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{{Subspeciesbox
| image = Northern Spotted Owl.USFWS.jpg
| status = LT
| status_system = ESA
| genus = Strix
| species = occidentalis
| species_link = Spotted owl
| subspecies = caurina
| authority = (Merriam, 1898)
}}
The '''northern spotted owl''' (''Strix occidentalis caurina'') is one of three [[spotted owl]] [[subspecies]]. A western [[North America]]n bird in the family [[Strigidae]], genus ''[[Strix (genus)|Strix]]'', it is a medium-sized dark brown owl native to the [[Pacific Northwest]]. An important [[Bioindicator|indicator species]], the northern spotted owl remains [[Threatened species|threatened]] due to continued population decline from human-caused habitat destruction and competition with invasive species.
== Description ==
Northern spotted owls have dark brown plumage with white spots and no ear tufts. They are typically around sixteen to nineteen inches in length and one to one and one sixth pounds. Females are about 10-20% larger than males. Their wingspan is approximately 42 inches. They are a mainly nocturnal species, and form long-term pair bonds. While most owls have yellow to red-orange colored eyes, northern spotted owls are one of the few owls with dark-colored eyes.
=== Vocalizations ===
Thirteen different sounds of hoots, whistles, and barks have been identified to be sounds of the northern spotted owl, with females having higher pitched calls than males. Of the three different styles of calls, hoots appear to be most commonly used to announce things, such as territory and prey. The whistles are often used by the females to present themselves to the males, and the barks during territorial issues between owls. <ref>{{Cite report|last=Courtney|first=Stephen P. |first2=Jennifer A. |last2=Blakesley |first3=Richard E. |last3=Bigley |first4=Martin L. |last4=Cody |first5=Jack P. |last5=Dumbacher |first6=Robert C. |last6=Fleischer |first7=Alan B. |last7= Franklin |first8=Jerry F. |last8=Franklin |first9=Rocky J. |last9=Gutiérrez |first10=John M. |last10=Marzluff |first11=Lisa |last11=Sztukowski |name-list-style=amp |title=Scientific Evaluation of the Status of the Northern Spotted Owl|publisher=Sustainable Ecosystems Institute|year=September 2004|location=Portland, Oregon|url=https://www.fws.gov/oregonfwo/species/Data/NorthernSpottedOwl/Documents/2004CourtneyEtAl.pdf}}</ref>
==Distribution and habitat==
The northern spotted owl primarily inhabits [[old growth forests]] in the northern part of its range ([[Canada]] to southern [[Oregon]]) and landscapes with a mix of old and younger forest types in the southern part of its range ([[Klamath Falls, Oregon|Klamath]] region and [[California]]). The subspecies' range is the [[Pacific]] coast from extreme southern [[British Columbia]] to [[Marin County]] in northern California.
Most spotted owls inhabit federal lands ([[United States Forest Service|Forest Service]], [[Bureau of Land Management]], and [[National Park Service]] lands), although significant numbers occur on state lands in [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[Oregon]], and [[California]], as well as tribal and private properties.
Northern Spotted Owls range on 500,000 acres of the 7.6 percent of private forestlands managed by Native American tribes in the state of Washington. Federally recognized tribes are treated as sovereign governments, and each recognized tribe is responsible for their own management plans for the northern spotted owls in their area. Regardless of tribal or private ownership, however, the United States federal government requires all land owners and inhabitants to comply with the Endangered Species Act.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WFPA - NSO Conservation in WA - Tribal Forestland|url=http://www.northernspottedowl.org/jurisdictions/tribal.html|access-date=2016-02-24|website=www.northernspottedowl.org}}</ref>
The northern spotted owl nests in cavities or on platforms in large trees. It will also use abandoned nests of other species. Northern spotted owls remain in the same geographical areas unless forced out from harsh conditions or lack of food.
==Diet==
The northern spotted owl diet consists of small mammals (91.5%), other birds (4.3%), insects (4.1%), and other prey (0.1%). These prey are most nocturnal (91.9%) or active during the day and night (4.8%), which corresponds to the primarily nocturnal nature of the northern spotted owl.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Forsman|first1=Eric D.|last2=Bruce|first2=Charles R.|last3=Walter|first3=Mary A.|last4=Meslow|first4=E. Charles|date=1987|title=A Current Assessment of the Spotted Owl Population in Oregon|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3535693|journal=The Murrelet|volume=68|issue=2|pages=51|doi=10.2307/3535693|jstor=3535693|issn=0027-3716}}</ref> The main species consumed by the northern spotted owl are [[northern flying squirrel]]s (''Glaucomys sabrinus''), woodrats (''[[Dusky-footed woodrat|Neotoma fuscipes]]'' and ''N. cinerea''), red tree voles ([[Red tree vole|''Arborimus longicaudus'']]), western red-backed voles (''Clethnonomys californicus''), deer mice (''[[Peromyscus maniculatus]]''), and [[gopher]]s (''Thomomys'' spp.). Consumption of these small mammals varies by habitat region and proliferation of small nocturnal mammals.<ref name=":0" /> Recent invasion of [[barred owl]]s (''Strix varia'') into the northern spotted owl range has resulted in decreased food availability due to overlap in dietary preferences.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Livezey|first=Kent B.|title=Barred Owl Habitat and Prey: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature|date=September 2007|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3356/0892-1016(2007)41[177:bohapa]2.0.co;2|journal=Journal of Raptor Research|volume=41|issue=3|pages=177–201|doi=10.3356/0892-1016(2007)41[177:bohapa]2.0.co;2|issn=0892-1016}}</ref>
==Behavior==
The northern spotted owl is intolerant of habitat disturbance. Each nesting pair needs a large amount of land for hunting and nesting, and will not migrate unless they experience drastic seasonal changes, such as heavy snows, which make hunting difficult. Their flight pattern is distinct, involving a series of rapid wingbeats interspersed with [[gliding (flight)|gliding flight]]. This technique allows them to glide silently down upon their prey.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.defenders.org/wildlife_and_habitat/wildlife/spotted_owl,_northern.php
| title = Northern Spotted Owl
| publisher = [[Defenders of Wildlife]]
| access-date = October 30, 2008}}</ref>
==Reproduction==
Northern spotted owls reach sexually mature at two years of age, but do not typically breed until three years of age. Male and females mate in February or March, with the female laying two or three eggs in March or April. Eggs are incubated by the female for around thirty days until hatching. After hatching, the young owls remain in the nest and the adult female provides primary care. Fledgling occurs in 34 to 36 days. The hunting and feeding is done by the male during this time. The young owls remain with the parents until late summer to early fall. They leave the nest and form their own winter feeding range. By spring, the young owls' territory will be from 2 to 24 miles from the parents.<ref name="Does Anybody Give a Hoot">Brokaw, Jeanne (Nov/Dec 1996). "[https://www.motherjones.com/politics/1996/11/does-anybody-give-hoot Does Anybody Give a Hoot?]" ''Mother Jones''. Accessed April 3, 2013.</ref>
==Conservation==
[[File:NorthernSpottedOwlOregonZoo.jpg|thumb|left|Northern spotted owl, [[Oregon Zoo]], [[Portland, Oregon]]]]
There are fewer than 6 individuals left in British Columbia, Canada; 1,200 pairs in Oregon, 560 pairs in Northern California, and 500 pairs in Washington. Washington alone has lost over 90 percent of its old growth forest due to logging which has caused a 40-90 percent decline of the Northern Spotted Owl population.
The worldwide [[IUCN Red List]] of Threatened Species status for the spotted owl species is "[[Near Threatened]]" with a decreasing population trend. As the IUCN Red List does not track subspecies, this status is applied to species across its whole range in Canada, the United States and Mexico.
The Canadian population, declared endangered by the [[Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada]] under the 2002 [[Species at Risk Act]], now<sup>[''[[wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological%20items|when?]]'']</sup> numbers less than 100 breeding pairs of birds. In British Columbia, Canada, as of 2010, only 6 pairs are known in the wild, down from historic numbers of 500 pairs.
The northern spotted owl was listed as a [[threatened species]] under the [[Endangered Species Act]] throughout its range of northern California, Oregon and Washington by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]] on June 23, 1990 citing loss of [[Old-growth forest|old-growth habitat]] as the primary threat. The USFWS previously reviewed the status of the northern spotted owl in 1982, 1987 and 1989 but found it did not warrant listing as either threatened or endangered. Logging in [[United States National Forest|national forests]] containing the northern spotted owl was stopped by court order in 1991.
In 2007 a Captive Breeding and Release Program was created in Langley, British Columbia, Canada, with the goal of producing owls in captivity for release into protected habitat to prevent the extirpation of the species from Canada.<ref>[http://www.nsobreedingprogram.com Northern Spotted Owl Breeding Program ]</ref> The short-term goals of the Program include growing the captive population to 10 breeding pairs and releasing 10-20 offspring per year into the 300,000 hectares of protected old-growth forest. Long-term the Breeding Program aims to recover the wild population to self-sustaining numbers, approximately 300 adults, over the next 10–20 years.
==Controversy==
In 1990, the logging industry estimated up to 30,000 of 168,000 jobs would be lost because of the owl's status, which agreed closely with a Forest Service estimate.<ref name='satchell'>Satchell, M. (June 25, 1990) ''U.S. News & World Report'', Vol. 108, Issue 25, p. 27.</ref> Harvests of timber in the Pacific Northwest were reduced by 80%, decreasing the supply of lumber and increasing prices.<ref name="Does Anybody Give a Hoot"/> However, jobs were already declining because of dwindling old-growth forest harvests and automation of the lumber industry.<ref name='satchell'/> One study at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] by environmental scientists argued that logging jobs had been in a long decline and that environmental protection was not a significant factor in job loss.<ref>
{{cite journal|last=Freudenburg |first=William R. |author2=Lisa J. Wilson |author3=Daniel O'Leary |year=1998 |title=Forty Years of Spotted Owls? A Longitudinal Analysis of Logging-Industry Job Losses |journal=Sociological Perspectives |volume=41 |issue=#1 |pages=1–26 |url=http://www.es.ucsb.edu/faculty/freudenburg_pdf%27s/40yrsSpottedOwls.pdf |access-date=November 12, 2008 |doi=10.2307/1389351 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060830195041/http://www.es.ucsb.edu/faculty/freudenburg_pdf%27s/40yrsSpottedOwls.pdf |archive-date=August 30, 2006 |jstor=1389351 |s2cid=37523161 }}</ref>
From 1947 to 1964, the number of logging jobs declined 90%. Starting with the [[Wilderness Act]] of 1964, environmental protection saved 51,000 jobs in the Pacific Northwest.<ref>Guglielmino, Janine (Summer 1997). ''American Forests'', Vol. 103, Issue 2, p. 6.</ref>
The controversy pitted individual loggers and small sawmill owners against environmentalists. Bumper stickers reading ''Kill a Spotted Owl—Save a Logger'' and ''I Like Spotted Owls—Fried'' appeared to support the loggers.<ref name='satchell'/> Plastic spotted owls were hung in effigy in Oregon sawmills.<ref>Adams, Larry (December 1999). ''Wood & Wood Products'', Vol. 104, Issue 13, p. 62.</ref> The logging industry, in response to continued bad publicity, started the Sustainable Forestry Initiative.<ref name='Sustainable Forestry Initiative'>[http://www.aboutsfi.org/ Sustainable Forestry Initiative]. aboutsfi.org</ref> While timber interests and conservatives have cited the northern spotted owl as an example of excessive or misguided environmental protection, many environmentalists view the owl as an "[[indicator species]]," or "canary in a coal mine" whose preservation has created protection for an entire threatened ecosystem.<ref name="AmLands">{{cite web|url=http://www.americanlands.org/issues.php?subsubNo=1089232287&article=1179268431&PHPSESSID=ab0b4467aa4d0c7ec783288fde180221 |title=American Lands Alliance Action Alert |date=May 15, 2007 |publisher=Americanlands.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613212741/http://www.americanlands.org/issues.php?subsubNo=1089232287&article=1179268431&PHPSESSID=ab0b4467aa4d0c7ec783288fde180221 |archive-date=June 13, 2007 }}</ref>
Protection of the owl, under both the Endangered Species Act and the National Forest Management Act, has led to significant changes in forest practices in the northwest. President Clinton's controversial [[Northwest Forest Plan]] of 1994 was designed primarily to protect owls and other species dependent on old-growth forests while ensuring a certain amount of timber harvest. Although the result was much less logging, industry automation and the new law meant the loss of thousands of jobs.<ref name="csm">{{cite news|url = http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0627/p02s01-sten.html|title = Northern spotted owl's decline revives old concerns|date = June 27, 2007|publisher = Christian Science Monitor|author = Knickerbocker, Brad|access-date = June 27, 2007}}</ref> However, new jobs were created for biologists conducting surveys for spotted owls and other rare organisms that occur in their range.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}
The debate has cooled somewhat over the years, with little response from environmentalists as the owl's population continues to decline by 7.3 percent per year.<ref>"[http://www.olympicpeninsulaaudubon.org/shell.php?page=conserve_barred_owl How Should We Manage the Barred Owl?]" ''Olympic Peninsula Audubon Society.'' Accessed April 3, 2013.</ref> In 2004 the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] reaffirmed that the owl remained threatened, but indicated that invasion by [[barred owl]]s into the range and habitat of the spotted owl was also a cause of declining spotted owl populations.
In 2007, the USFWS proposed a new recovery plan intended to guide all management actions on lands where spotted owls occur, and to aid in recovery of the species. Early proposals were criticized by environmental groups as significantly weakening existing protections for the species. The Obama administration reversed proposals that would have increased logging on Bureau of Land Management administered lands. Recent discussion has been focused on two novel approaches. One of these would emphasize wildfire management as key to owl persistence on the east side of the Cascades, and in the Klamath province. Another proposal, on control of [[barred owl]] populations through culling,<ref>Johnson DH, White GC, Franklin AB, Diller LV, Blackburn I, Pierce DJ, Olson GS, Buchanan JB, Thrailkill J, Woodbridge B, Ostwald M. (2008). ''Study designs for Barred Owl removal experiments to evaluate potential effects on Northern Spotted Owls''. Report prepared for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lacey, WA and Yreka, CA. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 32 p.</ref> has been criticized by some animal rights and other activists.<ref>{{cite news |author=Verhovek, Sam Howe |work=Los Angeles Times |date=June 4, 2007 |title=To protect spotted owl, larger rival is targeted |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-owls4jun04,1,7172559.story?track=rss&ctrack=2&cset=true }}</ref>
Federal biologists were considering in 2010 whether to kill barred owls to see if that would help the spotted owls.<ref>Barnard, Jeff (December 10, 2009). [http://www.dailytidings.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20091210/NEWS02/912100317 Experiment to test killing one owl to help another; Barred owl competing against spotted owl]. ''The Associated Press''</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Livezey KB|year=2010|title=Killing barred owls to help spotted owls I: a global perspective|journal=Northwestern Naturalist|url=http://www.cfr.washington.edu/classes.esrm.150/readings/Livezey_2010a.pdf|doi=10.1898/NWN09-37.1|volume=91|issue=2|pages=107–133|jstor=40856470|s2cid=11691153|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525111608/http://www.cfr.washington.edu/classes.esrm.150/readings/Livezey_2010a.pdf|archive-date=May 25, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Livezey KB|year= 2010|title= Killing barred owls to help spotted owls II: implications for many other range-expanding species|jstor=40983223|journal= Northwestern Naturalist |doi=10.1898/NWN09-38.1|volume=91|issue= 3|pages=251–270|s2cid= 85425945}}</ref>
In early 2021, The [[Trump administration]] removed more than 3 million acres of Pacific Northwest land from the protected habitat of the northern spotted owl, 15 times the amount it had previously proposed opening to the timber industry. Aurelia Skipwith, director of the Fish and Wildlife Service, stated that "these common-sense revisions ensure we are continuing to recover the northern spotted owl while being a good neighbor to rural communities within the critical habitat" even though northern spotted owl populations continue to decline.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Friedman|first=Lisa|last2=Einhorn|first2=Catrin|date=2021-01-13|title=Trump Opens Habitat of a Threatened Owl to Timber Harvesting|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/13/climate/trump-spotted-owl.html|access-date=2021-01-14|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
== Influence of barred owl invasion ==
=== Population decline of northern spotted owl ===
The [[barred owl]] is an owl species native to the Eastern United States, but has invasively expanded west into the habitat ranges of the northern spotted owl. Invasion of barred owls into the northern spotted owl’s habitat has occurred recently, with all of northern spotted owl territory now also inhabited by the barred owl.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lewicki|first1=Krista E.|last2=Huyvaert|first2=Kathryn P.|last3=Piaggio|first3=Antoinette J.|last4=Diller|first4=Lowell V.|last5=Franklin|first5=Alan B.|date=2014-12-20|title=Effects of barred owl (Strix varia) range expansion on Haemoproteus parasite assemblage dynamics and transmission in barred and northern spotted owls (Strix occidentalis caurina)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10530-014-0828-5|journal=Biological Invasions|volume=17|issue=6|pages=1713–1727|doi=10.1007/s10530-014-0828-5|s2cid=4798840|issn=1387-3547}}</ref> Barred owls have a diet of small mammals (74.7%), other birds (8.3%), amphibians (6.4%), bugs (5.6%), crayfish (3.0%), fish (1.5%), reptiles, snails and slugs, and earthworms (<1.0% each).<ref name=":1" /> This diet is similar to the northern spotted owl, and the introduction of barred owls to the northern spotted owl’s range creates increased competition for food.<ref name=":0" /> In the same areas, northern spotted owls require around three to four times more range than barred owls, which places more strain on the northern spotted owls.<ref name=":1" /> As barred owl population densities increase, the strain of food competition will worsen for northern spotted owls.
The greater diversity of diet in the barred owl, notably in the amphibians, crayfish, and fish consumed, threatens ecological stability due to extended predation now experienced by affected species. The additional food sources also give an advantage to the barred owl over the northern spotted owl, worsening the northern spotted owl's ability to compete. Paired with more predation of prey that is shared between the barred owl and the northern spotted owl, the introduction of the barred owl in these areas may have unknown long term effects on the ecological balance of these habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holm|first1=Samantha R.|last2=Noon|first2=Barry R.|last3=Wiens|first3=J. David|last4=Ripple|first4=William J.|date=2016-11-27|title=Potential trophic cascades triggered by the barred owl range expansion|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wsb.714|journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin|volume=40|issue=4|pages=615–624|doi=10.1002/wsb.714|issn=1938-5463}}</ref> The most drastic effect is on the northern spotted owl population, which is estimated to have decreased at an annual rate of 3.8% from 1985 to 2013.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Diller|first1=Lowell V.|last2=Hamm|first2=Keith A.|last3=Early|first3=Desiree A.|last4=Lamphear|first4=David W.|last5=Dugger|first5=Katie M.|last6=Yackulic|first6=Charles B.|last7=Schwarz|first7=Carl J.|last8=Carlson|first8=Peter C.|last9=McDonald|first9=Trent L.|date=2016-02-17|title=Demographic response of northern spotted owls to barred owl removal|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.1046|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=80|issue=4|pages=691–707|doi=10.1002/jwmg.1046|issn=0022-541X}}</ref> This population loss is directly related to the presence of barred owls. The Diller et al. (2016) study demonstrated that lethal removal of barred owls resulted in the northern spotted owl populations to increase, while populations of northern spotted owls continued to decrease if barred owl populations were left alone.<ref name=":2" /> Should northern owl habitat areas continue to be protected under the [[Northwest Forest Plan]] and other related legislation, solutions to regulate barred owl populations could reverse the population decline of the northern spotted owl. Without intervention, continued annual decrease in population levels would ultimately end in extinction of the northern spotted owl.
=== Hybridization ===
Northern spotted owls and barred owls have been shown to be capable of producing [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] offspring. Previous geographical isolation had prevented prior hybridization, and current ones are difficult to distinguish from nonhybrids without using genetic testing techniques. However, of those differences that are discernable, hybrids tend to be larger and lighter colored than northern spotted owls, with similar facial features to barred owls.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamer|first1=Thomas E. |last2=Forsman |first2=Eric D. |last3=Fuchs |first3=A. D. |last4=Walters |first4=M. L. |name-list-style=amp |date=April 1994|title=Hybridization Between Barred and Spotted Owls|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v111n02/p0487-p0492.pdf|journal=The Auk|volume=111|issue=2|pages=487-491}}</ref> All hybridization occurred between male northern spotted owls and female barred owls. Cross-breeding amongst the species is a very limited event, and likely insufficient to be significantly detrimental to either species. Direct competition between species for habitat space and food is determined to be much more significant issues in affecting both target populations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kelly|first1=Elizabeth G.|last2=Forsman|first2=Eric D.|title=Recent Records of Hybridization Between Barred Owls (Strix Varia) and Northern Spotted Owls (S. Occidentalis Caurina)|date=2004|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0806:rrohbb]2.0.co;2|journal=The Auk|volume=121|issue=3|pages=806|doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0806:rrohbb]2.0.co;2|issn=0004-8038}}</ref> There has also been genetic evidence of cross breeding between northern spotted owls and [[California Spotted Owl|California spotted owls]] (''S. o. occidentalis''), but since both are subspecies of the same species, this is not truly considered hybridization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=BARROWCLOUGH|first1=G. F.|last2=GROTH|first2=J. G.|last3=MERTZ|first3=L. A.|last4=GUTIÉRREZ|first4=R. J.|date=2005-03-16|title=Genetic structure, introgression, and a narrow hybrid zone between northern and California spotted owls (Strix occidentalis)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02465.x|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=14|issue=4|pages=1109–1120|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02465.x|pmid=15773939|s2cid=23046067|issn=0962-1083}}</ref>
==See also==
* ''[[Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Oregon]]''
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Strix occidentalis}}
* [http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Spotted_Owl.html Spotted Owl] - Cornell
* [http://www.nsobreedingprogram.com Northern Spotted Owl Breeding Program in Canada]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051227173129/http://www.zoo.org/educate/fact_sheets/spotted_owl/sowl.htm Woodland Park Zoo Fact Sheet]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060216203347/http://www.kidsplanet.org/factsheets/northspotowl.html Factsheets]
* [http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/birds/printouts/Spottedowlprintout.shtml Enchanted learning ]
* [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2001962902_spottedowl23m.html Seattle Times News Source]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100802105445/http://warnercnr.colostate.edu/~alanf/reprints/sc_ea04nsostatusrep.pdf 2004 status review and biological assessment]
{{Taxonbar|from=Q7058979}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:owl, spotted, northern}}
[[Category:Strix (genus)|northern spotted owl]]
[[Category:Native birds of the Northwestern United States]]
[[Category:Subspecies]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Subspeciesbox
| image = Northern Spotted Owl.USFWS.jpg
| status = LT
| status_system = ESA
| genus = Strix
| species = occidentalis
| species_link = Spotted owl
| subspecies = caurina
| authority = (Merriam, 1898)
}}
The '''northern spotted owl''' (''Strix occidentalis caurina'') is one of three [[spotted owl]] [[subspecies]]. A western [[North America]]n bird in the family [[Strigidae]], genus ''[[Strix (genus)|Strix]]'', it is a medium-sized dark brown owl native to the [[Pacific Northwest]]. An important [[Bioindicator|indicator species]], the northern spotted owl remains [[Threatened species|threatened]] due to continued population decline from human-caused habitat destruction and competition with invasive species.
== Description ==
Northern spotted owls have dark brown plumage with white spots and no ear tufts. They are typically around sixteen to nineteen inches in length and one to one and one sixth pounds. Females are about 10-20% larger than males. Their wingspan is approximately 42 inches. They are a mainly nocturnal species, and form long-term pair bonds. While most owls have yellow to red-orange colored eyes, northern spotted owls are one of the few owls with dark-colored eyes.
=== Vocalizations ===
Thirteen different sounds of hoots, whistles, and barks have been identified to be sounds of the northern spotted owl, with females having higher pitched calls than males. Of the three different styles of calls, hoots appear to be most commonly used to announce things, such as territory and prey. The whistles are often used by the females to present themselves to the males, and the barks during territorial issues between owls. <ref>{{Cite report|last=Courtney|first=Stephen P. |first2=Jennifer A. |last2=Blakesley |first3=Richard E. |last3=Bigley |first4=Martin L. |last4=Cody |first5=Jack P. |last5=Dumbacher |first6=Robert C. |last6=Fleischer |first7=Alan B. |last7= Franklin |first8=Jerry F. |last8=Franklin |first9=Rocky J. |last9=Gutiérrez |first10=John M. |last10=Marzluff |first11=Lisa |last11=Sztukowski |name-list-style=amp |title=Scientific Evaluation of the Status of the Northern Spotted Owl|publisher=Sustainable Ecosystems Institute|year=September 2004|location=Portland, Oregon|url=https://www.fws.gov/oregonfwo/species/Data/NorthernSpottedOwl/Documents/2004CourtneyEtAl.pdf}}</ref>
==Distribution and habitat==
The northern spotted owl primarily inhabits [[old growth forests]] in the northern part of its range ([[Canada]] to southern [[Oregon]]) and landscapes with a mix of old and younger forest types in the southern part of its range ([[Klamath Falls, Oregon|Klamath]] region and [[California]]). The subspecies' range is the [[Pacific]] coast from extreme southern [[British Columbia]] to [[Marin County]] in northern California.
Most spotted owls inhabit federal lands ([[United States Forest Service|Forest Service]], [[Bureau of Land Management]], and [[National Park Service]] lands), although significant numbers occur on state lands in [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[Oregon]], and [[California]], as well as tribal and private properties.
Northern Spotted Owls range on 500,000 acres of the 7.6 percent of private forestlands managed by Native American tribes in the state of Washington. Federally recognized tribes are treated as sovereign governments, and each recognized tribe is responsible for their own management plans for the northern spotted owls in their area. Regardless of tribal or private ownership, however, the United States federal government requires all land owners and inhabitants to comply with the Endangered Species Act.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WFPA - NSO Conservation in WA - Tribal Forestland|url=http://www.northernspottedowl.org/jurisdictions/tribal.html|access-date=2016-02-24|website=www.northernspottedowl.org}}</ref>
The northern spotted owl nests in cavities or on platforms in large trees. It will also use abandoned nests of other species. Northern spotted owls remain in the same geographical areas unless forced out from harsh conditions or lack of food.
==Diet==
The northern spotted owl diet consists of small mammals (91.5%), other birds (4.3%), insects (4.1%), and other prey (0.1%). These prey are most nocturnal (91.9%) or active during the day and night (4.8%), which corresponds to the primarily nocturnal nature of the northern spotted owl.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Forsman|first1=Eric D.|last2=Bruce|first2=Charles R.|last3=Walter|first3=Mary A.|last4=Meslow|first4=E. Charles|date=1987|title=A Current Assessment of the Spotted Owl Population in Oregon|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3535693|journal=The Murrelet|volume=68|issue=2|pages=51|doi=10.2307/3535693|jstor=3535693|issn=0027-3716}}</ref> The main species consumed by the northern spotted owl are [[northern flying squirrel]]s (''Glaucomys sabrinus''), woodrats (''[[Dusky-footed woodrat|Neotoma fuscipes]]'' and ''N. cinerea''), red tree voles ([[Red tree vole|''Arborimus longicaudus'']]), western red-backed voles (''Clethnonomys californicus''), deer mice (''[[Peromyscus maniculatus]]''), and [[gopher]]s (''Thomomys'' spp.). Consumption of these small mammals varies by habitat region and proliferation of small nocturnal mammals.<ref name=":0" /> Recent invasion of [[barred owl]]s (''Strix varia'') into the northern spotted owl range has resulted in decreased food availability due to overlap in dietary preferences.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Livezey|first=Kent B.|title=Barred Owl Habitat and Prey: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature|date=September 2007|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3356/0892-1016(2007)41[177:bohapa]2.0.co;2|journal=Journal of Raptor Research|volume=41|issue=3|pages=177–201|doi=10.3356/0892-1016(2007)41[177:bohapa]2.0.co;2|issn=0892-1016}}</ref>
==Behavior==
The northern spotted owl is intolerant of habitat disturbance. Each nesting pair needs a large amount of land for hunting and nesting, and will not migrate unless they experience drastic seasonal changes, such as heavy snows, which make hunting difficult. Their flight pattern is distinct, involving a series of rapid wingbeats interspersed with [[gliding (flight)|gliding flight]]. This technique allows them to glide silently down upon their prey.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.defenders.org/wildlife_and_habitat/wildlife/spotted_owl,_northern.php
| title = Northern Spotted Owl
| publisher = [[Defenders of Wildlife]]
| access-date = October 30, 2008}}</ref>
==Reproduction==
Northern spotted owls reach sexually mature at two years of age, but do not typically breed until three years of age. Male and females mate in February or March, with the female laying two or three eggs in March or April. Eggs are incubated by the female for around thirty days until hatching. After hatching, the young owls remain in the nest and the adult female provides primary care. Fledgling occurs in 34 to 36 days. The hunting and feeding is done by the male during this time. The young owls remain with the parents until late summer to early fall. They leave the nest and form their own winter feeding range. By spring, the young owls' territory will be from 2 to 24 miles from the parents.<ref name="Does Anybody Give a Hoot">Brokaw, Jeanne (Nov/Dec 1996). "[https://www.motherjones.com/politics/1996/11/does-anybody-give-hoot Does Anybody Give a Hoot?]" ''Mother Jones''. Accessed April 3, 2013.</ref>
barrled owls r dying
==Controversy==
In 1990, the logging industry estimated up to 30,000 of 168,000 jobs would be lost because of the owl's status, which agreed closely with a Forest Service estimate.<ref name='satchell'>Satchell, M. (June 25, 1990) ''U.S. News & World Report'', Vol. 108, Issue 25, p. 27.</ref> Harvests of timber in the Pacific Northwest were reduced by 80%, decreasing the supply of lumber and increasing prices.<ref name="Does Anybody Give a Hoot"/> However, jobs were already declining because of dwindling old-growth forest harvests and automation of the lumber industry.<ref name='satchell'/> One study at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] by environmental scientists argued that logging jobs had been in a long decline and that environmental protection was not a significant factor in job loss.<ref>
{{cite journal|last=Freudenburg |first=William R. |author2=Lisa J. Wilson |author3=Daniel O'Leary |year=1998 |title=Forty Years of Spotted Owls? A Longitudinal Analysis of Logging-Industry Job Losses |journal=Sociological Perspectives |volume=41 |issue=#1 |pages=1–26 |url=http://www.es.ucsb.edu/faculty/freudenburg_pdf%27s/40yrsSpottedOwls.pdf |access-date=November 12, 2008 |doi=10.2307/1389351 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060830195041/http://www.es.ucsb.edu/faculty/freudenburg_pdf%27s/40yrsSpottedOwls.pdf |archive-date=August 30, 2006 |jstor=1389351 |s2cid=37523161 }}</ref>
From 1947 to 1964, the number of logging jobs declined 90%. Starting with the [[Wilderness Act]] of 1964, environmental protection saved 51,000 jobs in the Pacific Northwest.<ref>Guglielmino, Janine (Summer 1997). ''American Forests'', Vol. 103, Issue 2, p. 6.</ref>
The controversy pitted individual loggers and small sawmill owners against environmentalists. Bumper stickers reading ''Kill a Spotted Owl—Save a Logger'' and ''I Like Spotted Owls—Fried'' appeared to support the loggers.<ref name='satchell'/> Plastic spotted owls were hung in effigy in Oregon sawmills.<ref>Adams, Larry (December 1999). ''Wood & Wood Products'', Vol. 104, Issue 13, p. 62.</ref> The logging industry, in response to continued bad publicity, started the Sustainable Forestry Initiative.<ref name='Sustainable Forestry Initiative'>[http://www.aboutsfi.org/ Sustainable Forestry Initiative]. aboutsfi.org</ref> While timber interests and conservatives have cited the northern spotted owl as an example of excessive or misguided environmental protection, many environmentalists view the owl as an "[[indicator species]]," or "canary in a coal mine" whose preservation has created protection for an entire threatened ecosystem.<ref name="AmLands">{{cite web|url=http://www.americanlands.org/issues.php?subsubNo=1089232287&article=1179268431&PHPSESSID=ab0b4467aa4d0c7ec783288fde180221 |title=American Lands Alliance Action Alert |date=May 15, 2007 |publisher=Americanlands.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613212741/http://www.americanlands.org/issues.php?subsubNo=1089232287&article=1179268431&PHPSESSID=ab0b4467aa4d0c7ec783288fde180221 |archive-date=June 13, 2007 }}</ref>
Protection of the owl, under both the Endangered Species Act and the National Forest Management Act, has led to significant changes in forest practices in the northwest. President Clinton's controversial [[Northwest Forest Plan]] of 1994 was designed primarily to protect owls and other species dependent on old-growth forests while ensuring a certain amount of timber harvest. Although the result was much less logging, industry automation and the new law meant the loss of thousands of jobs.<ref name="csm">{{cite news|url = http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0627/p02s01-sten.html|title = Northern spotted owl's decline revives old concerns|date = June 27, 2007|publisher = Christian Science Monitor|author = Knickerbocker, Brad|access-date = June 27, 2007}}</ref> However, new jobs were created for biologists conducting surveys for spotted owls and other rare organisms that occur in their range.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}
The debate has cooled somewhat over the years, with little response from environmentalists as the owl's population continues to decline by 7.3 percent per year.<ref>"[http://www.olympicpeninsulaaudubon.org/shell.php?page=conserve_barred_owl How Should We Manage the Barred Owl?]" ''Olympic Peninsula Audubon Society.'' Accessed April 3, 2013.</ref> In 2004 the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] reaffirmed that the owl remained threatened, but indicated that invasion by [[barred owl]]s into the range and habitat of the spotted owl was also a cause of declining spotted owl populations.
In 2007, the USFWS proposed a new recovery plan intended to guide all management actions on lands where spotted owls occur, and to aid in recovery of the species. Early proposals were criticized by environmental groups as significantly weakening existing protections for the species. The Obama administration reversed proposals that would have increased logging on Bureau of Land Management administered lands. Recent discussion has been focused on two novel approaches. One of these would emphasize wildfire management as key to owl persistence on the east side of the Cascades, and in the Klamath province. Another proposal, on control of [[barred owl]] populations through culling,<ref>Johnson DH, White GC, Franklin AB, Diller LV, Blackburn I, Pierce DJ, Olson GS, Buchanan JB, Thrailkill J, Woodbridge B, Ostwald M. (2008). ''Study designs for Barred Owl removal experiments to evaluate potential effects on Northern Spotted Owls''. Report prepared for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lacey, WA and Yreka, CA. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 32 p.</ref> has been criticized by some animal rights and other activists.<ref>{{cite news |author=Verhovek, Sam Howe |work=Los Angeles Times |date=June 4, 2007 |title=To protect spotted owl, larger rival is targeted |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-owls4jun04,1,7172559.story?track=rss&ctrack=2&cset=true }}</ref>
Federal biologists were considering in 2010 whether to kill barred owls to see if that would help the spotted owls.<ref>Barnard, Jeff (December 10, 2009). [http://www.dailytidings.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20091210/NEWS02/912100317 Experiment to test killing one owl to help another; Barred owl competing against spotted owl]. ''The Associated Press''</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Livezey KB|year=2010|title=Killing barred owls to help spotted owls I: a global perspective|journal=Northwestern Naturalist|url=http://www.cfr.washington.edu/classes.esrm.150/readings/Livezey_2010a.pdf|doi=10.1898/NWN09-37.1|volume=91|issue=2|pages=107–133|jstor=40856470|s2cid=11691153|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525111608/http://www.cfr.washington.edu/classes.esrm.150/readings/Livezey_2010a.pdf|archive-date=May 25, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Livezey KB|year= 2010|title= Killing barred owls to help spotted owls II: implications for many other range-expanding species|jstor=40983223|journal= Northwestern Naturalist |doi=10.1898/NWN09-38.1|volume=91|issue= 3|pages=251–270|s2cid= 85425945}}</ref>
In early 2021, The [[Trump administration]] removed more than 3 million acres of Pacific Northwest land from the protected habitat of the northern spotted owl, 15 times the amount it had previously proposed opening to the timber industry. Aurelia Skipwith, director of the Fish and Wildlife Service, stated that "these common-sense revisions ensure we are continuing to recover the northern spotted owl while being a good neighbor to rural communities within the critical habitat" even though northern spotted owl populations continue to decline.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Friedman|first=Lisa|last2=Einhorn|first2=Catrin|date=2021-01-13|title=Trump Opens Habitat of a Threatened Owl to Timber Harvesting|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/13/climate/trump-spotted-owl.html|access-date=2021-01-14|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
== Influence of barred owl invasion ==
=== Population decline of northern spotted owl ===
The [[barred owl]] is an owl species native to the Eastern United States, but has invasively expanded west into the habitat ranges of the northern spotted owl. Invasion of barred owls into the northern spotted owl’s habitat has occurred recently, with all of northern spotted owl territory now also inhabited by the barred owl.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lewicki|first1=Krista E.|last2=Huyvaert|first2=Kathryn P.|last3=Piaggio|first3=Antoinette J.|last4=Diller|first4=Lowell V.|last5=Franklin|first5=Alan B.|date=2014-12-20|title=Effects of barred owl (Strix varia) range expansion on Haemoproteus parasite assemblage dynamics and transmission in barred and northern spotted owls (Strix occidentalis caurina)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10530-014-0828-5|journal=Biological Invasions|volume=17|issue=6|pages=1713–1727|doi=10.1007/s10530-014-0828-5|s2cid=4798840|issn=1387-3547}}</ref> Barred owls have a diet of small mammals (74.7%), other birds (8.3%), amphibians (6.4%), bugs (5.6%), crayfish (3.0%), fish (1.5%), reptiles, snails and slugs, and earthworms (<1.0% each).<ref name=":1" /> This diet is similar to the northern spotted owl, and the introduction of barred owls to the northern spotted owl’s range creates increased competition for food.<ref name=":0" /> In the same areas, northern spotted owls require around three to four times more range than barred owls, which places more strain on the northern spotted owls.<ref name=":1" /> As barred owl population densities increase, the strain of food competition will worsen for northern spotted owls.
The greater diversity of diet in the barred owl, notably in the amphibians, crayfish, and fish consumed, threatens ecological stability due to extended predation now experienced by affected species. The additional food sources also give an advantage to the barred owl over the northern spotted owl, worsening the northern spotted owl's ability to compete. Paired with more predation of prey that is shared between the barred owl and the northern spotted owl, the introduction of the barred owl in these areas may have unknown long term effects on the ecological balance of these habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holm|first1=Samantha R.|last2=Noon|first2=Barry R.|last3=Wiens|first3=J. David|last4=Ripple|first4=William J.|date=2016-11-27|title=Potential trophic cascades triggered by the barred owl range expansion|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wsb.714|journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin|volume=40|issue=4|pages=615–624|doi=10.1002/wsb.714|issn=1938-5463}}</ref> The most drastic effect is on the northern spotted owl population, which is estimated to have decreased at an annual rate of 3.8% from 1985 to 2013.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Diller|first1=Lowell V.|last2=Hamm|first2=Keith A.|last3=Early|first3=Desiree A.|last4=Lamphear|first4=David W.|last5=Dugger|first5=Katie M.|last6=Yackulic|first6=Charles B.|last7=Schwarz|first7=Carl J.|last8=Carlson|first8=Peter C.|last9=McDonald|first9=Trent L.|date=2016-02-17|title=Demographic response of northern spotted owls to barred owl removal|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.1046|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=80|issue=4|pages=691–707|doi=10.1002/jwmg.1046|issn=0022-541X}}</ref> This population loss is directly related to the presence of barred owls. The Diller et al. (2016) study demonstrated that lethal removal of barred owls resulted in the northern spotted owl populations to increase, while populations of northern spotted owls continued to decrease if barred owl populations were left alone.<ref name=":2" /> Should northern owl habitat areas continue to be protected under the [[Northwest Forest Plan]] and other related legislation, solutions to regulate barred owl populations could reverse the population decline of the northern spotted owl. Without intervention, continued annual decrease in population levels would ultimately end in extinction of the northern spotted owl.
=== Hybridization ===
Northern spotted owls and barred owls have been shown to be capable of producing [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] offspring. Previous geographical isolation had prevented prior hybridization, and current ones are difficult to distinguish from nonhybrids without using genetic testing techniques. However, of those differences that are discernable, hybrids tend to be larger and lighter colored than northern spotted owls, with similar facial features to barred owls.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamer|first1=Thomas E. |last2=Forsman |first2=Eric D. |last3=Fuchs |first3=A. D. |last4=Walters |first4=M. L. |name-list-style=amp |date=April 1994|title=Hybridization Between Barred and Spotted Owls|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v111n02/p0487-p0492.pdf|journal=The Auk|volume=111|issue=2|pages=487-491}}</ref> All hybridization occurred between male northern spotted owls and female barred owls. Cross-breeding amongst the species is a very limited event, and likely insufficient to be significantly detrimental to either species. Direct competition between species for habitat space and food is determined to be much more significant issues in affecting both target populations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kelly|first1=Elizabeth G.|last2=Forsman|first2=Eric D.|title=Recent Records of Hybridization Between Barred Owls (Strix Varia) and Northern Spotted Owls (S. Occidentalis Caurina)|date=2004|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0806:rrohbb]2.0.co;2|journal=The Auk|volume=121|issue=3|pages=806|doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0806:rrohbb]2.0.co;2|issn=0004-8038}}</ref> There has also been genetic evidence of cross breeding between northern spotted owls and [[California Spotted Owl|California spotted owls]] (''S. o. occidentalis''), but since both are subspecies of the same species, this is not truly considered hybridization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=BARROWCLOUGH|first1=G. F.|last2=GROTH|first2=J. G.|last3=MERTZ|first3=L. A.|last4=GUTIÉRREZ|first4=R. J.|date=2005-03-16|title=Genetic structure, introgression, and a narrow hybrid zone between northern and California spotted owls (Strix occidentalis)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02465.x|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=14|issue=4|pages=1109–1120|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02465.x|pmid=15773939|s2cid=23046067|issn=0962-1083}}</ref>
==See also==
* ''[[Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Oregon]]''
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Strix occidentalis}}
* [http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Spotted_Owl.html Spotted Owl] - Cornell
* [http://www.nsobreedingprogram.com Northern Spotted Owl Breeding Program in Canada]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051227173129/http://www.zoo.org/educate/fact_sheets/spotted_owl/sowl.htm Woodland Park Zoo Fact Sheet]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060216203347/http://www.kidsplanet.org/factsheets/northspotowl.html Factsheets]
* [http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/birds/printouts/Spottedowlprintout.shtml Enchanted learning ]
* [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2001962902_spottedowl23m.html Seattle Times News Source]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100802105445/http://warnercnr.colostate.edu/~alanf/reprints/sc_ea04nsostatusrep.pdf 2004 status review and biological assessment]
{{Taxonbar|from=Q7058979}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:owl, spotted, northern}}
[[Category:Strix (genus)|northern spotted owl]]
[[Category:Native birds of the Northwestern United States]]
[[Category:Subspecies]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -41,15 +41,5 @@
Northern spotted owls reach sexually mature at two years of age, but do not typically breed until three years of age. Male and females mate in February or March, with the female laying two or three eggs in March or April. Eggs are incubated by the female for around thirty days until hatching. After hatching, the young owls remain in the nest and the adult female provides primary care. Fledgling occurs in 34 to 36 days. The hunting and feeding is done by the male during this time. The young owls remain with the parents until late summer to early fall. They leave the nest and form their own winter feeding range. By spring, the young owls' territory will be from 2 to 24 miles from the parents.<ref name="Does Anybody Give a Hoot">Brokaw, Jeanne (Nov/Dec 1996). "[https://www.motherjones.com/politics/1996/11/does-anybody-give-hoot Does Anybody Give a Hoot?]" ''Mother Jones''. Accessed April 3, 2013.</ref>
-==Conservation==
-[[File:NorthernSpottedOwlOregonZoo.jpg|thumb|left|Northern spotted owl, [[Oregon Zoo]], [[Portland, Oregon]]]]
-There are fewer than 6 individuals left in British Columbia, Canada; 1,200 pairs in Oregon, 560 pairs in Northern California, and 500 pairs in Washington. Washington alone has lost over 90 percent of its old growth forest due to logging which has caused a 40-90 percent decline of the Northern Spotted Owl population.
-
-The worldwide [[IUCN Red List]] of Threatened Species status for the spotted owl species is "[[Near Threatened]]" with a decreasing population trend. As the IUCN Red List does not track subspecies, this status is applied to species across its whole range in Canada, the United States and Mexico.
-
-The Canadian population, declared endangered by the [[Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada]] under the 2002 [[Species at Risk Act]], now<sup>[''[[wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological%20items|when?]]'']</sup> numbers less than 100 breeding pairs of birds. In British Columbia, Canada, as of 2010, only 6 pairs are known in the wild, down from historic numbers of 500 pairs.
-
-The northern spotted owl was listed as a [[threatened species]] under the [[Endangered Species Act]] throughout its range of northern California, Oregon and Washington by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]] on June 23, 1990 citing loss of [[Old-growth forest|old-growth habitat]] as the primary threat. The USFWS previously reviewed the status of the northern spotted owl in 1982, 1987 and 1989 but found it did not warrant listing as either threatened or endangered. Logging in [[United States National Forest|national forests]] containing the northern spotted owl was stopped by court order in 1991.
-
-In 2007 a Captive Breeding and Release Program was created in Langley, British Columbia, Canada, with the goal of producing owls in captivity for release into protected habitat to prevent the extirpation of the species from Canada.<ref>[http://www.nsobreedingprogram.com Northern Spotted Owl Breeding Program ]</ref> The short-term goals of the Program include growing the captive population to 10 breeding pairs and releasing 10-20 offspring per year into the 300,000 hectares of protected old-growth forest. Long-term the Breeding Program aims to recover the wild population to self-sustaining numbers, approximately 300 adults, over the next 10–20 years.
+barrled owls r dying
==Controversy==
' |
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0 => '==Conservation==',
1 => '[[File:NorthernSpottedOwlOregonZoo.jpg|thumb|left|Northern spotted owl, [[Oregon Zoo]], [[Portland, Oregon]]]]',
2 => 'There are fewer than 6 individuals left in British Columbia, Canada; 1,200 pairs in Oregon, 560 pairs in Northern California, and 500 pairs in Washington. Washington alone has lost over 90 percent of its old growth forest due to logging which has caused a 40-90 percent decline of the Northern Spotted Owl population.',
3 => '',
4 => 'The worldwide [[IUCN Red List]] of Threatened Species status for the spotted owl species is "[[Near Threatened]]" with a decreasing population trend. As the IUCN Red List does not track subspecies, this status is applied to species across its whole range in Canada, the United States and Mexico.',
5 => '',
6 => 'The Canadian population, declared endangered by the [[Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada]] under the 2002 [[Species at Risk Act]], now<sup>[''[[wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological%20items|when?]]'']</sup> numbers less than 100 breeding pairs of birds. In British Columbia, Canada, as of 2010, only 6 pairs are known in the wild, down from historic numbers of 500 pairs.',
7 => '',
8 => 'The northern spotted owl was listed as a [[threatened species]] under the [[Endangered Species Act]] throughout its range of northern California, Oregon and Washington by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]] on June 23, 1990 citing loss of [[Old-growth forest|old-growth habitat]] as the primary threat. The USFWS previously reviewed the status of the northern spotted owl in 1982, 1987 and 1989 but found it did not warrant listing as either threatened or endangered. Logging in [[United States National Forest|national forests]] containing the northern spotted owl was stopped by court order in 1991.',
9 => '',
10 => 'In 2007 a Captive Breeding and Release Program was created in Langley, British Columbia, Canada, with the goal of producing owls in captivity for release into protected habitat to prevent the extirpation of the species from Canada.<ref>[http://www.nsobreedingprogram.com Northern Spotted Owl Breeding Program ]</ref> The short-term goals of the Program include growing the captive population to 10 breeding pairs and releasing 10-20 offspring per year into the 300,000 hectares of protected old-growth forest. Long-term the Breeding Program aims to recover the wild population to self-sustaining numbers, approximately 300 adults, over the next 10–20 years.'
] |
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<table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%">
<tbody><tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><i>Strix occidentalis caurina</i>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Northern Spotted Owl.USFWS.jpg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg/220px-Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg/330px-Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg/440px-Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2262" data-file-height="3352" /></a>
</td></tr>
<tr style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">
<th colspan="2"><div style="text-align: center"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conservation_status" title="Conservation status">Conservation status</a></div>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><div style="text-align: center"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Status_ESA_LT.svg/220px-Status_ESA_LT.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="59" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Status_ESA_LT.svg/330px-Status_ESA_LT.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Status_ESA_LT.svg/440px-Status_ESA_LT.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="64" /><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">Threatened</a><small> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Endangered_Species_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Endangered Species Act">ESA</a>)</small></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Strix" title="e"><img alt="e" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Red_Pencil_Icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a></span>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Kingdom:
</td>
<td><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Phylum:
</td>
<td><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Class:
</td>
<td><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Aves</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Order:
</td>
<td><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">Strigiformes</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Family:
</td>
<td><a href="/enwiki/wiki/True_owl" title="True owl">Strigidae</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Genus:
</td>
<td><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strix_(genus)" title="Strix (genus)"><i>Strix</i></a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Species:
</td>
<td><div style="display:inline" class="species"><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spotted_owl" title="Spotted owl">S. occidentalis</a></i></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Subspecies:
</td>
<td><div style="display:inline" class="subspecies"><i><b>S. o. caurina</b></i></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trinomen" title="Trinomen">Trinomial name</a>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><b><span class="trinomial"><i>Strix occidentalis caurina</i></span></b><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">(Merriam, 1898)</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<p>The <b>northern spotted owl</b> (<i>Strix occidentalis caurina</i>) is one of three <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spotted_owl" title="Spotted owl">spotted owl</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subspecies" title="Subspecies">subspecies</a>. A western <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North American</a> bird in the family <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strigidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Strigidae">Strigidae</a>, genus <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strix_(genus)" title="Strix (genus)">Strix</a></i>, it is a medium-sized dark brown owl native to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a>. An important <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">indicator species</a>, the northern spotted owl remains <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">threatened</a> due to continued population decline from human-caused habitat destruction and competition with invasive species.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Description"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Description</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Vocalizations"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Vocalizations</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Distribution_and_habitat"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Distribution and habitat</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Diet"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Diet</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Behavior"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Behavior</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Reproduction"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Reproduction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Controversy"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Controversy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Influence_of_barred_owl_invasion"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Influence of barred owl invasion</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Population_decline_of_northern_spotted_owl"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Population decline of northern spotted owl</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Hybridization"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Hybridization</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Description">Description</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Northern spotted owls have dark brown plumage with white spots and no ear tufts. They are typically around sixteen to nineteen inches in length and one to one and one sixth pounds. Females are about 10-20% larger than males. Their wingspan is approximately 42 inches. They are a mainly nocturnal species, and form long-term pair bonds. While most owls have yellow to red-orange colored eyes, northern spotted owls are one of the few owls with dark-colored eyes.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Vocalizations">Vocalizations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Vocalizations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Thirteen different sounds of hoots, whistles, and barks have been identified to be sounds of the northern spotted owl, with females having higher pitched calls than males. Of the three different styles of calls, hoots appear to be most commonly used to announce things, such as territory and prey. The whistles are often used by the females to present themselves to the males, and the barks during territorial issues between owls. <sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Distribution_and_habitat">Distribution and habitat</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Distribution and habitat">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The northern spotted owl primarily inhabits <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_growth_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Old growth forests">old growth forests</a> in the northern part of its range (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> to southern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>) and landscapes with a mix of old and younger forest types in the southern part of its range (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Klamath_Falls,_Oregon" title="Klamath Falls, Oregon">Klamath</a> region and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>). The subspecies' range is the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> coast from extreme southern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marin_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Marin County">Marin County</a> in northern California.
</p><p>Most spotted owls inhabit federal lands (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">Forest Service</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management" title="Bureau of Land Management">Bureau of Land Management</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> lands), although significant numbers occur on state lands in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, as well as tribal and private properties.
</p><p>Northern Spotted Owls range on 500,000 acres of the 7.6 percent of private forestlands managed by Native American tribes in the state of Washington. Federally recognized tribes are treated as sovereign governments, and each recognized tribe is responsible for their own management plans for the northern spotted owls in their area. Regardless of tribal or private ownership, however, the United States federal government requires all land owners and inhabitants to comply with the Endangered Species Act.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>The northern spotted owl nests in cavities or on platforms in large trees. It will also use abandoned nests of other species. Northern spotted owls remain in the same geographical areas unless forced out from harsh conditions or lack of food.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Diet">Diet</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Diet">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The northern spotted owl diet consists of small mammals (91.5%), other birds (4.3%), insects (4.1%), and other prey (0.1%). These prey are most nocturnal (91.9%) or active during the day and night (4.8%), which corresponds to the primarily nocturnal nature of the northern spotted owl.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3">[3]</a></sup> The main species consumed by the northern spotted owl are <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_flying_squirrel" title="Northern flying squirrel">northern flying squirrels</a> (<i>Glaucomys sabrinus</i>), woodrats (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dusky-footed_woodrat" title="Dusky-footed woodrat">Neotoma fuscipes</a></i> and <i>N. cinerea</i>), red tree voles (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_tree_vole" title="Red tree vole"><i>Arborimus longicaudus</i></a>), western red-backed voles (<i>Clethnonomys californicus</i>), deer mice (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peromyscus_maniculatus" title="Peromyscus maniculatus">Peromyscus maniculatus</a></i>), and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gopher" title="Gopher">gophers</a> (<i>Thomomys</i> spp.). Consumption of these small mammals varies by habitat region and proliferation of small nocturnal mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3">[3]</a></sup> Recent invasion of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barred_owl" title="Barred owl">barred owls</a> (<i>Strix varia</i>) into the northern spotted owl range has resulted in decreased food availability due to overlap in dietary preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Behavior">Behavior</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Behavior">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The northern spotted owl is intolerant of habitat disturbance. Each nesting pair needs a large amount of land for hunting and nesting, and will not migrate unless they experience drastic seasonal changes, such as heavy snows, which make hunting difficult. Their flight pattern is distinct, involving a series of rapid wingbeats interspersed with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gliding_(flight)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gliding (flight)">gliding flight</a>. This technique allows them to glide silently down upon their prey.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Reproduction">Reproduction</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reproduction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Northern spotted owls reach sexually mature at two years of age, but do not typically breed until three years of age. Male and females mate in February or March, with the female laying two or three eggs in March or April. Eggs are incubated by the female for around thirty days until hatching. After hatching, the young owls remain in the nest and the adult female provides primary care. Fledgling occurs in 34 to 36 days. The hunting and feeding is done by the male during this time. The young owls remain with the parents until late summer to early fall. They leave the nest and form their own winter feeding range. By spring, the young owls' territory will be from 2 to 24 miles from the parents.<sup id="cite_ref-Does_Anybody_Give_a_Hoot_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Does_Anybody_Give_a_Hoot-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>barrled owls r dying
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Controversy">Controversy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Controversy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>In 1990, the logging industry estimated up to 30,000 of 168,000 jobs would be lost because of the owl's status, which agreed closely with a Forest Service estimate.<sup id="cite_ref-satchell_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-satchell-7">[7]</a></sup> Harvests of timber in the Pacific Northwest were reduced by 80%, decreasing the supply of lumber and increasing prices.<sup id="cite_ref-Does_Anybody_Give_a_Hoot_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Does_Anybody_Give_a_Hoot-6">[6]</a></sup> However, jobs were already declining because of dwindling old-growth forest harvests and automation of the lumber industry.<sup id="cite_ref-satchell_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-satchell-7">[7]</a></sup> One study at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a> by environmental scientists argued that logging jobs had been in a long decline and that environmental protection was not a significant factor in job loss.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
From 1947 to 1964, the number of logging jobs declined 90%. Starting with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wilderness_Act" title="Wilderness Act">Wilderness Act</a> of 1964, environmental protection saved 51,000 jobs in the Pacific Northwest.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>The controversy pitted individual loggers and small sawmill owners against environmentalists. Bumper stickers reading <i>Kill a Spotted Owl—Save a Logger</i> and <i>I Like Spotted Owls—Fried</i> appeared to support the loggers.<sup id="cite_ref-satchell_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-satchell-7">[7]</a></sup> Plastic spotted owls were hung in effigy in Oregon sawmills.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> The logging industry, in response to continued bad publicity, started the Sustainable Forestry Initiative.<sup id="cite_ref-Sustainable_Forestry_Initiative_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sustainable_Forestry_Initiative-11">[11]</a></sup> While timber interests and conservatives have cited the northern spotted owl as an example of excessive or misguided environmental protection, many environmentalists view the owl as an "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indicator_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicator species">indicator species</a>," or "canary in a coal mine" whose preservation has created protection for an entire threatened ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-AmLands_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmLands-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>Protection of the owl, under both the Endangered Species Act and the National Forest Management Act, has led to significant changes in forest practices in the northwest. President Clinton's controversial <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northwest_Forest_Plan" title="Northwest Forest Plan">Northwest Forest Plan</a> of 1994 was designed primarily to protect owls and other species dependent on old-growth forests while ensuring a certain amount of timber harvest. Although the result was much less logging, industry automation and the new law meant the loss of thousands of jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-csm_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csm-13">[13]</a></sup> However, new jobs were created for biologists conducting surveys for spotted owls and other rare organisms that occur in their range.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>The debate has cooled somewhat over the years, with little response from environmentalists as the owl's population continues to decline by 7.3 percent per year.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> In 2004 the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S._Fish_and_Wildlife_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> reaffirmed that the owl remained threatened, but indicated that invasion by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barred_owl" title="Barred owl">barred owls</a> into the range and habitat of the spotted owl was also a cause of declining spotted owl populations.
</p><p>In 2007, the USFWS proposed a new recovery plan intended to guide all management actions on lands where spotted owls occur, and to aid in recovery of the species. Early proposals were criticized by environmental groups as significantly weakening existing protections for the species. The Obama administration reversed proposals that would have increased logging on Bureau of Land Management administered lands. Recent discussion has been focused on two novel approaches. One of these would emphasize wildfire management as key to owl persistence on the east side of the Cascades, and in the Klamath province. Another proposal, on control of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barred_owl" title="Barred owl">barred owl</a> populations through culling,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> has been criticized by some animal rights and other activists.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>Federal biologists were considering in 2010 whether to kill barred owls to see if that would help the spotted owls.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>In early 2021, The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trump_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Trump administration">Trump administration</a> removed more than 3 million acres of Pacific Northwest land from the protected habitat of the northern spotted owl, 15 times the amount it had previously proposed opening to the timber industry. Aurelia Skipwith, director of the Fish and Wildlife Service, stated that "these common-sense revisions ensure we are continuing to recover the northern spotted owl while being a good neighbor to rural communities within the critical habitat" even though northern spotted owl populations continue to decline.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence_of_barred_owl_invasion">Influence of barred owl invasion</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Influence of barred owl invasion">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Population_decline_of_northern_spotted_owl">Population decline of northern spotted owl</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Population decline of northern spotted owl">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barred_owl" title="Barred owl">barred owl</a> is an owl species native to the Eastern United States, but has invasively expanded west into the habitat ranges of the northern spotted owl. Invasion of barred owls into the northern spotted owl’s habitat has occurred recently, with all of northern spotted owl territory now also inhabited by the barred owl.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> Barred owls have a diet of small mammals (74.7%), other birds (8.3%), amphibians (6.4%), bugs (5.6%), crayfish (3.0%), fish (1.5%), reptiles, snails and slugs, and earthworms (<1.0% each).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a></sup> This diet is similar to the northern spotted owl, and the introduction of barred owls to the northern spotted owl’s range creates increased competition for food.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3">[3]</a></sup> In the same areas, northern spotted owls require around three to four times more range than barred owls, which places more strain on the northern spotted owls.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a></sup> As barred owl population densities increase, the strain of food competition will worsen for northern spotted owls.
</p><p>The greater diversity of diet in the barred owl, notably in the amphibians, crayfish, and fish consumed, threatens ecological stability due to extended predation now experienced by affected species. The additional food sources also give an advantage to the barred owl over the northern spotted owl, worsening the northern spotted owl's ability to compete. Paired with more predation of prey that is shared between the barred owl and the northern spotted owl, the introduction of the barred owl in these areas may have unknown long term effects on the ecological balance of these habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> The most drastic effect is on the northern spotted owl population, which is estimated to have decreased at an annual rate of 3.8% from 1985 to 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23">[23]</a></sup> This population loss is directly related to the presence of barred owls. The Diller et al. (2016) study demonstrated that lethal removal of barred owls resulted in the northern spotted owl populations to increase, while populations of northern spotted owls continued to decrease if barred owl populations were left alone.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23">[23]</a></sup> Should northern owl habitat areas continue to be protected under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northwest_Forest_Plan" title="Northwest Forest Plan">Northwest Forest Plan</a> and other related legislation, solutions to regulate barred owl populations could reverse the population decline of the northern spotted owl. Without intervention, continued annual decrease in population levels would ultimately end in extinction of the northern spotted owl.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Hybridization">Hybridization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hybridization">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Northern spotted owls and barred owls have been shown to be capable of producing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybrid</a> offspring. Previous geographical isolation had prevented prior hybridization, and current ones are difficult to distinguish from nonhybrids without using genetic testing techniques. However, of those differences that are discernable, hybrids tend to be larger and lighter colored than northern spotted owls, with similar facial features to barred owls.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> All hybridization occurred between male northern spotted owls and female barred owls. Cross-breeding amongst the species is a very limited event, and likely insufficient to be significantly detrimental to either species. Direct competition between species for habitat space and food is determined to be much more significant issues in affecting both target populations.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> There has also been genetic evidence of cross breeding between northern spotted owls and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/California_Spotted_Owl" class="mw-redirect" title="California Spotted Owl">California spotted owls</a> (<i>S. o. occidentalis</i>), but since both are subspecies of the same species, this is not truly considered hybridization.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babbitt_v._Sweet_Home_Chapter_of_Communities_for_a_Great_Oregon" title="Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Oregon">Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Oregon</a></i></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFCourtneyBlakesleyBigleyCody2004" class="citation report cs1">Courtney, Stephen P.; Blakesley, Jennifer A.; Bigley, Richard E.; Cody, Martin L.; Dumbacher, Jack P.; Fleischer, Robert C.; Franklin, Alan B.; Franklin, Jerry F.; Gutiérrez, Rocky J.; Marzluff, John M. & Sztukowski, Lisa (September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fws.gov/oregonfwo/species/Data/NorthernSpottedOwl/Documents/2004CourtneyEtAl.pdf">Scientific Evaluation of the Status of the Northern Spotted Owl</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Portland, Oregon: Sustainable Ecosystems Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Scientific+Evaluation+of+the+Status+of+the+Northern+Spotted+Owl&rft.place=Portland%2C+Oregon&rft.pub=Sustainable+Ecosystems+Institute&rft.date=2004-09&rft.aulast=Courtney&rft.aufirst=Stephen+P.&rft.au=Blakesley%2C+Jennifer+A.&rft.au=Bigley%2C+Richard+E.&rft.au=Cody%2C+Martin+L.&rft.au=Dumbacher%2C+Jack+P.&rft.au=Fleischer%2C+Robert+C.&rft.au=Franklin%2C+Alan+B.&rft.au=Franklin%2C+Jerry+F.&rft.au=Guti%C3%A9rrez%2C+Rocky+J.&rft.au=Marzluff%2C+John+M.&rft.au=Sztukowski%2C+Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fws.gov%2Foregonfwo%2Fspecies%2FData%2FNorthernSpottedOwl%2FDocuments%2F2004CourtneyEtAl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+spotted+owl" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.northernspottedowl.org/jurisdictions/tribal.html">"WFPA - NSO Conservation in WA - Tribal Forestland"</a>. <i>www.northernspottedowl.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 24,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.northernspottedowl.org&rft.atitle=WFPA+-+NSO+Conservation+in+WA+-+Tribal+Forestland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.northernspottedowl.org%2Fjurisdictions%2Ftribal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+spotted+owl" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guglielmino, Janine (Summer 1997). <i>American Forests</i>, Vol. 103, Issue 2, p. 6.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Sustainable_Forestry_Initiative-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sustainable_Forestry_Initiative_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aboutsfi.org/">Sustainable Forestry Initiative</a>. aboutsfi.org</span>
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<li id="cite_note-AmLands-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AmLands_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070613212741/http://www.americanlands.org/issues.php?subsubNo=1089232287&article=1179268431&PHPSESSID=ab0b4467aa4d0c7ec783288fde180221">"American Lands Alliance Action Alert"</a>. Americanlands.org. May 15, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanlands.org/issues.php?subsubNo=1089232287&article=1179268431&PHPSESSID=ab0b4467aa4d0c7ec783288fde180221">the original</a> on June 13, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Lands+Alliance+Action+Alert&rft.pub=Americanlands.org&rft.date=2007-05-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanlands.org%2Fissues.php%3FsubsubNo%3D1089232287%26article%3D1179268431%26PHPSESSID%3Dab0b4467aa4d0c7ec783288fde180221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+spotted+owl" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olympicpeninsulaaudubon.org/shell.php?page=conserve_barred_owl">How Should We Manage the Barred Owl?</a>" <i>Olympic Peninsula Audubon Society.</i> Accessed April 3, 2013.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson DH, White GC, Franklin AB, Diller LV, Blackburn I, Pierce DJ, Olson GS, Buchanan JB, Thrailkill J, Woodbridge B, Ostwald M. (2008). <i>Study designs for Barred Owl removal experiments to evaluate potential effects on Northern Spotted Owls</i>. Report prepared for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lacey, WA and Yreka, CA. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 32 p.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnard, Jeff (December 10, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dailytidings.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20091210/NEWS02/912100317">Experiment to test killing one owl to help another; Barred owl competing against spotted owl</a>. <i>The Associated Press</i></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLewickiHuyvaertPiaggioDiller2014" class="citation journal cs1">Lewicki, Krista E.; Huyvaert, Kathryn P.; Piaggio, Antoinette J.; Diller, Lowell V.; Franklin, Alan B. (December 20, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10530-014-0828-5">"Effects of barred owl (Strix varia) range expansion on Haemoproteus parasite assemblage dynamics and transmission in barred and northern spotted owls (Strix occidentalis caurina)"</a>. <i>Biological Invasions</i>. <b>17</b> (6): 1713–1727. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10530-014-0828-5">10.1007/s10530-014-0828-5</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/1387-3547">1387-3547</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4798840">4798840</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Invasions&rft.atitle=Effects+of+barred+owl+%28Strix+varia%29+range+expansion+on+Haemoproteus+parasite+assemblage+dynamics+and+transmission+in+barred+and+northern+spotted+owls+%28Strix+occidentalis+caurina%29&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1713-1727&rft.date=2014-12-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4798840%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1387-3547&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10530-014-0828-5&rft.aulast=Lewicki&rft.aufirst=Krista+E.&rft.au=Huyvaert%2C+Kathryn+P.&rft.au=Piaggio%2C+Antoinette+J.&rft.au=Diller%2C+Lowell+V.&rft.au=Franklin%2C+Alan+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs10530-014-0828-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+spotted+owl" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHolmNoonWiensRipple2016" class="citation journal cs1">Holm, Samantha R.; Noon, Barry R.; Wiens, J. David; Ripple, William J. (November 27, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wsb.714">"Potential trophic cascades triggered by the barred owl range expansion"</a>. <i>Wildlife Society Bulletin</i>. <b>40</b> (4): 615–624. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwsb.714">10.1002/wsb.714</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/1938-5463">1938-5463</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wildlife+Society+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Potential+trophic+cascades+triggered+by+the+barred+owl+range+expansion&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=615-624&rft.date=2016-11-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fwsb.714&rft.issn=1938-5463&rft.aulast=Holm&rft.aufirst=Samantha+R.&rft.au=Noon%2C+Barry+R.&rft.au=Wiens%2C+J.+David&rft.au=Ripple%2C+William+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2Fwsb.714&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+spotted+owl" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDillerHammEarlyLamphear2016" class="citation journal cs1">Diller, Lowell V.; Hamm, Keith A.; Early, Desiree A.; Lamphear, David W.; Dugger, Katie M.; Yackulic, Charles B.; Schwarz, Carl J.; Carlson, Peter C.; McDonald, Trent L. (February 17, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.1046">"Demographic response of northern spotted owls to barred owl removal"</a>. <i>The Journal of Wildlife Management</i>. <b>80</b> (4): 691–707. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjwmg.1046">10.1002/jwmg.1046</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-541X">0022-541X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Wildlife+Management&rft.atitle=Demographic+response+of+northern+spotted+owls+to+barred+owl+removal&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=691-707&rft.date=2016-02-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjwmg.1046&rft.issn=0022-541X&rft.aulast=Diller&rft.aufirst=Lowell+V.&rft.au=Hamm%2C+Keith+A.&rft.au=Early%2C+Desiree+A.&rft.au=Lamphear%2C+David+W.&rft.au=Dugger%2C+Katie+M.&rft.au=Yackulic%2C+Charles+B.&rft.au=Schwarz%2C+Carl+J.&rft.au=Carlson%2C+Peter+C.&rft.au=McDonald%2C+Trent+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2Fjwmg.1046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+spotted+owl" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHamerForsmanFuchsWalters1994" class="citation journal cs1">Hamer, Thomas E.; Forsman, Eric D.; Fuchs, A. D. & Walters, M. L. (April 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v111n02/p0487-p0492.pdf">"Hybridization Between Barred and Spotted Owls"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Auk</i>. <b>111</b> (2): 487–491.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Auk&rft.atitle=Hybridization+Between+Barred+and+Spotted+Owls&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=487-491&rft.date=1994-04&rft.aulast=Hamer&rft.aufirst=Thomas+E.&rft.au=Forsman%2C+Eric+D.&rft.au=Fuchs%2C+A.+D.&rft.au=Walters%2C+M.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsora.unm.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fjournals%2Fauk%2Fv111n02%2Fp0487-p0492.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+spotted+owl" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKellyForsman2004" class="citation journal cs1">Kelly, Elizabeth G.; Forsman, Eric D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121%5b0806:rrohbb%5d2.0.co;2">"Recent Records of Hybridization Between Barred Owls (Strix Varia) and Northern Spotted Owls (S. Occidentalis Caurina)"</a>. <i>The Auk</i>. <b>121</b> (3): 806. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1642%2F0004-8038%282004%29121%5B0806%3Arrohbb%5D2.0.co%3B2">10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0806:rrohbb]2.0.co;2</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/0004-8038">0004-8038</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Auk&rft.atitle=Recent+Records+of+Hybridization+Between+Barred+Owls+%28Strix+Varia%29+and+Northern+Spotted+Owls+%28S.+Occidentalis+Caurina%29&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=806&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1642%2F0004-8038%282004%29121%5B0806%3Arrohbb%5D2.0.co%3B2&rft.issn=0004-8038&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+G.&rft.au=Forsman%2C+Eric+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1642%2F0004-8038%282004%29121%5B0806%3Arrohbb%5D2.0.co%3B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+spotted+owl" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBARROWCLOUGHGROTHMERTZGUTIÉRREZ2005" class="citation journal cs1">BARROWCLOUGH, G. F.; GROTH, J. G.; MERTZ, L. A.; GUTIÉRREZ, R. J. (March 16, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02465.x">"Genetic structure, introgression, and a narrow hybrid zone between northern and California spotted owls (Strix occidentalis)"</a>. <i>Molecular Ecology</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 1109–1120. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-294x.2005.02465.x">10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02465.x</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/0962-1083">0962-1083</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15773939">15773939</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23046067">23046067</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Ecology&rft.atitle=Genetic+structure%2C+introgression%2C+and+a+narrow+hybrid+zone+between+northern+and+California+spotted+owls+%28Strix+occidentalis%29&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1109-1120&rft.date=2005-03-16&rft.issn=0962-1083&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23046067%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15773939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-294x.2005.02465.x&rft.aulast=BARROWCLOUGH&rft.aufirst=G.+F.&rft.au=GROTH%2C+J.+G.&rft.au=MERTZ%2C+L.+A.&rft.au=GUTI%C3%89RREZ%2C+R.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-294x.2005.02465.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+spotted+owl" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_spotted_owl&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Strix_occidentalis" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Strix occidentalis"><span style="">Strix occidentalis</span></a></b></i>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Spotted_Owl.html">Spotted Owl</a> - Cornell</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsobreedingprogram.com">Northern Spotted Owl Breeding Program in Canada</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051227173129/http://www.zoo.org/educate/fact_sheets/spotted_owl/sowl.htm">Woodland Park Zoo Fact Sheet</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060216203347/http://www.kidsplanet.org/factsheets/northspotowl.html">Factsheets</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/birds/printouts/Spottedowlprintout.shtml">Enchanted learning </a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2001962902_spottedowl23m.html">Seattle Times News Source</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100802105445/http://warnercnr.colostate.edu/~alanf/reprints/sc_ea04nsostatusrep.pdf">2004 status review and biological assessment</a></li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Taxon_identifiers" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7058979" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q7058979">Q7058979</a></span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/EBird" title="EBird">eBird</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebird.org/species/spoowl2">spoowl2</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">ECOS: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/profile/speciesProfile?sId=1123">1123</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/1265186">1265186</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/6176043">6176043</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/117760">117760</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=177926">177926</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=311401">311401</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1611082017 |