Examine individual changes

'{| class="infobox" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float: right; width: 250px; border-collapse: collapse;" |+ <big>'''Zabulistan'''</big> |- | colspan="2" style="font-size: x-small; text-align: center; font-style: italic;" |[[File:Zabul map 7-10th-century.png|300px|]]<br/>Map of Zabulistan, 7th-10th-century |- ! | |- ! [[Religions]] | [[Zoroastrianism]]<br>[[Buddhism]]<br>[[Hinduism]]<br>[[Zunbil|Zhunism]]<br>[[Ancient Iranian religion]]<br>[[Islam]] |- ! [[Capital (political)|Capitals]] | [[Ghazni]] |- ! [[Area]] | Between [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and [[Hindustan|India]] |- ! | |- ! | |} {{History of Afghanistan |expanded=listname}} {{History of Iran |expanded=listname}} '''Zabulistan''' ({{lang-fa|زابلستان}} ''Zābulistān''/''Zābolistān''/''Zāwulistān'' or simply {{lang|fa|زابل}} ''Zābul'', {{lang-ps|زابل}} ''Zābəl''), was a historical region in southern [[Afghanistan]] roughly corresponding to the modern provinces of [[Zabul Province|Zabul]] and [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]].<ref name="Minorsky p.112">{{harvnb|Minorsky|2015|p=112}}</ref><ref name="Leyden">{{Cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian//pf?file=03501051&ct=95 |title=Events Of The Year 910 (1525) |year=1921 |editor=John Leyden, Esq. |editor2=William Erskine, Esq. |work=[[Baburnama|Memoirs of Babur]] |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |page=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113215245/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=03501051&ct=95 |archive-date=2007-11-13 |url-status=live |access-date=2010-08-22 }}</ref> The inhabitants of Zabulistan were ethnically [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]]. <ref name=Volume5>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&pg=PA6|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5|author=John Andrew Boyle|page=165|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|author-link=John Andrew Boyle|isbn=9780521069366|year=1968}}</ref> Following Ghaznavid dominion, Zabul became largely synonymous with the name of its capital Ghazni. By the tenth century, Islamic sources mention Zabulistan as part of the ''Khorasan marches'', a frontier region between [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and [[Indian subcontinent|India]].<ref name="Minorsky p.112" /> In the [[Tarikh-i Sistan]], finished around 1062 CE, the author regards Zabul as part of the land of [[Sistan]], stretching from the [[Hamun Lake|Hamun Oasis]] all the way to the [[Indus River|Indus]].<ref name="Rezakhani p.115"/> Today, the modern [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] province of [[Zabul Province|Zabul]] and the Iranian city [[Zabol]] take their names from the historical region. Zabulistan has become popularized as the birthplace of the character [[Rostam]] of [[Ferdowsi]]’s [[Shahnameh|Shahnama]] in which the word Zabulistan is used interchangeably with [[Sistan]], a historically separate region located to its west.{{sfn|Minorsky|2015|p=110}} == Names == FUCKER MADHARCHOD ({{lang-fa|زابلستان}}) which is the Persian name of the region, literally means "the land of Zābul". The etymology of the name Zābul has been marred with speculation. The German historian [[Josef Markwart|Marquart]], proposed the word, including its uncommon Medieval variant Jāwulistān ({{lang-fa|links=no|جابلستان}}) as being a variation of the Sanskrit term.<ref name="Minorsky p.346">{{harvnb|Minorsky|2015|p=346}}</ref> Others have speculated that the word ''zābul'' might be an abbreviation of ''zūnbīl'', a supposed royal title of the region known from Arabic sources, earlier read as ''rutbīl'', and now used to refer to a local dynasty of [[Zamindawar]] now called the [[Zunbils]]. This notion however currently stands on loose ground, and [[Vladimir Minorsky|Minorsky]] holds that the consonant resemblance between these two words look merely fortuitous.<ref name="Minorsky p.346"/> Jāguḍa ({{lang-sa|जागुड|links=no}}), meaning ''saffron'',<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sanskritdictionary.com/j%C4%81gu%E1%B8%8Da/56501/7 |title=Sanskritdictionary.com: Definition of jāguḍa |website=sanskritdictionary.com |access-date=2018-05-24}}</ref> was the Sanskrit name of the region. It is also regarded as being referred to by this name in 644 CE by the Chinese traveling monk [[Xuanzang]] in the Chinese transliteration ''Tsau-kü-ta''.<ref name="Minorsky p.346"/> == Geography == The earliest detailed description of Zabulistan comes from the [[Great Tang Records on the Western Regions]], written by the travelling monk [[Xuanzang]] in the early seventh century. He places the country of ''Tsau-kü-ta'' (Jāguḍa) between the Great Snowy Mountains ([[Hindu Kush|the Hindu Kush]]) and the Black Range (probably the [[Sulaiman Mountains|Sulaiman mountains]]), bordering the country of Vrjisthāna in the north, [[Kapisa (city)|Kāpiśī]] to its north-east and Kaikānān to its east.<ref name="Ronxi Li">{{citation |title=The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions |last=Li |first=Rongxi |publisher=Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research |year=1995 |isbn=1-886439-02-8 |location=Berkeley, California }}</ref> While the Chinese pilgrims never explored the south or west of the region, it is known from later Arabic accounts that Zabulistan at this time was bordered by Turan to its south and [[Rukhkhaj|Rukhkhudh]] to its west.<blockquote>"The country of Jāguda is more than seven thousand ''li'' in circuit, and its capital city, named Hexina ([[Ghazni]]), is over thirty ''li'' in circuit; but the capital is sometimes located in the city of Hesaluo (Guzar), which is also over thirty ''li'' in circuit, both cities being strongly fortified in invulnerable positions. The mountains and valleys are rich in natural resources, and the cultivated farmlands, divided by ridges, are high and dry. Crops are sown in proper seasons. Winter wheat is abundant, and vegetation is luxuriant with profuse flowers and fruits. The soil is good for growing aromatic turmeric, and it produces the ''hingu'' herb (''[[Asafoetida|Ferula asafoetida]]''), which grows in the Rama-Indu Valley. In the city of Hesaluo there are gushing springs, the water of which flows to all sides, and the people make use of it for irrigation. The climate is severely cold with much frost and snow." - [[Xuanzang]], 644 CE<ref name="Ronxi Li" /></blockquote>During the Medieval Islamic era, the region is continuously mentioned in geographical works such as [[Istakhri]]'s Kitab al-Masalik (930-933 CE), the [[Hudud al-'Alam|Hudud al 'Alam]] (982 CE), [[Hamdallah Mustawfi|Qazvīnī]]'s Nuzhat al-Qulub etc.<ref>{{harvnb|Minorsky|1937|p=165}}</ref> as a dry region among the Khorasan marches, famous for its fruits, good hunting grounds and fine pastures.<ref>{{citation |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.174144 |title=The Geographical Part Of The Nuzhat-al-qulub |last=Hamd-allah Mustawfi |date=1919}}</ref> The region is likewise described by [[Babur|Zahir ud-Din Babur]] in the early sixteenth century in his memoirs the [[Baburnama]], which he roughly equates with the [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]] province of Ghazni. At this time, the region of Ghazni is described as bordering Kabul in its northeast, Zurmat to its east and Kandahar to its southwest.<blockquote>"Ghazni, in the third clime, is also known as Zabul. Zabulistan consists of this province, and some consider Kandahar to be in Zabulistan. Ghazni is fourteen leagues southwest of Kabul. Those who take the road leave Ghazni at daybreak and arrive in Kabul in the afternoon, whereas the thirteen league road between [[Kabul]] and Adinapur (near modern [[Jalalabad]]) is so poor that no one can do it in a day. It is a miserable province. The river is a four- or five mill stream. The city of Ghazni and another four or five villages are watered by it, while another three or four others are irrigated by subterranean aqueducts. The grapes and melons of Ghazni are better than those of Kabul; the apples are also good and are taken to Hindustan (India). The agriculture is laborous because new soil must be brought in every year for whatever amount of land is planted. The yield, however, is better than that of Kabul. They plant madder, the best crop, all which is taken to Hindustan." [[Babur|Zahir ud-Din Babur]], 1504-6 CE</blockquote> ==History== ===Pre-Islamic period=== The first mentions of the region coincides with its takeover by the [[Iranian Huns]] in the 4th century. Initially being conquered by the [[Alchon Huns|Alkhan]], then the [[Nezak Huns|Nezaks]] in the 5th century.<ref name="Rezakhani p.115"/> The region fell to the [[Turk Shahi]]s in the 7th century, then being controlled by a collection loose suzerains of the [[Hindu Shahi]]s to the 10th century. According to Andre Wink: {{Quote|It is clear however that in the seventh to ninth centuries the Zunbils and their kinsmen the Kabulshahs ruled over a predominantly Indian rather than a Persianate realm. The Arab geographers, in effect, commonly speak of 'that king of al-Hind ... (who) bore the title of Zunbil'.{{sfn|Wink|1996|pp=112–114}}}} The region was finally conquered and Islamized by the [[Ghaznavids]] after 961 CE.<ref name="Iranica">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gazni-|title=ḠAZNĪ – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=www.iranicaonline.org|access-date=2018-12-18}}</ref> ==== The Alkhans ==== The first mentions of the word Zabul is from coinage of what's known as "the early anonymous clan-rulers". These were late fourth-century tribal chiefs and possibly former governors of the Sasanids from the north of the Hindu Kush, who following the course of the [[Kidarites]], declared independence from [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid]] dominance. By 384/5 CE, they controlled [[Kapisa Province|Kāpiśī]] and [[Gandhara]], and started minting their own characteristic coins in the formerly Sasanian mint.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase6?language=en |title=6. ALKHAN: From the Anonymous Clan-rulers to King Khingila {{!}} Digitaler Ausstellungskatalog |website=pro.geo.univie.ac.at |language=en |access-date=2018-06-22}}</ref> A set of these anonymous coins including some of the coins of king [[Khingila I]], the first of [[Alchon Huns|Alkhan]] kings known by name, bore the legend ''Shāh Zāwbul Ālkhān'' ([[Bactrian language|Bactrian]]: ϸαυο ζαοβλ αλχανο) translated as ‘King of Zabul Alkhan’.<ref name="Vondrovec">{{citation |title=Coinage of the Iranian Huns and Their Successors from Bactria to Gandhara: 4th to 8th Century ce |last=Vondrovec |first=Klaus |publisher=Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |year=2014 |isbn= 9783700176954|location=Vienna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoIvuwEACAAJ&dq=vondrovec+coinage+of+the+iranian+huns}}</ref> This suggests Alkhan control of the Zabulistan region southwest of modern Kabul from an early time of Alkhan dominance in the region.<ref name="Rezakhani p.115">{{harvnb|Rezakhani|2017|p=115}}</ref> Alkhan power, primarily based in the Kapisa and Gandhara valleys, was seldom concentrated with one king alone, as shown by the variety of Alkhan coins minted simultaneously in the different regions of the empire's control, which by 484 CE reached all the way to [[Eran|Mawla]] in Central India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase9?language=en |title=9. Toramana and Mihirakula - The Rise and Fall of the Alkhan in India {{!}} Digitaler Ausstellungskatalog |website=pro.geo.univie.ac.at |language=en |access-date=2018-06-22}}</ref> Northern Zabulistan is understood to have remained under nominal control of the Alkhan rulers of [[Kapisa Province|Kāpiśī]], with the rest remaining under nominal Sasanid rule until [[Peroz I]]'s defeat by the [[Hephthalite Empire|Hephthalites]] in 484 CE, which facilitated the takeover of Zabulistan by the new independent ruler [[Napki Malka|Nezak Shah]]. ==== The Nezaks ==== Following the collapse of Sasanid control in [[Tokharistan]] in 484 CE, and with Alkhan coinage expanding into the Indian subcontinent, numismatic evidence accounts for the consolidation of a new dynasty in Kapisa and Zabul. The [[Nezak Huns|Nezak Shah dynasty]], identified through their unique coin designs and the [[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]] [[Napki Malka|Nezak Shah]] stamp (previously interpreted by Göbl as Napki MLK) on their coins, supposedly opened a mint in Ghazni (which's coins are identified by Göbl as the š-group of Nezak coinage) following 484 CE. Later, they managed to also consolidate their rule over [[Kapisa (city)|Kāpiśī]], where they overtook the local mint around the first quarter of the 6th-century CE (whose coins are identified by Göbl as the ā-group). Unlike the contemporary [[Hephthalite Empire|Hephthalites]] and [[Alchon Huns|Alkhan]], they did not use a [[tamga]], but instead donned a golden winged bull-headed crown as their primary signifier.<ref name="Rezakhani p.115"/> Sometime after 532 CE, after [[Mihirakula|Mihrakulas]] devastating defeat against [[Yashodharman|Yasodharman]] at [[Eran|Mawla]], Alkhan power is understood to have subsequently returned to the [[Gandhara]] and the [[Kapisa Province|Kāpiśī]] valleys, thereby having to confront the Nezaks. Whether this encounter was mostly peaceful or hostile is currently unknown, but has been recorded in part among numismatic evidence, from Alkhan coins minted in Gandhara with the characteristic Nezak bull-headed crown over an otherwise typically Alkhan design, to the overstriking of Nezak coins in the second half of the 6th century by the Alkhan ruler [[Toramana II]].<ref name="Rezakhani p.115" /> At around the same period, the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]] under [[Khosrow I|Khusro I]] (r. 531-579) briefly reestablished their control of [[Balkh]], and probably also Zabulistan, which is supported by a Sasanian administrative seal found there from the same period.<ref name="Vondrovec"/> Succeeding Sasanian control of Zabulistan by the end of the 6th-century, a new group of coins are struck with an š-mint (Zabul) brand and in a design reminiscent of both Alkhan and Nezak coinage, though ultimately missing the bull-headed crown of the Nezaks and struck with the Alkhan [[tamga]], while the Nezak ā-coinage is retained in [[Kapisa Province|Kāpiśī]]. This new issue is known as the Alkhan-Nezak Crossover, and which dynasty continued to issue coinage from the Ghazni-mint until the middle of the 7th century.<ref name="Vondrovec" /> ==== The Kabul Shahis ==== {{POV section|reason=This is out of context for this page|date=May 2019}} The Kabul Shahis are generally split up into two eras: the [[Buddhist]] Shahis and the [[Hindu]] Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE. The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 CE to 670 CE, when the capitals were located in [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]] and Kabul, and later [[Hund, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Udabhandapura]], also known as Hund,<ref>Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). ''Hund: The Forgotten City of Gandhara'', p. 2. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar.</ref> for its new capital.<ref>''The Shahi Afghanistan and Punjab'', 1973, pp. 1, 45–46, 48, 80, Dr D.B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p. 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan – Indo-Scythians; Country, Culture and Political life in early and medieval India, 2004, p. 34, Daud Ali.</ref><ref>''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', 1954, pp. 112 ff; "The Shahis of Afghanistan and Punjab", 1973, p. 46, Dr D.B. Pandey; ''The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture'', 1976, p. 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan – Indo-Scythians.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Keay|2000|p=203}}: The Hindu Shahis, and in the late ninth century great was [their fame] ... in 870 Kabul itself was captured [lost] ... But in the Panjab they consolidated their kingdom and established a new capital first at Hund.</ref> The kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Kapisa|Kapisa]]-[[Gandhara]] in modern-day Afghanistan, Zabulistan and [[Sindh]] (which then held Makran) in modern-day Pakistan, all of which were culturally and politically part of [[ancient India]] since ancient times,<ref>Mehta, Jaswant Lal, "Advanced Study in The History of Medieval India Vol 1", pp31</ref> were known as "The Frontier of Al Hind". The Hindu Shahis under [[Jayapala]], is known for his struggles in defending his kingdom against the [[Ghaznavids]] for the control over Zabulistan and the surrounding region. Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital city of [[Ghazni]] both in the reign of [[Sebuktigin]] and in that of his son [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]], which initiated the [[Muslim]] Ghaznavid and [[Hindu]] Shahi struggles.<ref name="Lewis">{{Citation | title=The Cambridge history of Islam | editor1=P. M. Holt |editor2=Ann K. S. Lambton |editor3=Bernard Lewis |editor3-link=Bernard Lewis | year=1977 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-29137-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ccI0u5XDR0C | page=3 | quote=''... Jaypala of Waihind saw danger in the consolidation of the kingdom of Ghazni and decided to destroy it. He, therefore, invaded Ghazni, but was defeated ...''}}</ref> Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity.<ref name="Lewis"/> Jayapala defaulted on the payment and took to the battlefield once more.<ref name="Lewis"/> Jayapala, however, lost control of the entire region from Zabulistan to between the [[Kabul|Kabul Valley]] and [[Indus River]].<ref name="Ferishta">{{cite web |work=[[Ferishta]], History of the Rise of Mohammedan Power in India, Volume 1: Section 15 |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=06901021&ct=12 |title=Ameer Nasir-ood-deen Subooktugeen |publisher=Packard Humanities Institute|access-date=30 December 2012}}</ref> However, Jayapala's army was hopeless in battle against the Ghaznavid forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of Ghazni.<ref name="Ferishta"/> In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the [[Qarakhanid]]s north of the [[Hindu Kush]], Jayapala [[Battle of Peshawar (1001)|attacked Ghazni]] once more and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day [[Peshawar]]. After the [[Battle of Peshawar (1001)|Battle of Peshawar]], he committed suicide because his subjects thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahis.<ref name="Lewis"/><ref name="Ferishta"/> Jayapala was succeeded by his son [[Anandapala]],<ref name="Lewis"/> who along with other succeeding generations of the Shahis took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against the advancing Ghaznavids but were unsuccessful. These Ghaznavid victories in these wars resulted in the Islamization of Zabulistan and the surrounding regions.<ref name="Lewis"/> ====The Rutbils==== {{Main|Zunbils}} According to book writer André Wink, {{quote|"In southern and eastern Afghanistan, the regions of Zamindawar (Zamin I Datbar or land of the justice giver, the classical Archosia) and Zabulistan or Zabul (Jabala, [[Kingdom of Kapisa|Kapisha]], Kia pi shi) and Kabul, the Arabs were effectively opposed for more than two centuries, from 643 to 870 AD, by the indigenous rulers the Zunbils and the related [[Sahi clan|Kabul-Shahs]] of the dynasty which became known as the Buddhist-Shahi. With [[Makran]] and [[Baluchistan, Pakistan|Baluchistan]] and much of [[Sindh]] this area can be reckoned to belong to the cultural and political frontier zone between [[India]] and [[Persia]]. It is clear however that in the seventh to the ninth centuries the Zunbils and their kinsmen the Kabulshahs ruled over a predominantly Indian rather than a Persian realm. The Arab geographers, in effect commonly speak of that king of "Al Hind" ...(who) bore the title of Zunbil."{{sfn|Wink|2002|p=112}}}} According to C. E. Bosword: {{quote|"One of the most important aspects of early Saffarid policy of significance for the spread of Islam in Afghanistan and on the borders long after their empire had collapsed, was that of expansion into eastern Afghanistan. The early Arab governors of [[Sistan]] had at times penetrated as far as [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]] and [[Kabul]], but these had been little more than slave and plunder raids. There was fierce resistance from the local rulers of these regions, above all from the line of Zunbils who ruled in [[Zamindavar]] and Zabulistan."{{sfn|Bosworth|1975|p=110}}}} ===== Saffarid invasion ===== {{Further|Islamic conquest of Afghanistan}} The region of southern Afghanistan was first invaded by Muslim Arabs from [[Zaranj]] in what is now [[Nimruz Province]]. From there they marched toward [[Lashkar Gah|Bost]], [[Kandahar]], Zabulistan, and reached Kabul. In 683 Kabul revolted and defeated the Muslim army, but two years later Zabul's army was routed by the Arabs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.narasimhan.com/SK/Culture/culture_history/culture_hist_gupta2.htm |title=The Gupta Empire and India (320 AD – 750AD) |access-date=2009-02-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121160257/http://narasimhan.com/SK/Culture/culture_history/culture_hist_gupta2.htm |archive-date=2008-11-21 }}</ref> {{quote|"We are told that it was only in 870 AD that Zabulistan was finally conquered by one [[Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari|Yakub]] who was the virtual ruler of the neighbouring Iranian province of [[Sistan|Siestan]]. The king was killed and his subjects were made Muslims."<ref>Medieval India Part 1 by Satish Chandra Page 17</ref>}} {{quote|"One of the most important aspects of the early [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarid]] policy of significance for the spread of Islam in Afghanistan and on the borders of [[India]] long after their empire had collapsed, was that of expansion into eastern Afghanistan. The early Arab governors of [[Sistan]] had at times penetrated as far as [[Ghazni Province|Ghazana]] and [[Kabul]], but these had been little more than slave and plunder raids. There was a fierce resistance from the local rulers of these regions, above all from the line of Zunbils who ruled in Zamindavar and Zabulistan and who were probably epigoni of the southern Hepthalite or Chionite kingdom of Zabul; on more than one occasion, these Zunbils inflicted sharp defeats on the Muslims. The Zunbils were linked with the [[Sahi clan|Kabul-Shahs]] of the [[Sahi clan|Shahi]] dynasty; the whole river valley was at this time culturally and religiously an outpost of the Indian world, as of course it had been in the earlier centuries during the heyday of the [[Buddhist]] [[Gandhara]] civilization."{{sfn|Bosworth|1975|p=111}}}} ==== The Ghaznavids ==== The Ghaznavid ascendancy in Zabulistan began with [[Sebuktigin]] and in that of his son [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]]. After the Ghaznavid defeat of the [[Hindu Shahi]]s, the region was finally conquered and Islamized by the [[Ghaznavids]] after 961 CE.<ref name="Lewis"/> == Religion == ===Hindu and Buddhist period=== During [[Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan|Hindu and Buddhist period]] Zabulistan is known to have been a place of various religious cults and practices, with Ghazni being an old stop on the silk and spice trade flowing between [[Tokharistan]] and [[Greater India|India]]. Chinese monk [[Xuanzang]] recorded numerous Buddhist stupas and monasteries supposedly built by [[Ashoka]] and several dozen Hindu temples, which were demolished by Islamic invaders around 653/54 CE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en|title=15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome" {{!}} Digitaler Ausstellungskatalog|website=pro.geo.univie.ac.at|access-date=2018-12-19}}</ref> [[Xuanzang]] also made an account of Zabul (which he called by its [[Sanskrit]] name ''Jaguda''), which he describes as mainly Hindus, though also respecting [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]], which although in the minority had the support of its royals. In terms of other cults, the god Zuna,<ref>{{Cite book|title=A New Etymological Vocabulary of Pashto|last=Morgenstierne|first=Georg|publisher=Reichert Verlag|year=2003|isbn=9783895003646|location=Wiesbaden, Germany}}</ref> is described to be the prime deity of the country.<ref name="Ronxi Li"/> [[File:Mes Aynak stupa.jpg|thumb|Newly [[Excavation (archaeology)|excavated]] [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[stupa]] at [[Mes Aynak]] in [[Logar Province]]. Similar stupas have been discovered in neighboring [[Ghazni Province]], including in the northern [[Samangan Province#Cultural heritage|Samangan Province]].]]<blockquote>Although they worship various gods, they respect the Triple Gem. There are several hundred monasteries with more than ten thousand monks, all of whom study Mahayana teachings. The reigning king is a man of pure faith who inherited a throne handed down through many generations. He has engaged himself in performing meritorious deeds and is intelligent and studious. There are more than ten stupas built by king Asoka. Deva-temples number several tens, and the heretics, who are in the majority, live together. Their disciples are extremely numerous, and they worship the god Zuna.</blockquote><blockquote>- [[Xuanzang]], The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, 644 CE <ref name="Ronxi Li"/></blockquote> === Zhun === M. Shenkar, in his study comes to the conclusion that Zhun was possibly connected to the deity of the river Oxus, the modern river Amudarya. Furthermore he holds it most likely that Zhun was the greatest deity worshiped in Zabulistan.<ref>http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp290_horse_rider_statuette.pdf</ref> F. Grenet believes that Zhun might have been connected with the Iranian solar deity Mithra.<ref>http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp290_horse_rider_statuette.pdf</ref> Other scholars have connected Zun with the Sassanid Zoroastrian deity [[Zurvanism|Zurvān]], the deity of time. {{Quote |text=''"Regarding origin of Žuna, Xuanzang had only mentioned that it was initially brought to Kapisa, later Begram from “far” and later moved to Zabul. There is no consensus as to who brought it and when. By identifying Žun with Sassanian Zurvān, the cult of Žun or*Zruvān can be viewed in a much wider context of Iranian history and religious developments. Žun, Like Zurvān, most likely represented the "god of time", a heresy in Zoroastrianism, which originated in response to the religious reforms introduced during second half of Achaemenid Empire. The cosmopolitan nature of the god is consistent with the variety of religions practiced in the region prior to the [[Islamization]] of Afghanistan."''<ref>https://www.academia.edu/38605352/Etymology_of_Zhunbil_and_Identity_of_the_Rulers_of_Kabul_and_Zabul_in_Seventh_-Ninth_Centuries_C.E</ref>}} According to N. Sims-Williams:<ref>http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp290_horse_rider_statuette.pdf</ref> {{Quote |text="It is not unlikely that Zhun derives from the Iranian Zurwan." }} {{Further|Sajawand}}Xuanzang goes on to describe the god as residing on top of a mountain in Zabul called the '''Zhunāhīra mountain''', where people came "from far and near and high and low", even attracting kings, ministers, officials and common people of regions where different customs were observed, to pay homage and make donations.<ref name="Ronxi Li"/><blockquote>"They either offer gold, silver, and rare gems or present sheep, horses, and other domestic animals to the god in competition with each other to show their piety and sincerity. Therefore gold and silver are scattered all over the ground, and sheep and horses fill up the valley. Nobody dares to covet them, for everyone is eager to make offerings to the god. To those who respect and serve the heretics and practice asceticism whole-heartedly, the god imparts magical incantations, of which the heretics make effective use in most cases; for the treatment of disease, they are quite efficacious."<ref name="Minorsky p.346"/></blockquote><blockquote>- [[Xuanzang]], 644 CE</blockquote>The god Zuna is again mentioned in Islamic sources in the recounting of the Saffarid conquest of Zabulistan, in the Arabic rendering ''Zūn'' ([[Arabic]]: زون). These sources mention two temples, one at [[Zamindawar]] and one at [[Sajawand|Sakkawand]]. The temple at Sakkawand was sacked and plundered in 870 CE.<ref name="Mishra1972">{{cite book|last=Mishra|first=Yogendra|title=The Hindu Sahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab, A.D. 865-1026: a phase of Islamic advance into India|year=1972|publisher=Vaishali Bhavan|pages=42–43|quote=When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan, he led his army against Sakawand, a large Hindu place of worship in that country with a temple and many idols. He took the temple, broke the idols into pieces, and overthrew the idolaters. He informed Amr ibn Lais of the conquest and asked for reinforcements. When the news of the fall of Sakawand reached Kamalu, who was Rai of Hindustan, he collected an innumerable army and marched towards Zabulistan to- take revenge.}}</ref><ref name="Elliot1953">{{cite book|last=Elliot|first=Sir Henry Miers|title=The History of India|year=1953|page=20|quote=There was a large Hindu place of worship in that country, which was called Sakawand, and people used to come on pilgrimage from the most remote parts of Hindustan to the idols of that place. When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan he led bis army against it, took the temple, broke the idols in pieces, and overthrew the idolaters. Some of the plunder he distributed among the troops, the rest he sent to Amru Lais, informing him of the conquest, and asking for reinforcements.|publisher=Trübner and Co.}}</ref> {{quote|"It is related that, Amru Lais conferred the governorship of Zabulistan on Fardghan and sent him there at the head of four thousand horses. There was a large place of worship of the God Zhun in the country, which was called Sakawand, and people used to come on pilgrimage to the Idols of that place. When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan he led his army against it, took the temples broke the idols in pieces, and overthrew the idolators. Some of the plunder he distributed among the troops, the rest he sent to Amru Lais."<ref name="ReferenceA">Jamiu-l-Hikayat of Muhammad Uffi Page 175 from The History of India told by its own Historians H M Elliot and Dowson Volume 2</ref>}} {{quote|"Fardaghan, the governor of Zabulistan region around [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]] under [[Amr Saffari|Amr ibn Layth]], plundered Sakawand, a place of pilgrimage to God Zhun, which was within the kingdom of the Shahis."{{sfn|Majumdar|1964|p=113}}}} {{quote|"The activities of the Saffarid brothers on the Indian frontier attracted special attention in the Caliphate thanks to the care they took to send exotic presents from the plunder to the Abbasid court. Yaqub, for instance, at one time sent fifty gold and silver idols from Kabul to the caliph Al-Mutamid who dispatched them to Mecca. Another set of Idols lavishly decorated with jewels and silver, sent by him, Amr in 896 from Sakawand (a place in the Logar valley between Ghazni and Kabul which the sources describe as a pilgrimage centre dedicated to God Zhun), caused a sensation in Baghdad on account of their strangeness."{{sfn|Wink|2002|p=124}}}} According to Shōshin Kuwayama there was a clear dichotomy between worshipers of the Hindu god Surya and followers of Zhun.<ref>https://www.academia.edu/38605352/Etymology_of_Zhunbil_and_Identity_of_the_Rulers_of_Kabul_and_Zabul_in_Seventh_Ninth_Centuries_C_E</ref> ===Sakawand a pilgrimage centre=== [[Sajawand|Sakawand]] was major centre of [[Zunbil|Zhunist]] pilgrimage.<ref name="Mishra1972"/><ref name="Elliot1953"/><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Afghanistan Significant Site 175. Sajawand |url=https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh05-175.html}}</ref> {{quote|"It is related that, Amru Lais conferred the governorship of Zabulistan on Fardghan and sent him there at the head of four thousand horses. There was a large place of worship of the God Zhun in the country, which was called Sakawand, and people used to come on pilgrimage to the Idols of that place. When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan he led his army against it, took the temples broke the idols in pieces, and overthrew the idolators. Some of the plunder he distributed among the troops, the rest he sent to Amru Lais."<ref name="ReferenceA">Jamiu-l-Hikayat of Muhammad Uffi Page 175 from The History of India told by its own Historians H M Elliot and Dowson Volume 2</ref>}} ==See also== *[[Zabul Province]] *[[Zabol]] *[[Zunbils]] *[[Abu Ali Lawik]] *[[Sajawand]] *[[Zamindawar]] *[[Shahnameh]] *[[Rostam]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== * {{citation |last=Bosworth |first=C. 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