Examine individual changes

'{{Otheruses}} [[Image:Transistorer (croped).jpg||thumb|200px|Assorted discrete transistors. Packages in order from top to bottom: TO-3, TO-126, TO-92, SOT-23]] A '''transistor''' is a [[semiconductor]] [[semiconductor device|device]] used to [[Electronic amplifier|amplify]] and switch [[Electronics|electronic]] signals. It is made of a solid piece of [[semiconductor]] material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) [[electric power|power]] can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides [[gain|amplification]] of a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in [[integrated circuit]]s. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern [[electronic device]]s, and its presence is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the transistor revolutionised the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper [[radio]]s, [[calculator]]s, and [[computer]]s, amongst other things. ==History== {{Main|History of the transistor}} [[Image:Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg|thumb|180px|A replica of the first working transistor.]] Physicist [[Julius Edgar Lilienfeld]] filed the first patent for a transistor in [[Canada]] in 1925, describing a device similar to a [[Field Effect Transistor]] or "FET".<ref>Lilienfeld, Julius Edgar, "Method and apparatus for controlling electric current" {{US patent|1745175}} 1930-01-28 (filed in Canada 1925-10-22, in US 1926-10-08).</ref> However, Lilienfeld did not publish any research articles about his devices,{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} nor did his patent cite any examples of devices actually constructed. In 1934, German inventor [[Oskar Heil]] patented a similar device.<ref>[http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?CC=GB&NR=439457&KC=&FT=E Heil, Oskar, "Improvements in or relating to electrical amplifiers and other control arrangements and devices"], Patent No. GB439457, European Patent Office, filed in Great Britain 1934-03-02, published 1935-12-06 (originally filed in Germany 1934-03-02).</ref> In 1947, [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Brattain]] at [[AT&T]]'s [[Bell Labs]] in the [[United States]] observed that when electrical contacts were applied to a crystal of [[germanium]], the output power was larger than the input. Solid State Physics Group leader [[William Shockley]] saw the potential in this, and over the next few months worked to greatly expand the knowledge of semiconductors, and thus could be described as the "father of the transistor". The term was coined by [[John R. Pierce]].<ref>{{cite book|author=David Bodanis|title=Electric Universe|publisher=Crown Publishers, New York|year=2005|isbn=0-7394-5670-9}}</ref> According to physicist/historian [[Robert Arns]], legal papers from the Bell Labs patent show that William Shockley and Gerald Pearson had built operational versions from Lilienfeld's patents, yet they never referenced this work in any of their later research papers or historical articles.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Arns, Robert G.|year=1998|month=October|title=The other transistor: early history of the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor|url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=730824|journal=Engineering Science and Education Journal|volume=7|issue=5|pages=233–240|id={{ISSN|0963-7346}}|doi=10.1049/esej:19980509}}</ref> The name 'transistor' is an abbreviation of the term 'transfer resistor'.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=American Heritage Dictionary |edition=3rd |year=1992 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |title=transistor }}</ref> The first silicon transistor was produced by [[Texas Instruments]] in 1954.<ref>J. Chelikowski, "Introduction: Silicon in all its Forms", ''Silicon: evolution and future of a technology'' (Editors: P. Siffert, E. F. Krimmel), p.1, Springer, 2004 ISBN 3-540-40546-1.</ref> This was the work of [[Gordon Teal]], an expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs.<ref>Grant McFarland, ''Microprocessor design: a practical guide from design planning to manufacturing'', p.10, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006 ISBN 0-07-145951-0.</ref> The first [[MOSFET|MOS]] transistor actually built was by Kahng and Atalla at Bell Labs in 1960.<ref>W. Heywang, K. H. Zaininger, "Silicon: The Semiconductor Material", ''Silicon: evolution and future of a technology'' (Editors: P. Siffert, E. F. Krimmel), p.36, Springer, 2004 ISBN 3-540-40546-1.</ref> ==Importance== The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern [[electronics]], and is considered by many to be one of the greatest inventions of the twentieth century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Roadmap to Entrepreneurial Success|author=Robert W. Price|publisher=AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn|year=2004|isbn=9780814471906|page=42|url=http://books.google.com/?id=q7UzNoWdGAkC&pg=PA42&dq=transistor+inventions-of-the-twentieth-century}}</ref> Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be [[mass production|mass produced]] using a highly automated process ([[semiconductor device fabrication]]) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs. Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as ''[[Discrete transistor|discrete]]'') transistors every year,<ref>[http://www.globalsources.com/gsol/I/FET-MOSFET/a/9000000085806.htm FETs/MOSFETs: Smaller apps push up surface-mount supply]</ref> the vast majority of transistors now produced are in [[integrated circuits]] (often shortened to ''IC'', ''microchips'' or simply ''chips''), along with [[diode]]s, [[resistors]], [[capacitors]] and other [[electronic components]], to produce complete electronic circuits. A [[logic gate]] consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as many as 2.3 billion transistors ([[MOSFET]]s).<ref>"[http://www.intel.com/pressroom/archive/releases/20090526comp.htm Intel Previews Intel Xeon 'Nehalem-EX' Processor]." May 26, 2009. Retrieved on May 28, 2009.</ref> "About 60 million transistors were built this year [2002] ... for [each] man, woman, and child on Earth."<ref>Turley, J. (December 18, 2002).[http://www.embedded.com/shared/printableArticle.jhtml?articleID=9900861 The Two Percent Solution]. Embedded.com.</ref> The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device. Transistorized [[mechatronics|mechatronic]] circuits have replaced [[cam timer|electromechanical devices]] in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard [[microcontroller]] and write a [[computer program]] to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function. ===Usage=== The [[bipolar junction transistor]], or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor in the 1960s and 70s. Even after MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as simple amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of manufacture. Desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their utility in low-power devices, usually in the [[CMOS]] configuration, allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits; more recently MOSFETs have captured most analog and power applications as well, including modern clocked analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters, motor drivers, etc. ==Simplified operation== [[Image:Transistor2.svg|thumb|200px|right|Simple circuit to show the labels of a bipolar transistor.]] The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called [[gain]]. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal, that is, can act as an [[amplifier]]. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled [[switch]], where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements. The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A ''bipolar transistor'' has terminals labeled '''base''', '''collector''', and '''emitter'''. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a ''field-effect transistor'', the terminals are labeled '''gate''', '''source''', and '''drain''', and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain. The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as ''V''_BE. ===Transistor as a switch=== [[Image:Transistor as switch.svg|thumb|right|150px|BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration.]] Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications including [[switched mode power supply|switched-mode power supplies]] and low power applications such as [[logic gates]]. In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises the base and collector current rise exponentially, and the collector voltage drops because of the collector load resistor. The relevant equations: : V_{R_C} = I_CE × R_C, the voltage across the load (the lamp with resistance R_C) : V_{R_C} + V_CE = V_CC, the supply voltage shown as 6V If V_CE could fall to 0 (perfect closed switch) then Ic could go no higher than V_CC / R_C, even with higher base voltage and current. The transistor is then said to be saturated. Hence, values of input voltage can be chosen such that the output is either completely off,<ref>apart from a small value due to leakage currents</ref> or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation is common in [[digital circuits]] where only "on" and "off" values are relevant. ===Transistor as an amplifier=== [[Image:Common emitter amplifier.svg|200px|thumb|Amplifier circuit, standard common-emitter configuration.]] The [[common-emitter amplifier]] is designed so that a small change in voltage in (''V''_in) changes the small current through the base of the transistor and the transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings in ''V''_in produce large changes in ''V''_out. <!-- It is important that the operating values of the transistor are chosen and the circuit designed such that as far as possible, the transistor operates within a [[linear]] portion of the graph, such as that shown between A and B, otherwise the output signal will suffer [[distortion]]. --> Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both. From [[mobile phone]]s to [[television]]s, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for [[sound reproduction]], [[Transmitter|radio transmission]], and [[signal processing]]. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred [[watt]]s are common and relatively inexpensive. ==Comparison with vacuum tubes== Prior to the development of transistors, [[vacuum tube|vacuum (electron) tube]]s (or in the UK "thermionic valves" or just "valves") were the main active components in electronic equipment. ===Advantages=== The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are *Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic devices. *Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost. *Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery-powered applications. *No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application. *Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency. *Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness. *Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than 30 years. *Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of [[complementary-symmetry]] circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes. *Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of [[microphonics]] in audio applications. ===Limitations=== *Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1,000 [[volts]] ([[silicon carbide|SiC]] devices can be operated as high as 3,000 volts). In contrast, electron tubes have been developed that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts. *High power, high frequency operation, such as that used in over-the-air [[television|television broadcasting]], is better achieved in electron tubes due to improved [[electron mobility]] in a vacuum. *Silicon transistors are much more sensitive than electron tubes to an [[electromagnetic pulse]] generated by a high-altitude [[nuclear explosion]]. ==Types== {{float_begin|side=right}} |- align="center" |[[Image:BJT PNP symbol.svg|80px]]||PNP||[[Image:JFET P-Channel Labelled.svg|80px]]||P-channel |- align="center" |[[Image:BJT NPN symbol.svg|80px]]||NPN||[[Image:JFET N-Channel Labelled.svg|80px]]||N-channel |- align="center" |BJT||||JFET|| {{float_end|caption=BJT and JFET symbols}} {{float_begin|side=right}} |- align="center" |[[Image:JFET P-Channel Labelled.svg|80px]]||[[Image:IGFET P-Ch Enh Labelled.svg|80px]]||[[Image:IGFET P-Ch Enh Labelled simplified.svg|80px]]||[[Image:IGFET P-Ch Dep Labelled.svg|80px]]||P-channel |- align="center" |[[Image:JFET N-Channel Labelled.svg|80px]]||[[Image:IGFET N-Ch Enh Labelled.svg|80px]]||[[Image:IGFET N-Ch Enh Labelled simplified.svg|80px]]||[[Image:IGFET N-Ch Dep Labelled.svg|80px]]||N-channel |- align="center" |JFET||colspan="2"|MOSFET enh||MOSFET dep {{float_end|caption=JFET and IGFET symbols}} Transistors are categorized by *[[List of semiconductor materials|Semiconductor material]]: [[germanium]], [[silicon]], [[gallium arsenide]], [[silicon carbide]], etc. *Structure: [[Bipolar junction transistor|BJT]], [[JFET]], IGFET ([[MOSFET]]), [[IGBT]], "other types" *Polarity: [[NPN transistor|NPN]], [[PNP transistor|PNP]] (BJTs); N-channel, P-channel (FETs) *Maximum power rating: low, medium, high *Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, [[radio frequency]] (RF), [[microwave]] (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term <math>f_\mathrm{T}</math>, an abbreviation for "frequency of transition". The frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain). *Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair *Physical packaging: [[through-hole technology|through hole]] metal, through hole plastic, [[Surface-mount technology|surface mount]], [[ball grid array]], power modules *Amplification factor [[transistor models|h_fe]] (transistor beta)<ref>{{cite web|title=Transistor Example|url=http://www.bcae1.com/transres.htm}} 071003 bcae1.com</ref> Thus, a particular transistor may be described as ''silicon, surface mount, BJT, NPN, low power, high frequency switch''. ===Bipolar junction transistor=== {{Main|Bipolar junction transistor}} Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a combination of two junction diodes, and is formed of either a thin layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n-p-n transistor), or a thin layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors (a p-n-p transistor). This construction produces two [[p-n junction]]s: a base–emitter junction and a base–collector junction, separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two junction diodes wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not make a transistor). The BJT has three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor - an ''emitter'', a ''base'', and a ''collector''. It is useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by a relatively small base current."<ref name=Streetman>{{cite book|last=Streetman|first=Ben|authorlink=Ben G. Streetman|title=Solid State Electronic Devices|year=1992|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ|isbn=0-13-822023-9|pages=301–305}}</ref> In an NPN transistor operating in the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction) base-collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled.<ref name=Streetman/> Collector current is approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications. Unlike the FET, the BJT is a low–input-impedance device. Also, as the base–emitter voltage (''V_be'') is increased the base–emitter current and hence the collector–emitter current (''I_ce'') increase exponentially according to the [[diode modelling#Shockley diode model|Shockley diode model]] and the [[bipolar junction transistor#Ebers.E2.80.93Moll model|Ebers-Moll model]]. Because of this exponential relationship, the BJT has a higher [[transconductance]] than the FET. Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light, since absorption of photons in the base region generates a photocurrent that acts as a base current; the collector current is approximately β times the photocurrent. Devices designed for this purpose have a transparent window in the package and are called [[phototransistor]]s. ===Field-effect transistor=== {{Main|MOSFET|JFET}} The ''[[field-effect transistor]]'' (FET), sometimes called a ''unipolar transistor'', uses either electrons (in ''N-channel FET'') or holes (in ''P-channel FET'') for conduction. The four terminals of the FET are named ''source'', ''gate'', ''drain'', and ''body'' (''substrate''). On most FETs, the body is connected to the source inside the package, and this will be assumed for the following description. In FETs, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the ''source'' region to the ''drain'' region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage (''V_gs'') is increased, the drain–source current (''I_ds'') increases exponentially for ''V_gs'' below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate (<math>I_{ds} \propto (V_{gs}-V_T)^2</math>) (where ''V_T'' is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins)<ref name=horowitz-hill>{{cite book|last=Horowitz|first=Paul|authorlink=Paul Horowitz|coauthors=[[Winfield Hill]]|title=[[The Art of Electronics]]|edition=2nd|year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-37095-7|pages=115}}</ref> in the "[[space charge|space-charge-limited]]" region above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the [[65 nanometer|65 nm]] technology node.<ref name=Sansen> {{cite book|author=W. M. C. Sansen|title=Analog design essentials|year= 2006|page=§0152, p. 28|publisher=Springer|location=New York ; Berlin|isbn=0-387-25746-2|url=http://worldcat.org/isbn/0387257462}}</ref> For low noise at narrow [[bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous. FETs are divided into two families: ''junction FET'' ([[JFET]]) and ''insulated gate FET'' (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as a ''metal–oxide–semiconductor FET'' (MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a PN [[diode]] with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the N-channel JFET the solid state equivalent of the vacuum tube [[triode]] which, similarly, forms a diode between its [[Control grid|grid]] and [[cathode]]. Also, both devices operate in the ''depletion mode'', they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage. Metal–semiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which the [[p-n junction#Reverse bias|reverse biased PN junction]] is replaced by a metal–semiconductor [[Walter H. Schottky|Schottky]]-junction. These, and the HEMTs (high electron mobility transistors, or HFETs), in which a two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge transport, are especially suitable for use at very high frequencies (microwave frequencies; several GHz). Unlike bipolar transistors, FETs do not inherently amplify a photocurrent. Nevertheless, there are ways to use them, especially JFETs, as light-sensitive devices, by exploiting the photocurrents in channel–gate or channel–body junctions. FETs are further divided into ''depletion-mode'' and ''enhancement-mode'' types, depending on whether the channel is turned on or off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at zero bias, and a gate potential can "enhance" the conduction. For depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can "deplete" the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for N-channel devices and a lower current for P-channel devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode as the diode junctions would forward bias and conduct if they were enhancement mode devices; most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types. ===Other transistor types=== {{Cleanup-list|date=September 2009}} *[[Point-contact transistor]], first kind of transistor ever constructed *[[Bipolar junction transistor]] (BJT) **[[Heterojunction bipolar transistor]], up to several hundred GHz, common in modern ultrafast and RF circuits **[[Grown-junction transistor]], first kind of BJT **[[Alloy-junction transistor]], improvement of grown-junction transistor ***[[Micro-alloy transistor]] (MAT), speedier than alloy-junction transistor ***[[Micro-alloy diffused transistor]] (MADT), speedier than MAT, a [[diffused-base transistor]] ***[[Post-alloy diffused transistor]] (PADT), speedier than MAT, a [[diffused-base transistor]] ***[[Schottky barrier#Devices|Schottky transistor]] ***[[Surface barrier transistor]] **[[Drift-field transistor]] **[[Avalanche transistor]] **[[Darlington transistor]]s are two BJTs connected together to provide a high current gain equal to the product of the current gains of the two transistors. **[[IGBT transistor|Insulated gate bipolar transistors]] ([[IGBT transistor|IGBTs]]) use a medium power IGFET, similarly connected to a power BJT, to give a high input impedance. Power diodes are often connected between certain terminals depending on specific use. IGBTs are particularly suitable for heavy-duty industrial applications. The [[Asea Brown Boveri]] (ABB) ''5SNA2400E170100'' illustrates just how far power semiconductor technology has advanced.<ref>[http://library.abb.com/GLOBAL/SCOT/scot256.nsf/VerityDisplay/E700072B04381DD9C12571FF002D2CFE/$File/5SNA%202400E170100_5SYA1555-03Oct%2006.pdf IGBT Module 5SNA 2400E170100]</ref> Intended for three-phase power supplies, this device houses three NPN IGBTs in a case measuring 38 by 140 by 190&nbsp;mm and weighing 1.5&nbsp;kg. Each IGBT is rated at 1,700 volts and can handle 2,400 amperes. **[[Photo transistor]] *[[Field-effect transistor]] **[[JFET]], where the gate is insulated by a reverse-biased PN junction **[[MESFET]], similar to JFET with a Schottky junction instead of PN one ***[[High Electron Mobility Transistor]] (HEMT, HFET, MODFET) **[[MOSFET]], where the gate is insulated by a shallow layer of insulator **[[Inverted-T field effect transistor]] (ITFET) **[[FinFET]], source/drain region shapes fins on the silicon surface. **[[FREDFET]], fast-reverse epitaxial diode field-effect transistor **[[Thin film transistor]], in LCDs. **[[OFET]] Organic Field-Effect Transistor, in which the semiconductor is an organic compound **[[Ballistic transistor]] **[[Floating-gate transistor]], for non-volatile storage. **FETs used to sense environment ***[[Ion sensitive field effect transistor]], to measure ion concentrations in solution. ***[[EOSFET]], electrolyte-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor ([[Neurochip]]) ***[[DNAFET]], deoxyribonucleic acid field-effect transistor *[[Spacistor]] *[[Diffusion transistor]], formed by diffusing dopants into semiconductor substrate; can be both BJT and FET *[[Unijunction transistor]]s can be used as simple pulse generators. They comprise a main body of either P-type or N-type semiconductor with ohmic contacts at each end (terminals ''Base1'' and ''Base2''). A junction with the opposite semiconductor type is formed at a point along the length of the body for the third terminal (''Emitter''). *[[Single-electron transistor]]s (SET) consist of a gate island between two tunnelling junctions. The tunnelling current is controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a capacitor.<ref>[http://snow.stanford.edu/~shimbo/set.html Single Electron Transistors]</ref> *[[Nanofluidic transistor]], controls the movement of ions through sub-microscopic, water-filled channels. [http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2005/06/28_transistor.shtml Nanofluidic transistor, the basis of future chemical processors] *Multigate devices **[[Tetrode transistor]] **[[Pentode transistor]] **[[Multigate device]] **[[Trigate transistors]] (Prototype by Intel) **'''Dual gate FETs''' have a single channel with two gates in [[cascode]]; a configuration optimized for ''high frequency amplifiers'', ''mixers'', and [[oscillators]]. *Junctionless Nanowire Transistor (JNT), developed at [[Tyndall National Institute]] in [[Ireland]], was the first transistor successfully fabricated without junctions. (Even [[MOSFET]]s have junctions, although its gate is electrically insulated from the region the gate controls.) Junctions are difficult and expensive to fabricate, and, because they are a significant source of current leakage, they waste significant power and generate significant waste heat. Eliminating them held the promise of cheaper and denser microchips. The JNT uses a simple nanowire of silicon surrounded by an electrically isolated "wedding ring" that acts to gate the flow of electrons through the wire. This method has been described as akin to squeezing a garden hose to gate the flow of water through the hose. The nanowire is heavily n-doped, making it an excellent conductor. Crucially the gate, comprising silicon, is heavily p-doped; and its presence depletes the underlying silicon nanowire thereby preventing carrier flow past the gate. ===Part numbers=== The types of some transistors can be parsed from the part number. There are three major semiconductor naming standards; in each the alphanumeric prefix provides clues to type of the device: [[Japanese Industrial Standard]] (JIS) has a standard for transistor part numbers. They begin with "2S"<ref>[http://www.clivetec.0catch.com/Transistors.htm#JIS Clive TEC Transistors Japanese Industrial Standards]</ref>, e.g. 2SD965, but sometimes the "2S" prefix is not marked on the package - a 2SD965 might only be marked "D965"; a 2SC1815 might be listed by a supplier as simply "C1815". This series sometimes has suffixes (such as "R", "O", "BL"... standing for "Red", "Orange", "Blue" etc...) to denote variants, such as tighter h_FE (gain) groupings. {|class="wikitable" |- ! Beginning of Part Number !! Type of Transistor |- |2SA||high frequency PNP BJTs |- |2SB||audio frequency PNP BJTs |- |2SC||high frequency NPN BJTs |- |2SD||audio frequency NPN BJTs |- |2SJ||P-channel FETs (both JFETs and MOSFETs) |- |2SK||N-channel FETs (both JFETs and MOSFETs) |} The [[Pro Electron]] part numbers begin with two letters: the first gives the semiconductor type (A for Germanium, B for Silicon, and C for materials like GaAs); the second letter denotes the intended use (A for diode, C for general-purpose transistor, etc.). A 3-digit sequence number (or one letter then 2 digits, for industrial types) follows (and, with early devices, indicated the case type - just as the older system for [[vacuum tube]]s used the last digit or two to indicate the number of pins, and the first digit or two for the filament voltage). A letter or other code to indicate transistor gain (e.g. "C" for high gain) or zener tolerance and voltage, etc., may follow. The more common prefixes are: {|class="wikitable" |- ! Prefix class !! Usage !! Example |- |AC||[[Germanium]] small signal transistor || AC126 |- |AF||[[Germanium]] [[Radio Frequency|RF]] transistor ||AF117 |- |BC||Silicon, small signal transistor ("allround") || BC548B |- |BD||Silicon, power transistor || BD139 |- |BF||Silicon, [[Radio Frequency|RF]] (high frequency) [[BJT]] or [[FET]] || BF245 |- |BS||Silicon, switching transistor ([[Bipolar|BJT]] or [[MOSFET]]) || BS170 |- |BL||Silicon, high frequency, high power (for transmitters) || BLW34 |- |BU||Silicon, high voltage (for television [[Horizontal Deflection]] circuits) || BU508 |} The [[JEDEC]] transistor device numbers usually start with 2N, indicating a three-terminal device (dual-gate [[Field Effect Transistor]]s are four-terminal devices, so begin with 3N), then a 2, 3 or 4-digit sequential number with no significance as to device properties (although low numbers tend to be Germanium devices, because early transistors were mainly Germanium). For example [[2N3055]] is a silicon NPN power transistor, 2N1301 is a PNP germanium switching transistor. A letter suffix (such as "A") is sometimes used to indicate a newer variant, but rarely gain groupings. ====Other schemes==== Manufacturers of devices may have their own proprietary numbering system, for example [[CK722]]. Note that a manufacturer's prefix (like "MPF" in MPF102, which originally would denote a [[Motorola]] [[FET]]) now is an unreliable indicator of who made the device. Some proprietary naming schemes adopt parts of other naming schemes, for example a PN2222A is a (possibly [[Fairchild Semiconductor]]) 2N2222A in a plastic case (but a PN108 is a plastic version of a BC108, not a 2N108, while the PN70 is unrelated to other devices). Military part numbers sometimes are assigned their own codes, such as the [[UK CV series|British Military CV Naming System]]. Manufacturers buying large numbers of similar parts may have them supplied with "house numbers", identifying a particular purchasing specification and not necessarily a device with a standardized registered number. For example, an HP part 1854,0053 is a (JEDEC) 2N2218 transistor<ref>http://www.hpmuseum.org/cgi-sys/cgiwrap/hpmuseum/archv010.cgi?read=27258 Richard Freeman's HP Part numbers Crossreference</ref><ref>http://www.arrl.org/qexfiles/300-hpxref.pdf ARRL Transistor - Diode Cross Reference - H.P. Part Numbers to JEDEC (pdf)</ref> which is also assigned the CV number: CV7763<ref>http://www.qsl.net/g8yoa/cv_table.html CV Device Cross-reference by Andy Lake</ref> ====Problems with naming ==== With so many independent naming schemes, and the abbreviation of part numbers when printed on the devices, ambiguity sometimes occurs. For example two different devices may be marked "J176" (one the 2SJ176 low-power Junction [[FET]], the other a higher-powered [[MOSFET]] J176). As older "through-hole" transistors are given [[Surface-mount technology|Surface-Mount]] packaged counterparts, they tend to be assigned many different part numbers because manufacturers have their own systems to cope with the variety in [[pinout]] arrangements and options for dual or matched NPN+PNP devices in one pack. So even when the original device (such as a 2N3904) may have been assigned by a standards authority, and well known by engineers over the years, the new versions are far from standardised in their naming. ==Construction== ===Semiconductor material=== The first BJTs were made from [[germanium]] (Ge). [[Silicon]] ([[Si]]) types currently predominate but certain advanced microwave and high performance versions now employ the ''compound semiconductor'' material [[gallium arsenide]] ([[GaAs]]) and the ''semiconductor alloy'' [[silicon germanium]] ([[SiGe]]). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as ''elemental''. Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are given in the table below; it must be noted that these parameters will vary with increase in temperature, electric field, impurity level, strain, and sundry other factors: {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" |+Semiconductor material characteristics !Semiconductor <br> material !Junction forward <br> voltage <br> V @ 25 °C !Electron mobility <br> m²/(V·s) @ 25 °C !Hole mobility <br> m²/(V·s) @ 25 °C !Max. junction temp. <br> °C |- !Ge |0.27||0.39||0.19||70 to 100 |- !Si |0.71||0.14|| 0.05||150 to 200 |- !GaAs |1.03||0.85||0.05||150 to 200 |- !Al-Si junction |0.3||—||—||150 to 200 |} The ''junction forward voltage'' is the voltage applied to the emitter-base junction of a BJT in order to make the base conduct a specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward voltage is increased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decreases with increase in temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C.<ref name=Sedra> {{cite book|author=A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith|title=Microelectronic circuits|year=2004|pages=397 and Figure 5.17|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=Fifth|location=New York|isbn=0-19-514251-9}}</ref> The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the electric field forming the channel and of various other phenomena such as the impurity level in the channel. Some impurities, called dopants, are introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to control the MOSFET electrical behavior. The ''[[electron mobility]]'' and ''[[hole mobility]]'' columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse through the semiconductor material with an [[electric field]] of 1 volt per meter applied across the material. In general, the higher the electron mobility the speedier the transistor. The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide: *Its maximum temperature is limited; *it has relatively high [[Reverse leakage current|leakage current]]; *it cannot withstand high voltages; *it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits. Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar [[NPN transistor]] tends to be swifter than an equivalent [[PNP transistor]] type. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is used in high frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the ''high electron mobility transistor'' ([[HEMT]]), has a [[heterojunction|heterostructure]] (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12&nbsp;GHz. '''Max. junction temperature''' values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data sheets. This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged. '''Al-Si junction''' refers to the high-speed (aluminum-silicon) semiconductor-metal barrier diode, commonly known as a [[Schottky diode]]. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a ''[[parasitic structure|parasitic]]'' reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and drain as part of the fabrication process. This diode can be a nuisance, but sometimes it is used in the circuit. ===Packaging=== [[Image:Transistor-photo.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Through-hole transistors (tape measure marked in [[centimetre]]s)]] Transistors come in many different packages ([[:Category:Semiconductor packages|semiconductor packages]]) (see images). The two main categories are ''[[through-hole technology|through-hole]]'' (or ''leaded''), and ''surface-mount'', also known as ''surface mount device'' ([[surface-mount technology|SMD]]). The ''ball grid array'' ([[Ball grid array|BGA]]) is the latest surface mount package (currently only for large ''transistor arrays''). It has solder "balls" on the underside in place of leads. Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high frequency characteristics but lower power rating. Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or plastic. The package often dictates the power rating and frequency characteristics. Power transistors have larger packages that can be clamped to [[heat sink]]s for enhanced cooling. Additionally, most power transistors have the collector or drain physically connected to the metal can/metal plate. At the other extreme, some surface-mount ''microwave'' transistors are as small as grains of sand. Often a given transistor type is available in sundry packages. Transistor packages are mainly standardized, but the assignment of a transistor's functions to the terminals is not: other transistor types can assign other functions to the package's terminals. Even for the same transistor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally indicated by a suffix letter to the part number, q.e. BC212L and BC212K). ==See also== {{colbegin|3}} *[[Band gap]] *[[Chip carrier]] Chip packaging and package types list *[[Digital logic]] *[[Diode]] *[[Electronic component]] *[[Integrated circuit]] *[[Memristor]] *[[Moore's law]] *[[Semiconductor]] *[[Semiconductor device modeling]] *[[Semiconductor devices]] *[[Transconductance]] *[[Transistor count]] *[[Transistor models]] *[[Transistor–transistor logic]] *[[Transresistance]] *[[Very-large-scale integration]] *[[2N3055]] an early general purpose transistor {{colend}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== *{{cite book|author=Amos S W & James M R|title=Principles of Transistor Circuits|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|year=1999|isbn=0-7506-4427-3}} *{{cite journal|author=Bacon, W. Stevenson|year=1968|title=The Transistor's 20th Anniversary: How Germanium And A Bit of Wire Changed The World|url=http://books.google.com/?id=mykDAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover|journal=Bonnier Corp.: Popular Science, retrieved from [[Google Books]] 2009-03-22|volume=192|issue=6|pages=80–84|issn=0161-7370|publisher=Bonnier Corporation}} *{{cite book|author=[[Paul Horowitz|Horowitz, Paul]] & Hill, Winfield|title=The Art of Electronics|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1989|isbn=0-521-37095-7}} *{{cite book|author=Riordan, Michael & Hoddeson, Lillian|title=Crystal Fire|publisher=W.W Norton & Company Limited|year=1998|isbn=0-393-31851-6}} The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age *{{cite book|author=Warnes, Lionel|title=Analogue and Digital Electronics|publisher=Macmillan Press Ltd|year=1998|isbn=0-333-65820-5}} *{{cite news|title=Herbert F. Mataré, An Inventor of the Transistor has his moment|date=24 February 2003|publisher=The New York Times|url=http://www.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor24feb03.htm}} *{{cite journal|author=Michael Riordan|year=2005|title=How Europe Missed the Transistor|journal=IEEE Spectrum|volume=42|issue=11|pages=52–57|url=http://spectrum.ieee.org/print/2155|doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2005.1526906}} *{{cite book|author=C. D. Renmore|year=1980|title=Silicon Chips and You}} *{{cite book|author=Wiley-IEEE Press|title=Complete Guide to Semiconductor Devices, 2nd Edition}} ==External links== {{Wikibooks|Transistors}} {{Commons category|Transistors}} *[http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/transistor/function/index.html The Transistor] Educational content from Nobelprize.org *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7091190.stm BBC: Building the digital age] photo history of transistors *[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=000D5D9F-A849-1330-A54583414B7F0000 Transistor Flow Control]&nbsp;— Scientific American Magazine (October 2005) *[http://www.porticus.org/bell/belllabs_transistor.html The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors] *[http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/The_Transistor_and_Portable_Electronics ''IEEE Global History Network, The Transistor and Portable Electronics'']. All about the history of transistors and integrated circuits. *[http://www.pbs.org/transistor/ ''Transistorized]''. Historical and technical information from the [[Public Broadcasting Service]] *[http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm ''This Month in Physics History: November 17 to December 23, 1947: Invention of the First Transistor]''. From the [[American Physical Society]] *[http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/1997/Dec/hour1_121297.html ''50 Years of the Transistor]''. From [[Science Friday]], December 12, 1997 *[http://users.arczip.com/rmcgarra2/index.html ''Bob's Virtual Transistor Museum & History]''. Treasure trove of transistor history *[http://www.ee.washington.edu/circuit_archive/parts/cross.html ''Jerry Russell's Transistor Cross Reference Database]''. *[http://www.datasheetarchive.com/ ''The DatasheetArchive]''. Searchable database of transistor specifications and datasheets. *Charts showing many characteristics and giving direct access to most datasheets for [http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2n.html 2N], [http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2sa.html 2SA], [http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2sb.html 2SB]. [http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2sc.html 2SC], [http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2sd.html 2SD], [http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2sh-k.html 2SH-K], and [http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-3up.html other] numbers. *http://userpages.wittenberg.edu/bshelburne/Comp150/LogicGatesCircuits.html *[http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/222 A short video showing how a transistor works]. ===Datasheets=== A wide range of transistors has been available since the 1960s and manufacturers continually introduce improved types. A few examples from the main families are noted below. Unless otherwise stated, all types are made from silicon semiconductor. Complementary pairs are shown as NPN/PNP or N/P channel. Links go to manufacturer datasheets, which are in [[PDF]] format. (On some datasheets the accuracy of the stated transistor category is a matter of debate.) *[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3903-D.PDF 2N3904]/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3906-D.PDF 2N3906], [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC182-D.PDF BC182]/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC212-D.PDF BC212] and [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC546-D.PDF BC546]/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC556B-D.PDF BC556]: Ubiquitous, BJT, general-purpose, low-power, complementary pairs. They have plastic cases and cost roughly ten cents US in small quantities, making them popular with hobbyists. *[[AF107]]: Germanium, 0.5-watt, 250&nbsp;MHz PNP BJT. *BFP183: Low power, 8&nbsp;GHz microwave NPN BJT. *[http://www.national.com/ds/LM/LM194.pdf LM394]: "supermatch pair", with two NPN BJTs on a single substrate. *[http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/9288.pdf 2N2219A]/[http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/9037.pdf 2N2905A]: BJT, general purpose, medium power, complementary pair. With metal cases they are rated at about one watt. *[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3055-D.PDF 2N3055]/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3055-D.PDF MJ2955]: For years, the venerable NPN 2N3055 has been the "standard" power transistor. Its complement, the PNP MJ2955 arrived later. These 1&nbsp;MHz, 15A, 60V, 115W BJTs are used in audio power amplifiers, power supplies, and control. *[[2N7000]] is a typical small-signal [[field-effect transistor]]. *2SC3281/2SA1302: Made by [[Toshiba]], these BJTs have low-distortion characteristics and are used in high-power audio amplifiers. They have been widely counterfeited [http://sound.westhost.com/counterfeit.htm]. *[http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/4491.pdf BU508]: NPN, 1500 V power BJT. Designed for [[television]] horizontal deflection, its high voltage capability also makes it suitable for use in ignition systems. *[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/MJ11012-D.PDF MJ11012/MJ11015]: 30 A, 120 V, 200 W, high power Darlington complementary pair BJTs. Used in audio amplifiers, control, and power switching. *[http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/2N%2F2N5457.pdf 2N5457]/[http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/2N%2F2N5460.pdf 2N5460]: [[JFET]] (depletion mode), general purpose, low power, complementary pair. *BSP296/BSP171: [[IGFET]] (enhancement mode), medium power, near complementary pair. Used for logic level conversion and driving power transistors in amplifiers. *[http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf3710.pdf IRF3710]/[http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf5210.pdf IRF5210]: [[IGFET]] (enhancement mode), 40A, 100V, 200W, near complementary pair. For high-power amplifiers and power switches, especially in automobiles. ===Patents=== *{{patent|US|1745175|[[Julius Edgar Lilienfeld]]: "Method and apparatus for controlling electric current" first filed in Canada on 22.10.1925, describing a device similar to a [[MESFET]]}} *{{patent|US|1900018|[[Julius Edgar Lilienfeld]]: "Device for controlling electric current" filed on 28.03.1928, a thin film MOSFET}} *{{patent|GB|439457|[[Oskar Heil]]: "Improvements in or relating to electrical amplifiers and other control arrangements and devices" first filed in Germany on 02.03.1934}} *{{patent|US|2524035|J. Bardeen et al.: "Three-electrode circuit element utilizing semiconductive materials" oldest priority 26.02.1948}} *{{patent|US|2569347|W. Shockley: "Circuit element utilizing semiconductive material" oldest priority 26.06.1948}} [[Category:Transistors|*]] [[Category:Semiconductor devices]] [[Category:1947 introductions]] {{Link GA|de}} [[af:Transistor]] [[ar:ترانزستور]] [[an:Transistor]] [[bn:ট্রানজিস্টর]] [[be:Транзістар]] [[be-x-old:Транзыстар]] [[bs:Tranzistor]] [[bg:Транзистор]] [[ca:Transistor]] [[cs:Tranzistor]] [[da:Transistor]] [[de:Transistor]] [[et:Transistor]] [[el:Τρανζίστορ]] [[es:Transistor]] [[eo:Transistoro]] [[ext:Transistol]] [[eu:Transistore]] [[fa:ترانزیستور]] [[fr:Transistor]] [[fur:Transistôr]] [[gl:Transistor]] [[gan:晶體管]] [[ko:트랜지스터]] [[hy:Տրանզիստոր]] [[hi:ट्रांज़िस्टर]] [[hr:Tranzistor]] [[id:Transistor]] [[ia:Transistor]] [[is:Smári (rafeindafræði)]] [[it:Transistor]] [[he:טרנזיסטור]] [[kn:ಟ್ರಾನ್ಸಿಸ್ಟರ್]] [[ka:ტრანზისტორი]] [[kk:Транзистор]] [[la:Transistrum]] [[lv:Tranzistors]] [[lt:Tranzistorius]] [[hu:Tranzisztor]] [[mk:Транзистор]] [[ml:ട്രാൻസിസ്റ്റർ]] [[mr:ट्रांझिस्टर]] [[ms:Transistor]] [[mn:Транзистор]] [[nl:Transistor]] [[new:ट्रान्जिस्टर]] [[ja:トランジスタ]] [[no:Transistor]] [[nn:Transistor]] [[pnb:ٹرانزسٹر]] [[pl:Tranzystor]] [[pt:Transístor]] [[ro:Tranzistor]] [[ru:Транзистор]] [[stq:Transistore]] [[sq:Transistori]] [[scn:Transìsturi]] [[si:ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටරය]] [[simple:Transistor]] [[sk:Tranzistor]] [[sl:Tranzistor]] [[sr:Транзистор]] [[sh:Tranzistor]] [[su:Transistor]] [[fi:Transistori]] [[sv:Transistor]] [[tl:Transistor]] [[ta:திரிதடையம்]] [[tt:Tranzistor]] [[te:ట్రాన్సిస్టర్]] [[th:ทรานซิสเตอร์]] [[tr:Transistör]] [[uk:Транзистор]] [[ur:منتقزاحم]] [[vi:Tranzito]] [[war:Transistor]] [[yi:טראנזיסטאר]] [[zh-yue:電晶體]] [[diq:Transistor]] [[zh:晶体管]]'