Examine individual changes

'{{Short description|15th and 16th-century Castilian queen}} {{Redirect|Isabella I}} {{Redirect|Isabel la Católica|the Mexico City Metro station|Isabel la Católica metro station}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{EngvarB|date=May 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}} {{Infobox royalty | name = {{small|[[Servant of God]]}} <br />Isabella I | image = IsabellaofCastile03.jpg | caption = Portrait (c. 1490) | succession = [[Queen of Castile]] and [[List of Leonese monarchs|León]] | reign = 11 December 1474 – {{nowrap|26 November 1504}} | coronation = 13 December 1474<ref>{{cite book | title=Game of Queens: The Women Who Made Sixteenth-Century Europe | author=Gristwood, Sarah | year=2016 | publisher=Basic Books | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TSnXCwAAQBAJ | page=30| isbn=9780465096794 }}</ref> | predecessor = [[Henry IV of Castile|Henry IV]] | successor = [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]] | reg-type = Co-monarch | regent = [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand V]] | succession1 = [[Queen consort of Aragon]] | moretext1 = ([[#External links|more..]]) | reign-type1 = Tenure | reign1 = 20 January 1479 – {{nowrap|26 November 1504}} | spouse = {{marriage|[[Ferdinand II of Aragon]]|1469}} | issue = {{plainlist| * [[Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Portugal|Isabella, Queen of Portugal]] * [[John, Prince of Asturias]] * [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna, Queen of Castile and Aragon]] * [[Maria of Aragon, Queen of Portugal|Maria, Queen of Portugal]] * [[Catherine of Aragon|Catherine, Queen of England]] }} | issue-link = #Family | issue-pipe = among others... | house = [[House of Trastámara|Trastámara]] | father = [[John II of Castile]] | mother = [[Isabella of Portugal, Queen of Castile|Isabella of Portugal]] | birth_date = 22 April 1451 | birth_place = [[Madrigal de las Altas Torres]] | death_date = 26 November 1504 (aged 53) | death_place = [[Medina del Campo]] | burial_date = | burial_place = [[Royal Chapel of Granada]] | signature = Isabella I of Castile Signature.svg | religion = [[Catholic Church in Spain|Roman Catholicism]] }} '''Isabella I''' ({{lang-es|Isabel I}}, 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504)<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 March 2019|title=To seize power in Spain, Queen Isabella had to play it smart|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2019/03-04/queen-isabellas-rise-to-spanish-throne/|access-date=8 February 2021|website=History Magazine|language=en}}</ref> was [[Queen of Castile]] from 1474 and, as the wife of [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|King Ferdinand II]], [[List of Aragonese consorts|Queen of Aragon]] from 1479 until her death, reigning over a [[Dynastic union|dynastically unified]] [[Spain]] jointly with her husband Ferdinand; together they would be known as the [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Catholic Monarchs]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Watson|first=Fiona Flores|date=26 July 2013|title=History - The Catholic Monarchs|url=https://www.andalucia.com/history/catholic-monarchs|access-date=8 February 2021|website=Andalucia.com|language=en}}</ref> Isabella is considered the first [[Queen of Spain]] ''de facto'', being described as such during her own lifetime, although [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and Aragon ''de jure'' remained two different kingdoms until the [[Nueva Planta decrees]] of 1707 to 1716. After a struggle to claim her right to the throne, she reorganized the governmental system, brought the crime rate to the lowest it had been in years,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Isabella I of Castile (Queen of Castile)|url=https://www.onthisday.com/people/isabella-i-of-castile|access-date=8 February 2021|website=OnThisDay.com|language=en}}</ref> and unburdened the kingdom of the enormous debt her brother had left behind. Isabella's marriage to Ferdinand in 1469 created the basis of the ''de facto'' unification of Spain. Her reforms and those she made with her husband had an influence that extended well beyond the borders of their united kingdoms. Isabella and Ferdinand are known for completing the [[Reconquista]], ordering the expulsion of [[Muslims]] and [[Jews]] from Spain, for supporting and financing [[Christopher Columbus]]'s [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#First voyage|1492 voyage]] that led to the discovery of the [[New World]] by Europeans, and for the establishment of [[Spain]] as a major power in Europe and much of the world for more than a century.<ref name="NGHistory">{{cite news |last1=Palos |first1=Joan-Lluís |title=To seize power in Spain, Queen Isabella had to play it smart: Bold, strategic, and steady, Isabella of Castile navigated an unlikely rise to the throne and ushered in a golden age for Spain |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2019/march-april/queen-isabellas-rise-to-spanish-throne/ |access-date=20 April 2019 |publisher=National Geographic History Magazine |date=28 March 2019}}</ref> Isabella was granted, together with her husband, the title "the Catholic Monarch" by [[Pope Alexander VI]], and was recognized in 1974 as a [[Servant of God]] by the [[Catholic Church]]. ==Life== === Early years === Isabella was born in [[Madrigal de las Altas Torres]], [[Ávila (province)|Ávila]], to [[John II of Castile]] and his second wife, [[Isabella of Portugal, Queen of Castile|Isabella of Portugal]], on 22 April 1451.<ref>Cristina Guardiola-Griffiths. (2018). Isabel I, Queen of Castile. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0395.xml/.</ref> At the time of her birth, she was second in line to the throne after her older half-brother [[Henry IV of Castile]].<ref name="NGHistory"/> Henry was 26 at that time and married, but childless. Her younger brother [[Alfonso of Castile, Prince of Asturias|Alfonso of Castile]] was born two years later on 17 November 1453, lowering her position to third in line.<ref>Weissberger,Barbara, "Queen Isabel I of Castile Power, Patronage, Persona." Tamesis, Woodbridge, 2008, p. 20–21</ref> When her father died in 1454, her half-brother ascended to the throne as King Henry IV of Castile. Isabella and her brother Alfonso were left in King Henry's care.<ref name="Prescott, William 1860, p. 28">Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B Lippincott & Co., 1860, p. 28</ref> She, her mother, and Alfonso then moved to [[Arévalo]].She also had a sister by the name of Maria who was captured by the Moors and became pregnant by the age of 13, and was subsequently excommunicated bt the Catholic Church , so she was unrecgonized by the Castille family with the advise of a Portuguse uncle. <ref name="NGHistory"/><ref name="Prescott, William 1860, p. 83">Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B Lippincott & CO., 1860, p. 83</ref> These were times of turmoil for Isabella. The living conditions at their castle in Arévalo were poor, and they suffered from a shortage of money. Although her father arranged in his will for his children to be financially well taken care of, King Henry did not comply with their father's wishes, either from a desire to keep his half-siblings restricted, or from ineptitude.<ref name="Prescott, William 1860, p. 28"/> Even though living conditions were difficult, under the careful eye of her mother, Isabella was instructed in lessons of practical piety and in a deep reverence for religion.<ref name="Prescott, William 1860, p. 83"/> When the King's wife, [[Joan of Portugal]], was about to give birth to their daughter [[Joanna la Beltraneja|Joanna]], Isabella and her brother Alfonso were summoned to court in [[Segovia]] to come under the direct supervision of the King and to finish their education.<ref name="NGHistory"/> Alfonso was placed in the care of a tutor while Isabella became part of the Queen's household.<ref>Plunkett, Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 52</ref> [[File:Isabel de castilla.jpg|thumb|upright|Isabella in the ''Rimado de la Conquista de Granada'', from 1482, by Pedro Marcuello]] Some of Isabella's living conditions improved in Segovia. She always had food and clothing and lived in a castle that was adorned with gold and silver. Isabella's basic education consisted of reading, spelling, writing, grammar, history, mathematics, art, chess, dancing, embroidery, music, and religious instruction. She and her ladies-in-waiting entertained themselves with art, embroidery, and music. She lived a relaxed lifestyle, but she rarely left Segovia since King Henry forbade this. Her half-brother was keeping her from the political turmoils going on in the kingdom, though Isabella had full knowledge of what was going on and of her role in the feuds.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} The noblemen, anxious for power, confronted King Henry, demanding that his younger half-brother Infante Alfonso be named his successor. They even went so far as to ask Alfonso to seize the throne. The nobles, now in control of Alfonso and claiming that he was the true heir, clashed with King Henry's forces at the [[Second Battle of Olmedo]] in 1467. The battle was a draw. King Henry agreed to recognize Alfonso as his heir presumptive, provided that he would marry his daughter, Princess Joanna la Beltraneja.<ref name="NGHistory"/><ref>Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B Lippincott & CO., 1860, p. 85–87</ref> Soon after he was named [[Prince of Asturias]], Isabella's younger brother Alfonso died in July 1468, likely of the plague. The nobles who had supported him suspected poisoning. As she had been named in her brother's will as his successor, the nobles asked Isabella to take his place as champion of the rebellion.<ref name="NGHistory"/> However, support for the rebels had begun to wane, and Isabella preferred a negotiated settlement to continuing the war.<ref>Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B Lippincott & CO., 1860, p. 93–94</ref> She met with her elder brother Henry at [[Toros de Guisando]] and they reached a compromise: the war would stop, King Henry would name Isabella his heir-presumptive instead of his daughter Joanna, and Isabella would not marry without her brother's consent, but he would not be able to force her to marry against her will.<ref name="NGHistory"/><ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 68">Plunkett, Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 68</ref> Isabella's side came out with most of what the nobles desired, though they did not go so far as to officially depose King Henry; they were not powerful enough to do so, and Isabella did not want to jeopardize the principle of fair inherited succession, since it was upon this idea that she had based her argument for legitimacy as heir-presumptive. ===Marriage=== The question of Isabella's marriage was not a new one. She had made her debut in the matrimonial market at the age of six with a betrothal to [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]], the younger son of [[John II of Navarre]] (whose family was a cadet branch of the [[House of Trastámara]]). At that time, the two kings, Henry and John, were eager to show their mutual love and confidence and they believed that this double alliance would make their eternal friendship obvious to the world.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 35</ref> This arrangement, however, did not last long. [[File:Fernando e Isabel.jpg|thumb|left|The wedding portrait of Ferdinand and Isabella, {{circa}} 1469.]] Ferdinand's uncle [[Alfonso V of Aragon]] died in 1458. All of Alfonso's Spanish territories, as well as the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, were left to his brother John II. John now had a stronger position than ever before and no longer needed the security of Henry's friendship. Henry was now in need of a new alliance. He saw the chance for this much needed new friendship in [[Charles IV of Navarre|Charles of Viana]], John's elder son.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 36–39</ref> Charles was constantly at odds with his father, and because of this, he secretly entered into an alliance with Henry IV of Castile. A major part of the alliance was that a marriage was to be arranged between Charles and Isabella. When John II learned of this arranged marriage he was outraged. Isabella had been intended for his favourite younger son, Ferdinand, and in his eyes this alliance was still valid. John II had his son Charles thrown in prison on charges of plotting against his father's life; Charles died in 1461.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 39-40</ref> In 1465, an attempt was made to marry Isabella to [[Afonso V of Portugal]], Henry's brother-in-law.<ref name="NGHistory"/> Through the medium of the Queen and Count of Ledesma, a Portuguese alliance was made.<ref name=BlckWell2000>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 5</ref> Isabella, however, was wary of the marriage and refused to consent.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 53</ref> A civil war broke out in Castile over King Henry's inability to act as sovereign. Henry now needed a quick way to please the rebels of the kingdom. As part of an agreement to restore peace, Isabella was to be betrothed to [[Pedro Girón Acuña Pacheco]], Master of the [[Order of Calatrava]] and brother to the King's favourite, [[Juan Pacheco]].<ref name=BlckWell2000/> In return, Don Pedro would pay into the impoverished royal treasury an enormous sum of money. Seeing no alternative, Henry agreed to the marriage. Isabella was aghast and prayed to God that the marriage would not come to pass. Her prayers were answered when Don Pedro suddenly fell ill and died while on his way to meet his fiancée.<ref name=BlckWell2000/><ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 62–63</ref> When Henry had recognised Isabella as his heir-presumptive on 19 September 1468, he had also promised that his sister should not be compelled to marry against her will, while she in return had agreed to obtain his consent.<ref name="NGHistory"/><ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 68"/> It seemed that finally the years of failed attempts at political marriages were over. There was talk of a marriage to [[Edward IV of England]] or to one of his brothers, probably [[Richard III of England|Richard, Duke of Gloucester]],<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 9</ref> but this alliance was never seriously considered.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 68"/> Once again in 1468, a marriage proposal arrived from Afonso V of Portugal. Going against his promises made in September, Henry tried to make the marriage a reality. If Isabella married Afonso, Henry's daughter Joanna would marry Afonso's son [[John II of Portugal|John II]] and thus, after the death of the old king, John and Joanna could inherit Portugal and Castile.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 70–71</ref> Isabella refused and made a secret promise to marry her cousin and very first betrothed, Ferdinand of Aragon.<ref name="NGHistory"/> [[File:IsabellaofCastile05.jpg|thumb|upright|Ferdinand and Isabella]] After this failed attempt, Henry once again went against his promises and tried to marry Isabella to [[Louis XI]]'s brother [[Charles de Valois, Duc de Berry|Charles, Duke of Berry]].<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 72</ref> In Henry's eyes, this alliance would cement the friendship of Castile and France as well as remove Isabella from Castilian affairs. Isabella once again refused the proposal. Meanwhile, John II of Aragon negotiated in secret with Isabella a wedding to his son Ferdinand.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 10,13–14</ref> On 18 October 1469, the formal betrothal took place.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 78">Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 78</ref> Because Isabella and Ferdinand were second cousins, they stood within the prohibited degrees of [[consanguinity]] and the marriage would not be legal unless a dispensation from the Pope was obtained.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 11,13</ref> With the help of the Valencian Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia (later [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]]), Isabella and Ferdinand were presented with a supposed papal bull by [[Pope Pius II|Pius II]] (who had died in 1464), authorising Ferdinand to marry within the third degree of consanguinity, making their marriage legal.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 78"/> Afraid of opposition, Isabella eloped from the court of Henry with the excuse of visiting her brother Alfonso's tomb in [[Ávila, Spain|Ávila]]. Ferdinand, on the other hand, crossed Castile in secret disguised as a servant.<ref name="NGHistory"/> They were married immediately upon reuniting, on 19 October 1469, in the [[Royal Audiencia and Chancillería of Valladolid|Palacio de los Vivero]] in the city of [[Valladolid]].<ref name="Gerli219">Gerli, p. 219</ref> ===War with Portugal=== {{See also|Battle of Toro|Battle of Guinea|War of the Castilian Succession}} On 12 December 1474, news of Isabella's brother King Henry IV's death in [[Madrid]] reached [[Segovia]] prompting Isabella to take refuge within the walls of the [[Alcázar of Segovia]] where she received the support of Andres de Cabrera and Segovia's council. The next day, Isabella was proclaimed Queen of Castile and León. Isabella's reign got off to a rocky start. Because her brother had named Isabella as his successor, when she ascended to the throne in 1474, there were already several plots against her. [[Diego Lopez de Pacheco, 2nd Duke of Escalona|Diego Pacheco]], the Marquis of Villena, and his followers maintained that [[Joanna la Beltraneja]], daughter of King Henry IV, was the rightful queen.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 93</ref> Shortly after the Marquis made his claim, a longtime supporter of Isabella, the [[Alfonso Carillo de Acuña|Archbishop of Toledo]], left court to plot with his great-nephew the Marquis. The Archbishop and Marquis made plans to have Joanna marry her uncle King [[Afonso V of Portugal]] and invade Castile to claim the throne for themselves.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 96</ref> In May 1475, King Afonso and his army crossed into Spain and advanced to [[Plasencia]]. Here he married the young Joanna.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 98</ref> A long and bloody war for the Castilian succession then took place. The war went back and forth for almost a year until 1 March 1476, when the [[Battle of Toro]] took place, a battle in which both sides claimed victory<ref name="Spanish historian Ana Carrasco Manchado (21)">[[#Manchado|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Spanish historian Ana Carrasco Manchado: ''"...The battle [of Toro] was fierce and uncertain, and because of that both sides attributed themselves the victory. John, the son of Afonso of Portugal, sent letters to the Portuguese cities declaring victory. And Ferdinand of Aragon did the same. Both wanted to take advantage of the victory's propaganda."'' In [https://books.google.com/books?id=qADOoHct1MwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Isabel+I+de+Castilla+y+la+sombra+de+la+ilegitimidad.+Propaganda+y+representación+en+el+conflicto+sucesorio+%281474–1482%29&source=bl&ots=sxnzroys_j&sig=aM79jFNVQ3dl8c47tP2FGbR ''Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimidad: propaganda y representación en el conflicto sucesorio (1474–1482)''], 2006, p. 195, 196.</ref><ref name="Spanish historian Cesáreo Fernández Duro (22)">[[#Duro|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Spanish historian Cesáreo Fernández Duro: ''"...For those who ignore the background of these circumstances it will certainly seem strange that while the Catholic Monarchs raised a temple in Toledo in honour of the victory that God granted them on that occasion, the same fact [the Battle of Toro] was festively celebrated with solemn processions on its anniversary in Portugal" '' in [http://descargas.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/hist/09255096579869640757857/023863.pdf?incr=1 ''La batalla de Toro (1476). Datos y documentos para su monografía histórica''], in Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, tome 38, Madrid, 1901,p. 250.</ref> and celebrated<ref name="Spanish historian Cesáreo Fernández Duro (22)"/><ref name="Manchado (23)">[[#Manchado|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Manchado, [https://books.google.com/books?id=qADOoHct1MwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Isabel+I+de+Castilla+y+la+sombra+de+la+ilegitimidad.+Propaganda+y+representaci%C3%B3n+en+el+conflicto+sucesorio+%281474%E2%80%931482%29&source=bl&ots=sxnzroys_j&sig=aM79jFNVQ3dl8c47tP2FGbR#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimidad: propaganda y representación en el conflicto sucesorio (1474–1482)''], 2006, p. 199 (foot note nr.141).</ref> the victory: the troops of King Afonso V were beaten<ref name="Pulgar (24)">[[#Pulgar|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Pulgar, [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/cronica-de-los-senores-reyes-catolicos-don-fernando-y-dona-isabel-de-castilla-y-de-aragon--2/ ''Crónica de los Señores Reyes Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragón''], chapter XLV.</ref><ref name="Garcia de Resende (25)">[[#Resende|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Garcia de Resende- [[:wikisource:pt:Vida e Feitos D' El-Rey Dom João Segundo/XIII|''Vida e feitos d'El Rei D.João II'']], chapter XIII.</ref> by the Castilian centre-left commanded by the Duke of Alba and [[Cardinal Mendoza]] while the forces led by John of Portugal defeated<ref name="Chronicler Pulgar (Castilian) (26)">[[#Pulgar|_{<big>↓</big>}]] chronicler [[Hernando del Pulgar]] (Castilian): ''"...promptly, those 6 Castilian captains, which we already told were at the right side of the royal battle, and were invested by the prince of Portugal and the bishop of Évora, turned their backs and put themselves on the run."'' in [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/cronica-de-los-senores-reyes-catolicos-don-fernando-y-dona-isabel-de-castilla-y-de-aragon--2/ ''Crónica de los Señores Reyes Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragón''], chapter XLV.</ref><ref name="chronicler Garcia de Resende (Portuguese)(27)">[[#Resende|_{<big>↓</big>}]] chronicler [[Garcia de Resende]] (Portuguese): ''"... And being the battles of both sides ordered that way and prepared to attack by nearly sunshine, the King ordered the prince to attack the enemy with his and God's blessing, which he obeyed (...). (...) and after the sound of the trumpets and screaming all for S. George invested so bravely the enemy battles, and in spite of their enormous size, they could not stand the hard fight and were rapidly beaten and put on the run with great losses."'' In [[:wikisource:pt:Vida e Feitos D' El-Rey Dom João Segundo/XIII|''Vida e feitos d'El Rei D.João II'']], chapter XIII.</ref><ref name="chronicler Juan de Mariana (Castilian) (28)">[[#Mariana|_{<big>↓</big>}]] chronicler [[Juan de Mariana]] (Castilian): ''"(...) the ''<nowiki>[Castilian]</nowiki>'' horsemen (...) moved forward(...).They were received by prince D. John... which charge... they couldn't stand but instead were defeated and ran away "'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=OvUA8yjTEoMC&pg=PA296&dq=Mariana+%22Historia+general+de+España%22&as_brr=3&hl=pt-PT&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Historia General de España''], tome V, book XXIV, chapter X, p. 299,300.</ref><ref name="chronicler Damião de Góis (Portuguese) (29)">[[#Góis|_{<big>↓</big>}]] chronicler [[Damião de Góis]] (Portuguese): ''"(...)these Castilians who were on the right of the Castilian Royal battle, received ''<nowiki>[the charge of]</nowiki>'' the Prince's men as brave knights invoking Santiago but they couldn't resist them and began to flee, and ''<nowiki>[so]</nowiki>'' our men killed and arrested many of them, and among those who escaped some took refuge (...) in their Royal battle that was on left of these six ''<nowiki>[Castilian]</nowiki>'' divisions. "'' in [http://purl.pt/286/3/ ''Chronica do Principe D. Joam''], chapter LXXVIII.</ref> the Castilian right wing and remained in possession<ref name="chronicler Juan de Mariana (Castilian) (30)">[[#Mariana|_{<big>↓</big>}]] chronicler [[Juan de Mariana]] (Castilian): ''"...the enemy led by prince D. John of Portugal, who without suffering defeat, stood on a hill with his forces in good order until very late (...). Thus, both forces ''<nowiki>[Castilian and Portuguese]</nowiki>'' remained face to face for some hours; and the Portuguese kept their position during more time (...)"'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=OvUA8yjTEoMC&pg=PA296&dq=Mariana+%22Historia+general+de+España%22&as_brr=3&hl=pt-PT&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Historia General de España''], tome V, book XXIV, chapter X, p. 299,300.</ref><ref name="chronicler Rui de Pina (Portuguese) (31)">[[#Pina|_{<big>↓</big>}]] chronicler [[Rui de Pina]] (Portuguese): ''"And being the two enemy battles face to face, the Castilian battle was deeply agitated and showing clear signs of defeat if attacked as it was without King and dubious of the outcome.(...) And without discipline and with great disorder they went to Zamora. So being the Prince alone on the field without suffering defeat but inflicting it on the adversary he became heir and master of his own victory"'' in [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24508/24508-h/24508-h.htm ''Chronica de El- rei D.Affonso V...''] 3rd book, chapter CXCI.</ref> of the battlefield. But despite its uncertain<ref name="French historian (32)">[[#Dumont|_{<big>↓</big>}]] French historian Jean Dumont in [https://books.google.com/books?id=rkTcRTRCSYgC&pg=PA49&dq=%22batalla+de+Toro+indecisa&hl=pt-PT&ei=coyjTumhOqLP4QSCsq3mBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=8&ved=0CEsQ6wEwBzhk#v=onepage&q&f=false ''La "imcomparable" Isabel la Catolica/ The incomparable Isabel the Catholic''], Encuentro Ediciones, printed by Rogar-Fuenlabrada, Madrid, 1993 (Spanish edition), p. 49: ''"...But in the left ''<nowiki>[Portuguese]</nowiki>'' Wing, in front of the Asturians and Galician, the reinforcement army of the Prince heir of Portugal, well provided with artillery, could leave the battlefield with its head high. The battle resulted this way, inconclusive. But its global result stays after that decided by the withdrawal of the Portuguese King, the surrender... of the Zamora's fortress on 19 March, and the multiple adhesions of the nobles to the young princes."''</ref><ref name="French historian Joseph-Louis Desormeaux (33)">[[#Desormeaux|_{<big>↓</big>}]] French historian Joseph-Louis Desormeaux: ''"... The result of the battle was very uncertain; Ferdinand defeated the enemy's right wing led by Afonso, but the Prince had the same advantage over the Castilians."'' In [https://archive.org/details/abrgchronologiq00unkngoog <!-- quote="Abrégé chronologique de l'histoire d'Espagne ". --> ''Abrégé chronologique de l'histoire de l'Éspagne''], Duchesne, Paris, 1758, 3rd Tome, p. 25.</ref> outcome, the [[Battle of Toro]] represented a great political victory<ref name="Spanish academic António M. (34)">[[#Serrano|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Spanish academic António M. Serrano: ''" From all of this it is deductible that the battle ''<nowiki>[of Toro]</nowiki>'' was inconclusive, but Isabella and Ferdinand made it fly with wings of victory. (...) Actually, since this battle transformed in victory; since 1 March 1476, Isabella and Ferdinand started to rule in the Spain's throne. (...) The inconclusive wings of the battle became the secure and powerful wings of San Juan's eagle'' <nowiki>[the commemorative temple of the Battle of Toro]</nowiki>'' ."'' in [http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=4208108 ''San Juan de los Reyes y la batalla de Toro''], revista [http://www.realacademiatoledo.es/files/toletum/0009/toletum09_maciadiscurso.pdf Toletum] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312101852/http://www.realacademiatoledo.es/files/toletum/0009/toletum09_maciadiscurso.pdf |date=12 March 2012 }}, segunda época, 1979 (9), [http://biblioteca2.uclm.es/biblioteca/ceclm/ARTREVISTAS/Toletum/tol09/toletum09_maciadiscurso.pdf pp. 55–70]. Real Academia de Bellas Artes y Ciencias Históricas de Toledo, Toledo. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]]: [http://bddoc.csic.es:8080/detalles.html;isessionid=A31394B29A781B0B063B6993FDA9FAEE?id=30676&bd=HISTORI&tabla=docu 0210-6310] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930012210/http://bddoc.csic.es:8080/detalles.html;isessionid=A31394B29A781B0B063B6993FDA9FAEE?id=30676&bd=HISTORI&tabla=docu |date=30 September 2011 }}</ref><ref name="A. Ballesteros Beretta (35)">[[#Beretta|_{<big>↓</big>}]] A. Ballesteros Beretta: ''"His moment is the inconclusive Battle of Toro.(...) both sides attributed themselves the victory.... The letters written by the King ''<nowiki>[Ferdinand]</nowiki>'' to the main cities... are a model of skill. (...) what a powerful description of the battle! The nebulous transforms into light, the doubtful acquires the profile of a certain triumph. The politic ''<nowiki>[Ferdinand]</nowiki>'' achieved the fruits of a discussed victory."'' In [https://web.archive.org/web/20120111114918/http://www.portalcultura.mde.es/Galerias/revistas/ficheros/RET_016.pdf ''Fernando el Católico, el mejor rey de España''], ''Ejército'' revue, nr 16, p. 56, May 1941.</ref><ref name="Vicente Álvarez Palenzuela (36)">[[#Palenzuela|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Vicente Álvarez Palenzuela- [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/la-guerra-civil-castellana-y-el-enfrentamiento-con-portugal-14751479-0/ ''La guerra civil Castellana y el enfrentamiento con Portugal (1475–1479)'']: ''"That is the battle of Toro. The Portuguese army had not been exactly defeated, however, the sensation was that D. Juana's cause had completely sunk. It made sense that for the Castilians Toro was considered as the divine retribution, the compensation desired by God to compensate the terrible disaster of [[Aljubarrota]], still alive in the Castilian memory"''.</ref><ref name="Spanish academic Rafael Dominguez (37)">[[#Casas|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Spanish academic Rafael Dominguez Casas: ''"...San Juan de los Reyes resulted from the royal will to build a monastery to commemorate the victory in a battle with an uncertain outcome but decisive, the one fought in Toro in 1476, which consolidated the union of the two most important Peninsular Kingdoms."'' In [http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2689349 ''San Juan de los reyes: espacio funerário y aposento régio''] in ''Boletín del Seminário de Estúdios de Arte y Arqueologia'', number 56, p. 364, 1990.</ref> for the [[Catholic Monarchs]], assuring them the throne since the supporters of Joanna la Beltraneja disbanded and the Portuguese army, without allies, left Castile. As summarised by the historian [[Justo Gonzalez|Justo L. González]]: <blockquote> Both armies faced each other at the camps of Toro resulting in an indecisive battle. But while the Portuguese King reorganised his troops, Ferdinand sent news to all the cities of Castile and to several foreign kingdoms informing them about a huge victory where the Portuguese were crushed. Faced with these news, the party of "la Beltraneja" ''<nowiki>[Joanna]</nowiki>'' was dissolved and the Portuguese were forced to return to their kingdom.<ref name="Justo L. González (38)">[[#González|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Justo L. González- [http://pt.scribd.com/doc/27826340/Justo-L-Gonzalez-Historia-Del-Cristianismo-Tomo-II ''Historia del Cristianismo''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616072154/http://pt.scribd.com/doc/27826340/Justo-L-Gonzalez-Historia-Del-Cristianismo-Tomo-II |date=16 June 2013 }}, Editorial Unilit, Miami, 1994, Tome 2, Parte II (La era de los conquistadores), p. 68.</ref> </blockquote> With great political vision, Isabella took advantage of the moment and convoked courts at Madrigal-Segovia (April–October 1476)<ref name="Historian Marvin">[[#Lunenfeld|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Historian Marvin Lunenfeld: "In 1476, immediately after the indecisive battle of Peleagonzalo ''<nowiki>[near Toro]</nowiki>'', Ferdinand and Isabella hailed the result as a great victory and called a cortes at Madrigal. The newly created prestige was used to gain municipal support from their allies(...)" in [https://books.google.com/books?ei=h-Q1T83PEoK2hAfisv2RAg&ct=book-thumbnail&hl=pt-PT&id=QoFBAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22The+council+of+the+Santa+hermandad%3A+a+study+of+the+pacification+forces+of+Ferdinand+and+Isabella%2C+Marvin+Lunenfeld%22&q=%22indecisive+battle+of+Peleagonzalo%22 ''The council of the Santa Hermandad: a study of the pacification forces of Ferdinand and Isabella''], University of Miami Press, 1970, p. 27.</ref> where her eldest child and daughter [[Isabella of Aragon and Castile|Isabella]] was first sworn as heiress to Castile's crown. That was equivalent to legitimising Isabella's own throne. In August of the same year, Isabella proved her abilities as a powerful ruler on her own. A rebellion broke out in Segovia, and Isabella rode out to suppress it, as her husband Ferdinand was off fighting at the time. Going against the advice of her male advisors, Isabella rode by herself into the city to negotiate with the rebels. She was successful and the rebellion was quickly brought to an end.<ref>Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B. Lippincott & CO., 1860, p. 184–185</ref> Two years later, Isabella further secured her place as ruler with the birth of her son [[John, Prince of Asturias]], on 30 June 1478. To many, the presence of a male heir legitimised her place as ruler. Meanwhile, the Castilian and Portuguese fleets fought for hegemony in the Atlantic Ocean and for the wealth of Guinea (gold and slaves), where the decisive naval [[Battle of Guinea]] was fought.<ref name="Battle of Guinea (40)">[[Battle of Guinea]]: [[#Palencia|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Alonso de Palencia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&hl=pt-PT&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved Década IV], Book XXXIII, Chapter V (''"Disaster among those sent to the mines of gold ''<nowiki>[Guinea]</nowiki>''. Charges against the King..."''), pp. 91–94. This was a decisive battle because after it, in spite of the Catholic Monarchs' attempts, they were unable to send new fleets to Guinea, Canary or to any part of the Portuguese empire until the end of the war. The [[John II of Portugal|''Perfect Prince'']] sent an order to drown any Castilian crew captured in Guinea waters. Even the Castilian navies which left Guinea before the signature of the peace treaty had to pay the tax ("quinto") to the Portuguese crown when they returned to Castile after the peace treaty. Isabella had to ask permission of Afonso V so that this tax could be paid in Castilian harbours. Naturally all this caused a grudge against the Catholic Monarchs in Andalusia.</ref><ref name="Historian Malyn Newitt">[[#Newitt|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Historian Malyn Newitt: ''"However, in 1478 the Portuguese surprised thirty-five Castilian ships returning from Mina ''<nowiki>[Guinea]</nowiki>'' and seized them and all their gold. Another...Castilian voyage to Mina, that of [[Eustache de la Fosse]], was intercepted ... in 1480. (...) All things considered, it is not surprising that the Portuguese emerged victorious from this '''first maritime colonial war'''. They were far better organised than the Castilians, were able to raise money for the preparation and supply of their fleets, and had clear central direction from ... ''<nowiki>[Prince]</nowiki>'' John."'' In [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+Portuguese+emerged+victorious+from+this+first+maritime+colonial+war.%22+&btnG=Pesquisar+livros&tbm=bks&tbo=1&hl=pt-PT ''A history of Portuguese overseas expansion, 1400–1668''], Routledge, New York, 2005, pp. 39–40.</ref> The war dragged on for another three years<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile'' The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 109–110</ref> and ended with a Castilian victory on land<ref name="Bailey W. Diffie (42)">[[#Diffie|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Bailey W. Diffie and George D. Winius ''"In a war in which the Castilians were victorious on land and the Portuguese at sea, ..."'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=VsqCelF9OdkC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=%22foundations+of+the+Portuguese+empire....In+a+war+in+which+the+Castilians+were+victorious+on+land+and+the+Portuguese+on+sea%22&source=bl&ots=_6XiLcq0Ez&sig=MxqBFdBqI-MryupkXAHW3pBa9LU&hl= ''Foundations of the Portuguese empire 1415–1580''], volume I, University of Minnesota Press, 1985, [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22In+a+war+in+which+the+Castilians+were+victorious+on+land+and+the+Portuguese+at+sea%22&btnG=Pesquisar+livros&tbm=bks&tbo=1&hl=pt-PT p. 152].</ref> and a Portuguese victory on the sea.<ref name="Bailey W. Diffie (42)"/> The four separate peace treaties signed at [[Treaty of Alcáçovas|Alcáçovas]] (4 September 1479) reflected that result: Portugal gave up the throne of Castile in favour of Isabella in exchange for a very favourable share of the Atlantic territories disputed with Castile (they all went to Portugal with the exception of the [[Canary Islands]]:<ref>: [[#Palencia|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Alonso de Palencia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&hl=pt-PT&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved Decada IV], Book XXXI, Chapters VIII and IX (''"preparation of 2 fleets ''<nowiki>[to Guinea and to Canary, respectively]</nowiki>'' so that with them King Ferdinand crush its enemies ''<nowiki>[the Portuguese]</nowiki>...").</ref><ref name="Alonso de Palencia (44)">[[#Palencia|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Alonso de Palencia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&hl=pt-PT&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved Decada IV], book XXXII, chapter III: in 1478 a Portuguese fleet intercepted the armada of 25 navies sent by Ferdinand to conquer Gran Canary – capturing 5 of its navies plus 200 Castilians – and forced it to fled hastily and definitively from Canary waters. This victory allowed Prince John to use the Canary Islands as an "exchange coin" in the peace treaty of Alcáçovas.</ref> [[gulf of Guinea|Guinea]] with its mines of gold, [[Cape Verde]], [[Madeira]], [[Azores]], and the right of conquest over the [[Kingdom of Fez]]<ref>[[#Pina|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Pina, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24508/24508-h/24508-h.htm ''Chronica de El-Rei D. Affonso V''], 3rd book, chapter CXCIV (Editorial error: Chapter CXCIV erroneously appears as Chapter CLXIV.Reports the end of the siege of Ceuta by the arrival of the fleet with Afonso V).</ref><ref>[[#Quesada|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Quesada, [http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/ELEM/article/view/ELEM0000110067A/22548 ''Portugueses en la frontera de Granada''], 2000, p. 98. In 1476 Ceuta was simultaneously besieged by the moors and a Castilian army led by the Duke of Medina Sidónia. The Castilians conquered the city from the Portuguese who took refuge in the inner fortress, but a Portuguese fleet arrived ''"in extremis"'' and regained the city. A Ceuta dominated by the Castilians would certainly have forced the right to conquer Fez (Morocco) to be shared between Portugal and Castile instead of the monopoly the Portuguese acquired.</ref>) plus a large war compensation: 106.676 dobles of gold.<ref name="Mendonça (47)">[[#Mendonça|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Mendonça, 2007, p. 101–103.</ref> The Catholic Monarchs also had to accept that Joanna la Beltraneja remain in Portugal instead of Spain<ref name="Mendonça (47)"/> and to pardon all rebellious subjects who had supported Joanna and King Afonso.<ref name="Edwards 2000, p. 38">Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 38</ref> And the Catholic Monarchs—who had proclaimed themselves rulers of Portugal and donated lands to noblemen inside this country<ref>[[#Mendonça|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Mendonça, 2007, p. 53.</ref>—had to give up the Portuguese crown. At Alcáçovas, Isabella and Ferdinand had conquered the throne, but the Portuguese exclusive right of navigation and commerce in all of the Atlantic Ocean south of the Canary Islands meant that Spain was practically blocked out of the Atlantic and was deprived of the gold of Guinea, which induced anger in [[Andalusia]].<ref name="Battle of Guinea (40)" /> Spanish academic Antonio Rumeu de Armas claims that with the peace treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479, the Catholic Monarchs "... buy the peace at an excessively expensive price&nbsp;..."<ref name="António Rumeu de Armas (49)">[[#Armas|_{<big>↓</big>}]] António Rumeu de Armas- [http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/4335425-el-tratado-de-tordesillas book description], MAPFRE, Madrid, 1992, page 88.</ref> and historian Mª Monserrat León Guerrero added that they "... find themselves forced to abandon their expansion by the Atlantic&nbsp;...".<ref name="Mª Monserrat León Guerrero (50)">[[#Guerrero|_{<big>↓</big>}]] Mª Monserrat León Guerrero in [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/el-segundo-viaje-colombino--0/ ''El segundo viaje colombino''], University of Valladolid, 2000, chapter 2, pp. 49–50.</ref> [[Christopher Columbus]] freed Castile from this difficult situation, because his New World discovery led to a new and much more balanced sharing of the Atlantic at Tordesillas in 1494. As the orders received by Columbus in his first voyage (1492) show: "[the Catholic Monarchs] have always in mind that the limits signed in the share of Alcáçovas should not be overcome, and thus they insist with Columbus to sail along the parallel of Canary."<ref name="Mª Monserrat León Guerrero (50)" /> Thus, by sponsoring the Columbian adventure to the west, the Spanish monarchs were trying the only remaining path of expansion. As is now known, they would be extremely successful on this issue. Isabella had proven herself to be a fighter and tough monarch from the start. Now that she had succeeded in securing her place on the Castilian throne, she could begin to institute the reforms that the kingdom desperately needed. ===Reform=== ====Regulation of crime==== When Isabella came to the throne in 1474, Castile was in a state of despair due to her brother Henry's reign. It was not unknown that Henry IV was a big spender and did little to enforce the laws of his kingdom. It was even said by one Castilian denizen of the time that murder, rape, and robbery happened without punishment.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 121</ref> Because of this, Isabella needed desperately to find a way to reform her kingdom. Due to the measures imposed, historians during her lifetime saw her to be more inclined to justice than to mercy, and indeed far more rigorous and unforgiving than her husband Ferdinand.<ref>Boruchoff, David A. "Historiography with License: Isabel, the Catholic Monarch, and the Kingdom of God." ''Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp. 242–247.</ref> ====La Santa Hermandad==== {{main|Hermandad}} Isabella's first major reform came during the cortes of Madrigal in 1476 in the form of a police force, La Santa Hermandad (the Holy Brotherhood). While 1476 was not the first time that Castile had seen the Hermandad, it was the first time that the police force was used by the crown.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 125</ref> During the late medieval period, the expression ''hermandad'' had been used to describe groups of men who came together of their own accord to regulate law and order by patrolling the roads and countryside and punishing malefactors.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 42</ref> These brotherhoods had usually been suppressed by the monarch, however. Before 1476, the justice system in most parts of the country was effectively under the control of dissident members of the nobility rather than royal officials.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 48–49</ref> To fix this problem, during 1476, a general Hermandad was established for Castile, [[León (historical region)|Leon]], and [[Asturias]]. The police force was to be made up of locals who were to regulate the crime occurring in the kingdom. It was to be paid for by a tax of 1800 [[maravedí]]s on every one hundred households.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 125-126</ref> In 1477, Isabella visited [[Extremadura]] and Andalusia to introduce this more efficient police force there as well.<ref>Prescott, William. ''History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic.'' J.B Lippincott & CO., 1860, p. 186</ref> ====Other criminal reforms==== Keeping with her reformation of the regulation of laws, in 1481 Isabella charged two officials with restoring peace in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]. This turbulent province had been the prey of tyrant nobles since the days of Isabella's father, John II.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 123</ref> Robbers infested the highways and oppressed the smaller towns and villages. These officials set off with the Herculean task of restoring peace for the province. The officials were successful. They succeeded in driving over 1,500 robbers from Galicia.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 133</ref> ====Finances==== From the very beginning of her reign, Isabella fully grasped the importance of restoring the Crown's finances. The reign of Henry IV had left the kingdom of Castile in great debt. Upon examination, it was found that the chief cause of the nation's poverty was the wholesale alienation of royal estates during Henry's reign.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 150">Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 150</ref> To make money, Henry had sold off royal estates at prices well below their value. The Cortes of Toledo of 1480 came to the conclusion that the only hope of lasting financial reform lay in a resumption of these alienated lands and rents. This decision was warmly approved by many leading nobles of the court, but Isabella was reluctant to take such drastic measures. It was decided that the Cardinal of Spain would hold an enquiry into the tenure of estates and rents acquired during Henry IV's reign. Those that had not been granted as a reward for services were to be restored without compensation, while those that had been sold at a price far below their real value were to be bought back at the same sum. While many of the nobility were forced to pay large sums of money for their estates, the royal treasury became even richer. Isabella's one stipulation was that there would be no revocation of gifts made to churches, hospitals, or the poor.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 152–155</ref> Another issue of money was the overproduction of coinage and the abundance of mints in the kingdom. During Henry's reign, the number of mints regularly producing money had increased from just five to 150.<ref name="Plunkett 1915, p. 150"/> Much of the coinage produced in these mints was nearly worthless. During the first year of her reign, Isabella established a monopoly over the royal mints and fixed a legal standard to which the coinage had to approximate{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}. By shutting down many of the mints and taking royal control over the production of money, Isabella restored the confidence of the public in the Crown's ability to handle the kingdom's finances. ====Government==== Both Isabella and Ferdinand established very few new governmental and administrative institutions in their respective kingdoms. Especially in Castile, the main achievement was to use more effectively the institutions that had existed during the reigns of John II and Henry IV.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 28</ref> Historically, the center of the Castilian government had been the royal household, together with its surrounding court. The household was traditionally divided into two overlapping bodies. The first body was made up of household officials, mainly people of the nobility, who carried out governmental and political functions for which they received special payment. The second body was made up of some 200 permanent servants or ''continos'' who performed a wide range of confidential functions on behalf of the rulers.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 29</ref> By the 1470s, when Isabella began to take a firm grip on the royal administration, the senior offices of the royal household were simply honorary titles and held strictly by the nobility. The positions of a more secretarial nature were often held by senior churchmen. Substantial revenues were attached to such offices and were therefore enjoyed greatly, on an effectively hereditary basis, by the great Castilian houses of nobility. While the nobles held the titles, individuals of lesser breeding did the real work.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 29–32</ref> [[File:Losreyescatolicos.jpg|thumb|left|Ferdinand and Isabella with their subjects]] Traditionally, the main advisory body to the rulers of Castile was the [[Council of Castile|Royal Council]]. The council, under the monarch, had full power to resolve all legal and political disputes. The council was responsible for supervising all senior administrative officials, such as the Crown representatives in all of the major towns. It was also the supreme judicial tribunal of the kingdom.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 30</ref> In 1480, during the Cortes of Toledo, Isabella made many reforms to the Royal Council. Previously there had been two distinct yet overlapping categories of royal councillor. One formed a group which possessed both judicial and administrative responsibilities. This portion consisted of some bishops, some nobles, and an increasingly important element of professional administrators with legal training known as ''letrados''. The second category of traditional councillor had a less formal role. This role depended greatly on the individuals' political influence and personal influence with the monarch. During Isabella's reign, the role of this second category was completely eliminated.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 42–47</ref> As mentioned previously, Isabella had little care for personal bribes or favours. Because of this, this second type of councillor, usually of the nobility, was only allowed to attend the council of Castile as an observer. Isabella began to rely more on the professional administrators than ever before. These men were mostly of the [[bourgeoisie]] or lesser nobility. The council was also rearranged and it was officially settled that one bishop, three ''[[knight|caballeros]]'', and eight or nine lawyers would serve on the council at a time. While the nobles were no longer directly involved in the matters of state, they were welcome to attend the meetings. Isabella hoped by forcing the nobility to choose whether to participate or not would weed out those who were not dedicated to the state and its cause.<ref>Plunkett, Ierne. ''Isabella of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 142</ref> Isabella also saw the need to provide a personal relationship between herself as the monarch and her subjects. Therefore, Isabella and Ferdinand set aside a time every Friday during which they themselves would sit and allow people to come to them with complaints. This was a new form of personal justice that Castile had not seen before. The Council of State was reformed and presided over by the King and Queen. This department of public affairs dealt mainly with foreign negotiations, hearing embassies, and transacting business with the Court of Rome. In addition to these departments, there was also a Supreme Court of the Santa Hermandad, a Council of Finance, and a Council for settling purely Aragonese matters.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 143</ref> Although Isabella made many reforms that seem to have made the Cortes stronger, in actuality the Cortes lost political power during the reigns of Isabella and Ferdinand. Isabella and her husband moved in the direction of a non-parliamentary government and the Cortes became an almost passive advisory body, giving automatic assent to legislation which had been drafted by the royal administration.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 49</ref> After the reforms of the Cortes of Toledo, the Queen ordered a noted jurist, Alfonso Diaz de Montalvo, to undertake the task of clearing away legal rubbish and compiling what remained into a comprehensive code. Within four years the work stood completed in eight bulky volumes and the Ordenanzas Reales took their place on legal bookshelves.<ref>Plunkett,Ierne. ''Isabel of Castile''. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 146</ref> ===Events of 1492=== ====Granada==== [[File:Isabella by Bigarny01.jpg|thumb|Statue of Isabella by [[Felipe Bigarny]]; it resides in the [[Capilla Real de Granada|Capilla Real]], in [[Granada]]]] At the end of the [[Reconquista]], only Granada was left for Isabella and Ferdinand to conquer. The [[Emirate of Granada]] had been held by the Muslim [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] dynasty since the mid-13th century.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 48</ref> Protected by natural barriers and fortified towns, it had withstood the long process of the [[reconquista]]. On 1 February 1482, the king and queen reached [[Medina del Campo]] and this is generally considered the beginning of the war for Granada. While Isabella's and Ferdinand's involvement in the war was apparent from the start, Granada's leadership was divided and never able to present a united front.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 48–49</ref> It still took ten years to conquer Granada, however, culminating in 1492. The Spanish monarchs recruited soldiers from many European countries and improved their artillery with the latest and best cannons.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 104–106</ref> Systematically, they proceeded to take the kingdom piece by piece. In 1485 they laid siege to [[Ronda]], which surrendered after only a fortnight due to extensive bombardment.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 111</ref> The following year, [[Loja, Granada|Loja]] was taken, and again [[Muhammad XII of Granada|Muhammad XII]] was captured and released. One year later, with the fall of [[Málaga]], the western part of the Muslim [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] kingdom had fallen into Spanish hands. The eastern province succumbed after the fall of [[Baza, Granada|Baza]] in 1489. The siege of Granada began in the spring of 1491 and at the end of the year, Muhammad XII surrendered. On 2 January 1492 Isabella and Ferdinand entered Granada to receive the keys of the city, and the principal [[Great Mosque of Cordoba|mosque]] was reconsecrated as a church.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 112–130</ref> The [[Treaty of Granada]] was signed later that year, and in it Ferdinand and Isabella gave their word to allow the Muslims and Jews of Granada to live in peace. During the war, Isabella noted the abilities and energy of [[Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba]] and made him one of the two commissioners for the negotiations. Under her patronage, De Córdoba went on to an extraordinary military career that revolutionised the organisation and tactics of the emerging Spanish military, changing the nature of warfare and altering the European balance of power. ====Columbus and Portuguese relations==== [[File:WC Delacroix,Eugene The Return of Christopher Columbus.jpg|thumb|The return of Christopher Columbus; his audience before King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.]] Just three months after entering Granada, Queen Isabella agreed to sponsor [[Christopher Columbus]] on an expedition to reach the [[East Indies]] by sailing west (2000 miles, according to Columbus).<ref>Liss,Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 316</ref> The crown agreed to pay a sum of money as a concession from monarch to subject.<ref name="Edwards, John 2005, p. 120">Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 120</ref> Columbus's expedition departed on 3 August 1492, and arrived in the [[New World]] on 12 October.<ref name="Edwards, John 2005, p. 120"/> He returned the next year and presented his findings to the monarchs, bringing natives and gold under a hero's welcome. Although Columbus was sponsored by the Castilian queen, treasury accounts show no royal payments to him until 1493, after his first voyage was complete.<ref>Edwards, John. ''Ferdinand and Isabella''. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 119</ref> Spain entered a [[Golden Age (metaphor)|Golden Age]] of [[Age of Discovery|exploration]] and [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonisation]], the period of the [[Spanish Empire]]. In 1494, by the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], Isabella and Ferdinand agreed to divide the Earth, outside of Europe, with King [[John II of Portugal|John II]] of [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]]. The Portuguese did not recognise that South America belonged to the Spanish because it was in Portugal's sphere of influence, and King John II threatened to send an army to claim the land for the Portuguese. ====Position on slavery==== Isabella was not in favour of enslavement of the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|American natives]] and established the royal position on how American indigenous should be treated. She followed the recent policies of the [[Canary Islands|Canaries]], that had a small amount of native inhabitants, upon the "New World", stating that all peoples were under the subject of the Castilian Crown and could not be enslaved in most situations. By that time there were some circumstances in which a person could be enslaved, i.e. captured enemy fighters.<ref name=Tame08>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIXh4xsCfUAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Isabel+I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HJBsUdv7AYOGyAG12YGwAQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Isabel%20I&f=false F. Weissberger, Barbara ''Queen Isabel I of Castile: Power, Patronage, Persona''], Tamesis Books, 2008, p. 27, accessed 9 July 2012</ref> After an episode in which Columbus captured 1,200 men, Isabella ordered their return and the arrest of Columbus, who was insulted in the streets of [[Granada]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} Isabella realized that she could not trust all the conquest and evangelization to take place through one man, so she opened the range for other expeditions led by [[Alonso de Hojeda]], [[Juan de la Cosa]], [[Vicente Yáñez Pinzón]], [[Diego de Lepe]] or [[Pedro Alonso Niño]].<ref>https://www.abc.es/historia/abci-batallo-isabel-catolica-indios-fueran-tratados-bien-y-carino-202006172253_noticia.html#vca=rrss-inducido&vmc=abc-es&vso=tw&vli=noticia-foto</ref> To prevent her efforts from being reversed in the future, in her [[last will]], Isabella instructed her descendants: "do not give rise to or allow the Indians [indigenous Americans] to receive any wrong in their persons and property, but rather that they be treated well and fairly, and if they have received any wrong, remedy it."<ref>https://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Testamento_de_Isabel_la_Cat%C3%B3lica</ref><ref>https://www.abc.es/sociedad/20130303/abci-leyes-indias-derechos-humanos-201303012122.html</ref> ====Expulsion of the Jews==== {{main| Alhambra Decree| Spanish Inquisition}} With the institution of the Roman Catholic Inquisition in Spain, and with the [[Dominican friar]] [[Tomás de Torquemada]] as the first Inquisitor General, the Catholic Monarchs pursued a policy of religious and national unity. Though Isabella opposed taking harsh measures against Jews on economic grounds, Torquemada was able to convince Ferdinand.{{Citation needed|date=April 2013}} On 31 March 1492, the [[Alhambra decree]] for the expulsion of the Jews was issued.<ref name="Liss 1992. p. 298">Liss,Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 298</ref> The Jews had until the end of July, four months, to leave the country and they were not to take with them gold, silver, money, arms, or horses.<ref name="Liss 1992. p. 298"/> Traditionally, it had been claimed that as many as 200,000 Jews left Spain, but recent historians have shown that such figures are exaggerated: [[Henry Kamen]] has shown that out of a total population of 80,000 Jews, a maximum of 40,000 left and the rest converted.<ref>Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. (Yale University Press, 1997. pp. 29–31).</ref> Hundreds of those that remained came under the Inquisition's investigations into relapsed ''conversos'' ([[Marranos]]) and the Judaizers who had been abetting them.<ref>Liss,Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 308</ref> ===Later years=== [[File:IsabellaofCastile06.jpg|thumb|Isabella I of Castile by [[Juan de Flandes]] (c. 1500–1504)]] Isabella received the title of [[Catholic Monarchs|Catholic Monarch]] by [[Pope Alexander VI]], whose behavior and involvement in matters Isabella did not approve of.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} Along with the physical unification of Spain, Isabella and Ferdinand embarked on a process of spiritual unification, trying to bring the country under one faith ([[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]). As part of this process, the Inquisition became institutionalised. After a Muslim uprising in 1499, and further troubles thereafter, the [[Treaty of Granada]] was broken in 1502, and Muslims were ordered to either become Christians or to leave. Isabella's confessor, [[Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros|Cisneros]], was named Archbishop of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]].<ref>Hunt, Jocelyn. ''Spain 1474–1598''. Routledge, 2001, p. 20</ref> He was instrumental in a program of rehabilitation of the religious institutions of Spain, laying the groundwork for the later [[Counter-Reformation]]. As Chancellor, he exerted more and more power. Isabella and her husband had created [[Spanish Empire|an empire]] and in later years were consumed with administration and politics; they were concerned with the succession and worked to link the Spanish crown to the other rulers in Europe. By early 1497, all the pieces seemed to be in place: The son and heir [[John, Prince of Asturias]], married a Habsburg princess, [[Archduchess Margaret of Austria|Margaret of Austria]], establishing the connection to the [[Habsburg]]s. The eldest daughter, [[Isabella, Princess of Asturias (1470–1498)|Isabella of Aragon]], married [[Manuel I of Portugal|King Manuel I of Portugal]], and the younger daughter, [[Joanna of Castile]], was married to a Habsburg prince, [[Philip I of Castile|Philip I of Habsburg]]. In 1500, Isabella granted all non-rebellious natives in the colonies citizenship and full legal freedom by decree.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford History of Mexico|isbn = 9780199731985|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eMVDAAAQBAJ&q=queen+isabella+indians+citizens&pg=PA16|last1 = Beezley|first1 = William H.|last2 = Beezley|first2 = William|last3 = Meyer|first3 = Michael|date = 3 August 2010}}</ref> However, Isabella's plans for her eldest two children did not work out. Her only son, John of Asturias, died shortly after his marriage. Her daughter, Isabella of Aragon, died during the birth of her son, [[Miguel da Paz, Prince of Asturias|Miguel da Paz]], who passed away shortly after, at the age of two. Queen Isabella I's crowns passed to her third child, Joanna, and her son-in-law, Philip I.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 241–260</ref> Isabella did, however, make successful dynastic matches for her two youngest daughters. The death of Isabella of Aragon created a necessity for Manuel I of Portugal to remarry, and Isabella's third daughter, [[Maria of Aragon and Castile|Maria of Aragon]], became his next bride. Isabella's youngest daughter, [[Catherine of Aragon]], married England's [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]], but his early death resulted in her being married to his younger brother, [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII of England]]. Isabella officially withdrew from governmental affairs on 14 September 1504 and she died that same year on 26 November at the [[Medina del Campo#Royal Palace|Medina del Campo Royal Palace]]. She had already been in decline since the deaths of her son Prince John of Asturias in 1497, her mother Isabella of Portugal in 1496, and her daughter Princess Isabella of Asturias in 1498.<ref>Edwards,John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 282</ref> She is entombed in [[Granada]] in the [[Capilla Real de Granada|Capilla Real]], which was built by her grandson, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] (Carlos I of Spain), alongside her husband Ferdinand, her daughter Joanna and Joanna's husband Philip I; and Isabella's 2-year-old grandson, Miguel da Paz (the son of Isabella's daughter, also named Isabella, and King Manuel I of Portugal).<ref name="NGHistory"/> The museum next to the Capilla Real holds her [[Crown (headgear)|crown]] and [[scepter]]. ==Appearance and personality== [[File:Reinaisabeldecastilla.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Isabella depicted with darker hair, {{circa}} 1485]] Isabella was short but of strong stocky build, of a very fair complexion, and had a [[hair color]] that was between strawberry-blonde and [[auburn hair|auburn]]. Other descriptions however point to her hair being golden(blond) and period illuminations show her several times with golden hair. Some portraits, however, show her as a brunette.<ref name="NGHistory"/> That is due to a phenomenon occurring in old portraits, which often causes hair pigments to go dark brown. Many portraits from the 15th and 16th centuries are a victim of it. Her daughters, Joanna and Catherine, were thought to resemble her the most in looks. Isabella maintained an austere, temperate lifestyle, and her religious spirit influenced her the most in life. In spite of her hostility towards the Muslims in [[Andalusia]], Isabella developed a taste for Moorish decor and style. Of her, contemporaries said: * [[Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés]]: "To see her speak was divine."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/972046277|title=Katherine's Reviews > Isabel: Jewel of Castilla, Spain, 1466|last=Bakersfield|first=Katherine|website=Good Reads|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Isabel: Jewel of Castilla|last=Meyer|first=Carolyn|publisher=Scholastic|year=2000|isbn=9780439078054|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isabeljewelofcas00meye_0}}</ref> * {{Interlanguage link multi|Andrés Bernáldez|es}}: "She was an endeavored woman, very powerful, very prudent, wise, very honest, chaste, devout, discreet, truthful, clear, without deceit. Who could count the excellences of this very Catholic and happy Queen, always very worthy of praises."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bookofdaystales.com/isabella-i-of-castile/|title=Isabella I of Castille|website=Book of Days Tales|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Hidden History of Spanish New Mexico|last=John de Aragon|first=Ray|publisher=Acradia Publishing|year=2012|isbn=978-1-60949-760-6|location=Amazon.com|pages=36–37}}</ref> * [[Hernando del Pulgar]]: "She was very inclined to justice, so much so that she was reputed to follow more the path of rigor than that of mercy, and did so to remedy the great corruption of crimes that she found in the kingdom when she succeeded to the throne."<ref>Pulgar, ''Crónica de los Reyes Católicos'', trans. in David A. Boruchoff, "Historiography with License: Isabel, the Catholic Monarch, and the Kingdom of God," ''Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays'' (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 242.</ref> * {{Interlanguage link multi|Lucio Marineo Sículo|es}}: "[The royal knight [[Álvaro Yáñez de Lugo]]] was condemned to be beheaded, although he offered forty thousand ''ducados'' for the war against the Moors to the court so that these monies spare his life. This matter was discussed with the queen, and there were some who told her to pardon him, since these funds for the war were better than the death of that man, and her highness should take them. But the queen, preferring justice to cash, very prudently refused them; and although she could have confiscated all his goods, which were many, she did not take any of them to avoid any note of greed, or that it be thought that she had not wished to pardon him in order to have his goods; instead, she gave them all to the children of the aforesaid knight."<ref>Marineo Sículo, ''De las cosas memorables de España'' (1539), trans. in David A. Boruchoff, "Instructions for Sainthood and Other Feminine Wiles in the Historiography of Isabel I," ''Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays'' (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 12.</ref> * Ferdinand, in his testament, declared that "she was exemplary in all acts of virtue and of fear of God." * Fray [[Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros]], her confessor and the [[Grand Inquisitor]], praised "her purity of heart, her big heart and the grandness of her soul". ==Family== {{unreferenced section|date=October 2017}} {{See also|Descendants of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile}} [[File:Los Reyes Católicos y la infanta doña Juana.jpg|thumb|upright|Isabella and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] with their daughter, [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]], {{circa}} 1482.]] Isabella and Ferdinand had seven children, five of whom survived to adulthood: * [[Isabella of Aragon and Castile|Isabella]] (1470–1498) married firstly to [[Afonso, Prince of Portugal]], no issue. Married secondly to [[Manuel I of Portugal]], no surviving issue. * A son, miscarried on 31 May 1475 in [[Cebreros]] * [[Juan, Prince of Asturias|John]] (1478–1497), [[Prince of Asturias]]. Married [[Archduchess Margaret of Austria]], no surviving issue. * [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]] (1479–1555), [[Queen of Castile]]. Married [[Philip I of Castile|Philip the Handsome]], had issue. * [[Maria of Aragon and Castile|Maria]] (1482–1517), married [[Manuel I of Portugal]], her sister's widower, had issue. * A daughter, stillborn twin sister of Maria.<ref>Peggy K. Liss, ''Isabel the Queen: Life and Times'', (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 220.</ref> Born on 1 July 1482 at dawn. * [[Catherine of Aragon|Catherine]] (1485–1536), married firstly to [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]], no issue. Married his younger brother, [[Henry VIII of England]] and was mother of [[Mary I of England]]. Towards the end of her life, family tragedies overwhelmed her, although she met these reverses with grace and fortitude {{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}. The death of her beloved son and heir and the miscarriage of his wife, the death of her daughter Isabella and Isabella's son Miguel (who could have united the kingdoms of the [[Catholic Monarchs]] with that of Portugal), the rebellion and alleged madness of her daughter Joanna and the indifference of Philip the Handsome, and the uncertainty Catherine was in after the death of [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|her husband]] submerged her in profound sadness that made her dress in black for the rest of her lifetime {{Citation needed|reason=Reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=February 2016}}. Her strong spirituality is well understood from the words she said after hearing of her son's death: "The Lord gave him to me, the Lord hath taken him from me, glory be His holy name."{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} ==Cause of beatification and canonization== In 1958, the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] canonical process of the Cause of [[Beatification]] and [[Canonization]] of Isabella was started by José García Goldaraz, the Bishop of Valladolid, where she died in 1504. 17 experts were appointed to investigate more than 100,000 documents in the archives of Spain and the [[Holy See|Vatican]] and the merits of opening a canonical process of canonisation. 3,500 of these were chosen to be included in 27 volumes. In 1970, the Commission determined that "A Canonical process for the canonization of Isabella the Catholic could be undertaken with a sense of security since there was not found one single act, public or private, of Queen Isabella that was not inspired by Christian and evangelical criteria; moreover there was a 'reputation of sanctity' uninterrupted for five centuries and as the investigation was progressing, it was more accentuated." In 1972, the Process of Valladolid was officially submitted to the [[Congregation for the Causes of Saints]] in the Vatican. This process was approved and Isabel was given the title "[[Servant of God]]" in March 1974.<ref name="queenisabel.com">http://www.queenisabel.com/Canonisation/CanonicalProcess.html Accessed 8 October 2012</ref> Some authors have claimed that Isabella's reputation for sanctity derives in large measure from an image carefully shaped and disseminated by the queen herself.<ref>Boruchoff, David A. "Instructions for Sainthood and Other Feminine Wiles in the Historiography of Isabel I." ''Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp. 1–23.</ref> ==Arms== As [[Prince of Asturias|Princess of Asturias]], Isabella bore the [[Undifferenced arms|undifferenced]] royal arms of the Crown of Castile and added the [[Eagle (heraldry)#Eagle of Saint John|Saint John the Evangelist's Eagle]], an [[Eagle (heraldry)|eagle displayed]] as single [[supporter]].<ref name="suarez">{{cite book |title=Isabel la Católica en la Real Academia de la Historia |year=2004 |publisher= Real Academia de la Historia |location=Madrid |page=72|isbn=978-84-95983-54-1 }}</ref><ref>Princess of Isabella's coat of arms with crest: {{cite journal | last1 =García-Menacho Osset | first1 =Eduardo | year =2010 | title =El origen militar de los símbolos de España. El escudo de España|trans-title=Military Origin of Symbols of Spain. The Coat of Arms of Spain| journal =Revista de Historia Militar | issue =Extra |page=387 | language =es | issn = 0482-5748}}</ref> As queen, she [[Quartering (heraldry)|quartered]] the Royal Arms of the Crown of Castile with the Royal Arms of the Crown of Aragon, she and Ferdinand II of Aragon adopted a [[Yoke and arrows|yoke and a bundle of arrows]] as [[heraldic badge]]s. As co-monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand used the motto "[[Tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando|Tanto Monta]]" (''"They amount to the same", or "Equal opposites in balance"''), it refers their [[prenuptial]] agreement. The conquest of [[Kingdom of Granada (Crown of Castile)|Granada]] in 1492 was symbolised by the addition enté en point of a quarter with a pomegranate for Granada (in Spanish ''Granada'' means pomegranate).<ref>Menéndez-Pidal De Navascués, Faustino; ''El escudo''; Menéndez Pidal y Navascués, Faustino; O'Donnell, Hugo; Lolo, Begoña. ''Símbolos de España''. Madrid: Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales, 1999. {{ISBN|84-259-1074-9}}</ref> There was an uncommon variant with the Saint John the Evangelist's eagle and two lions adopted as Castilian royal supporters by [[John II of Castile|John II]], Isabella's father.<ref>[http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/v2/jpg/COC21698.jpg Image of the Isabella's coat of arms with lions as supporters, facade of the St. Paul Church inValladolid (Spain) Artehistoria. Retrieved 3 January 2012.]</ref> <gallery class="center" widths="230" heights="230"> File:Coat of Arms of Isabella of Castile as Princess of Asturias (with crest).svg|Coat of arms as Princess of Asturias<br/>(1468–1474) File:Coat of Arms of Queen Isabella of Castile (1474-1492).svg|Coat of arms as queen<br/> (1474–1492) File:Coat of Arms of Queen Isabella of Castile (1492-1504).svg|Coat of arms as queen<br/> (1492–1504) File:Ornamented Coat of Arms of Queen Isabella of Castile (1492-1504).svg|Coat of arms as queen with Castilian royal supporters (1492–1504) File:Escudo de Isabel la Católica ca 1495.jpg|Coat of arms of Isabella I of Castile depicted in the manuscript from 1495 ''Breviary of Isabella the Catholic'' </gallery> ==Legacy== [[File:Columbian244b-4$.jpg|thumb|Queen Isabella ~ Christopher Columbus {{center|[[Columbian Issue#The $4 stamp|Issue of 1893]]}}]] Isabella is most remembered for enabling Columbus' voyage to the New World, which began an era for greatness for Spain and Europe. In particular her reign saw the founding of the Spanish Empire. This in turn ultimately led to establishment of the modern nations of the Americas. She and her husband completed the Reconquista, driving out the most significant Muslim influence in Western Europe and firmly establishing Spain and the Iberian peninsula as staunchly Catholic. Her reign also established the Spanish Inquisition.<ref name="NGHistory"/> ==Commemoration== [[File:Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spain) - Memorial JK - Brasilia - DSC00387.JPG|200px|thumb|left|Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic]] The Spanish crown created the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]] in 1815 in honor of the queen. Isabella was the first woman to be featured on US postage stamps,<ref name="Scotts">Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps</ref> namely on three stamps of the [[Columbian Issue]], also in celebration of Columbus. She appears in the 'Columbus soliciting aid of Isabella', 5-cent issue, and on the Spanish court scene replicated on the 15-cent Columbian, and on the $4 issue, in full portrait, side by side with Columbus. [[File:Columbian_Issue_1893-5c.jpg|thumb|5 cent U.S. postage stamp, Columbus soliciting aid of Isabella]] The $4 stamp is the only stamp of that denomination ever issued and one which collectors prize not only for its rarity (only 30,000 were printed) but its beauty, an exquisite carmine with some copies having a crimson hue. Mint specimens of this commemorative have been sold for more than $20,000.<ref name="Scotts-quantity">Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps:Quantities Issued</ref> Isabella was also the first named woman to appear on a United States coin, the 1893 [[United States Commemorative Coin|commemorative]] [[Isabella quarter]], celebrating the 400th anniversary of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]'s first voyage. ==Ancestry== {{ahnentafel |collapsed=yes |align=center |boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc; |boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9; |boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; |boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc; |boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe; |1= 1. '''Isabella I of Castile''' |2= 2. [[John II of Castile]] |3= 3. [[Isabella of Portugal, Queen of Castile|Isabella of Portugal]] |4= 4. [[Henry III of Castile]]<ref name="Britannica261568">{{Britannica|261568|Henry III, King of Castille}}</ref> |5= 5. [[Catherine of Lancaster]]<ref name="Britannica261568"/> |6= 6. [[John, Constable of Portugal]]<ref name="DNB-Philippa">{{cite DNB|wstitle=Philippa of Lancaster|volume=45|page=167}}</ref> |7= 7. [[Isabel of Barcelos]]<ref name="GerliArmistead2003">{{cite book|last1=Gerli|first1=E. Michael|last2=Armistead|first2=Samuel G.|title=Medieval Iberia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ra9BtjLRNMsC&pg=PA182|access-date=17 May 2018|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780415939188|page=182}}</ref> |8= 8. [[John I of Castile]]<ref name="Britannica261568"/> |9= 9. [[Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Castile|Eleanor of Aragon]]<ref name="Britannica204397">{{Britannica|204397|Ferdinand I, King of Aragon}}</ref> |10= 10. [[John of Gaunt|John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster]]<ref name="Leese1996">Leese, Thelma Anna, ''Blood royal: issue of the kings and queens of medieval England, 1066–1399'', (Heritage Books Inc., 1996), 222.</ref> |11= 11. [[Constance of Castile, Duchess of Lancaster|Constance of Castile]]<ref name="Leese1996"/> |12= 12. [[John I of Portugal]]<ref name="DNB-Philippa"/> |13= 13. [[Philippa of Lancaster]]{{efn|[[Philippa of Lancaster]] was the daughter [[John of Gaunt]] by his first wife, [[Blanche of Lancaster]],<ref name="Armitage-Smith1905">{{cite book|last=Armitage-Smith|first=Sydney|title=John of Gaunt: King of Castile and Leon, Duke of Aquitaine and Lancaster, Earl of Derby, Lincoln, and Leicester, Seneschal of England|url=https://archive.org/details/johngauntkingca01armigoog|access-date=17 May 2018|year=1905|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|page=[https://archive.org/details/johngauntkingca01armigoog/page/n121 77]}}</ref> making her half-sister of Isabella I of Castille's paternal grandmother, [[Catherine of Lancaster]], who was daughter of the same John of Gaunt but by his second wife, [[Constance of Castile, Duchess of Lancaster|Constance of Castile]].|name="philippaoflancaster"}} |14= 14. [[Afonso I, Duke of Braganza]]<ref name="GerliArmistead2003"/> |15= 15. [[Beatriz Pereira de Alvim]]<ref name="GerliArmistead2003"/> }} == Notes == {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist|30em}} {{Portal|Spain}} ==Further reading== {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * Boruchoff, David A. ''Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. * {{visible anchor|Diffie}}, Bailey W. and Winius, George D. (1977) [https://books.google.com/books?id=VsqCelF9OdkC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=%22foundations+of+the+Portuguese+empire....In+a+war+in+which+the+Castilians+were+victorious+on+land+and+the+Portuguese+on+sea%22&source=bl&ots=_6XiLcq0Ez&sig=MxqBFdBqI-MryupkXAHW3pBa9LU&hl= ''Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580''], Volume 1, University of Minnesota Press. * Downey, Kirsten "Isabella, The Warrior Queen,". New York, Anchor Books, Penguin, 2014. * {{visible anchor|Gerli}}, Edmondo Michael (1992) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ra9BtjLRNMsC&pg=PA219&dq=Isabel+Fernando+1469+Valladolid&hl=en&sa=X&ei=v6SxUL_fBIPI9gShsIHYCg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Isabel%20Fernando%201469%20Valladolid&f=false ''Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia''], Taylor & Francis. * Edwards, John. ''The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs, 1474–1520''. Oxford: Blackwell 2000. {{ISBN|0-631-16165-1}} * Hillgarth, J.N. ''The Spanish Kingdoms, 1250–1516. Castilian hegemony''. Oxford 1978. * Hunt, Joceyln (2001) ''Spain, 1474–1598''. Routledge, 1st Ed. * Kamen, Henry. ''The Spanish Inquisition: a historical revision'' (Yale University Press, 2014) * Liss, Peggy K. (1992) ''Isabel the Queen''. New York: Oxford University Press; * {{visible anchor|Lunenfeld}}, Marvin (1970) [https://books.google.com/books?ei=h-Q1T83PEoK2hAfisv2RAg&ct=book-thumbnail&hl=pt-PT&id=QoFBAQAAIAAJ "The council of the Santa Hermandad: a study of the pacification forces of Ferdinand and Isabella"], University of Miami Press. {{ISBN|978-0870241437}} * Miller, Townsend Miller (1963) ''The Castles and the Crown: Spain 1451–1555''. New York: Coward-McCann * [[William H. Prescott|Prescott, William H.]] (1838). ''History of the Reig of Ferdinand and Isabella''. * Roth, Norman (1995) ''Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain''. (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press) * Stuart, Nancy Rubin. ''Isabella of Castile: the First Renaissance Queen'' (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991) * Tremlett, Giles. ''''"Isabella of Castile. Europe's First Great Queen"'''' (London: Bloomsbury, 2017) * Tremlett, Giles. "''Catherine of Aragon. Henry's Spanish Queen"'' (London: Faber and Faber, 2010) * Weissberger, Barbara F. ''Queen Isabel I of Castile: Power, Patronage, Persona'' (2008) * Weissberger, Barbara F. ''Isabel Rules: Constructing Queenship, Wielding Power'' (2003) {{div col end|2}} ===In Spanish and Portuguese=== ====Books==== {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * {{visible anchor|Armas}}, Antonio Rumeu (1992) ''El tratado de Tordesillas''. Madrid: Colecciones MAPFRE 1492, [http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/4335425-el-tratado-de-tordesillas book description]. * Azcona, Tarsicio de. ''Isabel la Católica. Estudio crítico de su vida y su reinado''. Madrid 1964. * {{visible anchor|Desormeaux}}, Joseph-Louis Ripault (1758) [https://archive.org/details/abrgchronologiq00unkngoog <!-- quote="Abrégé chronologique de l'histoire d'Espagne ". --> ''Abrégé chronologique de l'histoire de l'Éspagne''], Duchesne, Paris, 3rd Tome. * {{visible anchor|Dumont}}, Jean (1993) [https://books.google.com/books?id=rkTcRTRCSYgC&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=La+%22incomparable%22+Isabel+la+Católica+Jean+Dumond+Historia&source=bl&ots=F47TCEgtYU&sig=riPc9BZeVr7GAyoGqJJrxTVgkEc&hl=pt-PT&ei=pMFETdDtLs3k4AbokcVD&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re ''La "imcomparable" Isabel la Catolica''] (The "incomparable" Isabella, the Catholic), Madrid: Encuentro Editiones, printed by Rogar-Fuenlabrada (Spanish edition). * {{visible anchor|González}}, Justo L. (1994) [https://web.archive.org/web/20130616072154/http://pt.scribd.com/doc/27826340/Justo-L-Gonzalez-Historia-Del-Cristianismo-Tomo-II ''Historia del Cristianismo''], Miami: Editorial Unilit, Tome 2. {{ISBN|1560634766}} * {{visible anchor|Guerrero}}, Mª Monserrat León (2002) [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/el-segundo-viaje-colombino--0/ ''El segundo viaje colombino''], Alicante: Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. {{ISBN|8468812080}} * Ladero Quesada, Miguel Angel. ''La España de los Reyes Católicos'', Madrid 1999. * {{visible anchor|Manchado}}, Ana Isabel Carrasco (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=qADOoHct1MwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Isabel+I+de+Castilla+y+la+sombra+de+la+ilegitimidad.+Propaganda+y+representación+en+el+conflicto+sucesorio+%281474–1482%29&source=bl&ots=sxnzroys_j&sig=aM79jFNVQ3dl8c47tP2FGbR ''Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimidad. Propaganda y representación en el conflicto sucesorio (1474–1482)''], Madrid: Sílex ediciones. * {{visible anchor|Mendonça}}, Manuela (2007) ''O Sonho da União Ibérica – guerra Luso-Castelhana 1475/1479'', Lisboa: Quidnovi, [http://www.wook.pt/ficha/o-sonho-da-uniao-iberica-1475-1479/a/id/199218 book description]. {{ISBN|978-9728998882}} * Pereira, Isabel Violante (2001) ''De Mendo da Guarda a D. Manuel I''. Lisboa: Livros Horizonte * Perez, Joseph. ''Isabel y Fernando. Los Reyes Católicos''. Madrid 1988. * Suárez Fernández, L. and M. Fernández (1969) ''La España de los reyes Católicos (1474–1516)''. {{div col end|2}} ====Articles==== {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * {{visible anchor|Beretta}}, Antonio Ballesteros (1941) [https://web.archive.org/web/20120111114918/http://www.portalcultura.mde.es/Galerias/revistas/ficheros/RET_016.pdf ''Fernando el Católico''], in ''Ejército'' revue, Ministerio del Ejercito, Madrid, nr 16, p. &nbsp;54–66, May 1941. * {{visible anchor|Casas}}, Rafael Dominguez (1990) [http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2689349 ''San Juan de los reyes: espacio funerário y aposento régio''] – in ''Boletín del Seminário de Estúdios de Arte y Arqueologia'', number 56, p. &nbsp;364–383, University of Valladolid. * {{visible anchor|Duro}}, Cesáreo Fernández (1901) [http://descargas.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/hist/09255096579869640757857/023863.pdf?incr=1 ''La batalla de Toro (1476). Datos y documentos para su monografía histórica''], Madrid: Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, tomo 38. * {{visible anchor|Palenzuela}},Vicente Ángel Alvarez (2006) [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/la-guerra-civil-castellana-y-el-enfrentamiento-con-portugal-14751479-0/ ''La guerra civil castellana y el enfrentamiento con Portugal (1475–1479)''], Universidad de Alicante, Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. * {{visible anchor|Quesada}}, Miguel-Ángel Ladero (2000) [http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/ELEM/article/view/ELEM0000110067A/22548 ''Portugueses en la frontera de Granada''], Revista En la España medieval, Universidad Complutense, nr. 23, pages 67–100. * {{visible anchor|Serrano}}, António Macia- [http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=4208108 ''San Juan de los Reyes y la batalla de Toro''], revista [https://web.archive.org/web/20120312101852/http://www.realacademiatoledo.es/files/toletum/0009/toletum09_maciadiscurso.pdf Toletum], segunda época, 1979 (9), [http://biblioteca2.uclm.es/biblioteca/ceclm/ARTREVISTAS/Toletum/tol09/toletum09_maciadiscurso.pdf pp. 55–70]. Toledo: Real Academia de Bellas Artes y Ciencias Históricas de Toledo. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]]: [https://web.archive.org/web/20110930012210/http://bddoc.csic.es:8080/detalles.html;isessionid=A31394B29A781B0B063B6993FDA9FAEE?id=30676&bd=HISTORI&tabla=docu 0210-6310] {{div col end|2}} ====Chronicles==== {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Damião de Góis|{{visible anchor|Góis}}, Damião de]] (1724) [http://purl.pt/286/3/ ''Chronica do Principe D. Joam''], edited by Lisboa occidental at the officina da Música, Lisboa (Biblioteca Nacional Digital). * [[Juan de Mariana|{{visible anchor|Mariana}}, Juan de]] (1839) [https://books.google.com/books?id=OvUA8yjTEoMC&pg=PA296&dq=Mariana+%22Historia+general+de+España%22&as_brr=3&hl=pt-PT&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Historia General de España''], tome V Barcelona: printing press of D. Francisco Oliva. * [[Alfonso de Palencia|{{visible anchor|Palencia}}, Alfonso de]] – ''Gesta Hispaniensia ex annalibus suorum diebus colligentis, Década III [https://books.google.com/books?id=-1A3cWT_1kAC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=%22Alonso+de+Palencia+decada+cuarta+naves+castellanas%22&source=bl&ots=kdDs0IZIC2&sig=1GhLLlK7uT95iMhwkS2KqoLeBJQ&hl=pt-PT&ei=zGpZTbrYFIKAhQf-9YyDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved and IV''] (the three first ''Décadas were'' edited as ''Cronica del rey Enrique IV'' by Antonio Paz y Meliá in 1904 and the fourth as Cuarta Década by José Lopes de Toro in 1970). * [[Rui de Pina|{{visible anchor|Pina}}, Ruy de]] (1902) [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24508/24508-h/24508-h.htm#c50 ''Chronica de El- rei D. Affonso V''], Project Gutenberg Ebook, Biblioteca de Clássicos Portugueses, 3rd book, Lisboa. * [[Hernando del Pulgar|{{visible anchor|Pulgar}}, Hernando del]] (1780) [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/cronica-de-los-senores-reyes-catolicos-don-fernando-y-dona-isabel-de-castilla-y-de-aragon--2/ ''Crónica de los Señores Reyes Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragón''], (Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes), Valencia: edited by Benito Monfort. * [[Garcia de Resende|{{visible anchor|Resende}}, Garcia de]] – [[:wikisource:pt:Vida e Feitos D' El-Rey Dom João Segundo/XIII|''Vida e feitos d'El Rei D.João II'']] electronic version, wikisource. {{div col end|2}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Isabella of Castile}} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08177a.htm Isabella I in the Catholic Encyclopedia] * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/columbus2.html Medieval Sourcebook: Columbus' letter to King and Queen of Spain, 1494] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060105155606/http://www.goldbergweb.com/en/magazine/essays/2004/02/20213_print.php Music at Isabella's court] * [http://www.hull.ac.uk/php/cssbct/cgi-bin/gedlkup.php/n=royal?royal00841 University of Hull: Genealogy information on Isabella I] * [http://www.el-mundo.es/cronica/2004/459/1091455989.html El obispo judío que bloquea a la "santa"]. A report in Spanish about the beatification in [[El Mundo (Spain)|''El Mundo'']] * [http://www.check123.com/videos/10037-isabella-i-of-castile-facts Isabella I of Castile – Facts (Video)] | Check123 – Video Encyclopedia {{S-start}} {{S-hou|[[House of Trastámara]]|22 April|1451|26 November|1504}} {{S-reg|}} {{S-bef|before=[[Henry IV of Castile|Henry IV]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[List of Castilian monarchs|Queen regnant of Castile]] and [[List of Leonese monarchs|León]]| years=1474–1504|regent1=[[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand V]]|years1=1475–1504}} {{S-aft|after=[[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]]}} {{S-roy|es}} {{s-break}} {{S-vac|rows=2|last=[[Juana Enríquez]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[List of Sicilian consorts|Queen consort of Sicily]]|years=1469–1504}} {{S-vac|rows=3|next=[[Germaine of Foix]]}} {{s-break}} {{S-ttl|title=[[List of Aragonese consorts|Queen consort of Aragon]]|years=1479–1504}} {{s-break}} {{S-bef|before=[[Anne of Brittany]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[List of consorts of Naples|Queen consort of Naples]]|years=1504}} {{S-reg|es}} {{S-bef|before=[[Infante Alfonso of Castile|Alfonso]]}} {{S-ttl|title=[[Prince of Asturias|Princess of Asturias]]|years=1468–1474}} {{S-aft|after=[[Isabella, Princess of Asturias (1470–1498)|Isabella]]}} {{S-end}} {{Princes of Asturias}} {{Castilian monarchs}} {{Leonese monarchs}} {{Portalbar|Biography|Monarchy|Catholicism|Middle Ages|Spain}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Isabella 01 Of Castile}} [[Category:Isabella I of Castile| ]] [[Category:1451 births]] [[Category:1504 deaths]] [[Category:15th-century Castilian monarchs]] [[Category:16th-century Castilian monarchs]] [[Category:Aragonese queen consorts]] [[Category:Burials at the Royal Chapel of Granada]] [[Category:Castilian infantas]] [[Category:Countesses of Barcelona]] [[Category:Galician monarchs]] [[Category:History of Catholicism in Spain]] [[Category:House of Trastámara]] [[Category:Leonese monarchs]] [[Category:Majorcan queens consort]] [[Category:People from the Province of Ávila]] [[Category:Princes of Asturias]] [[Category:Queens regnant]] [[Category:Order of Isabella the Catholic]] [[Category:Royal consorts of Naples]] [[Category:Royal consorts of Sicily]] [[Category:Spanish people of English descent]] [[Category:Spanish people of Portuguese descent]] [[Category:Spanish Renaissance people]] [[Category:Spanish Servants of God]] [[Category:Roman Catholic royal saints]] [[Category:15th-century Spanish women]] [[Category:16th-century Spanish women]] [[Category:15th-century women rulers]] [[Category:16th-century women rulers]] [[Category:16th-century venerated Christians]] [[Category:Spanish exploration in the Age of Discovery]]'