strife. Foreign Affairs, vol. 76 (2) Mar.-Apr. 1997, pp. 118–132.</ref>
Cobbles were brought into the city to block and limit access and exit from the town; the perpetrators had previously obtained the list of addresses of the Armenian residents of the city.<ref>Excerpt from the indictment in the criminal case 18/60233 on charges of Ahmad Imani ogly Ahmаdov, Ilham Azat ogly Ismailov and Yavar Giyas ogly Jafarov. Moscow, Nov. 1988, The Supreme Court of USSR. "I reckon they knew the addresses of the Armenians in advance. I came to this conclusion because the pogrom-makers were entering precisely the buildings were Armenians lived. In reality, they knew all the addresses, they were acting unmistakably. And all that was not out of hooligan intentions, that was an action specifically against the Armenian people, against Armenians. Not against Russians or other nations, but against Armenians. They were looking particularly for Armenians..."</ref> Warnings by Azerbaijanis sympathetic to their Armenian neighbors instructed them to leave their lights on the night of the 27th; those who shut them off would be assumed to be Armenian. According to several Armenian witnesses and Soviet military personnel, alcohol and ''anasha'', a term referring to [[narcotic]]s, were brought in trucks and distributed to the crowds,{{sfn|Shahmuratian|1990}} although such accounts were not reported in the media. According to de Waal, the fact that the attackers were armed with homemade weapons that would have taken some time and effort to manufacture suggests a certain level of planning.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=35}}
Violence broke on the evening of February 27. The attacking groups were of varying age groups. While the main participants were adult males and even some women, there were also young students who took part in vandalizing and looting appliances, shoes, and clothing from the Armenians' homes.<ref>''Rodina''. No. 4, 1994, pp. 82–90.</ref> The mobs entered the apartment buildings and sought out Armenians where they lived. Some took shelter among their Azerbaijani and Russian neighbors, who also risked being attacked by the mobs.{{sfn|Shahmuratian|1990|pp=56–60}} Others turned on the television to watch Azerbaijani music concerts and raised the volume to give the effect that they were in fact Azerbaijanis.
The pogrom was marked by atrocities and savagery. As Waal describes it, "The roving gangs committed acts of horrific savagery. Several victims were so badly mutilated by axes that their bodies could not be identified."{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=34}} Numerous acts of [[gang rape]] and [[sexual abuse]] were committed, taking place in both the apartments and publicly on the city streets. An account of one such act that was also corroborated by witnesses described how a crowd stripped naked an Armenian woman and dragged her through the streets.{{sfn|Shahmuratian|1990|p=227}} Rumors circulating that Armenian women in hospital maternity wards had their fetuses disemboweled were later said to have been false.<ref name="Lee">Lee, Gary. "[https://www.washingtonpost.com/ Eerie Silence Hangs Over Soviet City] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916061515/https://www.washingtonpost.com/ |date=September 16, 2017 }}." ''Washington Post''. September 4, 1988. p. A33. Retrieved July 31, 2006.</ref>
In the midst of the attacks, many Armenians sought to defend themselves and improvised by nailing their doors shut and arming themselves with axes, and in some instances a number of intruding rioters were killed.{{sfn|Shahmuratian|1990}} Calls to ambulance services were handled late or in many cases, unheeded completely. There was no intervention on the part of the police to stop the perpetrators.<ref>Sumgait: testimony of eyewitnesses. video: 01.13. "I personally saw the local police was standing there, doing nothing, as if it were there to help the rioters. There was no official announcement."{{cite web |url=http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%82-%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2-%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0-%D0%B0%D1%80/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2017-01-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217104416/http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%82-%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2-%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0-%D0%B0%D1%80/ |archive-date=February 17, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>Fragment from the indictment on criminal case 18/60233 on accusation of Akhmed Imani ogly Akhmedov, Ilham Azat ogly Ismailov, and Yavar Giyas ogly Jafarov: "Answering the question of lawyer Shaposhnikova "Why did you not call your father, who was in service then, to tell him about what was happening in your block?", witness D. Zarbaliev (the witness’ father worked in the militia in Sumgait) said:"And why did I need to call? The militia knew about it; everybody knew about it. It was not the first day of the pogroms".</ref><ref name="Zardusht">''in Russian'' Zardusht Ali-Zade. Azerbaijani Elit and Masses in the period of collapse of the USSR (article-memoir on turbulent times).{{cite web |url=http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-01-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030014402/http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm |archive-date=October 30, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> As mentioned by De Waal, "Another factor, which seems to have been a necessary condition for ethnic violence to begin, came into play: the local police did nothing. It later transpired that the local police force was overwhelmingly composed of Azerbaijanis and had only one professional Armenian officer."<ref>De Waal. Black Garden, p. 33</ref>
The weekly ''[[Moskovskiye Novosti]]'' later reported that eight of the city's twenty ambulances had been destroyed by the mobs.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Сумгаит, Один месяц поздно [Sumgait, One Month Later]|journal=[[Moskovskiye Novosti]]|date=April 13, 1988|language=ru}}</ref> Looting was prevalent and many attackers discussed among themselves on who would take possession of what after they had broken into the apartments. In some cases, televisions were stolen, along with other appliances and household goods; many apartments were vandalized and set on fire.
The lives of many Armenians were protected and saved by their Azerbaijani friends, neighbors or even strangers, who, at the risk of their own lives, let the Armenians hide in their houses or be escorted in their cars out of the city. According to Armenian witnesses, when Soviet troops went door-to-door searching for survivors, they managed to collect thousands of Armenians who had been hiding in Azeri households.<ref>Miller, Donald E. and Lorna Touryan Miller. ''Armenia: Portraits of Survival and Hope''. Berkeley: University of California Press; pp. 46–47.</ref>
==Government reaction==
[[File:Sumgait police escort.jpg|thumb|270px|Military police escorting Armenian civilians out of the town]]
The Soviet government's reaction to the protests was initially slow. Authorities were reluctant to send military units to impose [[martial law]] into town.<ref>"[http://www.newsday.com/ Soviets Impose Curfew After Riots] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314210540/http://www.newsday.com/ |date=March 14, 2011 }}." ''[[Newsday]]''. March 2, 1988 p. 13. Retrieved December 30, 2006.</ref> The spirit of ''glasnost'' had seen the Soviet Union more tolerant in responding to such politically-charged issues. However, Soviet officials in Azerbaijan, some of whom were witnessing the attacks, appealed to [[Kremlin]] leaders to dispatch Soviet troops to Sumgait. In a Soviet [[Politburo]] session on the third day of the rioting (February 29), Gorbachev and his senior cabinet conferred on several subjects before discussing the events of Sumgait. When the issue was finally raised, Gorbachev voiced his opposition to the proposal of sending in troops but cabinet members Foreign Minister [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] and [[Defense Minister]] [[Dmitry Yazov]], fearing an escalation of violence, persuaded him otherwise.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=38-39}}
Meanwhile, on the previous day, two battalions from the [[MVD]], troops mainly equipped with truncheons and riot gear (those troops who were armed with firearms were armed with [[blank (cartridge)|blanks]] and not given the permission to open fire), arrived in Sumgait in buses and [[armored personnel carriers]].{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|p=64}} As they moved in to secure the town, the soldiers found themselves as targets of the mob. In what became a startling sight for the city's residents, the soldiers were attacked and maimed with the improvised steel objects.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=37-38}} Their armored vehicles were flipped over and in some cases disabled by [[molotov cocktail]]s, as the troops found themselves in complete disarray.{{sfn|Shahmuratian|1990|p=199}}
By February 29, the situation had worsened to the point where authorities were forced to call in more professional and heavily armed troops, who were given the right to use deadly force. A contingent made up of elements of the [[OMSDON|Felix Dzerzhinsky Division]] of the [[Internal Troops]]; a company of Marines from the [[Caspian Flotilla|Caspian Sea Naval Flotilla]]; troops from [[Dagestan]]; an assault landing brigade; military police; and the 137th Parachute Regiment of the [[Russian Airborne Troops|Airborne Forces]] from [[Ryazan]] – a military force of nearly 10,000 men under the overall command of a Lieutenant General Krayev – made its way to Sumgait.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=39}} Tanks were brought in and ordered to cordon off the city. Andrei Shilkov, a Russian journalist for the periodical ''Glasnost'', counted at least 47 tanks and reported also seeing troops wearing bulletproof vests patrolling the town, an implication that firearms were present and used during the rioting.<ref>Bortin, Mary Ellen. "[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/home/index.html Witness Tells of Aftermath of Bloody Armenian Riots] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060812102752/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/home/index.html |date=August 12, 2006 }}." ''[[Seattle Times]]''. March 11, 1988. p. B1. Retrieved September 15, 2006.</ref>
A curfew was imposed from 8 pm to 7 am as skirmishes between troops and rioters continued. Krayev ordered troops to rescue Armenians left in their apartments. By the evening of the 29th, [[martial law]] was imposed and troops in buses and personnel carriers were patrolling the streets of Sumgait. Under heavily armed guard, civilian buses and APCs transported Armenian residents to the [[Samed Vurgun]] Cultural Facility (known as the SK) in the city's main square. The SK building was designed to accommodate several hundred people, though as many as several thousand eventually found shelter there.
==Aftermath==
By March 1, Soviet troops had effectively quelled the rioting. Investigations were slated to begin immediately; however, waste disposal trucks cleaned much of the debris on the streets before they arrived.<ref>Lyday, Corbin. "A Commitment to Truth Telling: Behind the Scenes in Soviet Armenia." 1988 (Typewritten), p. 28. Accessed December 16, 2006.</ref> Soviet authorities arrested over 400 men in connection to the rioting and violence.<ref>"[https://www.thestar.com/ 400 arrested after riots in Sumgait, Soviets say] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006234524/https://www.thestar.com/ |date=October 6, 2016 }}." ''[[Toronto Star]]''. March 22, 1988. Retrieved December 26, 2006.</ref> The Soviet media did not initially report the event and remained largely silent, broadcasting instead news related to foreign affairs while the media in Sumgait spoke only on local issues unrelated to the massacre.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=40}}{{sfn|Malkasian|1996|p=54}} The Soviet government was initially hesitant to admit that violence had taken place; however, when it did, it was quick to downplay the scale of the event, describing the rioting that had occurred as that perpetrated by "hooligans." [[Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union|TASS]] reported of "rampage and violence" taking place in Sumgait on March 1, which was provoked on the part of a "group of hooligans" who engaged in various criminal acts. Western journalists were denied access to visit the town by Soviet authorities.
On April 28, 1988, images of the pogrom were broadcast in a 90-minute documentary by Soviet journalist [[Genrikh Borovik]]. Borovik criticized the media blackout imposed by the Soviet government, claiming that it ran against Gorbachev's aims of greater openness under ''glasnost''.<ref>"[http://www.suntimes.com/index.html Soviet TV surprise: Ethnic strife shown; Program rips news blackout, defends glasnost] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061231222730/http://www.suntimes.com/index.html |date=December 31, 2006 }}." ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]''. April 28, 1988. p. 36. Retrieved December 31, 2006.</ref> Eduard Shevardnadze later remarked on the failure to report the massacre in Sumgait as a failure of ''glasnost'' itself: "the old mechanisms kicked in, simplifying, distorting or just eliminating the truth about [this event]."<ref>[[Eduard Shevardnadze|Shevardnadze, Eduard]]. ''The Future Belongs to Freedom''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991, pp. 176–177. {{ISBN|0-02-928617-4}}.</ref>
==Criminal proceedings==
Soviet authorities arrested 400 men in connection to the massacre and prepared criminal charges for 84 (82 Azerbaijanis, one Russian, and one Armenian).{{sfn|De Waal|2003|pp=39, 43}} Taleh Ismailov, a pipe-fitter from one of Sumgait's industrial plants, was charged with premeditated murder and was the first to be tried by the Soviet Supreme Court in Moscow in May 1988. By October 1988, nine men had been sentenced, including Ismailov, who was sentenced to 15 years in prison with a further 33 on trial.<ref name="Keller">{{cite news|last1=Keller|first1=Bill|authorlink1=Bill Keller|title=Riot's Legacy of Distrust Quietly Stalks a Soviet City|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/31/world/riot-s-legacy-of-distrust-quietly-stalks-a-soviet-city.html|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 31, 1988|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003225643/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/31/world/riot-s-legacy-of-distrust-quietly-stalks-a-soviet-city.html|archive-date=October 3, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Other sentences were more harsh: Ahmad Ahmadov was found guilty and sentenced to be shot by a firing squad for leading a mob and taking part in the murder of seven people.<ref>"[https://www.washingtonpost.com/ Soviet Riot Leader Sentenced to Death] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916061515/https://www.washingtonpost.com/ |date=September 16, 2017 }}." ''The Washington Post''. November 20, 1988. Retrieved April 19, 2007.</ref> However, 90 of those who were tried were set free after a relatively short time as they were sentenced for hooliganism, rather than for murder and violence.<ref name="krivopuskov 2009"/>
There were many who expressed their dissatisfaction with the way the trials were organized and conducted. Soviet historian and [[dissident]] [[Roy Medvedev]] questioned the trials: "Who knows why, but the court examined the Sumgait events by subdividing them into single episodes and not as a programmatic act of genocide."<ref>Medvedev. ''Time of Change'', p. 209.</ref> Most Armenians and Azerbaijanis were also dissatisfied with the trials. Armenians complained that the true instigators of the pogrom were never caught whereas Azerbaijanis stated the sentences were too harsh and were upset with the fact that the trials were not held in Azerbaijan.{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|p=65}} Some Azerbaijanis even went on to campaign for the "freedom for the heroes of Sumgait."{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|pp=67, 205}} Indeed, many of the perpetrators of the pogrom gained titles of national heroes and/or high positions in the government, where they still serve today.<ref name="krivopuskov 2009">{{cite news|script-title=ru:Виктор Кривопусков: Преступники в Азербайджане возносятся в ранг национальных героев|url=http://www.regnum.ru/news/1131088.html|agency=[[REGNUM News Agency]]|date=February 28, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141116204518/http://www.regnum.ru/news/1131088.html|archivedate=November 16, 2014|language=ru}}</ref><ref>[[Hidayat Orujev]] for instance went on to serve as Azerbaijan's State Advisor for Ethnic Policy and is currently serving as the Chairman of State Committee for Work with Religious Organizations of Azerbaijan Republic.</ref>
==Reactions==
[[File:Sumgait pogrom memorial Stepanakert.jpg|thumb|280px|A memorial dedicated to the victims of the pogrom in [[Stepanakert]], Nagorno-Karabakh]]
===In Armenia and Karabakh===
The pogrom was immediately linked to the [[Armenian Genocide]] of 1915 in the Armenian [[national consciousness]].<ref name="Hovhannisyan"/> On the [[Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day]] on April 24, 1988 a ''[[khachkar]]'' (cross stone) dedicated to the pogrom victims was planted at the [[Tsitsernakaberd|Armenian Genocide memorial at Tsitsernakaberd]].{{sfn|Malkasian|1996|p=68}}
February 28 was designated as a [[Public holidays in Armenia|public holiday in Armenia]] in 2005. It is officially known as "The Day of Memory of the Victims of Massacres in Azerbaijani SSR and Protection of the Rights of the Deported Armenian Population".<ref>{{cite web|script-title=hy:«Հայաստանի Հանրապետության տոների և հիշատակի օրերի մասին» Հայաստանի Հանրապետության օրենքում լրացում կատարելու մասին|url=http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2326&lang=arm|website=parliament.am|publisher=National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141116202713/http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2326&lang=arm|archivedate=November 16, 2014|language=hy}}</ref>
===International===
In July 1988, within months of the Sumgait massacre, the [[United States Senate]] unanimously passed Amendment 2690 to the Fiscal Year 1989 Foreign Operations Appropriations bill (H.R. 4782), concerning the Karabakh conflict, which called on the Soviet government to "respect the legitimate aspirations of the
Armenian people …" and noted that "dozens of Armenians have been killed and
hundreds injured during the recent unrests…"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://asbarez.com/93847/more-members-of-congress-commemorate-sumgait-baku-massacres/|title=More Members of Congress Commemorate Sumgait, Baku Massacres|work=Asbarez News|date=March 3, 2011|access-date=April 6, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414220140/http://asbarez.com/93847/more-members-of-congress-commemorate-sumgait-baku-massacres/|archive-date=April 14, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>[http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/2013RS/bills/sj/sj0004f.pdf SENATE JOINT RESOLUTION 4, March 1, 2013] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320211218/http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/2013RS/bills/sj/sj0004F.pdf |date=March 20, 2013 }}</ref>
On July 7, 1988, the [[European Parliament]] passed a resolution condemning the violence against Armenians in Azerbaijan.<ref>[http://karabakhfacts.com/wp-content/uploads/1988/07/c_23519880912en00800163.pdf RESOLUTION on the situation in Soviet Armenia. Joint resolution replacing Docs. B2-538 and 587 88, 07 July 1988. Source: Official journal of the European Communities, No. C 94/117, o C 235/106, 07 July 1988] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423004946/http://karabakhfacts.com/wp-content/uploads/1988/07/c_23519880912en00800163.pdf |date=April 23, 2014 }}</ref>
On July 27, 1990, 130 leading academics and human rights advocates wrote "An Open Letter to International Public Opinion on Anti-Armenian Pogroms in the Soviet Union" published in the ''New York Times''. The letter, which was signed by
professors from Johns Hopkins, Princeton, Berkeley, UCLA, Wesleyan University, University of Paris IV Sorbonne and other universities, urged the international community to take action to protect the Armenian community in Azerbaijan.<ref name=letter>{{cite journal|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1990/sep/27/an-open-letter-on-anti-armenian-pogroms-in-the-sov/|title=An Open Letter on Anti-Armenian Pogroms in the Soviet Union by Jacques Derrida, Isaiah Berlin, and Alain Finkielkraut – The New York Review of Books|journal=The New York Review of Books|date=September 27, 1990|access-date=April 6, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501144013/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1990/sep/27/an-open-letter-on-anti-armenian-pogroms-in-the-sov/|archive-date=May 1, 2015|df=mdy-all|last1=Gluecksmann|first1=Andre|last2=Zelnick|first2=Reginald E.|last3=Wiehl|first3=Reiner|last4=Taylor|first4=Charles|last5=Shestack|first5=Jerome J.|last6=Ricoeur|first6=Paul|last7=Poulain|first7=Jacques|last8=Levinas|first8=Emmanuel|last9=Hooks|first9=Benjamin L.|last10=Heller|first10=Agnes|last11=Gregorian|first11=Vartan|last12=Gadamer|first12=Hans-Georg|last13=Ferry|first13=Luc|last14=Chace|first14=William M.|last15=Aaron|first15=David|last16=Putnam|first16=Hilary|last17=Kołakowski|first17=Leszek|last18=Habermas|first18=Juergen|last19=Lyttelton|first19=Adrian|last20=Rorty|first20=Richard|last21=Finkielkraut|first21=Alain|last22=Berlin|first22=Isaiah|last23=Derrida|first23=Jacques}}</ref>
==Conspiracy theories against Azerbaijan==
Several [[conspiracy theories]] spawned in the wake of the pogrom alternatively attributed to the KGB, the CIA, and the Armenians themselves.
==="Armenian provocation"===
As early as mid-1988 [[Bill Keller]] wrote in the ''New York Times'' that "It is accepted wisdom among Sumgait's Azerbaijani majority that the riots Feb. 27, 28 and 29 were deliberately contrived by Armenian extremists in order to discredit Azerbaijan in the battle for the world's sympathy."<ref name="Keller"/> Historian and head of the Azerbaijani Academy of Sciences [[Ziya Bunyadov]], whom [[Thomas de Waal]] calls "Azerbaijan's foremost Armenophobe",{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=42}} claimed that the massacre had been instigated by the Armenians to cast a negative light upon Azerbaijan.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=42}} In an article that appeared in the Azerbaijani journal ''Elm'', Bunyadov claimed that Armenians had organized the pogroms: "The Sumgait tragedy was carefully prepared by Armenian nationalists... Several hours after it began, Armenian photographers and TV journalists secretly entered the city where they awaited in readiness."<ref>{{in lang|ru}} Buniyatov, Ziya. "Concerning the events in Karabakh and Sumgait." ''Elm''. No. 19, May 13, 1989, p. 175. Excerpts of this text can be found in [[Levon Chorbajian]]; Patrick Donabedian; [[Claude Mutafian]]. ''The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh''. London: Zed Books, 1994, pp. 188–189. {{ISBN|1-85649-288-5}}.</ref> Bunyadov's thesis was hinged on the fact that Sumgait Armenians had withdrawn more than one million rubles from their savings before the attacks. To support his thesis, he had also drawn attention to the fact that one of the participants in the riots and killings was Eduard Grigorian, a man of mixed Russian-Armenian lineage who had three previous criminal convictions and pretended to be Azerbaijani. Grigorian was a factory worker who took part in gang rapes and mass attacks and was subsequently sentenced to 12 years for his role in the massacres.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|pp=42–43}} Grigorian had been brought up in Sumgait by his Russian mother following the early death of his Armenian father, and his ethnic identity is considered irrelevant since he appropriately fit the profile of a "''pogromshchik'', a thuggish young man, of indeterminate nationality with a criminal past, seeking violence for its own sake."{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=43}} This view has since gained wider currency in all of Azerbaijan today, where it is still euphemistically referred to in the media and by government officials as the "Sumgait events" (Sumqayıt hadisələri).<ref name="Azeri POV">See, for example, Jamil Babayeva, "[http://www.azernews.az/azerbaijan/64888.html Armenia's provocation: Sumgayit events] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302195853/http://www.azernews.az/azerbaijan/64888.html |date=March 2, 2014 }}. ''AzerNews''." February 28, 2014; "[http://en.trend.az/news/politics/2247068.html Sumgait's events committed by special services and Armenian diaspora] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302231221/http://en.trend.az/news/politics/2247068.html |date=March 2, 2014 }}." ''Trend''. February 27, 2014.</ref>
By 2018 the conspiracy theory was adopted by the government for the first time, according to journalist Shahin Rzayev. An investigation by the Prosecutor General's Office stated that "Armenians living in Sumgayit tried to provocatively burn down their homes and property and blame Azerbaijanis." According to their investigation a "diversion group" of 20-25 people who "weren’t residents of Sumgayit and were speaking in Armenian among themselves" instigated the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kucera|first1=Joshua|title=Baku Embraces Conspiracy Theory Blaming Armenians for Own Pogrom|url=https://eurasianet.org/s/azerbaijan-officially-embraces-conspiracy-theory-blaming-armenians-for-own-pogrom|agency=[[EurasiaNet]]|date=22 February 2018}}</ref>
===Other===
According to [[CPSU Politburo]] member [[Alexander Yakovlev (Russian politician)|Alexander Yakovlev]], the Sumgait pogrom was arranged by KGB [[agents provocateurs]] to "justify the importance of the Soviet secret services".<ref>{{cite book|language=ru|authorlink=Alexander Yakovlev (Russian politician)|last=Yakovlev|first=Alexander N.|title=Сумерки [Time of darkness]|location=Moscow|publisher=Materik|year=2003|page=551}}</ref> [[George Soros]] wrote in a 1989 article in the ''[[New York Review of Books]]'': "It is not far-fetched to speculate that the first pogroms against Armenians in Azerbaijan were instigated by the notorious local mafia, which is controlled by the KGB official G.A. Alieev <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Heydar Aliyev]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, in order to create a situation in which Gorbachev would lose, no matter what he did."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Soros|first1=George|authorlink1=George Soros|title=The Gorbachev Prospect|journal=[[The New York Review of Books]]|date=June 1, 1989|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1989/06/01/the-gorbachev-prospect/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912013536/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1989/06/01/the-gorbachev-prospect/|archive-date=September 12, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Two authors commented in 2004, "Although that possibility cannot be ruled out, hard evidence is still lacking."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Klier|first1=John|last2=Lambroza|first2=Shlomo|authorlink1=John Klier|title=Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521528511|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T3D7CmSOMfIC&pg=PA371&lpg=PA371&dq=G.A.+Alieev 371]}}</ref> American analyst [[Paul A. Goble]] suggested in a 2015 interview with the Armenian service of [[Voice of America]] that the pogrom was perpetrated by a "group of Azerbaijani criminals by the provocation of the [[KGB]]."<ref>{{cite news|script-title=hy:Սումգայիթի ջարդը՝ ՊԱԿ–ի կազմակերպած ոճիրն էր|url=http://www.amerikayidzayn.com/media/video/armenian-daily-videos/2661226.html?z=0&zp=1|work=amerikayidzayn.com|agency=[[Voice of America]]|date=February 27, 2015|language=hy|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305014353/http://www.amerikayidzayn.com/media/video/armenian-daily-videos/2661226.html?z=0&zp=1|archive-date=March 5, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Mkhitaryan|first1=Inesa|script-title=hy:Ըստ Փոլ Գոբլի՝ Սումգայիթի ջարդը ՊԱԿ-ի կազմակերպած ոճիրն էր|url=http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/26872078.html|work=azatutyun.am|agency=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|date=February 27, 2015|language=hy|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301222058/http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/26872078.html|archive-date=March 1, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
Davud Imanov, an Azerbaijani filmmaker, expanded on this theory in a series of films called the ''Echo of Sumgait'' where he accused Armenians, Russians and [[United States|Americans]] of conspiring together against Azerbaijan and claiming that Karabakh movement was a plot organized by the [[CIA]].{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=42}}
==See also==
*[[Anti-Armenianism in Azerbaijan]]
*[[Kirovabad pogrom]] (1988)
*[[Pogrom of Armenians in Baku]] (1990)
*[[Operation Ring]] (1991)
*[[Maraga Massacre]] (1992)
*[[Khojaly Massacre]] (1992)
*[[List of massacres in the Soviet Union]]
*[[List of massacres in Azerbaijan]]
*[[Anti-Armenianism]]
*[[Shelling of Stepanakert]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
*{{cite book|last=De Waal|first=Thomas|title=[[Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War]]|year=2003|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780814719459|authorlink=Thomas de Waal|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Kaufman|first=Stuart J.|title=Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War|year=2001|publisher=[[Cornell University Press]]|location=Ithaca|isbn=0-8014-8736-6|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Shahmuratian|first=Samvel|title=The Sumgait Tragedy: Pogroms Against Armenians in Soviet Azerbaijan|location=New York|publisher=[[Zoryan Institute]]|year=1990|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Malkasian|first=Mark|title="Gha-Ra-Bagh"! The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia|location=Detroit|publisher=Wayne State University Press|year=1996|isbn=0-8143-2605-6|ref=harv}}
*Aslan Ismayilov ''[http://sumgayit1988.com/files/book-en.pdf Sumgayit — Beginning of the Collapse of the USSR]''. Baku: Çaşıoğlu. 2010
==External links==
*[http://sumgayit1988.com/ sumgayit1988.com]
*[http://sumqayit1988.com/ sumqayit1988.com]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20111117070527/http://sumqait.com/ sumqait.com]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140222060953/http://sumgayit1988.com/files/cinayat1.pdf Уголовное Дело № 18/55461-88. Сумгаит. 1989. (I)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140222060958/http://sumgayit1988.com/files/cinayat2.pdf Уголовное Дело № 18/55461-88. Сумгаит. 1989. (II)]
*[https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/19/opinion/nationalism-at-its-nastiest.html Nationalism at Its Nastiest - ''The New York Times'']
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article2970324.ece Vladimir Kryuchkov. Hardline Soviet Communist who became head of the KGB and led a failed plot to overthrow Mikhail Gorbachev, ''Times'' Online]
*[http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-2012-02-27/pdf/CREC-2012-02-27-pt1-PgE248-3.pdf Sumgait Pogroms.] Hon. [[Howard L. Berman]], [[United States House of Representatives]], Congressional Record, Feb. 2012
*[http://sumgait.info/ sumgait.info Armenian site]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121111095959/http://www.sumqait.com/en/ sumqait.com Azeri point of view]
*[http://budapest.sumgait.info/sumgait.htm Sumgait massacres – Budapest case]
*[http://www.nkrusa.org/nk_conflict/sumgait_massacre.shtml Pogroms of Armenians in Sumgait, Office of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic]
*[http://karabakhfacts.com/the-originary-genocide-1998-sumgait-azerbaijan/ The Ordinary genocide. Sumgait, February 1988. Documentary]
*[http://karabakhrecords.info/ Karabakhrecords.info Armenian site]
{{Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict}}
{{coord missing|Azerbaijan}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1988]]
[[Category:Anti-Armenianism]]
[[Category:Massacres in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Mass murder in 1988]]
[[Category:Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]]
[[Category:Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic]]
[[Category:Nagorno-Karabakh War]]
[[Category:Anti-Armenian pogroms]]
[[Category:Persecution of Oriental Orthodox Christians]]
[[Category:1988 in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:1988 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Sumqayit]]
[[Category:February 1988 events in Asia]]
[[Category:March 1988 events in Asia]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Campaignbox Nagorno-Karabakh War}}
The Kapan '''pogrom''' ({{lang-hy|Սումգայիթի ջարդեր}}, "Kapan massacres"; Qafan hadisələri [[Literal translation|lit.]]: "Kapan events") was a [[pogrom]] that targeted the Azerbaijani population of the southern Armenian town of Kapan in the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic]] in early February 1988. The pogrom took place during the early stages of the [[Karabakh movement]]. On February 02, 1988, mobs of ethnic [[Azerbaijanis|Armenians]] formed into groups and attacked and killed Azerbaijanis on the streets and in their apartments; widespread looting and a general lack of concern from police officers allowed the violence to continue for three days. A famous Armenian writer and historian Artak Zart-Osturanyan described the events as "nothing the humanity had seen before".
On February 28, a small contingent of [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)|Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD)]] troops entered the city and unsuccessfully attempted to quell the rioting. More professional military units entered with tanks and armored personnel vehicles one day later. Government forces imposed a state of [[martial law]] and [[curfew]] and brought the crisis to an end. The official death toll released by the [[Prosecutor General of the USSR]] (tallies were compiled based on lists of named victims) was 32 people (2 Armenians and 94 Azerbaijanis), although other estimates reach up into the hundreds of victims.<ref>{{cite news|last=Remnick|first=David|authorlink=David Remnick|title=Hate Runs High in Soviet Union's Most Explosive Ethnic Feud|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|access-date=July 15, 2013|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=September 6, 1989|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329042718/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|archive-date=March 29, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Hosking">{{cite book|last=Hosking|first=Geoffrey A.|url=https://archive.org/stream/firstsocialistso0000hosk?ref=ol#page/474/mode/2up|title=The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1993|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge, Mass.|page=475|pages=|authorlink=Geoffrey Hosking}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kenez|first=Peter|url=https://www.academia.edu/24876372/_Peter_Kenez_A_history_of_the_Soviet_Union_from_t_BookZZ_org_|title=A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=|page=272|pages=|authorlink=Peter Kenez}}</ref>
The violence in Kapan was unexpected and was widely covered in the Western press. It was greeted with general astonishment in Azerbaijan and the rest of the Soviet Union since ethnic feuds in the country had been largely suppressed by the government, which had promoted policies such as [[proletarian internationalism]], [[fraternity of peoples]], and [[socialist patriotism]] to avert such conflicts. The massacre, together with the [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]], presented a major challenge to the reforms being implemented by Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. Gorbachev was later criticized for his perceived slowness in reacting to the crisis.
Because of the scale of atrocities against the Azerbaijanis as an ethnic group the pogrom was immediately linked to the Azerbaijani Genocide in Quba city in 1918 in the Armenian [[national consciousness]].<ref name="Hovhannisyan">{{cite web|last1=Hovhannisyan|first1=Mari|title=The Collective Memory of the Armenian Genocide|url=http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|publisher=[[Central European University]]|location=Budapest|page=21|date=2010|quote=The posters carried by the Armenians on April 24, 1988 were verifications of the fact that Armenians saw the Sumgait massacres as the continuation of the genocide.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129032803/http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>A number of international and Soviet sources also describes the events as [[genocide]] of the Armenian population.<ref>Glasnost: : Vol. 2, Issue 1, Center for Democracy (New York, N.Y.) – 1990, p. 62, cit. 'The massacre of Armenians in Sumgait, the heinous murders in Tbilisi—these killings are examples of genocide directed by the Soviet regime against its own people.', an announcement by USSR Journalists' Union</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich, 1925-|first=|url=https://archive.org/stream/timeofchangeinsi00medv?ref=ol#page/n11/mode/2up|title=Time of change : an insider's view of Russia's transformation|last2=Giulietto|first2=Chiesa|date=1989|publisher=Pantheon Books|others=|year=1989|isbn=0-394-58151-2|location=New York|pages=209|translator-last=Moore|translator-first=Michael|oclc=20593737}}</ref> The Sumgait pogrom is commemorated every year on February 28 in Armenia, [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|Nagorno-Karabakh]], and among the [[Armenian diaspora]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Communities Worldwide Mark Sumgait Anniversary Along with Government Officials|url=http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|work=[[Asbarez]]|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040537/http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
==Background==
[[File:Azerbaijan map sumqayit.png|thumb|right|250px|Sumgait (Sumqayit) is located about 30 kilometers (approximately {{convert|20|miles|km}}) northwest of Azerbaijan's capital [[Baku]], near the [[Caspian Sea]].]]
The city of Sumgait is located near the coast of the [[Caspian Sea]], only thirty kilometers north of the capital [[Baku]]. It had been renovated in the 1960s and had become a leading industrial city, second after Baku by its industrial importance, with oil refineries and [[petrochemical]] plants built during that era. Its population in the 1960s stood at 60,000, but by the late 1980s it had swollen to over 223,000 (with an Armenian population of about 17,000), and overcrowding among other social problems plagued the city. While there was a high rate of unemployment and poverty among the Azerbaijani residents, the Armenians comprised mainly the working and educated sector of the town's population.<ref name="Krivopuskov 2007">{{cite book|last=Krivopuskov|first=Viktor V.|url=http://www.armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html#5|title=Мятежный Карабах: Из дневника офицера МВД СССР [Rebellious Karabakh: From the diary of an officer of the USSR]|edition=2nd|location=Moscow|publisher=Golos Press|year=2007|pages=87–88|isbn=978-5-7117-0163-7|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809032141/http://armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html#5|archive-date=August 9, 2012|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
The political and economic reforms that General Secretary Gorbachev had initiated in 1985 saw a marked decentralization of Soviet authority. Armenians, in both Armenia proper and Nagorno-Karabakh, viewed Gorbachev's reform program as an opportunity to unite the two entities together. On February 20, 1988, tens of thousands of Armenians gathered to demonstrate in [[Stepanakert|Stepanakert's]] [[Renaissance Square, Stepanakert|Lenin (now Renaissance) Square]] to demand that the region be joined to Armenia. On the same day, the Supreme Soviet of Nagorno-Karabakh voted to join the Armenian SSR, a move staunchly opposed by the Soviet Azerbaijani authorities. Gorbachev rejected these claims, invoking Article 78 of the [[Soviet Constitution]], which stated that republics' borders could not be altered without their prior consent. The vote by the Council and the subsequent protests were condemned also by the state-run Soviet media; however, they resonated more loudly among Azerbaijanis. As journalist [[Thomas de Waal]] wrote in his 2003 book on the conflict, after the appeal of the Council "the slow descent into armed conflict began on the first day."{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=14}}
===Rallies and fuelling of anti-Armenian sentiments===
{{see also|Anti-Armenianism in Azerbaijan}}
[[File:Sumgait city map.jpg|thumb|240px|A map of Sumgait shows a section of the city's apartment districts, notable landmarks, and main streets.]]
The rallies in Armenia were countered by demonstrations in Baku, during which time strong anti-Armenian sentiments were voiced by citizens and officials alike. One such statement came on February 14, 1988, when the head of the department of [[Central Committee]] of the [[Communist Party of Azerbaijan]] Asadov, declared "a hundred thousand Azerbaijanis are ready to storm Artsakh (Karabakh) at any time and organize a slaughter there."<ref name="Tucha">{{cite journal|last=Vasilevsky|first=Alexander|title=Туча в горах [A cloud in the mountains]|journal=[[:ru:Аврора (журнал, Санкт-Петербург)|Avrora]]|date=1988|issue=10|url=http://sumgait.info/press/zhurnal-avrora/avrora-october-1988.htm|location=Leningrad|language=ru|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213214346/http://www.sumgait.info/press/zhurnal-avrora/avrora-october-1988.htm|archive-date=December 13, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref> According to [[Adam Schiff]], in the days leading up to the massacre, a leader of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan, [[Hidayat Orujov]], warned Armenians in Sumgait: "If you do not stop campaigning for the unification of Nagorno Karabakh with Armenia, if you don't sober up, 100,000 Azeris from neighboring districts will break into your houses, torch your apartments, rape your women, and kill your children."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://beta.congress.gov/congressional-record/2013/2/28/extensions-of-remarks-section/article/E211-2|title=Congressional Record Extensions of Remarks Articles – Congressional Record – Congress.gov – Library of Congress|publisher=|access-date=April 6, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419012445/http://beta.congress.gov/congressional-record/2013/2/28/extensions-of-remarks-section/article/E211-2|archive-date=April 19, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.a1plus.am/1184325.html | title=Congressmen commemorate 1988 Armenian pogroms and condemn anti-Armenian policies | date=February 2018}}</ref>. This however was later denied by Orujov himself who in his interview stated that not only he had never publicly made any statements aimed at igniting inter-ethnic conflict, but also he was not present in Sumgait and was not holding any political role at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://azerbaijanfoundation.az/%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%82-%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B2-%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%BF/?lang=ru|title= Hidayat Orujev in response to the claims by congressman Adam Schiff |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004094731/http://azerbaijanfoundation.az/%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%82-%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B2-%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%BF|archive-date=October 4, 2020|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
On February 26 several minor rallies were held at Lenin Square in Sumgait. Explicit calls for violence against Armenians and for their expulsion from Azerbaijan were heard and the crowds were agitated by news of Azerbaijani refugees who had fled Armenia (from the towns [[Kapan]] and [[Masis (city)|Masis]]). Certain individuals told stories of murders and violence purportedly carried out by Armenians against the Azerbaijanis. Soviet authorities would later cast these individuals as [[agents provocateur]]. One individual, according to the Soviet press, was later revealed not to be a resident of Kapan, as he had claimed, but a criminal with a prior arrest record.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kulish|first1=O.|last2=Melikov|first2=D.|script-title=ru:Черным семенам не прорасти|journal=[[Tribuna|Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya]]|date=March 27, 1988|location=Moscow|language=ru}}</ref> [[Zardusht Alizadeh]], who was active in the social and political life of Azerbaijan from 1988–1989 and was one of the founders of [[Azerbaijani Popular Front Party|Azerbaijani Popular Front]], visited Sumgait ten days after the pogrom and met with the workers from the aluminum factory, and reported that locals said that people from out of town had been inciting the violence.<ref>{{cite web|authorlink=Zardusht Alizadeh|first=Zardusht|last=Ali-Zade|url=http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm|title=Азербайджанская элита и массы в период распада СССР (Статья-мемуары о бурном времени) [The Azerbaijani Elite and Masses in the period of collapse of the USSR (An article-memoir on turbulent Times)]|publisher=Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center|quote=Рабочие Сумгаита говорили о странных, "нездешнего вида" молодых мужчинах, которые заводили толпу. Что это за "нездешнего вида" мужчины, были ли они в действительности или это – плод воображения, – на эти вопросы я не знал ответа тогда, не знаю и сейчас, по прошествии более чем десяти лет.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030014402/http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm|archive-date=October 30, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Baku's local Party leader Fuad Musayev, who was called back to Baku because of the unrest, stated in the interview given to Thomas de Waal, "Someone was provoking them, propaganda work was going on."<ref>Thomas De Waal Ch. 2, p. 31</ref>
The demonstrations in the Lenin Square were concluded with strong anti-Armenian sentiments. During the demonstrations there were apparent threats and accusations against the Armenians for distorting the territorial integrity of Azerbaijan. The Armenians were also blamed for being much better-off than most of the Azerbaijanis in Sumgait. Slogans such as "Death to Armenians!" and "Armenians get out of our city" were being voiced.<ref name="Krivopuskov">[http://www.armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html#5 Krivopuskov V. V. Мятежный Карабах. Из дневника офицера МВД СССР. Издание второе, дополненное. — М.: Голос-Пресс, 2007. — 384 с. Ил.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809032141/http://armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html |date=August 9, 2012 }} {{ISBN|5-7117-0163-0}}</ref><ref>[http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%89%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C-%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5-%D0%BC%D1%8B/ Newspaper «НОВОЕ ВРЕМЯ» N9 21 89] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008011210/http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%89%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C-%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5-%D0%BC%D1%8B/ |date=October 8, 2012 }}</ref> There were also many public figures attending the rallies, among them the head of public school No: 25, an actress of the Arablinski theatre, Azerbaijani poet Khydyr Alovlu (a strong supporter of Heydar Aliyev) and others, who called for Armenians to be expelled from Azerbaijan or killed. Almost each speech was concluded with the slogan "Death to Armenians!". Since the speakers used microphones these calls were heard not only in the square but also in the nearby streets.<ref name="Krivopuskov"/>
Efforts to calm the crowd were made by Azerbaijani figures such as secretary of the city party committee Bayramova and poet [[Bakhtiyar Vahabzadeh]], who addressed the crowd atop a platform. V. Huseinov, the director of the Institute of Political Education in Azerbaijan, also attempted to calm them by assuring them that Karabakh would remain within the republic and that the refugees stories were false. He in turn was heckled with insults and forced to step down.<ref>[[Yuri Rost|Rost, Yuri]]. ''The Armenian Tragedy: An Eye-Witness Account of Human Conflict and Natural Disaster in Armenia and Azerbaijan''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990, p. 27. {{ISBN|0-312-04611-1}}.</ref> Jahangir Muslimzade, Sumgait's first secretary, spoke to the crowd, and told them to allow Armenians to leave of their own accord. But according to witnesses, this message served to agitate the crowd.<ref>{{cite book|last=Beissinger|first=Mark R.|title=Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|page=300|isbn=0-521-00148-X}}</ref> Shortly after his speech, at around 6:30 pm, Muslimzade was handed a flag of the Azerbaijan SSR and soon found himself leading the crowd. According to Muslimzade, he was attempting to lead the crowd away from the Armenian district and toward the sea, but many Armenians saw this act as implicating him as a leader of the riot. The crowd, in any case, dispersed and several groups made for the Armenian district.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|pp=33–34}}
===Radio broadcast===
Another factor that may have ignited the violence was an announcement of the murder of two Azerbaijanis. On February 27, Soviet Deputy Federal Procurator, Aleksandr Katusev, announced on Baku Radio and Central Television, that two Azerbaijani youths, Bakhtiyar Guliyev and Ali Hajiyev, were killed in a clash between Armenians and Azerbaijanis near [[Agdam]] several days earlier <ref name="Tucha"/>{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=33}} One of the youths was killed by an Azerbaijani police officer, but Katusev neglected to mention that and would later receive a stinging rebuke for revealing the nationalities of the young men. The secretive nature the Soviet Union was still attempting to shake off led many Azerbaijanis to believe that there was something more nefarious to Katusev's report than he let on.<ref name="Tucha"/>
==Pogrom and atrocities==
[[File:Sumgaitweapons.jpg|thumb|270px|Most of the weapons during the attacks were sharpened metal objects said to be produced in the city's industrial plants.]]
The pogrom of the Armenian population of Sumgait started on the evening of February 27, one week after the appeal of the Council of People's Deputies to unify Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia and according to many sources was a direct response to the Council's decision.<ref name="Hosking"/><ref name="Cox">Cox and Eibner. "Ethnic Cleansing in Progress: War in Nagorno Karabakh" Zurich: Institute for Religious Minorities in the Islamic World, 1993 {{cite web |url=http://sumgait.info/caroline-cox/ethnic-cleansing-in-progress/contents.htm |title=Caroline Cox and John Eibner - Ethnic Cleansing in Progress: War in Nagorno Karabakh |access-date=2013-01-08 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105124741/http://sumgait.info/caroline-cox/ethnic-cleansing-in-progress/contents.htm |archive-date=January 5, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}.</ref> The perpetrators targeted the victims based solely on ethnicity — being Armenian was the only criterion.<ref>De Waal "Black Garden"</ref><ref name="Politburo">Session of Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, February 29, 1988. {{cite web |url=http://sumgait.info/sumgait/politburo-meeting-29-february-1988.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-06-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722000942/http://sumgait.info/sumgait/politburo-meeting-29-february-1988.htm |archive-date=July 22, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>"Sumgait: Evidence given by witnesses and relatives of victims of pogroms". Viktoria Grigoryan, sister of murdered Seda Danielyan: "Somebody knocked on the door and asked: "Are you Armenians?" My sister's husband answered: "No, we are Azeris", and they left." Danielyan Vitaliy, son of killed Nikolay and Seda Danielyans: "They entered the house and started to raid the flat. Then they took the parents’ passports and read a few words. One of them read out in good Russian "Danielyan", stressing "yan" turned the page, it said "Armenian". And he says: "Ok, this is enough". Then they started to shout that they had come to drink blood..."
{{cite web |url=http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/sumgait-witnesses-about-pogroms/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-01-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215044319/http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/sumgait-witnesses-about-pogroms/ |archive-date=February 15, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
Some sources speak of premeditation ahead of the break-out of violence.<ref>Zverev Alexandr. Ethnic conflicts in the Caucasus 1988–1994. In Coppieters Bruno (ed.) Contested borders in the Caucasus. Brussels: Vubpress, 1996. pp. 13–71.</ref><ref>Rieff David Nagorno Karabakh: case study in ethnic strife. Foreign Affairs, vol. 76 (2) Mar.-Apr. 1997, pp. 118–132.</ref>
Cobbles were brought into the city to block and limit access and exit from the town; the perpetrators had previously obtained the list of addresses of the Armenian residents of the city.<ref>Excerpt from the indictment in the criminal case 18/60233 on charges of Ahmad Imani ogly Ahmаdov, Ilham Azat ogly Ismailov and Yavar Giyas ogly Jafarov. Moscow, Nov. 1988, The Supreme Court of USSR. "I reckon they knew the addresses of the Armenians in advance. I came to this conclusion because the pogrom-makers were entering precisely the buildings were Armenians lived. In reality, they knew all the addresses, they were acting unmistakably. And all that was not out of hooligan intentions, that was an action specifically against the Armenian people, against Armenians. Not against Russians or other nations, but against Armenians. They were looking particularly for Armenians..."</ref> Warnings by Azerbaijanis sympathetic to their Armenian neighbors instructed them to leave their lights on the night of the 27th; those who shut them off would be assumed to be Armenian. According to several Armenian witnesses and Soviet military personnel, alcohol and ''anasha'', a term referring to [[narcotic]]s, were brought in trucks and distributed to the crowds,{{sfn|Shahmuratian|1990}} although such accounts were not reported in the media. According to de Waal, the fact that the attackers were armed with homemade weapons that would have taken some time and effort to manufacture suggests a certain level of planning.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=35}}
Violence broke on the evening of February 27. The attacking groups were of varying age groups. While the main participants were adult males and even some women, there were also young students who took part in vandalizing and looting appliances, shoes, and clothing from the Armenians' homes.<ref>''Rodina''. No. 4, 1994, pp. 82–90.</ref> The mobs entered the apartment buildings and sought out Armenians where they lived. Some took shelter among their Azerbaijani and Russian neighbors, who also risked being attacked by the mobs.{{sfn|Shahmuratian|1990|pp=56–60}} Others turned on the television to watch Azerbaijani music concerts and raised the volume to give the effect that they were in fact Azerbaijanis.
The pogrom was marked by atrocities and savagery. As Waal describes it, "The roving gangs committed acts of horrific savagery. Several victims were so badly mutilated by axes that their bodies could not be identified."{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=34}} Numerous acts of [[gang rape]] and [[sexual abuse]] were committed, taking place in both the apartments and publicly on the city streets. An account of one such act that was also corroborated by witnesses described how a crowd stripped naked an Armenian woman and dragged her through the streets.{{sfn|Shahmuratian|1990|p=227}} Rumors circulating that Armenian women in hospital maternity wards had their fetuses disemboweled were later said to have been false.<ref name="Lee">Lee, Gary. "[https://www.washingtonpost.com/ Eerie Silence Hangs Over Soviet City] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916061515/https://www.washingtonpost.com/ |date=September 16, 2017 }}." ''Washington Post''. September 4, 1988. p. A33. Retrieved July 31, 2006.</ref>
In the midst of the attacks, many Armenians sought to defend themselves and improvised by nailing their doors shut and arming themselves with axes, and in some instances a number of intruding rioters were killed.{{sfn|Shahmuratian|1990}} Calls to ambulance services were handled late or in many cases, unheeded completely. There was no intervention on the part of the police to stop the perpetrators.<ref>Sumgait: testimony of eyewitnesses. video: 01.13. "I personally saw the local police was standing there, doing nothing, as if it were there to help the rioters. There was no official announcement."{{cite web |url=http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%82-%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2-%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0-%D0%B0%D1%80/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2017-01-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217104416/http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%82-%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2-%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0-%D0%B0%D1%80/ |archive-date=February 17, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>Fragment from the indictment on criminal case 18/60233 on accusation of Akhmed Imani ogly Akhmedov, Ilham Azat ogly Ismailov, and Yavar Giyas ogly Jafarov: "Answering the question of lawyer Shaposhnikova "Why did you not call your father, who was in service then, to tell him about what was happening in your block?", witness D. Zarbaliev (the witness’ father worked in the militia in Sumgait) said:"And why did I need to call? The militia knew about it; everybody knew about it. It was not the first day of the pogroms".</ref><ref name="Zardusht">''in Russian'' Zardusht Ali-Zade. Azerbaijani Elit and Masses in the period of collapse of the USSR (article-memoir on turbulent times).{{cite web |url=http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-01-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030014402/http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm |archive-date=October 30, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> As mentioned by De Waal, "Another factor, which seems to have been a necessary condition for ethnic violence to begin, came into play: the local police did nothing. It later transpired that the local police force was overwhelmingly composed of Azerbaijanis and had only one professional Armenian officer."<ref>De Waal. Black Garden, p. 33</ref>
The weekly ''[[Moskovskiye Novosti]]'' later reported that eight of the city's twenty ambulances had been destroyed by the mobs.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Сумгаит, Один месяц поздно [Sumgait, One Month Later]|journal=[[Moskovskiye Novosti]]|date=April 13, 1988|language=ru}}</ref> Looting was prevalent and many attackers discussed among themselves on who would take possession of what after they had broken into the apartments. In some cases, televisions were stolen, along with other appliances and household goods; many apartments were vandalized and set on fire.
The lives of many Armenians were protected and saved by their Azerbaijani friends, neighbors or even strangers, who, at the risk of their own lives, let the Armenians hide in their houses or be escorted in their cars out of the city. According to Armenian witnesses, when Soviet troops went door-to-door searching for survivors, they managed to collect thousands of Armenians who had been hiding in Azeri households.<ref>Miller, Donald E. and Lorna Touryan Miller. ''Armenia: Portraits of Survival and Hope''. Berkeley: University of California Press; pp. 46–47.</ref>
==Government reaction==
[[File:Sumgait police escort.jpg|thumb|270px|Military police escorting Armenian civilians out of the town]]
The Soviet government's reaction to the protests was initially slow. Authorities were reluctant to send military units to impose [[martial law]] into town.<ref>"[http://www.newsday.com/ Soviets Impose Curfew After Riots] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314210540/http://www.newsday.com/ |date=March 14, 2011 }}." ''[[Newsday]]''. March 2, 1988 p. 13. Retrieved December 30, 2006.</ref> The spirit of ''glasnost'' had seen the Soviet Union more tolerant in responding to such politically-charged issues. However, Soviet officials in Azerbaijan, some of whom were witnessing the attacks, appealed to [[Kremlin]] leaders to dispatch Soviet troops to Sumgait. In a Soviet [[Politburo]] session on the third day of the rioting (February 29), Gorbachev and his senior cabinet conferred on several subjects before discussing the events of Sumgait. When the issue was finally raised, Gorbachev voiced his opposition to the proposal of sending in troops but cabinet members Foreign Minister [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] and [[Defense Minister]] [[Dmitry Yazov]], fearing an escalation of violence, persuaded him otherwise.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=38-39}}
Meanwhile, on the previous day, two battalions from the [[MVD]], troops mainly equipped with truncheons and riot gear (those troops who were armed with firearms were armed with [[blank (cartridge)|blanks]] and not given the permission to open fire), arrived in Sumgait in buses and [[armored personnel carriers]].{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|p=64}} As they moved in to secure the town, the soldiers found themselves as targets of the mob. In what became a startling sight for the city's residents, the soldiers were attacked and maimed with the improvised steel objects.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=37-38}} Their armored vehicles were flipped over and in some cases disabled by [[molotov cocktail]]s, as the troops found themselves in complete disarray.{{sfn|Shahmuratian|1990|p=199}}
By February 29, the situation had worsened to the point where authorities were forced to call in more professional and heavily armed troops, who were given the right to use deadly force. A contingent made up of elements of the [[OMSDON|Felix Dzerzhinsky Division]] of the [[Internal Troops]]; a company of Marines from the [[Caspian Flotilla|Caspian Sea Naval Flotilla]]; troops from [[Dagestan]]; an assault landing brigade; military police; and the 137th Parachute Regiment of the [[Russian Airborne Troops|Airborne Forces]] from [[Ryazan]] – a military force of nearly 10,000 men under the overall command of a Lieutenant General Krayev – made its way to Sumgait.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=39}} Tanks were brought in and ordered to cordon off the city. Andrei Shilkov, a Russian journalist for the periodical ''Glasnost'', counted at least 47 tanks and reported also seeing troops wearing bulletproof vests patrolling the town, an implication that firearms were present and used during the rioting.<ref>Bortin, Mary Ellen. "[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/home/index.html Witness Tells of Aftermath of Bloody Armenian Riots] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060812102752/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/home/index.html |date=August 12, 2006 }}." ''[[Seattle Times]]''. March 11, 1988. p. B1. Retrieved September 15, 2006.</ref>
A curfew was imposed from 8 pm to 7 am as skirmishes between troops and rioters continued. Krayev ordered troops to rescue Armenians left in their apartments. By the evening of the 29th, [[martial law]] was imposed and troops in buses and personnel carriers were patrolling the streets of Sumgait. Under heavily armed guard, civilian buses and APCs transported Armenian residents to the [[Samed Vurgun]] Cultural Facility (known as the SK) in the city's main square. The SK building was designed to accommodate several hundred people, though as many as several thousand eventually found shelter there.
==Aftermath==
By March 1, Soviet troops had effectively quelled the rioting. Investigations were slated to begin immediately; however, waste disposal trucks cleaned much of the debris on the streets before they arrived.<ref>Lyday, Corbin. "A Commitment to Truth Telling: Behind the Scenes in Soviet Armenia." 1988 (Typewritten), p. 28. Accessed December 16, 2006.</ref> Soviet authorities arrested over 400 men in connection to the rioting and violence.<ref>"[https://www.thestar.com/ 400 arrested after riots in Sumgait, Soviets say] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006234524/https://www.thestar.com/ |date=October 6, 2016 }}." ''[[Toronto Star]]''. March 22, 1988. Retrieved December 26, 2006.</ref> The Soviet media did not initially report the event and remained largely silent, broadcasting instead news related to foreign affairs while the media in Sumgait spoke only on local issues unrelated to the massacre.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=40}}{{sfn|Malkasian|1996|p=54}} The Soviet government was initially hesitant to admit that violence had taken place; however, when it did, it was quick to downplay the scale of the event, describing the rioting that had occurred as that perpetrated by "hooligans." [[Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union|TASS]] reported of "rampage and violence" taking place in Sumgait on March 1, which was provoked on the part of a "group of hooligans" who engaged in various criminal acts. Western journalists were denied access to visit the town by Soviet authorities.
On April 28, 1988, images of the pogrom were broadcast in a 90-minute documentary by Soviet journalist [[Genrikh Borovik]]. Borovik criticized the media blackout imposed by the Soviet government, claiming that it ran against Gorbachev's aims of greater openness under ''glasnost''.<ref>"[http://www.suntimes.com/index.html Soviet TV surprise: Ethnic strife shown; Program rips news blackout, defends glasnost] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061231222730/http://www.suntimes.com/index.html |date=December 31, 2006 }}." ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]''. April 28, 1988. p. 36. Retrieved December 31, 2006.</ref> Eduard Shevardnadze later remarked on the failure to report the massacre in Sumgait as a failure of ''glasnost'' itself: "the old mechanisms kicked in, simplifying, distorting or just eliminating the truth about [this event]."<ref>[[Eduard Shevardnadze|Shevardnadze, Eduard]]. ''The Future Belongs to Freedom''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991, pp. 176–177. {{ISBN|0-02-928617-4}}.</ref>
==Criminal proceedings==
Soviet authorities arrested 400 men in connection to the massacre and prepared criminal charges for 84 (82 Azerbaijanis, one Russian, and one Armenian).{{sfn|De Waal|2003|pp=39, 43}} Taleh Ismailov, a pipe-fitter from one of Sumgait's industrial plants, was charged with premeditated murder and was the first to be tried by the Soviet Supreme Court in Moscow in May 1988. By October 1988, nine men had been sentenced, including Ismailov, who was sentenced to 15 years in prison with a further 33 on trial.<ref name="Keller">{{cite news|last1=Keller|first1=Bill|authorlink1=Bill Keller|title=Riot's Legacy of Distrust Quietly Stalks a Soviet City|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/31/world/riot-s-legacy-of-distrust-quietly-stalks-a-soviet-city.html|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 31, 1988|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003225643/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/31/world/riot-s-legacy-of-distrust-quietly-stalks-a-soviet-city.html|archive-date=October 3, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Other sentences were more harsh: Ahmad Ahmadov was found guilty and sentenced to be shot by a firing squad for leading a mob and taking part in the murder of seven people.<ref>"[https://www.washingtonpost.com/ Soviet Riot Leader Sentenced to Death] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916061515/https://www.washingtonpost.com/ |date=September 16, 2017 }}." ''The Washington Post''. November 20, 1988. Retrieved April 19, 2007.</ref> However, 90 of those who were tried were set free after a relatively short time as they were sentenced for hooliganism, rather than for murder and violence.<ref name="krivopuskov 2009"/>
There were many who expressed their dissatisfaction with the way the trials were organized and conducted. Soviet historian and [[dissident]] [[Roy Medvedev]] questioned the trials: "Who knows why, but the court examined the Sumgait events by subdividing them into single episodes and not as a programmatic act of genocide."<ref>Medvedev. ''Time of Change'', p. 209.</ref> Most Armenians and Azerbaijanis were also dissatisfied with the trials. Armenians complained that the true instigators of the pogrom were never caught whereas Azerbaijanis stated the sentences were too harsh and were upset with the fact that the trials were not held in Azerbaijan.{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|p=65}} Some Azerbaijanis even went on to campaign for the "freedom for the heroes of Sumgait."{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|pp=67, 205}} Indeed, many of the perpetrators of the pogrom gained titles of national heroes and/or high positions in the government, where they still serve today.<ref name="krivopuskov 2009">{{cite news|script-title=ru:Виктор Кривопусков: Преступники в Азербайджане возносятся в ранг национальных героев|url=http://www.regnum.ru/news/1131088.html|agency=[[REGNUM News Agency]]|date=February 28, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141116204518/http://www.regnum.ru/news/1131088.html|archivedate=November 16, 2014|language=ru}}</ref><ref>[[Hidayat Orujev]] for instance went on to serve as Azerbaijan's State Advisor for Ethnic Policy and is currently serving as the Chairman of State Committee for Work with Religious Organizations of Azerbaijan Republic.</ref>
==Reactions==
[[File:Sumgait pogrom memorial Stepanakert.jpg|thumb|280px|A memorial dedicated to the victims of the pogrom in [[Stepanakert]], Nagorno-Karabakh]]
===In Armenia and Karabakh===
The pogrom was immediately linked to the [[Armenian Genocide]] of 1915 in the Armenian [[national consciousness]].<ref name="Hovhannisyan"/> On the [[Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day]] on April 24, 1988 a ''[[khachkar]]'' (cross stone) dedicated to the pogrom victims was planted at the [[Tsitsernakaberd|Armenian Genocide memorial at Tsitsernakaberd]].{{sfn|Malkasian|1996|p=68}}
February 28 was designated as a [[Public holidays in Armenia|public holiday in Armenia]] in 2005. It is officially known as "The Day of Memory of the Victims of Massacres in Azerbaijani SSR and Protection of the Rights of the Deported Armenian Population".<ref>{{cite web|script-title=hy:«Հայաստանի Հանրապետության տոների և հիշատակի օրերի մասին» Հայաստանի Հանրապետության օրենքում լրացում կատարելու մասին|url=http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2326&lang=arm|website=parliament.am|publisher=National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141116202713/http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2326&lang=arm|archivedate=November 16, 2014|language=hy}}</ref>
===International===
In July 1988, within months of the Sumgait massacre, the [[United States Senate]] unanimously passed Amendment 2690 to the Fiscal Year 1989 Foreign Operations Appropriations bill (H.R. 4782), concerning the Karabakh conflict, which called on the Soviet government to "respect the legitimate aspirations of the
Armenian people …" and noted that "dozens of Armenians have been killed and
hundreds injured during the recent unrests…"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://asbarez.com/93847/more-members-of-congress-commemorate-sumgait-baku-massacres/|title=More Members of Congress Commemorate Sumgait, Baku Massacres|work=Asbarez News|date=March 3, 2011|access-date=April 6, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414220140/http://asbarez.com/93847/more-members-of-congress-commemorate-sumgait-baku-massacres/|archive-date=April 14, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>[http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/2013RS/bills/sj/sj0004f.pdf SENATE JOINT RESOLUTION 4, March 1, 2013] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320211218/http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/2013RS/bills/sj/sj0004F.pdf |date=March 20, 2013 }}</ref>
On July 7, 1988, the [[European Parliament]] passed a resolution condemning the violence against Armenians in Azerbaijan.<ref>[http://karabakhfacts.com/wp-content/uploads/1988/07/c_23519880912en00800163.pdf RESOLUTION on the situation in Soviet Armenia. Joint resolution replacing Docs. B2-538 and 587 88, 07 July 1988. Source: Official journal of the European Communities, No. C 94/117, o C 235/106, 07 July 1988] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423004946/http://karabakhfacts.com/wp-content/uploads/1988/07/c_23519880912en00800163.pdf |date=April 23, 2014 }}</ref>
On July 27, 1990, 130 leading academics and human rights advocates wrote "An Open Letter to International Public Opinion on Anti-Armenian Pogroms in the Soviet Union" published in the ''New York Times''. The letter, which was signed by
professors from Johns Hopkins, Princeton, Berkeley, UCLA, Wesleyan University, University of Paris IV Sorbonne and other universities, urged the international community to take action to protect the Armenian community in Azerbaijan.<ref name=letter>{{cite journal|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1990/sep/27/an-open-letter-on-anti-armenian-pogroms-in-the-sov/|title=An Open Letter on Anti-Armenian Pogroms in the Soviet Union by Jacques Derrida, Isaiah Berlin, and Alain Finkielkraut – The New York Review of Books|journal=The New York Review of Books|date=September 27, 1990|access-date=April 6, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501144013/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1990/sep/27/an-open-letter-on-anti-armenian-pogroms-in-the-sov/|archive-date=May 1, 2015|df=mdy-all|last1=Gluecksmann|first1=Andre|last2=Zelnick|first2=Reginald E.|last3=Wiehl|first3=Reiner|last4=Taylor|first4=Charles|last5=Shestack|first5=Jerome J.|last6=Ricoeur|first6=Paul|last7=Poulain|first7=Jacques|last8=Levinas|first8=Emmanuel|last9=Hooks|first9=Benjamin L.|last10=Heller|first10=Agnes|last11=Gregorian|first11=Vartan|last12=Gadamer|first12=Hans-Georg|last13=Ferry|first13=Luc|last14=Chace|first14=William M.|last15=Aaron|first15=David|last16=Putnam|first16=Hilary|last17=Kołakowski|first17=Leszek|last18=Habermas|first18=Juergen|last19=Lyttelton|first19=Adrian|last20=Rorty|first20=Richard|last21=Finkielkraut|first21=Alain|last22=Berlin|first22=Isaiah|last23=Derrida|first23=Jacques}}</ref>
==Conspiracy theories against Azerbaijan==
Several [[conspiracy theories]] spawned in the wake of the pogrom alternatively attributed to the KGB, the CIA, and the Armenians themselves.
==="Armenian provocation"===
As early as mid-1988 [[Bill Keller]] wrote in the ''New York Times'' that "It is accepted wisdom among Sumgait's Azerbaijani majority that the riots Feb. 27, 28 and 29 were deliberately contrived by Armenian extremists in order to discredit Azerbaijan in the battle for the world's sympathy."<ref name="Keller"/> Historian and head of the Azerbaijani Academy of Sciences [[Ziya Bunyadov]], whom [[Thomas de Waal]] calls "Azerbaijan's foremost Armenophobe",{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=42}} claimed that the massacre had been instigated by the Armenians to cast a negative light upon Azerbaijan.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=42}} In an article that appeared in the Azerbaijani journal ''Elm'', Bunyadov claimed that Armenians had organized the pogroms: "The Sumgait tragedy was carefully prepared by Armenian nationalists... Several hours after it began, Armenian photographers and TV journalists secretly entered the city where they awaited in readiness."<ref>{{in lang|ru}} Buniyatov, Ziya. "Concerning the events in Karabakh and Sumgait." ''Elm''. No. 19, May 13, 1989, p. 175. Excerpts of this text can be found in [[Levon Chorbajian]]; Patrick Donabedian; [[Claude Mutafian]]. ''The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh''. London: Zed Books, 1994, pp. 188–189. {{ISBN|1-85649-288-5}}.</ref> Bunyadov's thesis was hinged on the fact that Sumgait Armenians had withdrawn more than one million rubles from their savings before the attacks. To support his thesis, he had also drawn attention to the fact that one of the participants in the riots and killings was Eduard Grigorian, a man of mixed Russian-Armenian lineage who had three previous criminal convictions and pretended to be Azerbaijani. Grigorian was a factory worker who took part in gang rapes and mass attacks and was subsequently sentenced to 12 years for his role in the massacres.{{sfn|De Waal|2003|pp=42–43}} Grigorian had been brought up in Sumgait by his Russian mother following the early death of his Armenian father, and his ethnic identity is considered irrelevant since he appropriately fit the profile of a "''pogromshchik'', a thuggish young man, of indeterminate nationality with a criminal past, seeking violence for its own sake."{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=43}} This view has since gained wider currency in all of Azerbaijan today, where it is still euphemistically referred to in the media and by government officials as the "Sumgait events" (Sumqayıt hadisələri).<ref name="Azeri POV">See, for example, Jamil Babayeva, "[http://www.azernews.az/azerbaijan/64888.html Armenia's provocation: Sumgayit events] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302195853/http://www.azernews.az/azerbaijan/64888.html |date=March 2, 2014 }}. ''AzerNews''." February 28, 2014; "[http://en.trend.az/news/politics/2247068.html Sumgait's events committed by special services and Armenian diaspora] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302231221/http://en.trend.az/news/politics/2247068.html |date=March 2, 2014 }}." ''Trend''. February 27, 2014.</ref>
By 2018 the conspiracy theory was adopted by the government for the first time, according to journalist Shahin Rzayev. An investigation by the Prosecutor General's Office stated that "Armenians living in Sumgayit tried to provocatively burn down their homes and property and blame Azerbaijanis." According to their investigation a "diversion group" of 20-25 people who "weren’t residents of Sumgayit and were speaking in Armenian among themselves" instigated the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kucera|first1=Joshua|title=Baku Embraces Conspiracy Theory Blaming Armenians for Own Pogrom|url=https://eurasianet.org/s/azerbaijan-officially-embraces-conspiracy-theory-blaming-armenians-for-own-pogrom|agency=[[EurasiaNet]]|date=22 February 2018}}</ref>
===Other===
According to [[CPSU Politburo]] member [[Alexander Yakovlev (Russian politician)|Alexander Yakovlev]], the Sumgait pogrom was arranged by KGB [[agents provocateurs]] to "justify the importance of the Soviet secret services".<ref>{{cite book|language=ru|authorlink=Alexander Yakovlev (Russian politician)|last=Yakovlev|first=Alexander N.|title=Сумерки [Time of darkness]|location=Moscow|publisher=Materik|year=2003|page=551}}</ref> [[George Soros]] wrote in a 1989 article in the ''[[New York Review of Books]]'': "It is not far-fetched to speculate that the first pogroms against Armenians in Azerbaijan were instigated by the notorious local mafia, which is controlled by the KGB official G.A. Alieev <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Heydar Aliyev]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, in order to create a situation in which Gorbachev would lose, no matter what he did."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Soros|first1=George|authorlink1=George Soros|title=The Gorbachev Prospect|journal=[[The New York Review of Books]]|date=June 1, 1989|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1989/06/01/the-gorbachev-prospect/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912013536/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1989/06/01/the-gorbachev-prospect/|archive-date=September 12, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Two authors commented in 2004, "Although that possibility cannot be ruled out, hard evidence is still lacking."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Klier|first1=John|last2=Lambroza|first2=Shlomo|authorlink1=John Klier|title=Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521528511|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T3D7CmSOMfIC&pg=PA371&lpg=PA371&dq=G.A.+Alieev 371]}}</ref> American analyst [[Paul A. Goble]] suggested in a 2015 interview with the Armenian service of [[Voice of America]] that the pogrom was perpetrated by a "group of Azerbaijani criminals by the provocation of the [[KGB]]."<ref>{{cite news|script-title=hy:Սումգայիթի ջարդը՝ ՊԱԿ–ի կազմակերպած ոճիրն էր|url=http://www.amerikayidzayn.com/media/video/armenian-daily-videos/2661226.html?z=0&zp=1|work=amerikayidzayn.com|agency=[[Voice of America]]|date=February 27, 2015|language=hy|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305014353/http://www.amerikayidzayn.com/media/video/armenian-daily-videos/2661226.html?z=0&zp=1|archive-date=March 5, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Mkhitaryan|first1=Inesa|script-title=hy:Ըստ Փոլ Գոբլի՝ Սումգայիթի ջարդը ՊԱԿ-ի կազմակերպած ոճիրն էր|url=http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/26872078.html|work=azatutyun.am|agency=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|date=February 27, 2015|language=hy|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301222058/http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/26872078.html|archive-date=March 1, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
Davud Imanov, an Azerbaijani filmmaker, expanded on this theory in a series of films called the ''Echo of Sumgait'' where he accused Armenians, Russians and [[United States|Americans]] of conspiring together against Azerbaijan and claiming that Karabakh movement was a plot organized by the [[CIA]].{{sfn|De Waal|2003|p=42}}
==See also==
*[[Anti-Armenianism in Azerbaijan]]
*[[Kirovabad pogrom]] (1988)
*[[Pogrom of Armenians in Baku]] (1990)
*[[Operation Ring]] (1991)
*[[Maraga Massacre]] (1992)
*[[Khojaly Massacre]] (1992)
*[[List of massacres in the Soviet Union]]
*[[List of massacres in Azerbaijan]]
*[[Anti-Armenianism]]
*[[Shelling of Stepanakert]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
*{{cite book|last=De Waal|first=Thomas|title=[[Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War]]|year=2003|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780814719459|authorlink=Thomas de Waal|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Kaufman|first=Stuart J.|title=Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War|year=2001|publisher=[[Cornell University Press]]|location=Ithaca|isbn=0-8014-8736-6|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Shahmuratian|first=Samvel|title=The Sumgait Tragedy: Pogroms Against Armenians in Soviet Azerbaijan|location=New York|publisher=[[Zoryan Institute]]|year=1990|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Malkasian|first=Mark|title="Gha-Ra-Bagh"! The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia|location=Detroit|publisher=Wayne State University Press|year=1996|isbn=0-8143-2605-6|ref=harv}}
*Aslan Ismayilov ''[http://sumgayit1988.com/files/book-en.pdf Sumgayit — Beginning of the Collapse of the USSR]''. Baku: Çaşıoğlu. 2010
==External links==
*[http://sumgayit1988.com/ sumgayit1988.com]
*[http://sumqayit1988.com/ sumqayit1988.com]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20111117070527/http://sumqait.com/ sumqait.com]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140222060953/http://sumgayit1988.com/files/cinayat1.pdf Уголовное Дело № 18/55461-88. Сумгаит. 1989. (I)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140222060958/http://sumgayit1988.com/files/cinayat2.pdf Уголовное Дело № 18/55461-88. Сумгаит. 1989. (II)]
*[https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/19/opinion/nationalism-at-its-nastiest.html Nationalism at Its Nastiest - ''The New York Times'']
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article2970324.ece Vladimir Kryuchkov. Hardline Soviet Communist who became head of the KGB and led a failed plot to overthrow Mikhail Gorbachev, ''Times'' Online]
*[http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-2012-02-27/pdf/CREC-2012-02-27-pt1-PgE248-3.pdf Sumgait Pogroms.] Hon. [[Howard L. Berman]], [[United States House of Representatives]], Congressional Record, Feb. 2012
*[http://sumgait.info/ sumgait.info Armenian site]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121111095959/http://www.sumqait.com/en/ sumqait.com Azeri point of view]
*[http://budapest.sumgait.info/sumgait.htm Sumgait massacres – Budapest case]
*[http://www.nkrusa.org/nk_conflict/sumgait_massacre.shtml Pogroms of Armenians in Sumgait, Office of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic]
*[http://karabakhfacts.com/the-originary-genocide-1998-sumgait-azerbaijan/ The Ordinary genocide. Sumgait, February 1988. Documentary]
*[http://karabakhrecords.info/ Karabakhrecords.info Armenian site]
{{Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict}}
{{coord missing|Azerbaijan}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1988]]
[[Category:Anti-Armenianism]]
[[Category:Massacres in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Mass murder in 1988]]
[[Category:Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]]
[[Category:Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic]]
[[Category:Nagorno-Karabakh War]]
[[Category:Anti-Armenian pogroms]]
[[Category:Persecution of Oriental Orthodox Christians]]
[[Category:1988 in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:1988 in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Sumqayit]]
[[Category:February 1988 events in Asia]]
[[Category:March 1988 events in Asia]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,35 +1,12 @@
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2018}}
-{{Infobox civilian attack
-| title = Sumgait pogrom
-| image = Sumgaitrioting.jpg
-| image_size = 290px
-| caption = Images captured from a videotape show burnt automobiles and the massive throngs of rioters on the streets of [[Sumgait]].
-| location = [[Sumgait]], [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan]], [[Soviet Union]]
-| target = Local [[Armenians|Armenian]] population
-| date = February 26 – March 1, 1988
-| type = [[Murder]], [[rape]], [[riot]]<ref>{{cite book|last=De Waal|first=Thomas|title=The Caucasus: An Introduction|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0195399776|page=111|authorlink=Thomas de Waal}}</ref>
-| fatalities = 32 (official Soviet data)<br />200+ (Armenian sources)<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vaserman|first1=Arie|last2=Ginat|first2=Ram|title=National, territorial or religious conflict? The case of Nagorno‐Karabakh|journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism|date=1994|volume=17|issue=4|page=348|doi=10.1080/10576109408435961|quote=These events contributed to the anti-Armenian riots of February 28–29 in Sumgait near Baku. According to official data, 32 Armenians were killed during the riots, but various Armenian sources claimed that more than 200 people were killed.}}</ref>
-| injuries = Unknown
-| victim =
-| perps =
-| perp =
-| susperps =
-| susperp =
-| weapons =
-| numparts =
-| numpart =
-| dfens =
-| dfen =
-| footage =
-}}
{{Campaignbox Nagorno-Karabakh War}}
-The '''Sumgait pogrom''' ({{lang-hy|Սումգայիթի ջարդեր}}, {{lang|hy-Latn|Sumgayit'i ĵarder}} [[Literal translation|lit.]]: "Sumgait massacres"; {{lang-az|Sumqayıt hadisələri}} [[Literal translation|lit.]]: "Sumgait events") was a [[pogrom]] that targeted the [[Armenians|Armenian]] population of the seaside town of [[Sumqayit|Sumgait]] in the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]] in late February 1988. The pogrom took place during the early stages of the [[Karabakh movement]]. On February 27, 1988, mobs of ethnic [[Azerbaijanis]] formed into groups and attacked and killed Armenians on the streets and in their apartments; widespread looting and a general lack of concern from police officers allowed the violence to continue for three days.
+The Kapan '''pogrom''' ({{lang-hy|Սումգայիթի ջարդեր}}, "Kapan massacres"; Qafan hadisələri [[Literal translation|lit.]]: "Kapan events") was a [[pogrom]] that targeted the Azerbaijani population of the southern Armenian town of Kapan in the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic]] in early February 1988. The pogrom took place during the early stages of the [[Karabakh movement]]. On February 02, 1988, mobs of ethnic [[Azerbaijanis|Armenians]] formed into groups and attacked and killed Azerbaijanis on the streets and in their apartments; widespread looting and a general lack of concern from police officers allowed the violence to continue for three days. A famous Armenian writer and historian Artak Zart-Osturanyan described the events as "nothing the humanity had seen before".
-On February 28, a small contingent of [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)|Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD)]] troops entered the city and unsuccessfully attempted to quell the rioting. More professional military units entered with tanks and armored personnel vehicles one day later. Government forces imposed a state of [[martial law]] and [[curfew]] and brought the crisis to an end. The official death toll released by the [[Prosecutor General of the USSR]] (tallies were compiled based on lists of named victims) was 32 people (26 Armenians and 6 Azerbaijanis), although other estimates reach up into the hundreds of victims.<ref>{{cite news|last=Remnick|first=David|authorlink=David Remnick|title=Hate Runs High in Soviet Union's Most Explosive Ethnic Feud|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|access-date=July 15, 2013|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=September 6, 1989|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329042718/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|archive-date=March 29, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Hosking">{{cite book|last=Hosking|first=Geoffrey A.|url=https://archive.org/stream/firstsocialistso0000hosk?ref=ol#page/474/mode/2up|title=The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1993|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge, Mass.|page=475|pages=|authorlink=Geoffrey Hosking}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kenez|first=Peter|url=https://www.academia.edu/24876372/_Peter_Kenez_A_history_of_the_Soviet_Union_from_t_BookZZ_org_|title=A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=|page=272|pages=|authorlink=Peter Kenez}}</ref>
+On February 28, a small contingent of [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)|Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD)]] troops entered the city and unsuccessfully attempted to quell the rioting. More professional military units entered with tanks and armored personnel vehicles one day later. Government forces imposed a state of [[martial law]] and [[curfew]] and brought the crisis to an end. The official death toll released by the [[Prosecutor General of the USSR]] (tallies were compiled based on lists of named victims) was 32 people (2 Armenians and 94 Azerbaijanis), although other estimates reach up into the hundreds of victims.<ref>{{cite news|last=Remnick|first=David|authorlink=David Remnick|title=Hate Runs High in Soviet Union's Most Explosive Ethnic Feud|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|access-date=July 15, 2013|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=September 6, 1989|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329042718/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|archive-date=March 29, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Hosking">{{cite book|last=Hosking|first=Geoffrey A.|url=https://archive.org/stream/firstsocialistso0000hosk?ref=ol#page/474/mode/2up|title=The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1993|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge, Mass.|page=475|pages=|authorlink=Geoffrey Hosking}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kenez|first=Peter|url=https://www.academia.edu/24876372/_Peter_Kenez_A_history_of_the_Soviet_Union_from_t_BookZZ_org_|title=A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=|page=272|pages=|authorlink=Peter Kenez}}</ref>
-The violence in Sumgait was unexpected and was widely covered in the Western press. It was greeted with general astonishment in Armenia and the rest of the Soviet Union since ethnic feuds in the country had been largely suppressed by the government, which had promoted policies such as [[proletarian internationalism]], [[fraternity of peoples]], and [[socialist patriotism]] to avert such conflicts. The massacre, together with the [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]], presented a major challenge to the reforms being implemented by Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. Gorbachev was later criticized for his perceived slowness in reacting to the crisis.
+The violence in Kapan was unexpected and was widely covered in the Western press. It was greeted with general astonishment in Azerbaijan and the rest of the Soviet Union since ethnic feuds in the country had been largely suppressed by the government, which had promoted policies such as [[proletarian internationalism]], [[fraternity of peoples]], and [[socialist patriotism]] to avert such conflicts. The massacre, together with the [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]], presented a major challenge to the reforms being implemented by Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. Gorbachev was later criticized for his perceived slowness in reacting to the crisis.
-Because of the scale of atrocities against the Armenians as an ethnic group the pogrom was immediately linked to the [[Armenian Genocide]] of 1915 in the Armenian [[national consciousness]].<ref name="Hovhannisyan">{{cite web|last1=Hovhannisyan|first1=Mari|title=The Collective Memory of the Armenian Genocide|url=http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|publisher=[[Central European University]]|location=Budapest|page=21|date=2010|quote=The posters carried by the Armenians on April 24, 1988 were verifications of the fact that Armenians saw the Sumgait massacres as the continuation of the genocide.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129032803/http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pheiffer|first1=Evan|title=A Place to Live For|journal=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]]|date=June 1, 2016|url=https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/06/nagorno-karabakh-armenia-azerbaijan-four-day-war/|quote=Complicating matters, Armenians seem incapable of separating the 1988 pogroms from the 1915 Ottoman atrocities — mention of one immediately triggers talk of the other.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919051831/https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/06/nagorno-karabakh-armenia-azerbaijan-four-day-war/|archive-date=September 19, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> A number of international and Soviet sources also describes the events as [[genocide]] of the Armenian population.<ref>Glasnost: : Vol. 2, Issue 1, Center for Democracy (New York, N.Y.) – 1990, p. 62, cit. 'The massacre of Armenians in Sumgait, the heinous murders in Tbilisi—these killings are examples of genocide directed by the Soviet regime against its own people.', an announcement by USSR Journalists' Union</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich, 1925-|first=|url=https://archive.org/stream/timeofchangeinsi00medv?ref=ol#page/n11/mode/2up|title=Time of change : an insider's view of Russia's transformation|last2=Giulietto|first2=Chiesa|date=1989|publisher=Pantheon Books|others=|year=1989|isbn=0-394-58151-2|location=New York|pages=209|translator-last=Moore|translator-first=Michael|oclc=20593737}}</ref> The Sumgait pogrom is commemorated every year on February 28 in Armenia, [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|Nagorno-Karabakh]], and among the [[Armenian diaspora]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Communities Worldwide Mark Sumgait Anniversary Along with Government Officials|url=http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|work=[[Asbarez]]|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040537/http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
+Because of the scale of atrocities against the Azerbaijanis as an ethnic group the pogrom was immediately linked to the Azerbaijani Genocide in Quba city in 1918 in the Armenian [[national consciousness]].<ref name="Hovhannisyan">{{cite web|last1=Hovhannisyan|first1=Mari|title=The Collective Memory of the Armenian Genocide|url=http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|publisher=[[Central European University]]|location=Budapest|page=21|date=2010|quote=The posters carried by the Armenians on April 24, 1988 were verifications of the fact that Armenians saw the Sumgait massacres as the continuation of the genocide.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129032803/http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>A number of international and Soviet sources also describes the events as [[genocide]] of the Armenian population.<ref>Glasnost: : Vol. 2, Issue 1, Center for Democracy (New York, N.Y.) – 1990, p. 62, cit. 'The massacre of Armenians in Sumgait, the heinous murders in Tbilisi—these killings are examples of genocide directed by the Soviet regime against its own people.', an announcement by USSR Journalists' Union</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich, 1925-|first=|url=https://archive.org/stream/timeofchangeinsi00medv?ref=ol#page/n11/mode/2up|title=Time of change : an insider's view of Russia's transformation|last2=Giulietto|first2=Chiesa|date=1989|publisher=Pantheon Books|others=|year=1989|isbn=0-394-58151-2|location=New York|pages=209|translator-last=Moore|translator-first=Michael|oclc=20593737}}</ref> The Sumgait pogrom is commemorated every year on February 28 in Armenia, [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|Nagorno-Karabakh]], and among the [[Armenian diaspora]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Communities Worldwide Mark Sumgait Anniversary Along with Government Officials|url=http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|work=[[Asbarez]]|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040537/http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
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0 => 'The Kapan '''pogrom''' ({{lang-hy|Սումգայիթի ջարդեր}}, "Kapan massacres"; Qafan hadisələri [[Literal translation|lit.]]: "Kapan events") was a [[pogrom]] that targeted the Azerbaijani population of the southern Armenian town of Kapan in the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic]] in early February 1988. The pogrom took place during the early stages of the [[Karabakh movement]]. On February 02, 1988, mobs of ethnic [[Azerbaijanis|Armenians]] formed into groups and attacked and killed Azerbaijanis on the streets and in their apartments; widespread looting and a general lack of concern from police officers allowed the violence to continue for three days. A famous Armenian writer and historian Artak Zart-Osturanyan described the events as "nothing the humanity had seen before".',
1 => 'On February 28, a small contingent of [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)|Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD)]] troops entered the city and unsuccessfully attempted to quell the rioting. More professional military units entered with tanks and armored personnel vehicles one day later. Government forces imposed a state of [[martial law]] and [[curfew]] and brought the crisis to an end. The official death toll released by the [[Prosecutor General of the USSR]] (tallies were compiled based on lists of named victims) was 32 people (2 Armenians and 94 Azerbaijanis), although other estimates reach up into the hundreds of victims.<ref>{{cite news|last=Remnick|first=David|authorlink=David Remnick|title=Hate Runs High in Soviet Union's Most Explosive Ethnic Feud|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|access-date=July 15, 2013|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=September 6, 1989|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329042718/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|archive-date=March 29, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Hosking">{{cite book|last=Hosking|first=Geoffrey A.|url=https://archive.org/stream/firstsocialistso0000hosk?ref=ol#page/474/mode/2up|title=The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1993|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge, Mass.|page=475|pages=|authorlink=Geoffrey Hosking}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kenez|first=Peter|url=https://www.academia.edu/24876372/_Peter_Kenez_A_history_of_the_Soviet_Union_from_t_BookZZ_org_|title=A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=|page=272|pages=|authorlink=Peter Kenez}}</ref>',
2 => 'The violence in Kapan was unexpected and was widely covered in the Western press. It was greeted with general astonishment in Azerbaijan and the rest of the Soviet Union since ethnic feuds in the country had been largely suppressed by the government, which had promoted policies such as [[proletarian internationalism]], [[fraternity of peoples]], and [[socialist patriotism]] to avert such conflicts. The massacre, together with the [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]], presented a major challenge to the reforms being implemented by Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. Gorbachev was later criticized for his perceived slowness in reacting to the crisis.',
3 => 'Because of the scale of atrocities against the Azerbaijanis as an ethnic group the pogrom was immediately linked to the Azerbaijani Genocide in Quba city in 1918 in the Armenian [[national consciousness]].<ref name="Hovhannisyan">{{cite web|last1=Hovhannisyan|first1=Mari|title=The Collective Memory of the Armenian Genocide|url=http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|publisher=[[Central European University]]|location=Budapest|page=21|date=2010|quote=The posters carried by the Armenians on April 24, 1988 were verifications of the fact that Armenians saw the Sumgait massacres as the continuation of the genocide.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129032803/http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>A number of international and Soviet sources also describes the events as [[genocide]] of the Armenian population.<ref>Glasnost: : Vol. 2, Issue 1, Center for Democracy (New York, N.Y.) – 1990, p. 62, cit. 'The massacre of Armenians in Sumgait, the heinous murders in Tbilisi—these killings are examples of genocide directed by the Soviet regime against its own people.', an announcement by USSR Journalists' Union</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich, 1925-|first=|url=https://archive.org/stream/timeofchangeinsi00medv?ref=ol#page/n11/mode/2up|title=Time of change : an insider's view of Russia's transformation|last2=Giulietto|first2=Chiesa|date=1989|publisher=Pantheon Books|others=|year=1989|isbn=0-394-58151-2|location=New York|pages=209|translator-last=Moore|translator-first=Michael|oclc=20593737}}</ref> The Sumgait pogrom is commemorated every year on February 28 in Armenia, [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|Nagorno-Karabakh]], and among the [[Armenian diaspora]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Communities Worldwide Mark Sumgait Anniversary Along with Government Officials|url=http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|work=[[Asbarez]]|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040537/http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>'
] |
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0 => '{{Infobox civilian attack',
1 => '| title = Sumgait pogrom',
2 => '| image = Sumgaitrioting.jpg',
3 => '| image_size = 290px',
4 => '| caption = Images captured from a videotape show burnt automobiles and the massive throngs of rioters on the streets of [[Sumgait]].',
5 => '| location = [[Sumgait]], [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan]], [[Soviet Union]]',
6 => '| target = Local [[Armenians|Armenian]] population',
7 => '| date = February 26 – March 1, 1988',
8 => '| type = [[Murder]], [[rape]], [[riot]]<ref>{{cite book|last=De Waal|first=Thomas|title=The Caucasus: An Introduction|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0195399776|page=111|authorlink=Thomas de Waal}}</ref>',
9 => '| fatalities = 32 (official Soviet data)<br />200+ (Armenian sources)<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vaserman|first1=Arie|last2=Ginat|first2=Ram|title=National, territorial or religious conflict? The case of Nagorno‐Karabakh|journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism|date=1994|volume=17|issue=4|page=348|doi=10.1080/10576109408435961|quote=These events contributed to the anti-Armenian riots of February 28–29 in Sumgait near Baku. According to official data, 32 Armenians were killed during the riots, but various Armenian sources claimed that more than 200 people were killed.}}</ref>',
10 => '| injuries = Unknown',
11 => '| victim =',
12 => '| perps =',
13 => '| perp =',
14 => '| susperps =',
15 => '| susperp =',
16 => '| weapons =',
17 => '| numparts =',
18 => '| numpart =',
19 => '| dfens =',
20 => '| dfen =',
21 => '| footage =',
22 => '}}',
23 => 'The '''Sumgait pogrom''' ({{lang-hy|Սումգայիթի ջարդեր}}, {{lang|hy-Latn|Sumgayit'i ĵarder}} [[Literal translation|lit.]]: "Sumgait massacres"; {{lang-az|Sumqayıt hadisələri}} [[Literal translation|lit.]]: "Sumgait events") was a [[pogrom]] that targeted the [[Armenians|Armenian]] population of the seaside town of [[Sumqayit|Sumgait]] in the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]] in late February 1988. The pogrom took place during the early stages of the [[Karabakh movement]]. On February 27, 1988, mobs of ethnic [[Azerbaijanis]] formed into groups and attacked and killed Armenians on the streets and in their apartments; widespread looting and a general lack of concern from police officers allowed the violence to continue for three days.',
24 => 'On February 28, a small contingent of [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)|Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD)]] troops entered the city and unsuccessfully attempted to quell the rioting. More professional military units entered with tanks and armored personnel vehicles one day later. Government forces imposed a state of [[martial law]] and [[curfew]] and brought the crisis to an end. The official death toll released by the [[Prosecutor General of the USSR]] (tallies were compiled based on lists of named victims) was 32 people (26 Armenians and 6 Azerbaijanis), although other estimates reach up into the hundreds of victims.<ref>{{cite news|last=Remnick|first=David|authorlink=David Remnick|title=Hate Runs High in Soviet Union's Most Explosive Ethnic Feud|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|access-date=July 15, 2013|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=September 6, 1989|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329042718/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html|archive-date=March 29, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Hosking">{{cite book|last=Hosking|first=Geoffrey A.|url=https://archive.org/stream/firstsocialistso0000hosk?ref=ol#page/474/mode/2up|title=The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1993|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge, Mass.|page=475|pages=|authorlink=Geoffrey Hosking}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kenez|first=Peter|url=https://www.academia.edu/24876372/_Peter_Kenez_A_history_of_the_Soviet_Union_from_t_BookZZ_org_|title=A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=|edition=2nd|location=|page=272|pages=|authorlink=Peter Kenez}}</ref>',
25 => 'The violence in Sumgait was unexpected and was widely covered in the Western press. It was greeted with general astonishment in Armenia and the rest of the Soviet Union since ethnic feuds in the country had been largely suppressed by the government, which had promoted policies such as [[proletarian internationalism]], [[fraternity of peoples]], and [[socialist patriotism]] to avert such conflicts. The massacre, together with the [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]], presented a major challenge to the reforms being implemented by Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. Gorbachev was later criticized for his perceived slowness in reacting to the crisis.',
26 => 'Because of the scale of atrocities against the Armenians as an ethnic group the pogrom was immediately linked to the [[Armenian Genocide]] of 1915 in the Armenian [[national consciousness]].<ref name="Hovhannisyan">{{cite web|last1=Hovhannisyan|first1=Mari|title=The Collective Memory of the Armenian Genocide|url=http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|publisher=[[Central European University]]|location=Budapest|page=21|date=2010|quote=The posters carried by the Armenians on April 24, 1988 were verifications of the fact that Armenians saw the Sumgait massacres as the continuation of the genocide.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129032803/http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pheiffer|first1=Evan|title=A Place to Live For|journal=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]]|date=June 1, 2016|url=https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/06/nagorno-karabakh-armenia-azerbaijan-four-day-war/|quote=Complicating matters, Armenians seem incapable of separating the 1988 pogroms from the 1915 Ottoman atrocities — mention of one immediately triggers talk of the other.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919051831/https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/06/nagorno-karabakh-armenia-azerbaijan-four-day-war/|archive-date=September 19, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> A number of international and Soviet sources also describes the events as [[genocide]] of the Armenian population.<ref>Glasnost: : Vol. 2, Issue 1, Center for Democracy (New York, N.Y.) – 1990, p. 62, cit. 'The massacre of Armenians in Sumgait, the heinous murders in Tbilisi—these killings are examples of genocide directed by the Soviet regime against its own people.', an announcement by USSR Journalists' Union</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich, 1925-|first=|url=https://archive.org/stream/timeofchangeinsi00medv?ref=ol#page/n11/mode/2up|title=Time of change : an insider's view of Russia's transformation|last2=Giulietto|first2=Chiesa|date=1989|publisher=Pantheon Books|others=|year=1989|isbn=0-394-58151-2|location=New York|pages=209|translator-last=Moore|translator-first=Michael|oclc=20593737}}</ref> The Sumgait pogrom is commemorated every year on February 28 in Armenia, [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|Nagorno-Karabakh]], and among the [[Armenian diaspora]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Communities Worldwide Mark Sumgait Anniversary Along with Government Officials|url=http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|work=[[Asbarez]]|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040537/http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/|archive-date=November 29, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>'
] |
All external links added in the edit (added_links) | [] |
All external links removed in the edit (removed_links) | [
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Askeran_clash" title="Askeran clash">Askeran</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sumgait</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stepanakert_pogrom" class="mw-redirect" title="Stepanakert pogrom">Stepanakert</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kirovabad_pogrom" title="Kirovabad pogrom">Kirovabad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baku_pogrom" title="Baku pogrom">Baku</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Ring" title="Operation Ring">Operation Ring</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Stepanakert" title="Siege of Stepanakert">Stepanakert</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capture_of_Gushchular_and_Malibeyli" title="Capture of Gushchular and Malibeyli">Gushchular & Malibeyli</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capture_of_Garadaghly" title="Capture of Garadaghly">Garadaghly</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khojaly_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Khojaly Massacre">Khojaly</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maraga_massacre" title="Maraga massacre">Maraga</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capture_of_Shusha" title="Capture of Shusha">Shusha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Goranboy" title="Operation Goranboy">Goranboy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mardakert_and_Martuni_Offensives" title="Mardakert and Martuni Offensives">Mardakert & Martuni</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Kalbajar" title="Battle of Kalbajar">Kalbajar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Aghdam" title="Battle of Aghdam">Agdam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1993_Summer_Offensives" title="1993 Summer Offensives">Summer 1993</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<p>The Kapan <b>pogrom</b> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>: <span lang="hy">Սումգայիթի ջարդեր</span>, "Kapan massacres"; Qafan hadisələri <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a>: "Kapan events") was a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogrom</a> that targeted the Azerbaijani population of the southern Armenian town of Kapan in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic</a> in early February 1988. The pogrom took place during the early stages of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karabakh_movement" title="Karabakh movement">Karabakh movement</a>. On February 02, 1988, mobs of ethnic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Armenians</a> formed into groups and attacked and killed Azerbaijanis on the streets and in their apartments; widespread looting and a general lack of concern from police officers allowed the violence to continue for three days. A famous Armenian writer and historian Artak Zart-Osturanyan described the events as "nothing the humanity had seen before".
</p><p>On February 28, a small contingent of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD)</a> troops entered the city and unsuccessfully attempted to quell the rioting. More professional military units entered with tanks and armored personnel vehicles one day later. Government forces imposed a state of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Curfew" title="Curfew">curfew</a> and brought the crisis to an end. The official death toll released by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prosecutor_General_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosecutor General of the USSR">Prosecutor General of the USSR</a> (tallies were compiled based on lists of named victims) was 32 people (2 Armenians and 94 Azerbaijanis), although other estimates reach up into the hundreds of victims.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hosking_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hosking-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>The violence in Kapan was unexpected and was widely covered in the Western press. It was greeted with general astonishment in Azerbaijan and the rest of the Soviet Union since ethnic feuds in the country had been largely suppressed by the government, which had promoted policies such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism" title="Proletarian internationalism">proletarian internationalism</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fraternity_of_peoples" title="Fraternity of peoples">fraternity of peoples</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_patriotism" title="Socialist patriotism">socialist patriotism</a> to avert such conflicts. The massacre, together with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">Nagorno-Karabakh conflict</a>, presented a major challenge to the reforms being implemented by Soviet leader <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>. Gorbachev was later criticized for his perceived slowness in reacting to the crisis.
</p><p>Because of the scale of atrocities against the Azerbaijanis as an ethnic group the pogrom was immediately linked to the Azerbaijani Genocide in Quba city in 1918 in the Armenian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="National consciousness">national consciousness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hovhannisyan_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hovhannisyan-4">[4]</a></sup>A number of international and Soviet sources also describes the events as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> of the Armenian population.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> The Sumgait pogrom is commemorated every year on February 28 in Armenia, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagorno-Karabakh Republic">Nagorno-Karabakh</a>, and among the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian_diaspora" title="Armenian diaspora">Armenian diaspora</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Rallies_and_fuelling_of_anti-Armenian_sentiments"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Rallies and fuelling of anti-Armenian sentiments</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Radio_broadcast"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Radio broadcast</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Pogrom_and_atrocities"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Pogrom and atrocities</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Government_reaction"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Government reaction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Aftermath"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Aftermath</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Criminal_proceedings"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Criminal proceedings</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Reactions"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Reactions</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#In_Armenia_and_Karabakh"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">In Armenia and Karabakh</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#International"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">International</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Conspiracy_theories_against_Azerbaijan"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Conspiracy theories against Azerbaijan</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#"Armenian_provocation""><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">"Armenian provocation"</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Other"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Other</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Background">Background</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Azerbaijan_map_sumqayit.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Azerbaijan_map_sumqayit.png/250px-Azerbaijan_map_sumqayit.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="490" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Azerbaijan_map_sumqayit.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Sumgait (Sumqayit) is located about 30 kilometers (approximately 20 miles (32 km)) northwest of Azerbaijan's capital <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a>, near the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>The city of Sumgait is located near the coast of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, only thirty kilometers north of the capital <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a>. It had been renovated in the 1960s and had become a leading industrial city, second after Baku by its industrial importance, with oil refineries and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a> plants built during that era. Its population in the 1960s stood at 60,000, but by the late 1980s it had swollen to over 223,000 (with an Armenian population of about 17,000), and overcrowding among other social problems plagued the city. While there was a high rate of unemployment and poverty among the Azerbaijani residents, the Armenians comprised mainly the working and educated sector of the town's population.<sup id="cite_ref-Krivopuskov_2007_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krivopuskov_2007-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>The political and economic reforms that General Secretary Gorbachev had initiated in 1985 saw a marked decentralization of Soviet authority. Armenians, in both Armenia proper and Nagorno-Karabakh, viewed Gorbachev's reform program as an opportunity to unite the two entities together. On February 20, 1988, tens of thousands of Armenians gathered to demonstrate in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stepanakert" title="Stepanakert">Stepanakert's</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renaissance_Square,_Stepanakert" title="Renaissance Square, Stepanakert">Lenin (now Renaissance) Square</a> to demand that the region be joined to Armenia. On the same day, the Supreme Soviet of Nagorno-Karabakh voted to join the Armenian SSR, a move staunchly opposed by the Soviet Azerbaijani authorities. Gorbachev rejected these claims, invoking Article 78 of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Constitution">Soviet Constitution</a>, which stated that republics' borders could not be altered without their prior consent. The vote by the Council and the subsequent protests were condemned also by the state-run Soviet media; however, they resonated more loudly among Azerbaijanis. As journalist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_de_Waal" title="Thomas de Waal">Thomas de Waal</a> wrote in his 2003 book on the conflict, after the appeal of the Council "the slow descent into armed conflict began on the first day."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200314_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200314-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rallies_and_fuelling_of_anti-Armenian_sentiments">Rallies and fuelling of anti-Armenian sentiments</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Armenianism_in_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Armenianism in Azerbaijan">Anti-Armenianism in Azerbaijan</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:242px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sumgait_city_map.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sumgait_city_map.jpg/240px-Sumgait_city_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="379" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="838" data-file-height="1322" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sumgait_city_map.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A map of Sumgait shows a section of the city's apartment districts, notable landmarks, and main streets.</div></div></div>
<p>The rallies in Armenia were countered by demonstrations in Baku, during which time strong anti-Armenian sentiments were voiced by citizens and officials alike. One such statement came on February 14, 1988, when the head of the department of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee">Central Committee</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Azerbaijan" title="Communist Party of Azerbaijan">Communist Party of Azerbaijan</a> Asadov, declared "a hundred thousand Azerbaijanis are ready to storm Artsakh (Karabakh) at any time and organize a slaughter there."<sup id="cite_ref-Tucha_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucha-10">[10]</a></sup> According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adam_Schiff" title="Adam Schiff">Adam Schiff</a>, in the days leading up to the massacre, a leader of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hidayat_Orujov" title="Hidayat Orujov">Hidayat Orujov</a>, warned Armenians in Sumgait: "If you do not stop campaigning for the unification of Nagorno Karabakh with Armenia, if you don't sober up, 100,000 Azeris from neighboring districts will break into your houses, torch your apartments, rape your women, and kill your children."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>. This however was later denied by Orujov himself who in his interview stated that not only he had never publicly made any statements aimed at igniting inter-ethnic conflict, but also he was not present in Sumgait and was not holding any political role at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>On February 26 several minor rallies were held at Lenin Square in Sumgait. Explicit calls for violence against Armenians and for their expulsion from Azerbaijan were heard and the crowds were agitated by news of Azerbaijani refugees who had fled Armenia (from the towns <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kapan" title="Kapan">Kapan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Masis_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Masis (city)">Masis</a>). Certain individuals told stories of murders and violence purportedly carried out by Armenians against the Azerbaijanis. Soviet authorities would later cast these individuals as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agents_provocateur" class="mw-redirect" title="Agents provocateur">agents provocateur</a>. One individual, according to the Soviet press, was later revealed not to be a resident of Kapan, as he had claimed, but a criminal with a prior arrest record.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zardusht_Alizadeh" title="Zardusht Alizadeh">Zardusht Alizadeh</a>, who was active in the social and political life of Azerbaijan from 1988–1989 and was one of the founders of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijani_Popular_Front_Party" title="Azerbaijani Popular Front Party">Azerbaijani Popular Front</a>, visited Sumgait ten days after the pogrom and met with the workers from the aluminum factory, and reported that locals said that people from out of town had been inciting the violence.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> Baku's local Party leader Fuad Musayev, who was called back to Baku because of the unrest, stated in the interview given to Thomas de Waal, "Someone was provoking them, propaganda work was going on."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>The demonstrations in the Lenin Square were concluded with strong anti-Armenian sentiments. During the demonstrations there were apparent threats and accusations against the Armenians for distorting the territorial integrity of Azerbaijan. The Armenians were also blamed for being much better-off than most of the Azerbaijanis in Sumgait. Slogans such as "Death to Armenians!" and "Armenians get out of our city" were being voiced.<sup id="cite_ref-Krivopuskov_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krivopuskov-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> There were also many public figures attending the rallies, among them the head of public school No: 25, an actress of the Arablinski theatre, Azerbaijani poet Khydyr Alovlu (a strong supporter of Heydar Aliyev) and others, who called for Armenians to be expelled from Azerbaijan or killed. Almost each speech was concluded with the slogan "Death to Armenians!". Since the speakers used microphones these calls were heard not only in the square but also in the nearby streets.<sup id="cite_ref-Krivopuskov_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krivopuskov-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>Efforts to calm the crowd were made by Azerbaijani figures such as secretary of the city party committee Bayramova and poet <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bakhtiyar_Vahabzadeh" title="Bakhtiyar Vahabzadeh">Bakhtiyar Vahabzadeh</a>, who addressed the crowd atop a platform. V. Huseinov, the director of the Institute of Political Education in Azerbaijan, also attempted to calm them by assuring them that Karabakh would remain within the republic and that the refugees stories were false. He in turn was heckled with insults and forced to step down.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> Jahangir Muslimzade, Sumgait's first secretary, spoke to the crowd, and told them to allow Armenians to leave of their own accord. But according to witnesses, this message served to agitate the crowd.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> Shortly after his speech, at around 6:30 pm, Muslimzade was handed a flag of the Azerbaijan SSR and soon found himself leading the crowd. According to Muslimzade, he was attempting to lead the crowd away from the Armenian district and toward the sea, but many Armenians saw this act as implicating him as a leader of the riot. The crowd, in any case, dispersed and several groups made for the Armenian district.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200333–34_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200333–34-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Radio_broadcast">Radio broadcast</span></h3>
<p>Another factor that may have ignited the violence was an announcement of the murder of two Azerbaijanis. On February 27, Soviet Deputy Federal Procurator, Aleksandr Katusev, announced on Baku Radio and Central Television, that two Azerbaijani youths, Bakhtiyar Guliyev and Ali Hajiyev, were killed in a clash between Armenians and Azerbaijanis near <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agdam" title="Agdam">Agdam</a> several days earlier <sup id="cite_ref-Tucha_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucha-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200333_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200333-22">[22]</a></sup> One of the youths was killed by an Azerbaijani police officer, but Katusev neglected to mention that and would later receive a stinging rebuke for revealing the nationalities of the young men. The secretive nature the Soviet Union was still attempting to shake off led many Azerbaijanis to believe that there was something more nefarious to Katusev's report than he let on.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucha_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucha-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Pogrom_and_atrocities">Pogrom and atrocities</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:272px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sumgaitweapons.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d3/Sumgaitweapons.jpg/270px-Sumgaitweapons.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="212" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="220" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sumgaitweapons.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Most of the weapons during the attacks were sharpened metal objects said to be produced in the city's industrial plants.</div></div></div>
<p>The pogrom of the Armenian population of Sumgait started on the evening of February 27, one week after the appeal of the Council of People's Deputies to unify Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia and according to many sources was a direct response to the Council's decision.<sup id="cite_ref-Hosking_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hosking-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cox_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-23">[23]</a></sup> The perpetrators targeted the victims based solely on ethnicity — being Armenian was the only criterion.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Politburo_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politburo-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
Some sources speak of premeditation ahead of the break-out of violence.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
Cobbles were brought into the city to block and limit access and exit from the town; the perpetrators had previously obtained the list of addresses of the Armenian residents of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> Warnings by Azerbaijanis sympathetic to their Armenian neighbors instructed them to leave their lights on the night of the 27th; those who shut them off would be assumed to be Armenian. According to several Armenian witnesses and Soviet military personnel, alcohol and <i>anasha</i>, a term referring to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narcotic" title="Narcotic">narcotics</a>, were brought in trucks and distributed to the crowds,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990-30">[30]</a></sup> although such accounts were not reported in the media. According to de Waal, the fact that the attackers were armed with homemade weapons that would have taken some time and effort to manufacture suggests a certain level of planning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200335_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200335-31">[31]</a></sup>
</p><p>Violence broke on the evening of February 27. The attacking groups were of varying age groups. While the main participants were adult males and even some women, there were also young students who took part in vandalizing and looting appliances, shoes, and clothing from the Armenians' homes.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> The mobs entered the apartment buildings and sought out Armenians where they lived. Some took shelter among their Azerbaijani and Russian neighbors, who also risked being attacked by the mobs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian199056–60_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian199056–60-33">[33]</a></sup> Others turned on the television to watch Azerbaijani music concerts and raised the volume to give the effect that they were in fact Azerbaijanis.
</p><p>The pogrom was marked by atrocities and savagery. As Waal describes it, "The roving gangs committed acts of horrific savagery. Several victims were so badly mutilated by axes that their bodies could not be identified."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200334_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200334-34">[34]</a></sup> Numerous acts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gang_rape" title="Gang rape">gang rape</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">sexual abuse</a> were committed, taking place in both the apartments and publicly on the city streets. An account of one such act that was also corroborated by witnesses described how a crowd stripped naked an Armenian woman and dragged her through the streets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990227_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990227-35">[35]</a></sup> Rumors circulating that Armenian women in hospital maternity wards had their fetuses disemboweled were later said to have been false.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the midst of the attacks, many Armenians sought to defend themselves and improvised by nailing their doors shut and arming themselves with axes, and in some instances a number of intruding rioters were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990-30">[30]</a></sup> Calls to ambulance services were handled late or in many cases, unheeded completely. There was no intervention on the part of the police to stop the perpetrators.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zardusht_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zardusht-39">[39]</a></sup> As mentioned by De Waal, "Another factor, which seems to have been a necessary condition for ethnic violence to begin, came into play: the local police did nothing. It later transpired that the local police force was overwhelmingly composed of Azerbaijanis and had only one professional Armenian officer."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup>
</p><p>The weekly <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moskovskiye_Novosti" title="Moskovskiye Novosti">Moskovskiye Novosti</a></i> later reported that eight of the city's twenty ambulances had been destroyed by the mobs.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> Looting was prevalent and many attackers discussed among themselves on who would take possession of what after they had broken into the apartments. In some cases, televisions were stolen, along with other appliances and household goods; many apartments were vandalized and set on fire.
</p><p>The lives of many Armenians were protected and saved by their Azerbaijani friends, neighbors or even strangers, who, at the risk of their own lives, let the Armenians hide in their houses or be escorted in their cars out of the city. According to Armenian witnesses, when Soviet troops went door-to-door searching for survivors, they managed to collect thousands of Armenians who had been hiding in Azeri households.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Government_reaction">Government reaction</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:272px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sumgait_police_escort.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b0/Sumgait_police_escort.jpg/270px-Sumgait_police_escort.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="201" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="208" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sumgait_police_escort.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Military police escorting Armenian civilians out of the town</div></div></div>
<p>The Soviet government's reaction to the protests was initially slow. Authorities were reluctant to send military units to impose <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> into town.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> The spirit of <i>glasnost</i> had seen the Soviet Union more tolerant in responding to such politically-charged issues. However, Soviet officials in Azerbaijan, some of whom were witnessing the attacks, appealed to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kremlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Kremlin">Kremlin</a> leaders to dispatch Soviet troops to Sumgait. In a Soviet <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politburo" title="Politburo">Politburo</a> session on the third day of the rioting (February 29), Gorbachev and his senior cabinet conferred on several subjects before discussing the events of Sumgait. When the issue was finally raised, Gorbachev voiced his opposition to the proposal of sending in troops but cabinet members Foreign Minister <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Defense_Minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Minister">Defense Minister</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dmitry_Yazov" title="Dmitry Yazov">Dmitry Yazov</a>, fearing an escalation of violence, persuaded him otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200338-39_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200338-39-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>Meanwhile, on the previous day, two battalions from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/MVD" class="mw-redirect" title="MVD">MVD</a>, troops mainly equipped with truncheons and riot gear (those troops who were armed with firearms were armed with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blank_(cartridge)" title="Blank (cartridge)">blanks</a> and not given the permission to open fire), arrived in Sumgait in buses and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armored_personnel_carriers" class="mw-redirect" title="Armored personnel carriers">armored personnel carriers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman200164_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufman200164-45">[45]</a></sup> As they moved in to secure the town, the soldiers found themselves as targets of the mob. In what became a startling sight for the city's residents, the soldiers were attacked and maimed with the improvised steel objects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200337-38_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200337-38-46">[46]</a></sup> Their armored vehicles were flipped over and in some cases disabled by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molotov_cocktail" title="Molotov cocktail">molotov cocktails</a>, as the troops found themselves in complete disarray.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990199_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990199-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p>By February 29, the situation had worsened to the point where authorities were forced to call in more professional and heavily armed troops, who were given the right to use deadly force. A contingent made up of elements of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OMSDON" class="mw-redirect" title="OMSDON">Felix Dzerzhinsky Division</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internal_Troops" title="Internal Troops">Internal Troops</a>; a company of Marines from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caspian_Flotilla" title="Caspian Flotilla">Caspian Sea Naval Flotilla</a>; troops from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>; an assault landing brigade; military police; and the 137th Parachute Regiment of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Airborne_Troops" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Airborne Troops">Airborne Forces</a> from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ryazan" title="Ryazan">Ryazan</a> – a military force of nearly 10,000 men under the overall command of a Lieutenant General Krayev – made its way to Sumgait.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200339_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200339-48">[48]</a></sup> Tanks were brought in and ordered to cordon off the city. Andrei Shilkov, a Russian journalist for the periodical <i>Glasnost</i>, counted at least 47 tanks and reported also seeing troops wearing bulletproof vests patrolling the town, an implication that firearms were present and used during the rioting.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>A curfew was imposed from 8 pm to 7 am as skirmishes between troops and rioters continued. Krayev ordered troops to rescue Armenians left in their apartments. By the evening of the 29th, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> was imposed and troops in buses and personnel carriers were patrolling the streets of Sumgait. Under heavily armed guard, civilian buses and APCs transported Armenian residents to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samed_Vurgun" class="mw-redirect" title="Samed Vurgun">Samed Vurgun</a> Cultural Facility (known as the SK) in the city's main square. The SK building was designed to accommodate several hundred people, though as many as several thousand eventually found shelter there.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Aftermath">Aftermath</span></h2>
<p>By March 1, Soviet troops had effectively quelled the rioting. Investigations were slated to begin immediately; however, waste disposal trucks cleaned much of the debris on the streets before they arrived.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Soviet authorities arrested over 400 men in connection to the rioting and violence.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> The Soviet media did not initially report the event and remained largely silent, broadcasting instead news related to foreign affairs while the media in Sumgait spoke only on local issues unrelated to the massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200340_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200340-52">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalkasian199654_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalkasian199654-53">[53]</a></sup> The Soviet government was initially hesitant to admit that violence had taken place; however, when it did, it was quick to downplay the scale of the event, describing the rioting that had occurred as that perpetrated by "hooligans." <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telegraph_Agency_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union">TASS</a> reported of "rampage and violence" taking place in Sumgait on March 1, which was provoked on the part of a "group of hooligans" who engaged in various criminal acts. Western journalists were denied access to visit the town by Soviet authorities.
</p><p>On April 28, 1988, images of the pogrom were broadcast in a 90-minute documentary by Soviet journalist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genrikh_Borovik" title="Genrikh Borovik">Genrikh Borovik</a>. Borovik criticized the media blackout imposed by the Soviet government, claiming that it ran against Gorbachev's aims of greater openness under <i>glasnost</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> Eduard Shevardnadze later remarked on the failure to report the massacre in Sumgait as a failure of <i>glasnost</i> itself: "the old mechanisms kicked in, simplifying, distorting or just eliminating the truth about [this event]."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Criminal_proceedings">Criminal proceedings</span></h2>
<p>Soviet authorities arrested 400 men in connection to the massacre and prepared criminal charges for 84 (82 Azerbaijanis, one Russian, and one Armenian).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200339,_43_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200339,_43-56">[56]</a></sup> Taleh Ismailov, a pipe-fitter from one of Sumgait's industrial plants, was charged with premeditated murder and was the first to be tried by the Soviet Supreme Court in Moscow in May 1988. By October 1988, nine men had been sentenced, including Ismailov, who was sentenced to 15 years in prison with a further 33 on trial.<sup id="cite_ref-Keller_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keller-57">[57]</a></sup> Other sentences were more harsh: Ahmad Ahmadov was found guilty and sentenced to be shot by a firing squad for leading a mob and taking part in the murder of seven people.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> However, 90 of those who were tried were set free after a relatively short time as they were sentenced for hooliganism, rather than for murder and violence.<sup id="cite_ref-krivopuskov_2009_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krivopuskov_2009-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>There were many who expressed their dissatisfaction with the way the trials were organized and conducted. Soviet historian and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissident" title="Dissident">dissident</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roy_Medvedev" title="Roy Medvedev">Roy Medvedev</a> questioned the trials: "Who knows why, but the court examined the Sumgait events by subdividing them into single episodes and not as a programmatic act of genocide."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> Most Armenians and Azerbaijanis were also dissatisfied with the trials. Armenians complained that the true instigators of the pogrom were never caught whereas Azerbaijanis stated the sentences were too harsh and were upset with the fact that the trials were not held in Azerbaijan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman200165_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufman200165-61">[61]</a></sup> Some Azerbaijanis even went on to campaign for the "freedom for the heroes of Sumgait."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman200167,_205_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufman200167,_205-62">[62]</a></sup> Indeed, many of the perpetrators of the pogrom gained titles of national heroes and/or high positions in the government, where they still serve today.<sup id="cite_ref-krivopuskov_2009_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krivopuskov_2009-59">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Reactions">Reactions</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:282px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sumgait_pogrom_memorial_Stepanakert.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sumgait_pogrom_memorial_Stepanakert.jpg/280px-Sumgait_pogrom_memorial_Stepanakert.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="158" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1836" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sumgait_pogrom_memorial_Stepanakert.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A memorial dedicated to the victims of the pogrom in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stepanakert" title="Stepanakert">Stepanakert</a>, Nagorno-Karabakh</div></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="In_Armenia_and_Karabakh">In Armenia and Karabakh</span></h3>
<p>The pogrom was immediately linked to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian_Genocide" title="Armenian Genocide">Armenian Genocide</a> of 1915 in the Armenian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="National consciousness">national consciousness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hovhannisyan_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hovhannisyan-4">[4]</a></sup> On the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian_Genocide_Remembrance_Day" title="Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day">Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day</a> on April 24, 1988 a <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khachkar" title="Khachkar">khachkar</a></i> (cross stone) dedicated to the pogrom victims was planted at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tsitsernakaberd" title="Tsitsernakaberd">Armenian Genocide memorial at Tsitsernakaberd</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalkasian199668_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalkasian199668-64">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>February 28 was designated as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Armenia" title="Public holidays in Armenia">public holiday in Armenia</a> in 2005. It is officially known as "The Day of Memory of the Victims of Massacres in Azerbaijani SSR and Protection of the Rights of the Deported Armenian Population".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="International">International</span></h3>
<p>In July 1988, within months of the Sumgait massacre, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> unanimously passed Amendment 2690 to the Fiscal Year 1989 Foreign Operations Appropriations bill (H.R. 4782), concerning the Karabakh conflict, which called on the Soviet government to "respect the legitimate aspirations of the
Armenian people …" and noted that "dozens of Armenians have been killed and
hundreds injured during the recent unrests…"<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>On July 7, 1988, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> passed a resolution condemning the violence against Armenians in Azerbaijan.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>On July 27, 1990, 130 leading academics and human rights advocates wrote "An Open Letter to International Public Opinion on Anti-Armenian Pogroms in the Soviet Union" published in the <i>New York Times</i>. The letter, which was signed by
professors from Johns Hopkins, Princeton, Berkeley, UCLA, Wesleyan University, University of Paris IV Sorbonne and other universities, urged the international community to take action to protect the Armenian community in Azerbaijan.<sup id="cite_ref-letter_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Conspiracy_theories_against_Azerbaijan">Conspiracy theories against Azerbaijan</span></h2>
<p>Several <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">conspiracy theories</a> spawned in the wake of the pogrom alternatively attributed to the KGB, the CIA, and the Armenians themselves.
</p>
<h3><span id=".22Armenian_provocation.22"></span><span class="mw-headline" id=""Armenian_provocation"">"Armenian provocation"</span></h3>
<p>As early as mid-1988 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bill_Keller" title="Bill Keller">Bill Keller</a> wrote in the <i>New York Times</i> that "It is accepted wisdom among Sumgait's Azerbaijani majority that the riots Feb. 27, 28 and 29 were deliberately contrived by Armenian extremists in order to discredit Azerbaijan in the battle for the world's sympathy."<sup id="cite_ref-Keller_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keller-57">[57]</a></sup> Historian and head of the Azerbaijani Academy of Sciences <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ziya_Bunyadov" title="Ziya Bunyadov">Ziya Bunyadov</a>, whom <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_de_Waal" title="Thomas de Waal">Thomas de Waal</a> calls "Azerbaijan's foremost Armenophobe",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342-70">[70]</a></sup> claimed that the massacre had been instigated by the Armenians to cast a negative light upon Azerbaijan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342-70">[70]</a></sup> In an article that appeared in the Azerbaijani journal <i>Elm</i>, Bunyadov claimed that Armenians had organized the pogroms: "The Sumgait tragedy was carefully prepared by Armenian nationalists... Several hours after it began, Armenian photographers and TV journalists secretly entered the city where they awaited in readiness."<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> Bunyadov's thesis was hinged on the fact that Sumgait Armenians had withdrawn more than one million rubles from their savings before the attacks. To support his thesis, he had also drawn attention to the fact that one of the participants in the riots and killings was Eduard Grigorian, a man of mixed Russian-Armenian lineage who had three previous criminal convictions and pretended to be Azerbaijani. Grigorian was a factory worker who took part in gang rapes and mass attacks and was subsequently sentenced to 12 years for his role in the massacres.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342–43_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342–43-72">[72]</a></sup> Grigorian had been brought up in Sumgait by his Russian mother following the early death of his Armenian father, and his ethnic identity is considered irrelevant since he appropriately fit the profile of a "<i>pogromshchik</i>, a thuggish young man, of indeterminate nationality with a criminal past, seeking violence for its own sake."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200343_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200343-73">[73]</a></sup> This view has since gained wider currency in all of Azerbaijan today, where it is still euphemistically referred to in the media and by government officials as the "Sumgait events" (Sumqayıt hadisələri).<sup id="cite_ref-Azeri_POV_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Azeri_POV-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>By 2018 the conspiracy theory was adopted by the government for the first time, according to journalist Shahin Rzayev. An investigation by the Prosecutor General's Office stated that "Armenians living in Sumgayit tried to provocatively burn down their homes and property and blame Azerbaijanis." According to their investigation a "diversion group" of 20-25 people who "weren’t residents of Sumgayit and were speaking in Armenian among themselves" instigated the attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other">Other</span></h3>
<p>According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/CPSU_Politburo" class="mw-redirect" title="CPSU Politburo">CPSU Politburo</a> member <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Yakovlev_(Russian_politician)" title="Alexander Yakovlev (Russian politician)">Alexander Yakovlev</a>, the Sumgait pogrom was arranged by KGB <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agents_provocateurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Agents provocateurs">agents provocateurs</a> to "justify the importance of the Soviet secret services".<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Soros" title="George Soros">George Soros</a> wrote in a 1989 article in the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_Review_of_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Review of Books">New York Review of Books</a></i>: "It is not far-fetched to speculate that the first pogroms against Armenians in Azerbaijan were instigated by the notorious local mafia, which is controlled by the KGB official G.A. Alieev [<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Heydar Aliyev</a>], in order to create a situation in which Gorbachev would lose, no matter what he did."<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> Two authors commented in 2004, "Although that possibility cannot be ruled out, hard evidence is still lacking."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup> American analyst <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_A._Goble" title="Paul A. Goble">Paul A. Goble</a> suggested in a 2015 interview with the Armenian service of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a> that the pogrom was perpetrated by a "group of Azerbaijani criminals by the provocation of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup>
</p><p>Davud Imanov, an Azerbaijani filmmaker, expanded on this theory in a series of films called the <i>Echo of Sumgait</i> where he accused Armenians, Russians and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">Americans</a> of conspiring together against Azerbaijan and claiming that Karabakh movement was a plot organized by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Armenianism_in_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Armenianism in Azerbaijan">Anti-Armenianism in Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kirovabad_pogrom" title="Kirovabad pogrom">Kirovabad pogrom</a> (1988)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pogrom_of_Armenians_in_Baku" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogrom of Armenians in Baku">Pogrom of Armenians in Baku</a> (1990)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Ring" title="Operation Ring">Operation Ring</a> (1991)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maraga_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Maraga Massacre">Maraga Massacre</a> (1992)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khojaly_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Khojaly Massacre">Khojaly Massacre</a> (1992)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of massacres in the Soviet Union">List of massacres in the Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_Azerbaijan" title="List of massacres in Azerbaijan">List of massacres in Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Armenianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Armenianism">Anti-Armenianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shelling_of_Stepanakert" class="mw-redirect" title="Shelling of Stepanakert">Shelling of Stepanakert</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRemnick1989" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_Remnick" title="David Remnick">Remnick, David</a> (September 6, 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html">"Hate Runs High in Soviet Union's Most Explosive Ethnic Feud"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150329042718/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1210234.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 29, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 15,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Hate+Runs+High+in+Soviet+Union%27s+Most+Explosive+Ethnic+Feud&rft.date=1989-09-06&rft.aulast=Remnick&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.highbeam.com%2Fdoc%2F1P2-1210234.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r982806391">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hosking-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hosking_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hosking_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHosking1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geoffrey_Hosking" title="Geoffrey Hosking">Hosking, Geoffrey A.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/firstsocialistso0000hosk?ref=ol#page/474/mode/2up"><i>The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 475.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Socialist+Society%3A+A+History+of+the+Soviet+Union+from+Within&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=475&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Hosking&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Ffirstsocialistso0000hosk%3Fref%3Dol%23page%2F474%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKenez2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Kenez" title="Peter Kenez">Kenez, Peter</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/24876372/_Peter_Kenez_A_history_of_the_Soviet_Union_from_t_BookZZ_org_"><i>A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 272.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Soviet+Union+from+the+Beginning+to+the+End&rft.pages=272&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Kenez&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F24876372%2F_Peter_Kenez_A_history_of_the_Soviet_Union_from_t_BookZZ_org_&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hovhannisyan-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hovhannisyan_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hovhannisyan_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHovhannisyan2010" class="citation web cs1">Hovhannisyan, Mari (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html">"The Collective Memory of the Armenian Genocide"</a>. Budapest: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_European_University" title="Central European University">Central European University</a>. p. 21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129032803/http://www.docdroid.net/lalu/hovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 29, 2014. <q>The posters carried by the Armenians on April 24, 1988 were verifications of the fact that Armenians saw the Sumgait massacres as the continuation of the genocide.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Collective+Memory+of+the+Armenian+Genocide&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Central+European+University&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Hovhannisyan&rft.aufirst=Mari&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.docdroid.net%2Flalu%2Fhovhannisyan-mari.pdf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glasnost: : Vol. 2, Issue 1, Center for Democracy (New York, N.Y.) – 1990, p. 62, cit. 'The massacre of Armenians in Sumgait, the heinous murders in Tbilisi—these killings are examples of genocide directed by the Soviet regime against its own people.', an announcement by USSR Journalists' Union</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMedvedev,_Roy_Aleksandrovich,_1925-Giulietto1989" class="citation book cs1">Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich, 1925-; Giulietto, Chiesa (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/timeofchangeinsi00medv?ref=ol#page/n11/mode/2up"><i>Time of change : an insider's view of Russia's transformation</i></a>. Translated by Moore, Michael. New York: Pantheon Books. p. 209. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-58151-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-58151-2"><bdi>0-394-58151-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/20593737">20593737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+of+change+%3A+an+insider%27s+view+of+Russia%27s+transformation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F20593737&rft.isbn=0-394-58151-2&rft.au=Medvedev%2C+Roy+Aleksandrovich%2C+1925-&rft.au=Giulietto%2C+Chiesa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Ftimeofchangeinsi00medv%3Fref%3Dol%23page%2Fn11%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/">"Communities Worldwide Mark Sumgait Anniversary Along with Government Officials"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asbarez" title="Asbarez">Asbarez</a></i>. March 1, 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040537/http://asbarez.com/93763/communities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials/">Archived</a> from the original on November 29, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asbarez&rft.atitle=Communities+Worldwide+Mark+Sumgait+Anniversary+Along+with+Government+Officials&rft.date=2011-03-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fasbarez.com%2F93763%2Fcommunities-worldwide-mark-sumgait-anniversary-along-with-government-officials%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Krivopuskov_2007-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Krivopuskov_2007_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKrivopuskov2007" class="citation book cs1">Krivopuskov, Viktor V. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html#5"><i>Мятежный Карабах: Из дневника офицера МВД СССР [Rebellious Karabakh: From the diary of an officer of the USSR]</i></a> (2nd ed.). Moscow: Golos Press. pp. 87–88. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-7117-0163-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-7117-0163-7"><bdi>978-5-7117-0163-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120809032141/http://armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html#5">Archived</a> from the original on August 9, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9C%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%85%3A+%D0%98%D0%B7+%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%9C%D0%92%D0%94+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%5BRebellious+Karabakh%3A+From+the+diary+of+an+officer+of+the+USSR%5D&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=87-88&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Golos+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-5-7117-0163-7&rft.aulast=Krivopuskov&rft.aufirst=Viktor+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.armenianhouse.org%2Fkrivopuskov%2Fkarabakh%2F166-212.html%235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200314-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200314_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, p. 14.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Tucha-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tucha_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucha_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucha_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVasilevsky1988" class="citation journal cs1">Vasilevsky, Alexander (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumgait.info/press/zhurnal-avrora/avrora-october-1988.htm">"Туча в горах [A cloud in the mountains]"</a>. <i><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB,_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3)" class="extiw" title="ru:Аврора (журнал, Санкт-Петербург)">Avrora</a></i> (in Russian). Leningrad (10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141213214346/http://www.sumgait.info/press/zhurnal-avrora/avrora-october-1988.htm">Archived</a> from the original on December 13, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Avrora&rft.atitle=%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0+%D0%B2+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85+%5BA+cloud+in+the+mountains%5D&rft.issue=10&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Vasilevsky&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsumgait.info%2Fpress%2Fzhurnal-avrora%2Favrora-october-1988.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://beta.congress.gov/congressional-record/2013/2/28/extensions-of-remarks-section/article/E211-2">"Congressional Record Extensions of Remarks Articles – Congressional Record – Congress.gov – Library of Congress"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140419012445/http://beta.congress.gov/congressional-record/2013/2/28/extensions-of-remarks-section/article/E211-2">Archived</a> from the original on April 19, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Congressional+Record+Extensions+of+Remarks+Articles+%E2%80%93+Congressional+Record+%E2%80%93+Congress.gov+%E2%80%93+Library+of+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbeta.congress.gov%2Fcongressional-record%2F2013%2F2%2F28%2Fextensions-of-remarks-section%2Farticle%2FE211-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.a1plus.am/1184325.html">"Congressmen commemorate 1988 Armenian pogroms and condemn anti-Armenian policies"</a>. February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Congressmen+commemorate+1988+Armenian+pogroms+and+condemn+anti-Armenian+policies&rft.date=2018-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.a1plus.am%2F1184325.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201004094731/http://azerbaijanfoundation.az/%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%82-%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B2-%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%BF">"Hidayat Orujev in response to the claims by congressman Adam Schiff"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azerbaijanfoundation.az/%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%82-%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B2-%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%BF/?lang=ru">the original</a> on October 4, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hidayat+Orujev+in+response+to+the+claims+by+congressman+Adam+Schiff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fazerbaijanfoundation.az%2F%25D0%25B3%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B4%25D0%25B0%25D1%258F%25D1%2582-%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D1%2583%25D0%25B4%25D0%25B6%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2-%25D0%25BE%25D1%2582%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BB-%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0-%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B1%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D1%258F-%25D0%25BF%2F%3Flang%3Dru&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKulishMelikov1988" class="citation journal cs1">Kulish, O.; Melikov, D. (March 27, 1988). <bdi lang="ru">Черным семенам не прорасти</bdi>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tribuna" title="Tribuna">Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya</a></i> (in Russian). Moscow.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sotsialisticheskaya+Industriya&rft.atitle=%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC+%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC+%D0%BD%D0%B5+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8&rft.date=1988-03-27&rft.aulast=Kulish&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Melikov%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAli-Zade" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zardusht_Alizadeh" title="Zardusht Alizadeh">Ali-Zade, Zardusht</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm">"Азербайджанская элита и массы в период распада СССР (Статья-мемуары о бурном времени) [The Azerbaijani Elite and Masses in the period of collapse of the USSR (An article-memoir on turbulent Times)]"</a>. Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131030014402/http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm">Archived</a> from the original on October 30, 2013. <q>Рабочие Сумгаита говорили о странных, "нездешнего вида" молодых мужчинах, которые заводили толпу. Что это за "нездешнего вида" мужчины, были ли они в действительности или это – плод воображения, – на эти вопросы я не знал ответа тогда, не знаю и сейчас, по прошествии более чем десяти лет.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%90%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%B8+%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B+%D0%B2+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4+%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%28%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F-%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B+%D0%BE+%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%29+%5BThe+Azerbaijani+Elite+and+Masses+in+the+period+of+collapse+of+the+USSR+%28An+article-memoir+on+turbulent+Times%29%5D&rft.pub=Andrei+Sakharov+Archives+and+Human+Rights+Center&rft.aulast=Ali-Zade&rft.aufirst=Zardusht&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fold.sakharov-center.ru%2Fpublications%2Fazrus%2Faz_0055.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas De Waal Ch. 2, p. 31</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Krivopuskov-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Krivopuskov_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krivopuskov_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html#5">Krivopuskov V. V. Мятежный Карабах. Из дневника офицера МВД СССР. Издание второе, дополненное. — М.: Голос-Пресс, 2007. — 384 с. Ил.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120809032141/http://armenianhouse.org/krivopuskov/karabakh/166-212.html">Archived</a> August 9, 2012, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-7117-0163-0" title="Special:BookSources/5-7117-0163-0">5-7117-0163-0</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%89%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C-%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5-%D0%BC%D1%8B/">Newspaper «НОВОЕ ВРЕМЯ» N9 21 89</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121008011210/http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%89%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C-%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5-%D0%BC%D1%8B/">Archived</a> October 8, 2012, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuri_Rost" title="Yuri Rost">Rost, Yuri</a>. <i>The Armenian Tragedy: An Eye-Witness Account of Human Conflict and Natural Disaster in Armenia and Azerbaijan</i>. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990, p. 27. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-04611-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-04611-1">0-312-04611-1</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBeissinger2002" class="citation book cs1">Beissinger, Mark R. (2002). <i>Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 300. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-00148-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-00148-X"><bdi>0-521-00148-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalist+Mobilization+and+the+Collapse+of+the+Soviet+State&rft.pages=300&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-00148-X&rft.aulast=Beissinger&rft.aufirst=Mark+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200333–34-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200333–34_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, pp. 33–34.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200333-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200333_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, p. 33.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cox-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cox_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cox and Eibner. "Ethnic Cleansing in Progress: War in Nagorno Karabakh" Zurich: Institute for Religious Minorities in the Islamic World, 1993 <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumgait.info/caroline-cox/ethnic-cleansing-in-progress/contents.htm">"Caroline Cox and John Eibner - Ethnic Cleansing in Progress: War in Nagorno Karabakh"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130105124741/http://sumgait.info/caroline-cox/ethnic-cleansing-in-progress/contents.htm">Archived</a> from the original on January 5, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 8,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Caroline+Cox+and+John+Eibner+-+Ethnic+Cleansing+in+Progress%3A+War+in+Nagorno+Karabakh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsumgait.info%2Fcaroline-cox%2Fethnic-cleansing-in-progress%2Fcontents.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Waal "Black Garden"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Politburo-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Politburo_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Session of Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, February 29, 1988. <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumgait.info/sumgait/politburo-meeting-29-february-1988.htm">"Archived copy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722000942/http://sumgait.info/sumgait/politburo-meeting-29-february-1988.htm">Archived</a> from the original on July 22, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 28,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsumgait.info%2Fsumgait%2Fpolitburo-meeting-29-february-1988.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Sumgait: Evidence given by witnesses and relatives of victims of pogroms". Viktoria Grigoryan, sister of murdered Seda Danielyan: "Somebody knocked on the door and asked: "Are you Armenians?" My sister's husband answered: "No, we are Azeris", and they left." Danielyan Vitaliy, son of killed Nikolay and Seda Danielyans: "They entered the house and started to raid the flat. Then they took the parents’ passports and read a few words. One of them read out in good Russian "Danielyan", stressing "yan" turned the page, it said "Armenian". And he says: "Ok, this is enough". Then they started to shout that they had come to drink blood..."
<cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130215044319/http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/sumgait-witnesses-about-pogroms/">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/sumgait-witnesses-about-pogroms/">the original</a> on February 15, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkarabakhrecords.info%2Fgallery%2Fsumgait-witnesses-about-pogroms%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zverev Alexandr. Ethnic conflicts in the Caucasus 1988–1994. In Coppieters Bruno (ed.) Contested borders in the Caucasus. Brussels: Vubpress, 1996. pp. 13–71.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rieff David Nagorno Karabakh: case study in ethnic strife. Foreign Affairs, vol. 76 (2) Mar.-Apr. 1997, pp. 118–132.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Excerpt from the indictment in the criminal case 18/60233 on charges of Ahmad Imani ogly Ahmаdov, Ilham Azat ogly Ismailov and Yavar Giyas ogly Jafarov. Moscow, Nov. 1988, The Supreme Court of USSR. "I reckon they knew the addresses of the Armenians in advance. I came to this conclusion because the pogrom-makers were entering precisely the buildings were Armenians lived. In reality, they knew all the addresses, they were acting unmistakably. And all that was not out of hooligan intentions, that was an action specifically against the Armenian people, against Armenians. Not against Russians or other nations, but against Armenians. They were looking particularly for Armenians..."</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShahmuratian1990">Shahmuratian 1990</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200335-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200335_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, p. 35.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodina</i>. No. 4, 1994, pp. 82–90.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian199056–60-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian199056–60_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShahmuratian1990">Shahmuratian 1990</a>, pp. 56–60.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200334-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200334_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, p. 34.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990227-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990227_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShahmuratian1990">Shahmuratian 1990</a>, p. 227.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lee-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lee_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee, Gary. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/">Eerie Silence Hangs Over Soviet City</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170916061515/https://www.washingtonpost.com/">Archived</a> September 16, 2017, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <i>Washington Post</i>. September 4, 1988. p. A33. Retrieved July 31, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sumgait: testimony of eyewitnesses. video: 01.13. "I personally saw the local police was standing there, doing nothing, as if it were there to help the rioters. There was no official announcement."<cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130217104416/http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%82-%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2-%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0-%D0%B0%D1%80/">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://karabakhrecords.info/gallery/%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%82-%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B-%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2-%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0-%D0%B0%D1%80/">the original</a> on February 17, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkarabakhrecords.info%2Fgallery%2F%25D1%2581%25D1%2583%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B3%25D0%25B8%25D1%2582-%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2581%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B7%25D1%258B-%25D0%25BE%25D1%2587%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B4%25D1%2586%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B2-%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D1%2583%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BF%25D0%25B0-%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fragment from the indictment on criminal case 18/60233 on accusation of Akhmed Imani ogly Akhmedov, Ilham Azat ogly Ismailov, and Yavar Giyas ogly Jafarov: "Answering the question of lawyer Shaposhnikova "Why did you not call your father, who was in service then, to tell him about what was happening in your block?", witness D. Zarbaliev (the witness’ father worked in the militia in Sumgait) said:"And why did I need to call? The militia knew about it; everybody knew about it. It was not the first day of the pogroms".</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Zardusht-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zardusht_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>in Russian</i> Zardusht Ali-Zade. Azerbaijani Elit and Masses in the period of collapse of the USSR (article-memoir on turbulent times).<cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm">"Archived copy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131030014402/http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_0055.htm">Archived</a> from the original on October 30, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fold.sakharov-center.ru%2Fpublications%2Fazrus%2Faz_0055.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Waal. Black Garden, p. 33</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Сумгаит, Один месяц поздно [Sumgait, One Month Later]". <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moskovskiye_Novosti" title="Moskovskiye Novosti">Moskovskiye Novosti</a></i> (in Russian). April 13, 1988.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Moskovskiye+Novosti&rft.atitle=%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%82%2C+%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD+%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%8F%D1%86+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE+%5BSumgait%2C+One+Month+Later%5D&rft.date=1988-04-13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, Donald E. and Lorna Touryan Miller. <i>Armenia: Portraits of Survival and Hope</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press; pp. 46–47.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsday.com/">Soviets Impose Curfew After Riots</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110314210540/http://www.newsday.com/">Archived</a> March 14, 2011, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Newsday" title="Newsday">Newsday</a></i>. March 2, 1988 p. 13. Retrieved December 30, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200338-39-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200338-39_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, p. 38-39.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufman200164-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman200164_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufman2001">Kaufman 2001</a>, p. 64.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200337-38-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200337-38_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, p. 37-38.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990199-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahmuratian1990199_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShahmuratian1990">Shahmuratian 1990</a>, p. 199.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200339-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200339_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, p. 39.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bortin, Mary Ellen. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/home/index.html">Witness Tells of Aftermath of Bloody Armenian Riots</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060812102752/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/home/index.html">Archived</a> August 12, 2006, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seattle_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Seattle Times">Seattle Times</a></i>. March 11, 1988. p. B1. Retrieved September 15, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lyday, Corbin. "A Commitment to Truth Telling: Behind the Scenes in Soviet Armenia." 1988 (Typewritten), p. 28. Accessed December 16, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thestar.com/">400 arrested after riots in Sumgait, Soviets say</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161006234524/https://www.thestar.com/">Archived</a> October 6, 2016, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toronto_Star" title="Toronto Star">Toronto Star</a></i>. March 22, 1988. Retrieved December 26, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200340-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200340_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, p. 40.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalkasian199654-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalkasian199654_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalkasian1996">Malkasian 1996</a>, p. 54.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.suntimes.com/index.html">Soviet TV surprise: Ethnic strife shown; Program rips news blackout, defends glasnost</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061231222730/http://www.suntimes.com/index.html">Archived</a> December 31, 2006, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times" title="Chicago Sun-Times">Chicago Sun-Times</a></i>. April 28, 1988. p. 36. Retrieved December 31, 2006.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Shevardnadze, Eduard</a>. <i>The Future Belongs to Freedom</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991, pp. 176–177. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-928617-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-928617-4">0-02-928617-4</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200339,_43-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200339,_43_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, pp. 39, 43.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Keller-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Keller_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keller_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKeller1988" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bill_Keller" title="Bill Keller">Keller, Bill</a> (August 31, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/31/world/riot-s-legacy-of-distrust-quietly-stalks-a-soviet-city.html">"Riot's Legacy of Distrust Quietly Stalks a Soviet City"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171003225643/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/31/world/riot-s-legacy-of-distrust-quietly-stalks-a-soviet-city.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 3, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Riot%27s+Legacy+of+Distrust+Quietly+Stalks+a+Soviet+City&rft.date=1988-08-31&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1988%2F08%2F31%2Fworld%2Friot-s-legacy-of-distrust-quietly-stalks-a-soviet-city.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/">Soviet Riot Leader Sentenced to Death</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170916061515/https://www.washingtonpost.com/">Archived</a> September 16, 2017, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <i>The Washington Post</i>. November 20, 1988. Retrieved April 19, 2007.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-krivopuskov_2009-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-krivopuskov_2009_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-krivopuskov_2009_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141116204518/http://www.regnum.ru/news/1131088.html"><bdi lang="ru">Виктор Кривопусков: Преступники в Азербайджане возносятся в ранг национальных героев</bdi></a> (in Russian). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/REGNUM_News_Agency" title="REGNUM News Agency">REGNUM News Agency</a>. February 28, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.regnum.ru/news/1131088.html">the original</a> on November 16, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80+%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%3A+%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%B2+%D0%90%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%81%D1%8F+%D0%B2+%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2&rft.date=2009-02-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.regnum.ru%2Fnews%2F1131088.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Medvedev. <i>Time of Change</i>, p. 209.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufman200165-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman200165_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufman2001">Kaufman 2001</a>, p. 65.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufman200167,_205-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman200167,_205_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaufman2001">Kaufman 2001</a>, pp. 67, 205.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Hidayat_Orujev&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hidayat Orujev (page does not exist)">Hidayat Orujev</a> for instance went on to serve as Azerbaijan's State Advisor for Ethnic Policy and is currently serving as the Chairman of State Committee for Work with Religious Organizations of Azerbaijan Republic.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalkasian199668-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalkasian199668_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalkasian1996">Malkasian 1996</a>, p. 68.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141116202713/http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2326&lang=arm"><bdi lang="hy">«Հայաստանի Հանրապետության տոների և հիշատակի օրերի մասին» Հայաստանի Հանրապետության օրենքում լրացում կատարելու մասին</bdi></a>. <i>parliament.am</i> (in Armenian). National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2326&lang=arm">the original</a> on November 16, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=parliament.am&rft.atitle=%C2%AB%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB+%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6+%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB+%D6%87+%D5%B0%D5%AB%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%AB+%D6%85%D6%80%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB+%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%B6%C2%BB+%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB+%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6+%D6%85%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4+%D5%AC%D6%80%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4+%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82+%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%B6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.am%2Flegislation.php%3Fsel%3Dshow%26ID%3D2326%26lang%3Darm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asbarez.com/93847/more-members-of-congress-commemorate-sumgait-baku-massacres/">"More Members of Congress Commemorate Sumgait, Baku Massacres"</a>. <i>Asbarez News</i>. March 3, 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150414220140/http://asbarez.com/93847/more-members-of-congress-commemorate-sumgait-baku-massacres/">Archived</a> from the original on April 14, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Asbarez+News&rft.atitle=More+Members+of+Congress+Commemorate+Sumgait%2C+Baku+Massacres&rft.date=2011-03-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fasbarez.com%2F93847%2Fmore-members-of-congress-commemorate-sumgait-baku-massacres%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/2013RS/bills/sj/sj0004f.pdf">SENATE JOINT RESOLUTION 4, March 1, 2013</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130320211218/http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/2013RS/bills/sj/sj0004F.pdf">Archived</a> March 20, 2013, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://karabakhfacts.com/wp-content/uploads/1988/07/c_23519880912en00800163.pdf">RESOLUTION on the situation in Soviet Armenia. Joint resolution replacing Docs. B2-538 and 587 88, 07 July 1988. Source: Official journal of the European Communities, No. C 94/117, o C 235/106, 07 July 1988</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140423004946/http://karabakhfacts.com/wp-content/uploads/1988/07/c_23519880912en00800163.pdf">Archived</a> April 23, 2014, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-letter-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-letter_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGluecksmannZelnickWiehlTaylor1990" class="citation journal cs1">Gluecksmann, Andre; Zelnick, Reginald E.; Wiehl, Reiner; Taylor, Charles; Shestack, Jerome J.; Ricoeur, Paul; Poulain, Jacques; Levinas, Emmanuel; Hooks, Benjamin L.; Heller, Agnes; Gregorian, Vartan; Gadamer, Hans-Georg; Ferry, Luc; Chace, William M.; Aaron, David; Putnam, Hilary; Kołakowski, Leszek; Habermas, Juergen; Lyttelton, Adrian; Rorty, Richard; Finkielkraut, Alain; Berlin, Isaiah; Derrida, Jacques (September 27, 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1990/sep/27/an-open-letter-on-anti-armenian-pogroms-in-the-sov/">"An Open Letter on Anti-Armenian Pogroms in the Soviet Union by Jacques Derrida, Isaiah Berlin, and Alain Finkielkraut – The New York Review of Books"</a>. <i>The New York Review of Books</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150501144013/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1990/sep/27/an-open-letter-on-anti-armenian-pogroms-in-the-sov/">Archived</a> from the original on May 1, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=An+Open+Letter+on+Anti-Armenian+Pogroms+in+the+Soviet+Union+by+Jacques+Derrida%2C+Isaiah+Berlin%2C+and+Alain+Finkielkraut+%E2%80%93+The+New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.date=1990-09-27&rft.aulast=Gluecksmann&rft.aufirst=Andre&rft.au=Zelnick%2C+Reginald+E.&rft.au=Wiehl%2C+Reiner&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Charles&rft.au=Shestack%2C+Jerome+J.&rft.au=Ricoeur%2C+Paul&rft.au=Poulain%2C+Jacques&rft.au=Levinas%2C+Emmanuel&rft.au=Hooks%2C+Benjamin+L.&rft.au=Heller%2C+Agnes&rft.au=Gregorian%2C+Vartan&rft.au=Gadamer%2C+Hans-Georg&rft.au=Ferry%2C+Luc&rft.au=Chace%2C+William+M.&rft.au=Aaron%2C+David&rft.au=Putnam%2C+Hilary&rft.au=Ko%C5%82akowski%2C+Leszek&rft.au=Habermas%2C+Juergen&rft.au=Lyttelton%2C+Adrian&rft.au=Rorty%2C+Richard&rft.au=Finkielkraut%2C+Alain&rft.au=Berlin%2C+Isaiah&rft.au=Derrida%2C+Jacques&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nybooks.com%2Farticles%2Farchives%2F1990%2Fsep%2F27%2Fan-open-letter-on-anti-armenian-pogroms-in-the-sov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, p. 42.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span> Buniyatov, Ziya. "Concerning the events in Karabakh and Sumgait." <i>Elm</i>. No. 19, May 13, 1989, p. 175. Excerpts of this text can be found in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Levon_Chorbajian" title="Levon Chorbajian">Levon Chorbajian</a>; Patrick Donabedian; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Claude_Mutafian" title="Claude Mutafian">Claude Mutafian</a>. <i>The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh</i>. London: Zed Books, 1994, pp. 188–189. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85649-288-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-85649-288-5">1-85649-288-5</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342–43-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200342–43_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, pp. 42–43.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200343-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Waal200343_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Waal2003">De Waal 2003</a>, p. 43.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Azeri_POV-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Azeri_POV_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, Jamil Babayeva, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.azernews.az/azerbaijan/64888.html">Armenia's provocation: Sumgayit events</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140302195853/http://www.azernews.az/azerbaijan/64888.html">Archived</a> March 2, 2014, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>AzerNews</i>." February 28, 2014; "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.trend.az/news/politics/2247068.html">Sumgait's events committed by special services and Armenian diaspora</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140302231221/http://en.trend.az/news/politics/2247068.html">Archived</a> March 2, 2014, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <i>Trend</i>. February 27, 2014.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKucera2018" class="citation news cs1">Kucera, Joshua (February 22, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eurasianet.org/s/azerbaijan-officially-embraces-conspiracy-theory-blaming-armenians-for-own-pogrom">"Baku Embraces Conspiracy Theory Blaming Armenians for Own Pogrom"</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/EurasiaNet" class="mw-redirect" title="EurasiaNet">EurasiaNet</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Baku+Embraces+Conspiracy+Theory+Blaming+Armenians+for+Own+Pogrom&rft.date=2018-02-22&rft.aulast=Kucera&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feurasianet.org%2Fs%2Fazerbaijan-officially-embraces-conspiracy-theory-blaming-armenians-for-own-pogrom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFYakovlev2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Yakovlev_(Russian_politician)" title="Alexander Yakovlev (Russian politician)">Yakovlev, Alexander N.</a> (2003). <i>Сумерки [Time of darkness]</i> (in Russian). Moscow: Materik. p. 551.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B8+%5BTime+of+darkness%5D&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=551&rft.pub=Materik&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Yakovlev&rft.aufirst=Alexander+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSoros1989" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Soros" title="George Soros">Soros, George</a> (June 1, 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1989/06/01/the-gorbachev-prospect/">"The Gorbachev Prospect"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912013536/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1989/06/01/the-gorbachev-prospect/">Archived</a> from the original on September 12, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=The+Gorbachev+Prospect&rft.date=1989-06-01&rft.aulast=Soros&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nybooks.com%2Farticles%2F1989%2F06%2F01%2Fthe-gorbachev-prospect%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKlierLambroza2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Klier" title="John Klier">Klier, John</a>; Lambroza, Shlomo (2004). <i>Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T3D7CmSOMfIC&pg=PA371&lpg=PA371&dq=G.A.+Alieev">371</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521528511" title="Special:BookSources/9780521528511"><bdi>9780521528511</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pogroms%3A+Anti-Jewish+Violence+in+Modern+Russian+History&rft.pages=371&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780521528511&rft.aulast=Klier&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Lambroza%2C+Shlomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amerikayidzayn.com/media/video/armenian-daily-videos/2661226.html?z=0&zp=1"><bdi lang="hy">Սումգայիթի ջարդը՝ ՊԱԿ–ի կազմակերպած ոճիրն էր</bdi></a>. <i>amerikayidzayn.com</i> (in Armenian). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a>. February 27, 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305014353/http://www.amerikayidzayn.com/media/video/armenian-daily-videos/2661226.html?z=0&zp=1">Archived</a> from the original on March 5, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=amerikayidzayn.com&rft.atitle=%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%A9%D5%AB+%D5%BB%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A8%D5%9D+%D5%8A%D4%B1%D4%BF%E2%80%93%D5%AB+%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AE+%D5%B8%D5%B3%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%B6+%D5%A7%D6%80&rft.date=2015-02-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amerikayidzayn.com%2Fmedia%2Fvideo%2Farmenian-daily-videos%2F2661226.html%3Fz%3D0%26zp%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMkhitaryan2015" class="citation news cs1">Mkhitaryan, Inesa (February 27, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/26872078.html"><bdi lang="hy">Ըստ Փոլ Գոբլի՝ Սումգայիթի ջարդը ՊԱԿ-ի կազմակերպած ոճիրն էր</bdi></a>. <i>azatutyun.am</i> (in Armenian). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150301222058/http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/26872078.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 1, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=azatutyun.am&rft.atitle=%D4%B8%D5%BD%D5%BF+%D5%93%D5%B8%D5%AC+%D4%B3%D5%B8%D5%A2%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%9D+%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%A9%D5%AB+%D5%BB%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A8+%D5%8A%D4%B1%D4%BF-%D5%AB+%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AE+%D5%B8%D5%B3%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%B6+%D5%A7%D6%80&rft.date=2015-02-27&rft.aulast=Mkhitaryan&rft.aufirst=Inesa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.azatutyun.am%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F26872078.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span></h3>
<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFDe_Waal2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_de_Waal" title="Thomas de Waal">De Waal, Thomas</a> (2003). <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Garden:_Armenia_and_Azerbaijan_Through_Peace_and_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War">Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War</a></i>. New York: New York University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814719459" title="Special:BookSources/9780814719459"><bdi>9780814719459</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Garden%3A+Armenia+and+Azerbaijan+Through+Peace+and+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780814719459&rft.aulast=De+Waal&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFKaufman2001" class="citation book cs1">Kaufman, Stuart J. (2001). <i>Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War</i>. Ithaca: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-8736-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-8736-6"><bdi>0-8014-8736-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Hatreds%3A+The+Symbolic+Politics+of+Ethnic+War&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8014-8736-6&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFShahmuratian1990" class="citation book cs1">Shahmuratian, Samvel (1990). <i>The Sumgait Tragedy: Pogroms Against Armenians in Soviet Azerbaijan</i>. New York: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zoryan_Institute" title="Zoryan Institute">Zoryan Institute</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sumgait+Tragedy%3A+Pogroms+Against+Armenians+in+Soviet+Azerbaijan&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Zoryan+Institute&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Shahmuratian&rft.aufirst=Samvel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFMalkasian1996" class="citation book cs1">Malkasian, Mark (1996). <i>"Gha-Ra-Bagh"! The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia</i>. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8143-2605-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8143-2605-6"><bdi>0-8143-2605-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Gha-Ra-Bagh%22%21+The+Emergence+of+the+National+Democratic+Movement+in+Armenia&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8143-2605-6&rft.aulast=Malkasian&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumgait+pogrom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r982806391"/></li>
<li>Aslan Ismayilov <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumgayit1988.com/files/book-en.pdf">Sumgayit — Beginning of the Collapse of the USSR</a></i>. Baku: Çaşıoğlu. 2010</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumgayit1988.com/">sumgayit1988.com</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumqayit1988.com/">sumqayit1988.com</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111117070527/http://sumqait.com/">sumqait.com</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140222060953/http://sumgayit1988.com/files/cinayat1.pdf">Уголовное Дело № 18/55461-88. Сумгаит. 1989. (I)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140222060958/http://sumgayit1988.com/files/cinayat2.pdf">Уголовное Дело № 18/55461-88. Сумгаит. 1989. (II)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/19/opinion/nationalism-at-its-nastiest.html">Nationalism at Its Nastiest - <i>The New York Times</i></a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article2970324.ece">Vladimir Kryuchkov. Hardline Soviet Communist who became head of the KGB and led a failed plot to overthrow Mikhail Gorbachev, <i>Times</i> Online</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-2012-02-27/pdf/CREC-2012-02-27-pt1-PgE248-3.pdf">Sumgait Pogroms.</a> Hon. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Howard_L._Berman" class="mw-redirect" title="Howard L. Berman">Howard L. Berman</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>, Congressional Record, Feb. 2012</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumgait.info/">sumgait.info Armenian site</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121111095959/http://www.sumqait.com/en/">sumqait.com Azeri point of view</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://budapest.sumgait.info/sumgait.htm">Sumgait massacres – Budapest case</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nkrusa.org/nk_conflict/sumgait_massacre.shtml">Pogroms of Armenians in Sumgait, Office of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://karabakhfacts.com/the-originary-genocide-1998-sumgait-azerbaijan/">The Ordinary genocide. Sumgait, February 1988. Documentary</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://karabakhrecords.info/">Karabakhrecords.info Armenian site</a></li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Nagorno-Karabakh_Conflict" title="Template:Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Nagorno-Karabakh_Conflict" title="Template talk:Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Nagorno-Karabakh_Conflict&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">Nagorno-Karabakh conflict</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Nagorno-Karabakh">Nagorno-Karabakh</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Artsakh" title="History of Artsakh">History</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deportation_of_Azerbaijanis_from_Armenia" title="Deportation of Azerbaijanis from Armenia">Deportation of Azerbaijanis from Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karabakh_movement" title="Karabakh movement">Karabakh movement</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miatsum" title="Miatsum">Miatsum</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenians_in_Azerbaijan" title="Armenians in Azerbaijan">Armenians in Azerbaijan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenians_in_Baku" title="Armenians in Baku">Armenians in Baku</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijanis_in_Armenia" title="Azerbaijanis in Armenia">Azerbaijanis in Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment_in_Azerbaijan" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment in Azerbaijan">Anti-Armenian sentiment in Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenia%E2%80%93Azerbaijan_relations" title="Armenia–Azerbaijan relations">Armenia–Azerbaijan relations</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="Nagorno-Karabakh War">Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=%C3%87ardaql%C4%B1_clash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Çardaqlı clash (page does not exist)">Çardaqlı clash</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Askeran_clash" title="Askeran clash">Askeran clash</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sumgait pogrom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gugark_massacre" title="Gugark massacre">Gugark massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zvartnots_Airport_clash" title="Zvartnots Airport clash">Zvartnots Airport clash</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1988_violence_in_Shusha_and_Stepanakert" title="1988 violence in Shusha and Stepanakert">Shusha and Stepanakert pogroms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kirovabad_pogrom" title="Kirovabad pogrom">Kirovabad pogrom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Il-76_crash_near_Leninakan_(1988)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Il-76 crash near Leninakan (1988) (page does not exist)">Il-76 crash near Leninakan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baku_pogrom" title="Baku pogrom">Baku pogrom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1990_Tbilisi%E2%80%93Agdam_bus_bombing" title="1990 Tbilisi–Agdam bus bombing">1990 Tbilisi–Agdam bus bombing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Ring" title="Operation Ring">Operation Ring</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Voskepar_massacre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Voskepar massacre (page does not exist)">Voskepar massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Togh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Togh (page does not exist)">Battle of Togh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1991_Azerbaijani_Mil_Mi-8_shootdown" title="1991 Azerbaijani Mil Mi-8 shootdown">1991 Azerbaijani Mil Mi-8 shootdown</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Law_on_Abolishment_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_Autonomous_Oblast" title="Law on Abolishment of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast">Law on Abolishment of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Stepanakert" title="Siege of Stepanakert">Siege of Stepanakert</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Operation_Dashalty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Dashalty (page does not exist)">Operation Dashalty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1992_Azerbaijani_Mil_Mi-8_shootdown" title="1992 Azerbaijani Mil Mi-8 shootdown">1992 Azerbaijani Mil Mi-8 shootdown</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capture_of_Gushchular_and_Malibeyli" title="Capture of Gushchular and Malibeyli">Capture of Gushchular and Malibeyli</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capture_of_Garadaghly" title="Capture of Garadaghly">Capture of Garadaghly</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khojaly_massacre" title="Khojaly massacre">Khojaly massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=A%C4%9Fdaban_massacre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ağdaban massacre (page does not exist)">Ağdaban massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maraga_massacre" title="Maraga massacre">Maraga massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capture_of_Shusha" title="Capture of Shusha">Capture of Shusha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Capture_of_Artsvashen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capture of Artsvashen (page does not exist)">Capture of Artsvashen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Goranboy" title="Operation Goranboy">Operation Goranboy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mardakert_and_Martuni_Offensives" title="Mardakert and Martuni Offensives">Mardakert and Martuni Offensives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Operation_H%C9%99s%C9%99nqaya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Həsənqaya (page does not exist)">Operation Həsənqaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ball%C4%B1qaya_massacre" title="Ballıqaya massacre">Ballıqaya massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Lachin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Lachin (page does not exist)">Battle of Lachin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Operation_Qazan%C3%A7%C4%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Qazançı (page does not exist)">Operation Qazançı</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Kalbajar" title="Battle of Kalbajar">Battle of Kalbajar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Ba%C5%9Fl%C4%B1bel_massacre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Başlıbel massacre (page does not exist)">Başlıbel massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Aghdam" title="Battle of Aghdam">Battle of Aghdam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1993_Summer_Offensives" title="1993 Summer Offensives">1993 Summer Offensives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Operation_Geghamasar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Geghamasar (page does not exist)">Operation Geghamasar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Horadiz" title="Operation Horadiz">Operation Horadiz</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Operation_Murovda%C4%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Murovdağ (page does not exist)">Operation Murovdağ</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1994_Baku_Metro_bombings" title="1994 Baku Metro bombings">1994 Baku Metro bombings</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1994_Bagratashen_bombing" title="1994 Bagratashen bombing">1994 Bagratashen bombing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-war clashes</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2008_Mardakert_clashes" title="2008 Mardakert clashes">2008 Mardakert clashes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2010_Nagorno-Karabakh_clashes" title="2010 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes">2010 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2010_Mardakert_clashes" title="2010 Mardakert clashes">2010 Mardakert clashes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2012_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_border_clashes" title="2012 Armenian–Azerbaijani border clashes">2012 Armenian–Azerbaijani border clashes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2014_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_clashes" title="2014 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes">2014 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2014_Armenian_Mil_Mi-24_shootdown" title="2014 Armenian Mil Mi-24 shootdown">2014 Armenian Mil Mi-24 shootdown</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2016_Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2018_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_clashes" title="2018 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes">2018 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/July_2020_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_clashes" title="July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes">July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Incidents_during_the_July_2020_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_clashes" title="Incidents during the July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes">Incidents</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_July_2020_Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_clashes" title="International reactions to the July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes">Reactions</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2020_Nagorno-Karabakh_war" title="2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war">2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Casualties_of_the_2020_Nagorno-Karabakh_war" title="Casualties of the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war">Casualties</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_the_2020_Nagorno-Karabakh_war" title="Timeline of the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aras_Valley_campaign" title="Aras Valley campaign">Aras Valley</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2020_bombardment_of_Stepanakert" title="2020 bombardment of Stepanakert">Bombardment of Stepanakert</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barda_ballistic_missile_attacks" title="Barda ballistic missile attacks">Barda ballistic missile attacks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2020_Ganja_ballistic_missile_attacks" title="2020 Ganja ballistic missile attacks">Ganja missile attacks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Hadrut" title="Battle of Hadrut">Hadrut</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2020_shelling_of_Ghazanchetsots_Cathedral" title="2020 shelling of Ghazanchetsots Cathedral">Shelling of Ghazanchetsots Cathedral</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lachin_offensive" title="Lachin offensive">Lachin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main locations</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Republic_of_Artsakh" title="Administrative divisions of the Republic of Artsakh">Administrative divisions of the Republic of Artsakh</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stepanakert" title="Stepanakert">Stepanakert</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Askeran_Province" title="Askeran Province">Askeran Province</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hadrut_Province" title="Hadrut Province">Hadrut Province</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kashatagh_Province" title="Kashatagh Province">Kashatagh Province</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martakert_Province" title="Martakert Province">Martakert Province</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martuni_Province" title="Martuni Province">Martuni Province</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shahumyan_Province" title="Shahumyan Province">Shahumyan Province</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shushi_Province" title="Shushi Province">Shushi Province</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian-controlled_territories_surrounding_Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Armenian-controlled territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh">Armenian-controlled territories</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agdam_District" title="Agdam District">Agdam District</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fuzuli_District" title="Fuzuli District">Fuzuli District</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jabrayil_District" title="Jabrayil District">Jabrayil District</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kalbajar_District" title="Kalbajar District">Kalbajar District</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lachin_District" title="Lachin District">Lachin District</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qubadli_District" title="Qubadli District">Qubadli District</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zangilan_District" title="Zangilan District">Zangilan District</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political leaders</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Levon_Ter-Petrosyan" title="Levon Ter-Petrosyan">Levon Ter-Petrosyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Kocharyan" title="Robert Kocharyan">Robert Kocharyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serzh_Sargsyan" title="Serzh Sargsyan">Serzh Sargsyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikol_Pashinyan" title="Nikol Pashinyan">Nikol Pashinyan</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/15px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/23px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/30px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="540" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Artsakh" title="Republic of Artsakh">Republic of Artsakh</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artur_Mkrtchyan" title="Artur Mkrtchyan">Artur Mkrtchyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Kocharyan" title="Robert Kocharyan">Robert Kocharyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonard_Petrosyan" title="Leonard Petrosyan">Leonard Petrosyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arkadi_Ghukasyan" title="Arkadi Ghukasyan">Arkadi Ghukasyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bako_Sahakyan" title="Bako Sahakyan">Bako Sahakyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arayik_Harutyunyan" title="Arayik Harutyunyan">Arayik Harutyunyan</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ayaz_Mutallibov" title="Ayaz Mutallibov">Ayaz Mutallibov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abulfaz_Elchibey" title="Abulfaz Elchibey">Abulfaz Elchibey</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Heydar Aliyev</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ilham_Aliyev" title="Ilham Aliyev">Ilham Aliyev</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijani_Community_of_Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Azerbaijani Community of Nagorno-Karabakh">Azerbaijani Community of Nagorno-Karabakh</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bayram_Safarov" title="Bayram Safarov">Bayram Safarov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nizami_Bahmanov" title="Nizami Bahmanov">Nizami Bahmanov</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/15px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/30px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turgut_%C3%96zal" title="Turgut Özal">Turgut Özal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan" title="Recep Tayyip Erdoğan">Recep Tayyip Erdoğan</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military leaders</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vazgen_Sargsyan" title="Vazgen Sargsyan">Vazgen Sargsyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gurgen_Dalibaltayan" title="Gurgen Dalibaltayan">Gurgen Dalibaltayan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Norat_Ter-Grigoryants" title="Norat Ter-Grigoryants">Norat Ter-Grigoryants</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jirair_Sefilian" title="Jirair Sefilian">Jirair Sefilian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/15px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/23px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_Artsakh.svg/30px-Flag_of_Artsakh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="540" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Artsakh" title="Republic of Artsakh">Republic of Artsakh</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samvel_Babayan" title="Samvel Babayan">Samvel Babayan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kristapor_Ivanyan" title="Kristapor Ivanyan">Kristapor Ivanyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arkady_Ter-Tadevosyan" title="Arkady Ter-Tadevosyan">Arkady Ter-Tadevosyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monte_Melkonian" title="Monte Melkonian">Monte Melkonian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isgandar_Hamidov" title="Isgandar Hamidov">Isgandar Hamidov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rahim_Gaziyev" title="Rahim Gaziyev">Rahim Gaziyev</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surat_Huseynov" title="Surat Huseynov">Surat Huseynov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Valeh_Barshadly" title="Valeh Barshadly">Valeh Barshadly</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pavel_Grachev" title="Pavel Grachev">Pavel Grachev</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Viktor_Polyanichko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viktor Polyanichko (page does not exist)">Viktor Polyanichko</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="700" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria" title="Chechen Republic of Ichkeria">Chechen Republic of Ichkeria</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shamil_Basayev" title="Shamil Basayev">Shamil Basayev</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peace process</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baker_rules" title="Baker rules">Baker rules</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bishkek_Protocol" title="Bishkek Protocol">Bishkek Protocol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tehran_Communiqu%C3%A9" title="Tehran Communiqué">Tehran Communiqué</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zheleznovodsk_Communiqu%C3%A9" title="Zheleznovodsk Communiqué">Zheleznovodsk Communiqué</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/OSCE_Minsk_Group" title="OSCE Minsk Group">OSCE Minsk Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prague_Process_(Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_negotiations)" title="Prague Process (Armenian–Azerbaijani negotiations)">Prague Process</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Madrid_Principles" title="Madrid Principles">Madrid Principles</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International documents</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Astrakhan_Declaration" title="Astrakhan Declaration">Astrakhan Declaration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_Declaration" title="Nagorno-Karabakh Declaration">Nagorno-Karabakh Declaration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/NATO_Lisbon_Summit_Declaration" title="NATO Lisbon Summit Declaration">NATO Lisbon Summit Declaration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/OIC_Resolution_10/11" title="OIC Resolution 10/11">OIC Resolution 10/11</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/OIC_Council_of_Foreign_Ministers_Resolution_10/37" title="OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37">OIC Resolution 10/37</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Parliamentary_Assembly_Resolution_1416_(2005)" title="Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 1416 (2005)">PACE Resolution 1416</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_62/243" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 62/243">UNGA Resolution 62/243</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions_on_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="List of United Nations Security Council resolutions on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">UNSC Resolutions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_822" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 822">822</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_853" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 853">853</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_874" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 874">874</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_884" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 884">884</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<p><span id="coordinates" class="metadata coord-missing"></span>
</p>
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Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1604602732 |