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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Ethnic group}}
{{Distinguish|Aka people|Hakka people}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group|
| group = Akha
| image = Akha tribe depiction, 1900s.jpg
| caption = A Burmese depiction of the Akha in the early 1900s
| pop = 680,000
| region1 = [[Laos]]
| pop1 = 112,979
| ref1 = <ref name="Census2015">{{cite web|url=https://lao.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/PHC-ENG-FNAL-WEB_0.pdf|title=Results of Population and Housing Census 2015 |publisher=Lao Statistics Bureau |access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref>
| popplace = [[Myanmar]], [[China]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]]
| rels = [[Christianity in Ahka Villages|Christianity]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030831012827/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EH29Ae01.html "Christian conversion threatens hill tribe culture"], ''Asia Times''</ref>Akhazah([[Animism]]).<ref>[http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html The Akha Heritage Foundation]</ref>, [[Buddhism]]
| langs = [[Akha language|Akha]], [[Lao language|Lao]], [[Thai language|Thai]]
| related = [[Hani people]], [[Karen people]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
}}
The '''Akha''' are an [[ethnic group]] who live in small villages at higher elevations in the mountains of [[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]], [[Laos]] and [[Yunnan]] Province in [[China]]. They made their way from China into Southeast Asia during the early 20th century. Civil war in Burma and Laos resulted in an increased flow of Akha immigrants and there are now 80,000 people living in Thailand's [[Northern Thailand|northern provinces]] of [[Chiang Rai]] and [[Chiang Mai]].<ref>Chiang Mai's Hill Peoples in: Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, ''Ancient Chiang Mai'' Volume 3. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012.</ref>
The Akha speak [[Akha language|Akha]], a language in the [[Loloish languages|Loloish (Yi) branch]] of the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] family. The Akha language is closely related to [[Lisu language|Lisu]] and it is thought that it was the Akha who once ruled the [[Baoshan, Yunnan|Baoshan]] and [[Tengchong]] plains in Yunnan before the invasion of the [[Ming Dynasty]] in 1644.
== Origins ==
[[Image:Flag of the Akha People (Thailand).svg|thumb|Flag of the Akha People in Thailand]]
Scholars agree with the Akha that they originated in China; they disagree, however, about whether the original homeland was the Tibetan borderlands, as the Akha claim, or farther south and east in Yunnan Province, the northernmost residence of present-day Akha. The historically documented existence of relations with the Shan prince of Kengtung indicates that Akha were in eastern Burma as early as the 1860s. They first entered Thailand from Burma at the turn of the 20th-century, many having fled the decades-long civil war in Burma.<ref name=Kammerer>{{cite journal|last=Kammerer|first=Cornelia Ann|journal=Gle Rubin Virtual Reference Library|year=1996|volume=5|series=East and South East Asia|pages=11–13|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANCE&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=cuny_hunter&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchType=BasicSearchForm¤tPosition=3&contentSet=GALE%7CCX3458000748&&docId=GALE%7CCX3458000748&docType=GALE|access-date=30 April 2012|title=GALE search|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=Levy>{{cite web|last=Levy|first=Jonathan|title=The Akha and Modernization; A Quasi Legal Perspective|url=http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhamodernization.html|access-date=4 May 2012|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000358/http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhamodernization.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
== Population distribution and indigenous status ==
[[File:Akha laos 11 03d.jpg|thumb|An Akha girl in Laos]]
Akha live in villages in the mountains of southwest China, eastern [[Myanmar]], western [[Laos]], northwestern [[Vietnam]], and [[northern Thailand]]. In all these countries they are an ethnic minority. The population of the Akha today is roughly 400,000. A decline in village size in Thailand since the 1930s has been noted and attributed to the deteriorating ecological and economic situation in the mountains.<ref name=Thailine>{{cite web|url=http://www.thailine.com/thailand/english/hill-e/akha-e.htm|title=Akha|work=The Hilltribes of Thailand|publisher=Thailand Online|access-date=3 May 2012}}</ref>
The Akha are often classified by the Chinese government as part of the [[Hani people|Hani]], an official national minority. The Akha are closely related to the Hani, but consider themselves a distinct group and often resist being subsumed under that identity.<ref name=Hilltribe>{{cite web|url=http://www.hilltribe.org/akha/|title=The Akha|publisher=HillTribe.org|access-date=3 May 2012}}</ref> In Thailand, they are classified as one of the six [[hill tribes]], a term used for all of the various tribal peoples who migrated from China and Tibet over the past few centuries and who now inhabit the dense forests on the borders between Thailand, Laos, and Burma. Few Akha in Thailand are citizens and most are registered as aliens. There is an oft cited lack of political or state infrastructure to address Akha, or any other indigenous issues in Thailand.<ref name=Levy />
The Akha are not always treated or addressed as equals by the people whose countries they now inhabit. Speakers of [[Tai languages]] in Myanmar and Thailand refer to them as "gaw" or "ekaw" (ikaw/ikho), terms which the Akha view as derogatory. In Laos the colloquial term used by Tai speakers to refer to the Akha is "kho" (ko), often prefaced by the word "kha", which means "slave."<ref name=Kammerer />
== Language ==
[[File:Akha women.jpg|thumb|Akha women c. 1900.]]
Called "Avkavdawv," meaning "[[Akha language]]," by its native speakers, Akha is a tonal language in the Lolo/Yi branch of the Sino-Tibetan family. The vast majority of Akha speakers can understand the ''jeu g’oe'' ("jer way") dialect spoken in southern China, Thailand, and Myanmar.<ref name=Kammerer /> Some basic and systematic variations in regional dialects of Akha are discussed by Paul Lewis in his ''Akha-English-Thai Dictionary''. Very few dialects of Akha do not share mutual intelligibility. The Akha have no written language, but there are several competing scripts that have been written by missionaries and other foreigners.<ref name=Hilltribe />
== Akha villages and culture ==
[[File:Maejantai Chiang Rai province 01.JPG|thumb|300px|The village of Mae Chan Tai in [[Mae Suai District]], Chiang Rai Province, Thailand, is a more modern village. Note the large coffee drying platforms.]]
Due to rapid social and economic changes in the regions the Akha inhabit, particularly the introduction of Western modes of capitalism, attempts to continue many of the traditional aspects of Akha life are increasingly difficult. Despite these challenges, Akha people practice many elements of their traditional culture with much success.
Akha society lacks a strict system of social class and is considered [[egalitarian]]. Respect is typically accorded with age and experience. Ties of patrilineal kinship and marriage alliance bind the Akha within and between communities.<ref name=Kammerer /> Village structures may vary widely from the strictly traditional to Westernized, depending on their proximity to modern towns. Like many of the hill tribes, the Akha build their villages at higher elevations in the mountains.<ref name=Akha>{{cite web|title=An Overview of the Akha|url=http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html|access-date=29 April 2012|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174258/http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Akha dwellings are traditionally constructed of logs, bamboo, and thatch and are of two types: "low houses", built on the ground, and "high houses", built on stilts. The semi-nomadic Akha, at least those who have not been moved to permanent village sites, typically do not build their houses as permanent residences and will often move their villages. Some say that this gives the dwellings a deceptively fragile and flimsy appearance, although they are quite well-built as proved over generations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indigenous Peoples of the World - The Akha|url=http://www.peoplesoftheworld.org/text?people=Akha |access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref>
Entrances to all Akha villages are fitted with a wooden gate adorned with elaborate carvings on both sides depicting imagery of men and women. It is known as a "spirit gate". It marks the division between the inside of the village, the domain of man and domesticated animals, and the outside, the realm of spirits and wildlife. The gates function to ward off evil spirits and to entice favorable ones. Carvings can be seen on the roofs of the villager's houses as a second measure to control the flow of spirits.
Houses are segregated by gender, with specific areas for men as well as a common space. This divide is said to mimic the function of the gate.<ref name=Hilltribe /> Another important feature found in most Akha villages is a tall four-posted village swing which is used in an annual ancestor offering related to the fertility of rice. The swing is built annually by an elder called a ''dzoeuh mah''.<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Hilltribe />
<gallery>
File:Gate leading to the akha hilltribe village.jpg|An Akha "Spirit Gate" in Thailand
File:Akha Hut.JPG|Akha hut
File:Akha fishing.JPG|Akha fishing
File:Akha hilltribe, Chiang Rai Province P1110690.JPG| Akha, Chiang Rai Province
File:Akha village.jpg|An Akha village, with traditional thatched roofs, in northern [[Thailand]]
File:Akha Funeral1.JPG|Akha funeral ceremony
</gallery>
=== Traditional economy ===
[[Image:Akha man with opium pipe.jpg|thumb|300 px|Akha man with [[opium pipe]] (1979)]]
The traditional form of subsistence for the Akha people has been, and remains, agriculture. The Akha grow a variety of crops including soybeans and vegetables. Rice is the most significant crop and is prominent in much of Akha culture and ritual. Most Akha plant dry-land rice, which depends solely on rainfall for moisture, but in some villages irrigation has been built to water [[paddy field]]s. Historically, some Akha villages cultivated [[opium]], but production diminished after the Thai government banned its cultivation.<ref name=Goodman-1996>{{cite book|last=Goodman|first=Jim|title=Meet the Akha|year=1996|publisher=White Lotus Co Ltd|location=Bangkok|isbn=9748496562|pages=113}}</ref>{{RP|113}}
The Akha have traditionally employed [[slash and burn]] agriculture, in which new fields are cleared by burning or cutting down forests and woodlands. In such a system, there is usually no market for land. Rights to land are considered traditional and established over many generations. This type of agriculture has contributed to the Akha's semi-nomadic status as villages move to clear new farmland with each successive burn cycle. The Thai government has forbidden this practice, citing its detrimental effects on the environment. The Akha have adapted to new types of subsistence farming, but the quality of their land has suffered as they are no longer allowed to expand onto new plots. In many cases, chemical fertilizers are the only option for re-fertilizing the land.<ref name=Akha />
In addition to their agricultural work, the Akha raise livestock including pigs, chickens, ducks, goats, cattle, and water buffalo to supplement their diets and to use for their secondary products. Children usually herd the animals. Akha women gather plants from the surrounding forests as well as eggs and insects the Akha will occasionally eat or use for medicinal purposes. The women and the men will often fish in the local lakes and streams. Some villages construct bee gums with the hope that a colony will nest there and their honey subsequently harvested.<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Hilltribe /><ref name=Goodman-1996 />{{RP|113–115}}
The Akha are skilled hunters. Hunting is a male activity and a very popular one. It is a favorite pastime and a means of obtaining food. The barking deer is, perhaps, their favorite prey. Guns obtained from trading in the larger towns have begun to replace the use of crossbows in hunting.<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Thailine /><ref name=Goodman-1996 />
===Belief system===
{{See also|Christianity in Ahka Villages}}
[[File:Woman with child in Thailand..jpg|thumb|Akha woman with child (Thailand)]]
[[File:Akha couple.JPG|thumb|Husband carrying the stem of a banana plant, to be fed to pigs]]
Akha religion—''zahv''—is often described as a mixture of [[animism]] and ancestor worship that emphasizes the Akha connection with the land and their place in the natural world and cycles. Although Akha beliefs and rituals involve all of these elements, the Akha often reject the casual categorization of their practices as such saying it simplifies and reduces its meaning. The Akha way emphasizes rituals in everyday life and stresses strong family ties. Akha ethnicity is closely tied to the Akha religion. It might be said that to be considered an Akha ethnically by other Akhas is to practice the Akha religion.<ref name=Tooker>{{cite journal|last=Tooker|first=Deborah|title=Identity Systems of Highland Burma: 'Belief', Akha Zan, and a Critique of Interiorized Notions of Ethno-Religious Identity|journal=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|year=1992|volume=27|issue=4|pages=799–819|jstor=2804175}}</ref>
The annual ritual cycle consists of nine or twelve ancestor offerings, rice rituals, and other rites such as the building of the village gates. Many Akha rituals and festivals serve to seek "blessings" (''guivlahav'') from ancestors, which are according to the ''Encyclopedia of World Cultures'', "...fertility and health in people, rice, and domesticated animals."<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Thailine /><ref name=Belief>{{cite web|title=The Akha Belief and Life System|url=http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhabelieflife.html|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref> Akha beliefs are passed down through generations by oral recantation. The Akha believe that the being who created earth and life gave Akha the "Akha Zang" (Akha Way), their guidelines for life. Akhas believe that spirits and people were born of the same mother and lived together until a quarrel led to their separation, upon which spirits went into the forest and people remained in the villages. Since then, Akha believe that the spirits have caused illness and other unwelcome disruptions of human life. The Akha year is divided into the peoples' season (dry) and the spirits' season (wet). During the latter, spirits wander into the village, so they must be driven out as part of a yearly ancestor offering. Both people and rice are considered to have souls, the flight of which causes disease.<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Belief />
The most important and revered position in Akha spiritual matters is given to a village leader, whose ritual responsibilities include initiating the annual rebuilding of the village gates and the swing as well as advising and instructing villages on important matters and settling disputes. Akha villages have an expert in ironworks called the ''pa jee'' who is considered of great significance in the village and who holds the second most important position within the society.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Iron Equipment Beating |url=http://www.hilltribe.org/akha/the-lron-equipmente-beating.php|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref>
Perhaps the most important festival of the year is commonly known as the Swing Festival. The four-day Akha Swing Festival comes in late-August each year and falls on the 120th day after the village has planted its rice. The Akha call the Swing Festival, ''Yehkuja'', which translates as "eating bitter rice", a phrase which references the previous year's dwindling rice supply incorporates the hope that monsoons will soon water the new crop. Festival activities include ritual offerings to family ancestral spirits at the ancestral altar in a corner of the women's side of the house. Offerings consist of bits of cooked food, water, and rice whiskey. The swing festival is particularly important for Akha women, who will display the clothing they spent all year making and who will show, through ornamentation, that they are becoming older and of marriageable age. Because the women dress up in their best traditional clothing and ornaments and perform traditional dances and songs for the villagers, the Swing Festival is also known as Women's New Year. The traditional New Year which falls in late-December is known as Men's New Year.<ref>{{cite news|last=Goodman|first=Jim |url=http://www.chiangmainews.com/ecmn/viewfa.php?id=497|access-date=3 May 2012|newspaper=Chiang Mai City Life |title=The Akha Swing Festival|date=September 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sing Ceremony |url=http://www.hilltribe.org/akha/akha-swing.php|access-date=3 May 2012}}</ref>
The Akha put a heavy emphasis on genealogy. An important tradition involves the recounting by Akha males of their patrilineal genealogy. During the most important ceremonies the list is recited in its entirety back over 50 generations to the first Akha, Sm Mi O. It is said that all Akha males should be able to do so. The recounting of this lineage plays a role in the incest taboo: If a male and female Akha find a common male ancestor within their last six generations, they are not allowed to marry.<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Goodman-1996 />
The Akha have several sets of rules governing matters on life, death, marriage, and birth. Akha traditionally marry in their teens or early twenties. Polygamy is permitted. Marriages may be village endogamous or exogamous. Wife-giving and -taking relationships are central to Akha society, with wife-givers superior to wife-takers.<ref name=Kammerer />
Twins are considered an extremely ominous occurrence, one where spirits are considered to interfere with human matters. The Akha believed that only animals could give birth to more than one offspring and therefore considered twins as beasts. Up until about 20 years or so ago, they would have been killed immediately. According to Laos locals, the practice is still common although the government is trying to discourage it. Akha men whose wives had given birth to twins would not be allowed to participate on the hunt for a specific period.<ref name=Tooker /><ref>{{cite web|title=The Akha and the Spirits|url=http://www.chiangmai-chiangrai.com/hilltribe_akha.html|access-date=4 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610014852/http://www.chiangmai-chiangrai.com/hilltribe_akha.html|archive-date=10 June 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
Certain types of death, like that caused by a tiger, are considered particularly bad; the bodies must be treated and buried in specific ways.
Missionaries have been active among Akha, especially since the mid-20th century. Some Akha Christians live in separate Christian villages supported by missionary funds. Although many Akha people may be considered converts by the missionaries, nearly 100% practice some mixture of Christianity and traditional Akha beliefs.<ref name=Akha /><ref>{{cite web|title=Joshua Project|url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=10223&rog3=CH|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref>
=== Dress ===
[[File:MuangSing ThatXiengTung4 tango7174.jpg|thumb|That Xieng Tung Festival, Muang Sing, Laos. Akha young girls in the welcoming committee. On their arrival, visitors will have a color ribbon pinned to their blouse in exchange for a donation.]]
The Akha people are often noted for their very recognizable sartorial practices. Akha women spin cotton into thread with a hand spindle and weave it on a foot-treadle loom. The cloth is hand dyed with indigo. Women wear broad leggings, a short black skirt with a white beaded sporran, a loose fitting black jacket with heavily embroidered cuffs and lapels. Akha women are known for their embroidery skills. While traditional clothes are typically worn for special ceremonies, one is more likely to see Akha villagers in full traditional garb in areas that have heavy volumes of tourists, particularly in Thailand.
The headdresses worn by the women are perhaps the most spectacular and elaborate items of Akha dress. Akha women define their age or marital status with the style of headdress worn. At roughly age 12, the Akha female exchanges her child's cap for that of a girl. A few years later she will begin to don the ''jejaw'', the beaded sash that hangs down the front of her skirt and keeps it from flying up in the breeze. During mid-adolescence she will start wearing the adult woman's headdress. Headdresses are decorated by their owner and each is unique. Silver coins, monkey fur, and dyed chicken feathers are just a few of the things that might decorate the headdress. The headdresses differ by subgroup. According to an article about the variations in Akha headdress, "High Fashion, Hill Style", the
<blockquote>"Ulo Akha headdress consists of a bamboo cone, covered in beads, silver studs and seeds, edged in coins (silver rupees for the rich, baht for the poor) topped by several dangling chicken feather tassels and maybe a woolen pom-pom. The Pamee Akha wear a trapezoidal colt cap covered in silver studs with coins on the beaded side flaps and long chains of linked silver rings hanging down each side. The Lomi Akha wear a round cap covered in silver studs and framed by silver balls, coins and pendants and the married women attach a trapezoidal inscribed plate at the back."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tudtu.tripod.com/hillsty1.htm|title=High Fashion, Hill Style|access-date=3 May 2012}}</ref></blockquote>
<gallery>
File:Akha woman, Myanmar.jpg|In Myanmar
File:Akha Laos 4-11-06.jpg|In Laos
File:Akha laos 11 03a.jpg|In Laos
File:Akha Laos 11 03b.jpg|In Laos
File:Akha Dress.JPG|In Thailand
File:Akha Woman.jpg|In Thailand
File:Akha Man in Thailand.jpg|An Akha man from Ban Mae Chan Tai, [[Chiang Rai Province]], Thailand
</gallery>
===Cuisine===
The main staple of Akha cuisine is highland rice. Besides raising cattle, pigs and chickens, and growing crops such as rice, corn, a variety of vegetables, chilies and herbs, part of their ingredients comes from the forest, either gathered or hunted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html|title=An Overview of the Akha|website= The Akha Heritage Foundation |access-date=1 October 2018}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Akha_cuisine_Nue-phueng_tzue-ze.JPG|''Nue phueng tzue-ze'': a sauce for on rice, made from peanuts, herbs and dried chili
File:Akha cuisine Sapi thong-uh.JPG|''Sapi thong-ueh'': a spicy sauce of tomato, fresh chilies, garlic, scallions, coriander/cilantro, and shallot, similar to a ''[[salsa (sauce)|salsa cruda]]''
File:Akha cuisine Manoh lu-uh.JPG|''Manoh lue-ueh'': sliced [[chayote]] fried with pork and garlic
File:Akha cuisine Hoh-pa cha-uh.JPG|Hoh-pa cha-ueh'': a soupy vegetable dish of [[kai-lan]] and pork
File:Akha cuisine Hoh-pa chae lu-uh.JPG|Hoh-pa chae lue-ueh'': stir-fried, pickled mustard greens
File:Akha cuisine Guchi chae.JPG|''Guchi chae'': fried, pickled roots of a certain type of onion
File:Akha cuisine Mochue cha-uh.JPG|''Mochue cha-lu'': a stew of potatoes and pork
</gallery>
== Economy ==
[[File:Maejantai Chiang Rai province 08.JPG|thumb|Packing dried [[Coffea arabica|arabica coffee beans]] in Thailand]]
Although primarily subsistence farmers, the Akha have long been involved in cash cropping and trade. In the last century, [[cotton]] and [[Opium poppy|opium poppies]] were the principal cash crops. More recent cash crops are chilies, soybeans, cabbages, and tomatoes. One or more families in a village may operate a small shop in their home selling items such as items as cigarettes and kerosene. Itinerant traders, either lowlanders or hill-dwelling Yunnan Chinese, come to buy livestock or cash crops, or to sell blankets and other goods.<ref name=Kammerer />
Increasingly, the Akha find themselves, whether solicited or not, in the business of tourism, specifically [[ecotourism]]. Tourists pay a fee to Akha villages to be allowed to witness and participate in "everyday" Akha life, although much of what they see is often staged. The villagers dress up in their elaborate costumes and charge tourists to take photos with them. In addition to opening the village for visiting tourists, the Akha also sell their handicrafts, including hand woven baskets and even replicas of their traditional costumes.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Akha Experience|url=http://greendiscoverylaos.com/nt-t-08.htm|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref>
==Contemporary issues==
{{more citations needed|date=February 2021}}
{{See also|Christianity in Ahka Villages}}
[[File:Ahchooh Erica-Irene Daes.jpg|thumb|A representative of the Akha together with [[Erica-Irene Daes]], a driving force at the [[Working Group on Indigenous Populations]], at the [[United Nations]] in New York, 2006]]
[[File:Elderly Akha couple robbed by Thai army.jpg|thumb|Elderly Akha couple that was robbed by the [[Royal Thai Army|Thai army]]]]
[[File:Electric.jpg|thumb|Arm wounds from having been subjected to [[electrocution]]]]
Being an ethnic minority with little easily accessible legal recourse, Akha everywhere have long been subject to rights abuses.{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}
Perhaps the most important issue facing the Akha pertains to their land. The Akha relationship to land is vitally connected to the continuation of the Akha culture, but they rarely have "official" or state-sanctioned land rights or claims to their land as land rights are considered traditional. These conceptions of land are at odds with those held by the nation states whose land the Akha now occupy. Most Akha are not full-fledged citizens of the country they inhabit and are thus not allowed to legally purchase land, although most Akha villagers are too poor to even consider purchasing land.{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}
It has been reported{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} by rights groups that several land seizures of Akha land have been undertaken in the name of the Queen of Thailand. Originally a semi-nomadic people, the Akha are often relocated by the presiding national government to permanent villages, after which the government allegedly sells to logging companies and other private corporations access to lands formerly occupied by the Akha. The land onto which the Akha are displaced is almost always less fertile than their previous plots. On their new lands, the Akha can rarely produce enough food to sustain themselves and are often forced to leave and seek employment outside the villages, thus disrupting their traditional culture and economy.
In Thailand, laws have been passed that curb people's rights to the forest, including the 2007 Community Forest Act. According to the network of indigenous peoples in Thailand,
<blockquote>"These laws and resolutions have had severe impacts on indigenous peoples' rights to residence and land. Under these laws and resolutions millions of hectares of land have been declared as reserved and conservation forests, or protected areas. Today, 28.78% of Thailand is categorized as protected areas. As a result, thousands of farmers previously living in the forest or relying on the forest for their livelihood have been arrested and imprisoned and their lands seized. Cases have been filed against them for the so-called encroachment on government land."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/focus/section2/2010/12/indigenous-peoples-of-thailand.html|title=Indigenous Peoples of Thailand|publisher=Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref></blockquote>
Despite having signed and ratified the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], the Thai government has not changed laws to adhere to those recommendations emphasizing respect for the rights of indigenous peoples and their full and effective participation in protected areas management and policy-making.<ref>{{cite web|title=Forest Peoples|url=http://www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/news/2011/01/Media%20briefing_Thailand_IPs_and_PAs_Sharing_%20Power_2011_Eng.pdf|access-date=14 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas in Thailand; A Review |url=http://www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/news/2011/01/Media%20briefing_Thailand_IPs_and_PAs_Sharing_%20Power_2011_Eng.pdf|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref>
The reasons given for Akha relocations vary, but a common response on the part of the Thai government is to cite a concern for the preservation of forests and the promotion of more sustainable agricultural techniques than the slash and burn agriculture traditionally used by the Akha. The Thai government's involvement in relocation might also possibly be motivated by concerns of national security. According to international human rights lawyer Jonathan Levy,
<blockquote>"The Akha are identified with the opium growers who until recently dominated that portion of the "Golden Triangle" in Thailand. Thailand has taken steps to eradicate opium cultivation by resettling the Akha into permanent villages. However, both opium and long ingrained farming techniques are key to the complex Akha culture. While traditional opium cultivation has been suppressed, processed heroine and latest scourge, methamphetamine, is freely available from Burma. Thus Akha have become both impoverished farmers and in many cases narcotic addicts. As the Akha are resettled they come into contact with mainstream Thai culture, many Akha women are drawn to the "easy" money of the sex industry."<ref name=Levy /></blockquote>
The Akha are said to have the highest rates of addiction of all the hill tribes and are at the highest risk for contracting [[HIV]], [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]], or an STD.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/en/files/25230/11434696181167_EX_Prevention_of_HIV-AIDS_among_Ethnic_Minorities_Mekong.pdf/167%2BEX%2BPrevention%2Bof%2BHIV-AIDS%2Bamong%2BEthnic%2BMinorities%2BMekong.pdf |title=Prevention of HIV/AIDS among Ethnic Minorities of the Upper Mekong Region through Community-based Non-Formal and Formal Education|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=14 May 2012}}</ref> Measures have been undertaken by state and human rights organizations including the UNESCO Asia Pacific Regional Bureau for Education in Bangkok, and NCA in Lao PDR, to provide hill tribes, including the Akha, with "comprehensive community-based, non-formal education" on HIV and drug abuse prevention. In addition, detoxification clinics have been opened in the region, with particularly positive consequences for women who tend to have lower rates of addiction, but often bear the brunt of compensating for their missing partners financially and emotionally.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coehn|first=Paul|title=Opium-Reduction Programmes, Discourses of Addiction and Gender in Northwest Laos|journal=Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia|date=April 2002|volume=17|issue=1|pages=1–23 |doi=10.1355/SJ17-1A|jstor=41057073}}</ref>
Despite their numbers, the Akha are the poorest of all the hill tribes. As roads bring accessibility and tourists, they provide relief from the poverty of village life, especially for the younger generations who increasingly find themselves engaged in labor outside the villages. Many villages report a population decrease as many leave to find work in the cities, often for very long periods. Many Akha complain that the younger generations are becoming increasingly less interested in traditional culture and ways and more and more susceptible to outside, mainstream, cultural influences. According to one author, where the village squares were once "filled with the sounds of courtship songs", radios are now more likely to play pop hits.<ref name=Kammerer />
As it becomes increasingly difficult to remain self-sufficient through agriculture, and as roads open up the villages to the cities, the Akha must contend with the sometimes corrosive effects of the tourist industry. Not all Akha are happy to let tourists come in and observe village life. The Akha are often the objects of [[ecotourism]] which purports to open up remote spaces and people to Western tourists to expand their knowledge of the plight of the people and their perilous situation, and thus, expand their involvement in the fight to maintain their environment and way of life. It is pitched as "[[sustainable tourism|responsible tourism]]". There are many critiques{{by whom|date=September 2013}} of ecotourism as exploitative and a highly consumer-centered and contradictory activity{{clarify|What is a "contradictory activity" and why is it wrong?|date=September 2013}} including detrimental effects on the environment from the amount of jet engine fuel burned on the flight there and back, the additional amenities that must be built to cater to Western expectations, the pollution and garbage associated with a Western lifestyle, the disturbance of flora and fauna and a bevy of other concerns expressed by environmentalist voices.
While ecotourism agencies claim to help in exposing the plight of indigenous people, many Akha feel{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} that they are being put on display for ecotourist groups, as they are encouraged or forced to wear their most elaborate ethnic clothing and perform ceremonies and rituals that have no meaning for them out of context. The Akha also participate in the regular tourist industry through the sale of their handicrafts and goods to local tourists, which they must often do under financial duress. Many of the Akha people{{Who|date=September 2015}} do not see the tourism as halting the Westernizing and globalizing pressures but, rather, as a coercive [[commercialization]] and [[commodification]] of their culture.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}
According to a 2008 documentary, there have also been complaints about Christian missionary activity, which allegedly has tended to "paganize" the Akha traditional belief system. Some of the claims made against missionaries include the kidnapping of Akha children into orphanages and forced labor, the sterilization of Akha women and the forced or underpaid labor of Akha on farms.<ref>{{cite AV media |title=Prisoners of A White God |people=Lichtag, Steve (director) |work=Twin Star|year=2008}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Akha language]]
* [[Matthew McDaniel]]
* [[Prisoners of a White God]]
* [[Clement Vismara]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=James C |author-link=James C. Scott|title=The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia |date=30 September 2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven|isbn=9780300152289 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300152289/art-not-being-governed |access-date=20 April 2020 |format=Hardcover}}
==External links==
* {{cite news|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5sNFveHpkwI|title=The Akha tribe in Laos: Between tradition and modernity|work=[[Deutsche Welle]]|format=Video|date=2019-04-13}}<!--This is from an official YouTube account, so this is OK-->
{{Ethnic groups in Burma}}
{{Ethnic groups in Thailand}}
{{Ethnic groups in Laos}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Akha}}
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Thailand]]
[[Category:Akha]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Myanmar]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Laos]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in China]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Vietnam]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Ethnic group}}
{{Distinguish|Aka people|Hakka people}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group|
| group = Akha
| image = Akha tribe depiction, 1900s.jpg
| caption = A Burmese depiction of the Akha in the early 1900s
| pop = 680,000
| region1 = [[Laos]]
| pop1 = 112,979
| ref1 = <ref name="Census2015">{{cite web|url=https://lao.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/PHC-ENG-FNAL-WEB_0.pdf|title=Results of Population and Housing Census 2015 |publisher=Lao Statistics Bureau |access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref>
| popplace = [[Myanmar]], [[China]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]]
| rels = [[Christianity in Ahka Villages|Christianity]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030831012827/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EH29Ae01.html "Christian conversion threatens hill tribe culture"], ''Asia Times''</ref>Akhazah([[Animism]]).<ref>[http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html The Akha Heritage Foundation]</ref>, [[Buddhism]]
| langs = [[Akha language|Akha]], [[Lao language|Lao]], [[Thai language|Thai]]
| related = [[Hani people]], [[Karen people]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
}}
The '''Akha''' are an [[ethnic group]] who live in small villages at higher elevations in the mountains of [[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]], [[Laos]] and [[Yunnan]] Province in [[China]]. They made their way from China into Southeast Asia during the early 20th century. Civil war in Burma and Laos resulted in an increased flow of Akha immigrants and there are now 80,000 people living in Thailand's [[Northern Thailand|northern provinces]] of [[Chiang Rai]] and [[Chiang Mai]].<ref>Chiang Mai's Hill Peoples in: Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, ''Ancient Chiang Mai'' Volume 3. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012.</ref>
The Akha speak [[Akha language|Akha]], a language in the [[Loloish languages|Loloish (Yi) branch]] of the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] family. The Akha language is closely related to [[Lisu language|Lisu]] and it is thought that it was the Akha who once ruled the [[Baoshan, Yunnan|Baoshan]] and [[Tengchong]] plains in Yunnan before the invasion of the [[Ming Dynasty]] in 1644.
== Origins ==
[[Image:Flag of the Akha People (Thailand).svg|thumb|Flag of the Akha People in Thailand]]
Scholars agree with the Akha that they originated in China; they disagree, however, about whether the original homeland was the Tibetan borderlands, as the Akha claim, or farther south and east in Yunnan Province, the northernmost residence of present-day Akha. The historically documented existence of relations with the Shan prince of Kengtung indicates that Akha were in eastern Burma as early as the 1860s. They first entered Thailand from Burma at the turn of the 20th-century, many having fled the decades-long civil war in Burma.<ref name=Kammerer>{{cite journal|last=Kammerer|first=Cornelia Ann|journal=Gle Rubin Virtual Reference Library|year=1996|volume=5|series=East and South East Asia|pages=11–13|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANCE&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=cuny_hunter&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchType=BasicSearchForm¤tPosition=3&contentSet=GALE%7CCX3458000748&&docId=GALE%7CCX3458000748&docType=GALE|access-date=30 April 2012|title=GALE search|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=Levy>{{cite web|last=Levy|first=Jonathan|title=The Akha and Modernization; A Quasi Legal Perspective|url=http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhamodernization.html|access-date=4 May 2012|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000358/http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhamodernization.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
== Population distribution and indigenous status ==
[[File:Akha laos 11 03d.jpg|thumb|An Akha girl in Laos]]
Akha live in villages in the mountains of southwest China, eastern [[Myanmar]], western [[Laos]], northwestern [[Vietnam]], and [[northern Thailand]]. In all these countries they are an ethnic minority. The population of the Akha today is roughly 400,000. A decline in village size in Thailand since the 1930s has been noted and attributed to the deteriorating ecological and economic situation in the mountains.<ref name=Thailine>{{cite web|url=http://www.thailine.com/thailand/english/hill-e/akha-e.htm|title=Akha|work=The Hilltribes of Thailand|publisher=Thailand Online|access-date=3 May 2012}}</ref>
The Akha are often classified by the Chinese government as part of the [[Hani people|Hani]], an official national minority. The Akha are closely related to the Hani, but consider themselves a distinct group and often resist being subsumed under that identity.<ref name=Hilltribe>{{cite web|url=http://www.hilltribe.org/akha/|title=The Akha|publisher=HillTribe.org|access-date=3 May 2012}}</ref> In Thailand, they are classified as one of the six [[hill tribes]], a term used for all of the various tribal peoples who migrated from China and Tibet over the past few centuries and who now inhabit the dense forests on the borders between Thailand, Laos, and Burma. Few Akha in Thailand are citizens and most are registered as aliens. There is an oft cited lack of political or state infrastructure to address Akha, or any other indigenous issues in Thailand.<ref name=Levy />
The Akha are not always treated or addressed as equals by the people whose countries they now inhabit. Speakers of [[Tai languages]] in Myanmar and Thailand refer to them as "gaw" or "ekaw" (ikaw/ikho), terms which the Akha view as derogatory. In Laos the colloquial term used by Tai speakers to refer to the Akha is "kho" (ko), often prefaced by the word "kha", which means "slave."<ref name=Kammerer />
poopoo
== Akha villages and culture ==
[[File:Maejantai Chiang Rai province 01.JPG|thumb|300px|The village of Mae Chan Tai in [[Mae Suai District]], Chiang Rai Province, Thailand, is a more modern village. Note the large coffee drying platforms.]]
Due to rapid social and economic changes in the regions the Akha inhabit, particularly the introduction of Western modes of capitalism, attempts to continue many of the traditional aspects of Akha life are increasingly difficult. Despite these challenges, Akha people practice many elements of their traditional culture with much success.
Akha society lacks a strict system of social class and is considered [[egalitarian]]. Respect is typically accorded with age and experience. Ties of patrilineal kinship and marriage alliance bind the Akha within and between communities.<ref name=Kammerer /> Village structures may vary widely from the strictly traditional to Westernized, depending on their proximity to modern towns. Like many of the hill tribes, the Akha build their villages at higher elevations in the mountains.<ref name=Akha>{{cite web|title=An Overview of the Akha|url=http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html|access-date=29 April 2012|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174258/http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Akha dwellings are traditionally constructed of logs, bamboo, and thatch and are of two types: "low houses", built on the ground, and "high houses", built on stilts. The semi-nomadic Akha, at least those who have not been moved to permanent village sites, typically do not build their houses as permanent residences and will often move their villages. Some say that this gives the dwellings a deceptively fragile and flimsy appearance, although they are quite well-built as proved over generations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indigenous Peoples of the World - The Akha|url=http://www.peoplesoftheworld.org/text?people=Akha |access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref>
Entrances to all Akha villages are fitted with a wooden gate adorned with elaborate carvings on both sides depicting imagery of men and women. It is known as a "spirit gate". It marks the division between the inside of the village, the domain of man and domesticated animals, and the outside, the realm of spirits and wildlife. The gates function to ward off evil spirits and to entice favorable ones. Carvings can be seen on the roofs of the villager's houses as a second measure to control the flow of spirits.
Houses are segregated by gender, with specific areas for men as well as a common space. This divide is said to mimic the function of the gate.<ref name=Hilltribe /> Another important feature found in most Akha villages is a tall four-posted village swing which is used in an annual ancestor offering related to the fertility of rice. The swing is built annually by an elder called a ''dzoeuh mah''.<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Hilltribe />
<gallery>
File:Gate leading to the akha hilltribe village.jpg|An Akha "Spirit Gate" in Thailand
File:Akha Hut.JPG|Akha hut
File:Akha fishing.JPG|Akha fishing
File:Akha hilltribe, Chiang Rai Province P1110690.JPG| Akha, Chiang Rai Province
File:Akha village.jpg|An Akha village, with traditional thatched roofs, in northern [[Thailand]]
File:Akha Funeral1.JPG|Akha funeral ceremony
</gallery>
=== Traditional economy ===
[[Image:Akha man with opium pipe.jpg|thumb|300 px|Akha man with [[opium pipe]] (1979)]]
The traditional form of subsistence for the Akha people has been, and remains, agriculture. The Akha grow a variety of crops including soybeans and vegetables. Rice is the most significant crop and is prominent in much of Akha culture and ritual. Most Akha plant dry-land rice, which depends solely on rainfall for moisture, but in some villages irrigation has been built to water [[paddy field]]s. Historically, some Akha villages cultivated [[opium]], but production diminished after the Thai government banned its cultivation.<ref name=Goodman-1996>{{cite book|last=Goodman|first=Jim|title=Meet the Akha|year=1996|publisher=White Lotus Co Ltd|location=Bangkok|isbn=9748496562|pages=113}}</ref>{{RP|113}}
The Akha have traditionally employed [[slash and burn]] agriculture, in which new fields are cleared by burning or cutting down forests and woodlands. In such a system, there is usually no market for land. Rights to land are considered traditional and established over many generations. This type of agriculture has contributed to the Akha's semi-nomadic status as villages move to clear new farmland with each successive burn cycle. The Thai government has forbidden this practice, citing its detrimental effects on the environment. The Akha have adapted to new types of subsistence farming, but the quality of their land has suffered as they are no longer allowed to expand onto new plots. In many cases, chemical fertilizers are the only option for re-fertilizing the land.<ref name=Akha />
In addition to their agricultural work, the Akha raise livestock including pigs, chickens, ducks, goats, cattle, and water buffalo to supplement their diets and to use for their secondary products. Children usually herd the animals. Akha women gather plants from the surrounding forests as well as eggs and insects the Akha will occasionally eat or use for medicinal purposes. The women and the men will often fish in the local lakes and streams. Some villages construct bee gums with the hope that a colony will nest there and their honey subsequently harvested.<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Hilltribe /><ref name=Goodman-1996 />{{RP|113–115}}
The Akha are skilled hunters. Hunting is a male activity and a very popular one. It is a favorite pastime and a means of obtaining food. The barking deer is, perhaps, their favorite prey. Guns obtained from trading in the larger towns have begun to replace the use of crossbows in hunting.<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Thailine /><ref name=Goodman-1996 />
===Belief system===
{{See also|Christianity in Ahka Villages}}
[[File:Woman with child in Thailand..jpg|thumb|Akha woman with child (Thailand)]]
[[File:Akha couple.JPG|thumb|Husband carrying the stem of a banana plant, to be fed to pigs]]
Akha religion—''zahv''—is often described as a mixture of [[animism]] and ancestor worship that emphasizes the Akha connection with the land and their place in the natural world and cycles. Although Akha beliefs and rituals involve all of these elements, the Akha often reject the casual categorization of their practices as such saying it simplifies and reduces its meaning. The Akha way emphasizes rituals in everyday life and stresses strong family ties. Akha ethnicity is closely tied to the Akha religion. It might be said that to be considered an Akha ethnically by other Akhas is to practice the Akha religion.<ref name=Tooker>{{cite journal|last=Tooker|first=Deborah|title=Identity Systems of Highland Burma: 'Belief', Akha Zan, and a Critique of Interiorized Notions of Ethno-Religious Identity|journal=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|year=1992|volume=27|issue=4|pages=799–819|jstor=2804175}}</ref>
The annual ritual cycle consists of nine or twelve ancestor offerings, rice rituals, and other rites such as the building of the village gates. Many Akha rituals and festivals serve to seek "blessings" (''guivlahav'') from ancestors, which are according to the ''Encyclopedia of World Cultures'', "...fertility and health in people, rice, and domesticated animals."<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Thailine /><ref name=Belief>{{cite web|title=The Akha Belief and Life System|url=http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhabelieflife.html|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref> Akha beliefs are passed down through generations by oral recantation. The Akha believe that the being who created earth and life gave Akha the "Akha Zang" (Akha Way), their guidelines for life. Akhas believe that spirits and people were born of the same mother and lived together until a quarrel led to their separation, upon which spirits went into the forest and people remained in the villages. Since then, Akha believe that the spirits have caused illness and other unwelcome disruptions of human life. The Akha year is divided into the peoples' season (dry) and the spirits' season (wet). During the latter, spirits wander into the village, so they must be driven out as part of a yearly ancestor offering. Both people and rice are considered to have souls, the flight of which causes disease.<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Belief />
The most important and revered position in Akha spiritual matters is given to a village leader, whose ritual responsibilities include initiating the annual rebuilding of the village gates and the swing as well as advising and instructing villages on important matters and settling disputes. Akha villages have an expert in ironworks called the ''pa jee'' who is considered of great significance in the village and who holds the second most important position within the society.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Iron Equipment Beating |url=http://www.hilltribe.org/akha/the-lron-equipmente-beating.php|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref>
Perhaps the most important festival of the year is commonly known as the Swing Festival. The four-day Akha Swing Festival comes in late-August each year and falls on the 120th day after the village has planted its rice. The Akha call the Swing Festival, ''Yehkuja'', which translates as "eating bitter rice", a phrase which references the previous year's dwindling rice supply incorporates the hope that monsoons will soon water the new crop. Festival activities include ritual offerings to family ancestral spirits at the ancestral altar in a corner of the women's side of the house. Offerings consist of bits of cooked food, water, and rice whiskey. The swing festival is particularly important for Akha women, who will display the clothing they spent all year making and who will show, through ornamentation, that they are becoming older and of marriageable age. Because the women dress up in their best traditional clothing and ornaments and perform traditional dances and songs for the villagers, the Swing Festival is also known as Women's New Year. The traditional New Year which falls in late-December is known as Men's New Year.<ref>{{cite news|last=Goodman|first=Jim |url=http://www.chiangmainews.com/ecmn/viewfa.php?id=497|access-date=3 May 2012|newspaper=Chiang Mai City Life |title=The Akha Swing Festival|date=September 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sing Ceremony |url=http://www.hilltribe.org/akha/akha-swing.php|access-date=3 May 2012}}</ref>
The Akha put a heavy emphasis on genealogy. An important tradition involves the recounting by Akha males of their patrilineal genealogy. During the most important ceremonies the list is recited in its entirety back over 50 generations to the first Akha, Sm Mi O. It is said that all Akha males should be able to do so. The recounting of this lineage plays a role in the incest taboo: If a male and female Akha find a common male ancestor within their last six generations, they are not allowed to marry.<ref name=Kammerer /><ref name=Goodman-1996 />
The Akha have several sets of rules governing matters on life, death, marriage, and birth. Akha traditionally marry in their teens or early twenties. Polygamy is permitted. Marriages may be village endogamous or exogamous. Wife-giving and -taking relationships are central to Akha society, with wife-givers superior to wife-takers.<ref name=Kammerer />
Twins are considered an extremely ominous occurrence, one where spirits are considered to interfere with human matters. The Akha believed that only animals could give birth to more than one offspring and therefore considered twins as beasts. Up until about 20 years or so ago, they would have been killed immediately. According to Laos locals, the practice is still common although the government is trying to discourage it. Akha men whose wives had given birth to twins would not be allowed to participate on the hunt for a specific period.<ref name=Tooker /><ref>{{cite web|title=The Akha and the Spirits|url=http://www.chiangmai-chiangrai.com/hilltribe_akha.html|access-date=4 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610014852/http://www.chiangmai-chiangrai.com/hilltribe_akha.html|archive-date=10 June 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
Certain types of death, like that caused by a tiger, are considered particularly bad; the bodies must be treated and buried in specific ways.
Missionaries have been active among Akha, especially since the mid-20th century. Some Akha Christians live in separate Christian villages supported by missionary funds. Although many Akha people may be considered converts by the missionaries, nearly 100% practice some mixture of Christianity and traditional Akha beliefs.<ref name=Akha /><ref>{{cite web|title=Joshua Project|url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=10223&rog3=CH|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref>
=== Dress ===
[[File:MuangSing ThatXiengTung4 tango7174.jpg|thumb|That Xieng Tung Festival, Muang Sing, Laos. Akha young girls in the welcoming committee. On their arrival, visitors will have a color ribbon pinned to their blouse in exchange for a donation.]]
The Akha people are often noted for their very recognizable sartorial practices. Akha women spin cotton into thread with a hand spindle and weave it on a foot-treadle loom. The cloth is hand dyed with indigo. Women wear broad leggings, a short black skirt with a white beaded sporran, a loose fitting black jacket with heavily embroidered cuffs and lapels. Akha women are known for their embroidery skills. While traditional clothes are typically worn for special ceremonies, one is more likely to see Akha villagers in full traditional garb in areas that have heavy volumes of tourists, particularly in Thailand.
The headdresses worn by the women are perhaps the most spectacular and elaborate items of Akha dress. Akha women define their age or marital status with the style of headdress worn. At roughly age 12, the Akha female exchanges her child's cap for that of a girl. A few years later she will begin to don the ''jejaw'', the beaded sash that hangs down the front of her skirt and keeps it from flying up in the breeze. During mid-adolescence she will start wearing the adult woman's headdress. Headdresses are decorated by their owner and each is unique. Silver coins, monkey fur, and dyed chicken feathers are just a few of the things that might decorate the headdress. The headdresses differ by subgroup. According to an article about the variations in Akha headdress, "High Fashion, Hill Style", the
<blockquote>"Ulo Akha headdress consists of a bamboo cone, covered in beads, silver studs and seeds, edged in coins (silver rupees for the rich, baht for the poor) topped by several dangling chicken feather tassels and maybe a woolen pom-pom. The Pamee Akha wear a trapezoidal colt cap covered in silver studs with coins on the beaded side flaps and long chains of linked silver rings hanging down each side. The Lomi Akha wear a round cap covered in silver studs and framed by silver balls, coins and pendants and the married women attach a trapezoidal inscribed plate at the back."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tudtu.tripod.com/hillsty1.htm|title=High Fashion, Hill Style|access-date=3 May 2012}}</ref></blockquote>
<gallery>
File:Akha woman, Myanmar.jpg|In Myanmar
File:Akha Laos 4-11-06.jpg|In Laos
File:Akha laos 11 03a.jpg|In Laos
File:Akha Laos 11 03b.jpg|In Laos
File:Akha Dress.JPG|In Thailand
File:Akha Woman.jpg|In Thailand
File:Akha Man in Thailand.jpg|An Akha man from Ban Mae Chan Tai, [[Chiang Rai Province]], Thailand
</gallery>
===Cuisine===
The main staple of Akha cuisine is highland rice. Besides raising cattle, pigs and chickens, and growing crops such as rice, corn, a variety of vegetables, chilies and herbs, part of their ingredients comes from the forest, either gathered or hunted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html|title=An Overview of the Akha|website= The Akha Heritage Foundation |access-date=1 October 2018}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Akha_cuisine_Nue-phueng_tzue-ze.JPG|''Nue phueng tzue-ze'': a sauce for on rice, made from peanuts, herbs and dried chili
File:Akha cuisine Sapi thong-uh.JPG|''Sapi thong-ueh'': a spicy sauce of tomato, fresh chilies, garlic, scallions, coriander/cilantro, and shallot, similar to a ''[[salsa (sauce)|salsa cruda]]''
File:Akha cuisine Manoh lu-uh.JPG|''Manoh lue-ueh'': sliced [[chayote]] fried with pork and garlic
File:Akha cuisine Hoh-pa cha-uh.JPG|Hoh-pa cha-ueh'': a soupy vegetable dish of [[kai-lan]] and pork
File:Akha cuisine Hoh-pa chae lu-uh.JPG|Hoh-pa chae lue-ueh'': stir-fried, pickled mustard greens
File:Akha cuisine Guchi chae.JPG|''Guchi chae'': fried, pickled roots of a certain type of onion
File:Akha cuisine Mochue cha-uh.JPG|''Mochue cha-lu'': a stew of potatoes and pork
</gallery>
== Economy ==
[[File:Maejantai Chiang Rai province 08.JPG|thumb|Packing dried [[Coffea arabica|arabica coffee beans]] in Thailand]]
Although primarily subsistence farmers, the Akha have long been involved in cash cropping and trade. In the last century, [[cotton]] and [[Opium poppy|opium poppies]] were the principal cash crops. More recent cash crops are chilies, soybeans, cabbages, and tomatoes. One or more families in a village may operate a small shop in their home selling items such as items as cigarettes and kerosene. Itinerant traders, either lowlanders or hill-dwelling Yunnan Chinese, come to buy livestock or cash crops, or to sell blankets and other goods.<ref name=Kammerer />
Increasingly, the Akha find themselves, whether solicited or not, in the business of tourism, specifically [[ecotourism]]. Tourists pay a fee to Akha villages to be allowed to witness and participate in "everyday" Akha life, although much of what they see is often staged. The villagers dress up in their elaborate costumes and charge tourists to take photos with them. In addition to opening the village for visiting tourists, the Akha also sell their handicrafts, including hand woven baskets and even replicas of their traditional costumes.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Akha Experience|url=http://greendiscoverylaos.com/nt-t-08.htm|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref>
==Contemporary issues==
{{more citations needed|date=February 2021}}
{{See also|Christianity in Ahka Villages}}
[[File:Ahchooh Erica-Irene Daes.jpg|thumb|A representative of the Akha together with [[Erica-Irene Daes]], a driving force at the [[Working Group on Indigenous Populations]], at the [[United Nations]] in New York, 2006]]
[[File:Elderly Akha couple robbed by Thai army.jpg|thumb|Elderly Akha couple that was robbed by the [[Royal Thai Army|Thai army]]]]
[[File:Electric.jpg|thumb|Arm wounds from having been subjected to [[electrocution]]]]
Being an ethnic minority with little easily accessible legal recourse, Akha everywhere have long been subject to rights abuses.{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}
Perhaps the most important issue facing the Akha pertains to their land. The Akha relationship to land is vitally connected to the continuation of the Akha culture, but they rarely have "official" or state-sanctioned land rights or claims to their land as land rights are considered traditional. These conceptions of land are at odds with those held by the nation states whose land the Akha now occupy. Most Akha are not full-fledged citizens of the country they inhabit and are thus not allowed to legally purchase land, although most Akha villagers are too poor to even consider purchasing land.{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}
It has been reported{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} by rights groups that several land seizures of Akha land have been undertaken in the name of the Queen of Thailand. Originally a semi-nomadic people, the Akha are often relocated by the presiding national government to permanent villages, after which the government allegedly sells to logging companies and other private corporations access to lands formerly occupied by the Akha. The land onto which the Akha are displaced is almost always less fertile than their previous plots. On their new lands, the Akha can rarely produce enough food to sustain themselves and are often forced to leave and seek employment outside the villages, thus disrupting their traditional culture and economy.
In Thailand, laws have been passed that curb people's rights to the forest, including the 2007 Community Forest Act. According to the network of indigenous peoples in Thailand,
<blockquote>"These laws and resolutions have had severe impacts on indigenous peoples' rights to residence and land. Under these laws and resolutions millions of hectares of land have been declared as reserved and conservation forests, or protected areas. Today, 28.78% of Thailand is categorized as protected areas. As a result, thousands of farmers previously living in the forest or relying on the forest for their livelihood have been arrested and imprisoned and their lands seized. Cases have been filed against them for the so-called encroachment on government land."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/focus/section2/2010/12/indigenous-peoples-of-thailand.html|title=Indigenous Peoples of Thailand|publisher=Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref></blockquote>
Despite having signed and ratified the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], the Thai government has not changed laws to adhere to those recommendations emphasizing respect for the rights of indigenous peoples and their full and effective participation in protected areas management and policy-making.<ref>{{cite web|title=Forest Peoples|url=http://www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/news/2011/01/Media%20briefing_Thailand_IPs_and_PAs_Sharing_%20Power_2011_Eng.pdf|access-date=14 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas in Thailand; A Review |url=http://www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/news/2011/01/Media%20briefing_Thailand_IPs_and_PAs_Sharing_%20Power_2011_Eng.pdf|access-date=4 May 2012}}</ref>
The reasons given for Akha relocations vary, but a common response on the part of the Thai government is to cite a concern for the preservation of forests and the promotion of more sustainable agricultural techniques than the slash and burn agriculture traditionally used by the Akha. The Thai government's involvement in relocation might also possibly be motivated by concerns of national security. According to international human rights lawyer Jonathan Levy,
<blockquote>"The Akha are identified with the opium growers who until recently dominated that portion of the "Golden Triangle" in Thailand. Thailand has taken steps to eradicate opium cultivation by resettling the Akha into permanent villages. However, both opium and long ingrained farming techniques are key to the complex Akha culture. While traditional opium cultivation has been suppressed, processed heroine and latest scourge, methamphetamine, is freely available from Burma. Thus Akha have become both impoverished farmers and in many cases narcotic addicts. As the Akha are resettled they come into contact with mainstream Thai culture, many Akha women are drawn to the "easy" money of the sex industry."<ref name=Levy /></blockquote>
The Akha are said to have the highest rates of addiction of all the hill tribes and are at the highest risk for contracting [[HIV]], [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]], or an STD.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/en/files/25230/11434696181167_EX_Prevention_of_HIV-AIDS_among_Ethnic_Minorities_Mekong.pdf/167%2BEX%2BPrevention%2Bof%2BHIV-AIDS%2Bamong%2BEthnic%2BMinorities%2BMekong.pdf |title=Prevention of HIV/AIDS among Ethnic Minorities of the Upper Mekong Region through Community-based Non-Formal and Formal Education|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=14 May 2012}}</ref> Measures have been undertaken by state and human rights organizations including the UNESCO Asia Pacific Regional Bureau for Education in Bangkok, and NCA in Lao PDR, to provide hill tribes, including the Akha, with "comprehensive community-based, non-formal education" on HIV and drug abuse prevention. In addition, detoxification clinics have been opened in the region, with particularly positive consequences for women who tend to have lower rates of addiction, but often bear the brunt of compensating for their missing partners financially and emotionally.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coehn|first=Paul|title=Opium-Reduction Programmes, Discourses of Addiction and Gender in Northwest Laos|journal=Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia|date=April 2002|volume=17|issue=1|pages=1–23 |doi=10.1355/SJ17-1A|jstor=41057073}}</ref>
Despite their numbers, the Akha are the poorest of all the hill tribes. As roads bring accessibility and tourists, they provide relief from the poverty of village life, especially for the younger generations who increasingly find themselves engaged in labor outside the villages. Many villages report a population decrease as many leave to find work in the cities, often for very long periods. Many Akha complain that the younger generations are becoming increasingly less interested in traditional culture and ways and more and more susceptible to outside, mainstream, cultural influences. According to one author, where the village squares were once "filled with the sounds of courtship songs", radios are now more likely to play pop hits.<ref name=Kammerer />
As it becomes increasingly difficult to remain self-sufficient through agriculture, and as roads open up the villages to the cities, the Akha must contend with the sometimes corrosive effects of the tourist industry. Not all Akha are happy to let tourists come in and observe village life. The Akha are often the objects of [[ecotourism]] which purports to open up remote spaces and people to Western tourists to expand their knowledge of the plight of the people and their perilous situation, and thus, expand their involvement in the fight to maintain their environment and way of life. It is pitched as "[[sustainable tourism|responsible tourism]]". There are many critiques{{by whom|date=September 2013}} of ecotourism as exploitative and a highly consumer-centered and contradictory activity{{clarify|What is a "contradictory activity" and why is it wrong?|date=September 2013}} including detrimental effects on the environment from the amount of jet engine fuel burned on the flight there and back, the additional amenities that must be built to cater to Western expectations, the pollution and garbage associated with a Western lifestyle, the disturbance of flora and fauna and a bevy of other concerns expressed by environmentalist voices.
While ecotourism agencies claim to help in exposing the plight of indigenous people, many Akha feel{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} that they are being put on display for ecotourist groups, as they are encouraged or forced to wear their most elaborate ethnic clothing and perform ceremonies and rituals that have no meaning for them out of context. The Akha also participate in the regular tourist industry through the sale of their handicrafts and goods to local tourists, which they must often do under financial duress. Many of the Akha people{{Who|date=September 2015}} do not see the tourism as halting the Westernizing and globalizing pressures but, rather, as a coercive [[commercialization]] and [[commodification]] of their culture.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}
According to a 2008 documentary, there have also been complaints about Christian missionary activity, which allegedly has tended to "paganize" the Akha traditional belief system. Some of the claims made against missionaries include the kidnapping of Akha children into orphanages and forced labor, the sterilization of Akha women and the forced or underpaid labor of Akha on farms.<ref>{{cite AV media |title=Prisoners of A White God |people=Lichtag, Steve (director) |work=Twin Star|year=2008}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Akha language]]
* [[Matthew McDaniel]]
* [[Prisoners of a White God]]
* [[Clement Vismara]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=James C |author-link=James C. Scott|title=The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia |date=30 September 2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven|isbn=9780300152289 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300152289/art-not-being-governed |access-date=20 April 2020 |format=Hardcover}}
==External links==
* {{cite news|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5sNFveHpkwI|title=The Akha tribe in Laos: Between tradition and modernity|work=[[Deutsche Welle]]|format=Video|date=2019-04-13}}<!--This is from an official YouTube account, so this is OK-->
{{Ethnic groups in Burma}}
{{Ethnic groups in Thailand}}
{{Ethnic groups in Laos}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Akha}}
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Thailand]]
[[Category:Akha]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Myanmar]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Laos]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in China]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Vietnam]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -33,7 +33,5 @@
The Akha are not always treated or addressed as equals by the people whose countries they now inhabit. Speakers of [[Tai languages]] in Myanmar and Thailand refer to them as "gaw" or "ekaw" (ikaw/ikho), terms which the Akha view as derogatory. In Laos the colloquial term used by Tai speakers to refer to the Akha is "kho" (ko), often prefaced by the word "kha", which means "slave."<ref name=Kammerer />
-== Language ==
-[[File:Akha women.jpg|thumb|Akha women c. 1900.]]
-Called "Avkavdawv," meaning "[[Akha language]]," by its native speakers, Akha is a tonal language in the Lolo/Yi branch of the Sino-Tibetan family. The vast majority of Akha speakers can understand the ''jeu g’oe'' ("jer way") dialect spoken in southern China, Thailand, and Myanmar.<ref name=Kammerer /> Some basic and systematic variations in regional dialects of Akha are discussed by Paul Lewis in his ''Akha-English-Thai Dictionary''. Very few dialects of Akha do not share mutual intelligibility. The Akha have no written language, but there are several competing scripts that have been written by missionaries and other foreigners.<ref name=Hilltribe />
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== Akha villages and culture ==
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aka_people" title="Aka people">Aka people</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hakka_people" title="Hakka people">Hakka people</a>.</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Akha</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_tribe_depiction,_1900s.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Akha tribe depiction, 1900s.jpg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Akha_tribe_depiction%2C_1900s.jpg/220px-Akha_tribe_depiction%2C_1900s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Akha_tribe_depiction%2C_1900s.jpg/330px-Akha_tribe_depiction%2C_1900s.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Akha_tribe_depiction%2C_1900s.jpg/440px-Akha_tribe_depiction%2C_1900s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1088" data-file-height="879" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A Burmese depiction of the Akha in the early 1900s</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">680,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a></th><td class="infobox-data">112,979<sup id="cite_ref-Census2015_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Census2015-1">[1]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akha_language" title="Akha language">Akha</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christianity_in_Ahka_Villages" title="Christianity in Ahka Villages">Christianity</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup>Akhazah(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hani_people" title="Hani people">Hani people</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karen_people" title="Karen people">Karen people</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <b>Akha</b> are an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnic_group" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a> who live in small villages at higher elevations in the mountains of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> Province in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. They made their way from China into Southeast Asia during the early 20th century. Civil war in Burma and Laos resulted in an increased flow of Akha immigrants and there are now 80,000 people living in Thailand's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Thailand" title="Northern Thailand">northern provinces</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chiang_Rai" title="Chiang Rai">Chiang Rai</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chiang_Mai" title="Chiang Mai">Chiang Mai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Akha speak <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akha_language" title="Akha language">Akha</a>, a language in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish (Yi) branch</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a> family. The Akha language is closely related to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lisu_language" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a> and it is thought that it was the Akha who once ruled the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baoshan,_Yunnan" title="Baoshan, Yunnan">Baoshan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tengchong" title="Tengchong">Tengchong</a> plains in Yunnan before the invasion of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ming_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a> in 1644.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Origins"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Origins</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Population_distribution_and_indigenous_status"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Population distribution and indigenous status</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Akha_villages_and_culture"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Akha villages and culture</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Traditional_economy"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Traditional economy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Belief_system"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Belief system</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Dress"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Dress</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Cuisine"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Cuisine</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Economy"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Economy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Contemporary_issues"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Contemporary issues</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Origins">Origins</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Akha_People_(Thailand).svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_the_Akha_People_%28Thailand%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Akha_People_%28Thailand%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_the_Akha_People_%28Thailand%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Akha_People_%28Thailand%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_the_Akha_People_%28Thailand%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Akha_People_%28Thailand%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Akha_People_(Thailand).svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Flag of the Akha People in Thailand</div></div></div>
<p>Scholars agree with the Akha that they originated in China; they disagree, however, about whether the original homeland was the Tibetan borderlands, as the Akha claim, or farther south and east in Yunnan Province, the northernmost residence of present-day Akha. The historically documented existence of relations with the Shan prince of Kengtung indicates that Akha were in eastern Burma as early as the 1860s. They first entered Thailand from Burma at the turn of the 20th-century, many having fled the decades-long civil war in Burma.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Levy_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Population_distribution_and_indigenous_status">Population distribution and indigenous status</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Population distribution and indigenous status">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_laos_11_03d.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Akha_laos_11_03d.jpg/220px-Akha_laos_11_03d.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Akha_laos_11_03d.jpg/330px-Akha_laos_11_03d.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Akha_laos_11_03d.jpg/440px-Akha_laos_11_03d.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_laos_11_03d.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>An Akha girl in Laos</div></div></div>
<p>Akha live in villages in the mountains of southwest China, eastern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, western <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, northwestern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Thailand" title="Northern Thailand">northern Thailand</a>. In all these countries they are an ethnic minority. The population of the Akha today is roughly 400,000. A decline in village size in Thailand since the 1930s has been noted and attributed to the deteriorating ecological and economic situation in the mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-Thailine_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thailine-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Akha are often classified by the Chinese government as part of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hani_people" title="Hani people">Hani</a>, an official national minority. The Akha are closely related to the Hani, but consider themselves a distinct group and often resist being subsumed under that identity.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilltribe_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilltribe-8">[8]</a></sup> In Thailand, they are classified as one of the six <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hill_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hill tribes">hill tribes</a>, a term used for all of the various tribal peoples who migrated from China and Tibet over the past few centuries and who now inhabit the dense forests on the borders between Thailand, Laos, and Burma. Few Akha in Thailand are citizens and most are registered as aliens. There is an oft cited lack of political or state infrastructure to address Akha, or any other indigenous issues in Thailand.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Akha are not always treated or addressed as equals by the people whose countries they now inhabit. Speakers of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_languages" title="Tai languages">Tai languages</a> in Myanmar and Thailand refer to them as "gaw" or "ekaw" (ikaw/ikho), terms which the Akha view as derogatory. In Laos the colloquial term used by Tai speakers to refer to the Akha is "kho" (ko), often prefaced by the word "kha", which means "slave."<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>poopoo
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Akha_villages_and_culture">Akha villages and culture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Akha villages and culture">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_01.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_01.JPG/300px-Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="134" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_01.JPG/450px-Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_01.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_01.JPG/600px-Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="855" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_01.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The village of Mae Chan Tai in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mae_Suai_District" title="Mae Suai District">Mae Suai District</a>, Chiang Rai Province, Thailand, is a more modern village. Note the large coffee drying platforms.</div></div></div>
<p>Due to rapid social and economic changes in the regions the Akha inhabit, particularly the introduction of Western modes of capitalism, attempts to continue many of the traditional aspects of Akha life are increasingly difficult. Despite these challenges, Akha people practice many elements of their traditional culture with much success.
</p><p>Akha society lacks a strict system of social class and is considered <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Egalitarian">egalitarian</a>. Respect is typically accorded with age and experience. Ties of patrilineal kinship and marriage alliance bind the Akha within and between communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup> Village structures may vary widely from the strictly traditional to Westernized, depending on their proximity to modern towns. Like many of the hill tribes, the Akha build their villages at higher elevations in the mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-Akha_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akha-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>Akha dwellings are traditionally constructed of logs, bamboo, and thatch and are of two types: "low houses", built on the ground, and "high houses", built on stilts. The semi-nomadic Akha, at least those who have not been moved to permanent village sites, typically do not build their houses as permanent residences and will often move their villages. Some say that this gives the dwellings a deceptively fragile and flimsy appearance, although they are quite well-built as proved over generations.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Entrances to all Akha villages are fitted with a wooden gate adorned with elaborate carvings on both sides depicting imagery of men and women. It is known as a "spirit gate". It marks the division between the inside of the village, the domain of man and domesticated animals, and the outside, the realm of spirits and wildlife. The gates function to ward off evil spirits and to entice favorable ones. Carvings can be seen on the roofs of the villager's houses as a second measure to control the flow of spirits.
</p><p>Houses are segregated by gender, with specific areas for men as well as a common space. This divide is said to mimic the function of the gate.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilltribe_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilltribe-8">[8]</a></sup> Another important feature found in most Akha villages is a tall four-posted village swing which is used in an annual ancestor offering related to the fertility of rice. The swing is built annually by an elder called a <i>dzoeuh mah</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hilltribe_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilltribe-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Gate_leading_to_the_akha_hilltribe_village.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Gate_leading_to_the_akha_hilltribe_village.jpg/90px-Gate_leading_to_the_akha_hilltribe_village.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Gate_leading_to_the_akha_hilltribe_village.jpg/135px-Gate_leading_to_the_akha_hilltribe_village.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Gate_leading_to_the_akha_hilltribe_village.jpg/180px-Gate_leading_to_the_akha_hilltribe_village.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>An Akha "Spirit Gate" in Thailand
</p>
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</div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:30px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_Hut.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Akha_Hut.JPG/120px-Akha_Hut.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Akha_Hut.JPG/180px-Akha_Hut.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Akha_Hut.JPG/240px-Akha_Hut.JPG 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="675" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Akha hut
</p>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:30px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_fishing.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Akha_fishing.JPG/120px-Akha_fishing.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Akha_fishing.JPG/180px-Akha_fishing.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Akha_fishing.JPG/240px-Akha_fishing.JPG 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="675" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Akha fishing
</p>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_hilltribe,_Chiang_Rai_Province_P1110690.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Akha_hilltribe%2C_Chiang_Rai_Province_P1110690.JPG/90px-Akha_hilltribe%2C_Chiang_Rai_Province_P1110690.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Akha_hilltribe%2C_Chiang_Rai_Province_P1110690.JPG/135px-Akha_hilltribe%2C_Chiang_Rai_Province_P1110690.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Akha_hilltribe%2C_Chiang_Rai_Province_P1110690.JPG/180px-Akha_hilltribe%2C_Chiang_Rai_Province_P1110690.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Akha, Chiang Rai Province
</p>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:29.5px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_village.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Akha_village.jpg/120px-Akha_village.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="91" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Akha_village.jpg/180px-Akha_village.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Akha_village.jpg/240px-Akha_village.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1232" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>An Akha village, with traditional thatched roofs, in northern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:30px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_Funeral1.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Akha_Funeral1.JPG/120px-Akha_Funeral1.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Akha_Funeral1.JPG/180px-Akha_Funeral1.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Akha_Funeral1.JPG/240px-Akha_Funeral1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="675" /></a></div></div>
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<p>Akha funeral ceremony
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</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Traditional_economy">Traditional economy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Traditional economy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_man_with_opium_pipe.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Akha_man_with_opium_pipe.jpg/300px-Akha_man_with_opium_pipe.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="210" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Akha_man_with_opium_pipe.jpg/450px-Akha_man_with_opium_pipe.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Akha_man_with_opium_pipe.jpg/600px-Akha_man_with_opium_pipe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1086" data-file-height="762" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_man_with_opium_pipe.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Akha man with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Opium_pipe" title="Opium pipe">opium pipe</a> (1979)</div></div></div>
<p>The traditional form of subsistence for the Akha people has been, and remains, agriculture. The Akha grow a variety of crops including soybeans and vegetables. Rice is the most significant crop and is prominent in much of Akha culture and ritual. Most Akha plant dry-land rice, which depends solely on rainfall for moisture, but in some villages irrigation has been built to water <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paddy_field" title="Paddy field">paddy fields</a>. Historically, some Akha villages cultivated <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>, but production diminished after the Thai government banned its cultivation.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodman-1996_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodman-1996-11">[11]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>113</span></sup>
</p><p>The Akha have traditionally employed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slash_and_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash and burn">slash and burn</a> agriculture, in which new fields are cleared by burning or cutting down forests and woodlands. In such a system, there is usually no market for land. Rights to land are considered traditional and established over many generations. This type of agriculture has contributed to the Akha's semi-nomadic status as villages move to clear new farmland with each successive burn cycle. The Thai government has forbidden this practice, citing its detrimental effects on the environment. The Akha have adapted to new types of subsistence farming, but the quality of their land has suffered as they are no longer allowed to expand onto new plots. In many cases, chemical fertilizers are the only option for re-fertilizing the land.<sup id="cite_ref-Akha_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akha-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>In addition to their agricultural work, the Akha raise livestock including pigs, chickens, ducks, goats, cattle, and water buffalo to supplement their diets and to use for their secondary products. Children usually herd the animals. Akha women gather plants from the surrounding forests as well as eggs and insects the Akha will occasionally eat or use for medicinal purposes. The women and the men will often fish in the local lakes and streams. Some villages construct bee gums with the hope that a colony will nest there and their honey subsequently harvested.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hilltribe_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilltribe-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goodman-1996_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodman-1996-11">[11]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>113–115</span></sup>
</p><p>The Akha are skilled hunters. Hunting is a male activity and a very popular one. It is a favorite pastime and a means of obtaining food. The barking deer is, perhaps, their favorite prey. Guns obtained from trading in the larger towns have begun to replace the use of crossbows in hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thailine_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thailine-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goodman-1996_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodman-1996-11">[11]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Belief_system">Belief system</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Belief system">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christianity_in_Ahka_Villages" title="Christianity in Ahka Villages">Christianity in Ahka Villages</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Woman_with_child_in_Thailand..jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Woman_with_child_in_Thailand..jpg/220px-Woman_with_child_in_Thailand..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Woman_with_child_in_Thailand..jpg/330px-Woman_with_child_in_Thailand..jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Woman_with_child_in_Thailand..jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="480" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Woman_with_child_in_Thailand..jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Akha woman with child (Thailand)</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_couple.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Akha_couple.JPG/220px-Akha_couple.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Akha_couple.JPG/330px-Akha_couple.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Akha_couple.JPG/440px-Akha_couple.JPG 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="675" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_couple.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Husband carrying the stem of a banana plant, to be fed to pigs</div></div></div>
<p>Akha religion—<i>zahv</i>—is often described as a mixture of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a> and ancestor worship that emphasizes the Akha connection with the land and their place in the natural world and cycles. Although Akha beliefs and rituals involve all of these elements, the Akha often reject the casual categorization of their practices as such saying it simplifies and reduces its meaning. The Akha way emphasizes rituals in everyday life and stresses strong family ties. Akha ethnicity is closely tied to the Akha religion. It might be said that to be considered an Akha ethnically by other Akhas is to practice the Akha religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Tooker_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tooker-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>The annual ritual cycle consists of nine or twelve ancestor offerings, rice rituals, and other rites such as the building of the village gates. Many Akha rituals and festivals serve to seek "blessings" (<i>guivlahav</i>) from ancestors, which are according to the <i>Encyclopedia of World Cultures</i>, "...fertility and health in people, rice, and domesticated animals."<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thailine_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thailine-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Belief_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belief-13">[13]</a></sup> Akha beliefs are passed down through generations by oral recantation. The Akha believe that the being who created earth and life gave Akha the "Akha Zang" (Akha Way), their guidelines for life. Akhas believe that spirits and people were born of the same mother and lived together until a quarrel led to their separation, upon which spirits went into the forest and people remained in the villages. Since then, Akha believe that the spirits have caused illness and other unwelcome disruptions of human life. The Akha year is divided into the peoples' season (dry) and the spirits' season (wet). During the latter, spirits wander into the village, so they must be driven out as part of a yearly ancestor offering. Both people and rice are considered to have souls, the flight of which causes disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Belief_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belief-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>The most important and revered position in Akha spiritual matters is given to a village leader, whose ritual responsibilities include initiating the annual rebuilding of the village gates and the swing as well as advising and instructing villages on important matters and settling disputes. Akha villages have an expert in ironworks called the <i>pa jee</i> who is considered of great significance in the village and who holds the second most important position within the society.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>Perhaps the most important festival of the year is commonly known as the Swing Festival. The four-day Akha Swing Festival comes in late-August each year and falls on the 120th day after the village has planted its rice. The Akha call the Swing Festival, <i>Yehkuja</i>, which translates as "eating bitter rice", a phrase which references the previous year's dwindling rice supply incorporates the hope that monsoons will soon water the new crop. Festival activities include ritual offerings to family ancestral spirits at the ancestral altar in a corner of the women's side of the house. Offerings consist of bits of cooked food, water, and rice whiskey. The swing festival is particularly important for Akha women, who will display the clothing they spent all year making and who will show, through ornamentation, that they are becoming older and of marriageable age. Because the women dress up in their best traditional clothing and ornaments and perform traditional dances and songs for the villagers, the Swing Festival is also known as Women's New Year. The traditional New Year which falls in late-December is known as Men's New Year.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Akha put a heavy emphasis on genealogy. An important tradition involves the recounting by Akha males of their patrilineal genealogy. During the most important ceremonies the list is recited in its entirety back over 50 generations to the first Akha, Sm Mi O. It is said that all Akha males should be able to do so. The recounting of this lineage plays a role in the incest taboo: If a male and female Akha find a common male ancestor within their last six generations, they are not allowed to marry.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goodman-1996_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodman-1996-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Akha have several sets of rules governing matters on life, death, marriage, and birth. Akha traditionally marry in their teens or early twenties. Polygamy is permitted. Marriages may be village endogamous or exogamous. Wife-giving and -taking relationships are central to Akha society, with wife-givers superior to wife-takers.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>Twins are considered an extremely ominous occurrence, one where spirits are considered to interfere with human matters. The Akha believed that only animals could give birth to more than one offspring and therefore considered twins as beasts. Up until about 20 years or so ago, they would have been killed immediately. According to Laos locals, the practice is still common although the government is trying to discourage it. Akha men whose wives had given birth to twins would not be allowed to participate on the hunt for a specific period.<sup id="cite_ref-Tooker_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tooker-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>Certain types of death, like that caused by a tiger, are considered particularly bad; the bodies must be treated and buried in specific ways.
</p><p>Missionaries have been active among Akha, especially since the mid-20th century. Some Akha Christians live in separate Christian villages supported by missionary funds. Although many Akha people may be considered converts by the missionaries, nearly 100% practice some mixture of Christianity and traditional Akha beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Akha_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akha-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Dress">Dress</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dress">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:MuangSing_ThatXiengTung4_tango7174.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/MuangSing_ThatXiengTung4_tango7174.jpg/220px-MuangSing_ThatXiengTung4_tango7174.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/MuangSing_ThatXiengTung4_tango7174.jpg/330px-MuangSing_ThatXiengTung4_tango7174.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/MuangSing_ThatXiengTung4_tango7174.jpg/440px-MuangSing_ThatXiengTung4_tango7174.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:MuangSing_ThatXiengTung4_tango7174.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>That Xieng Tung Festival, Muang Sing, Laos. Akha young girls in the welcoming committee. On their arrival, visitors will have a color ribbon pinned to their blouse in exchange for a donation.</div></div></div>
<p>The Akha people are often noted for their very recognizable sartorial practices. Akha women spin cotton into thread with a hand spindle and weave it on a foot-treadle loom. The cloth is hand dyed with indigo. Women wear broad leggings, a short black skirt with a white beaded sporran, a loose fitting black jacket with heavily embroidered cuffs and lapels. Akha women are known for their embroidery skills. While traditional clothes are typically worn for special ceremonies, one is more likely to see Akha villagers in full traditional garb in areas that have heavy volumes of tourists, particularly in Thailand.
</p><p>The headdresses worn by the women are perhaps the most spectacular and elaborate items of Akha dress. Akha women define their age or marital status with the style of headdress worn. At roughly age 12, the Akha female exchanges her child's cap for that of a girl. A few years later she will begin to don the <i>jejaw</i>, the beaded sash that hangs down the front of her skirt and keeps it from flying up in the breeze. During mid-adolescence she will start wearing the adult woman's headdress. Headdresses are decorated by their owner and each is unique. Silver coins, monkey fur, and dyed chicken feathers are just a few of the things that might decorate the headdress. The headdresses differ by subgroup. According to an article about the variations in Akha headdress, "High Fashion, Hill Style", the
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<blockquote><p>"Ulo Akha headdress consists of a bamboo cone, covered in beads, silver studs and seeds, edged in coins (silver rupees for the rich, baht for the poor) topped by several dangling chicken feather tassels and maybe a woolen pom-pom. The Pamee Akha wear a trapezoidal colt cap covered in silver studs with coins on the beaded side flaps and long chains of linked silver rings hanging down each side. The Lomi Akha wear a round cap covered in silver studs and framed by silver balls, coins and pendants and the married women attach a trapezoidal inscribed plate at the back."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_woman,_Myanmar.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Akha_woman%2C_Myanmar.jpg/90px-Akha_woman%2C_Myanmar.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Akha_woman%2C_Myanmar.jpg/135px-Akha_woman%2C_Myanmar.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Akha_woman%2C_Myanmar.jpg/180px-Akha_woman%2C_Myanmar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a></div></div>
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<p>In Myanmar
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_Laos_4-11-06.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Akha_Laos_4-11-06.jpg/80px-Akha_Laos_4-11-06.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Akha_Laos_4-11-06.jpg/120px-Akha_Laos_4-11-06.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Akha_Laos_4-11-06.jpg/160px-Akha_Laos_4-11-06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3504" /></a></div></div>
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<p>In Laos
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_laos_11_03a.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Akha_laos_11_03a.jpg/90px-Akha_laos_11_03a.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Akha_laos_11_03a.jpg/135px-Akha_laos_11_03a.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Akha_laos_11_03a.jpg/180px-Akha_laos_11_03a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a></div></div>
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<p>In Laos
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_Laos_11_03b.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Akha_Laos_11_03b.jpg/90px-Akha_Laos_11_03b.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Akha_Laos_11_03b.jpg/135px-Akha_Laos_11_03b.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Akha_Laos_11_03b.jpg/180px-Akha_Laos_11_03b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a></div></div>
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<p>In Laos
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_Dress.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Akha_Dress.JPG/90px-Akha_Dress.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Akha_Dress.JPG/135px-Akha_Dress.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Akha_Dress.JPG/180px-Akha_Dress.JPG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1066" /></a></div></div>
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<p>In Thailand
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_Woman.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Akha_Woman.jpg/80px-Akha_Woman.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Akha_Woman.jpg/120px-Akha_Woman.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Akha_Woman.jpg/160px-Akha_Woman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="1080" /></a></div></div>
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<p>In Thailand
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_Man_in_Thailand.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Akha_Man_in_Thailand.jpg/80px-Akha_Man_in_Thailand.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Akha_Man_in_Thailand.jpg/120px-Akha_Man_in_Thailand.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Akha_Man_in_Thailand.jpg/160px-Akha_Man_in_Thailand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1514" data-file-height="2272" /></a></div></div>
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<p>An Akha man from Ban Mae Chan Tai, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chiang_Rai_Province" title="Chiang Rai Province">Chiang Rai Province</a>, Thailand
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cuisine">Cuisine</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cuisine">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The main staple of Akha cuisine is highland rice. Besides raising cattle, pigs and chickens, and growing crops such as rice, corn, a variety of vegetables, chilies and herbs, part of their ingredients comes from the forest, either gathered or hunted.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_cuisine_Nue-phueng_tzue-ze.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Akha_cuisine_Nue-phueng_tzue-ze.JPG/98px-Akha_cuisine_Nue-phueng_tzue-ze.JPG" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Akha_cuisine_Nue-phueng_tzue-ze.JPG/147px-Akha_cuisine_Nue-phueng_tzue-ze.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Akha_cuisine_Nue-phueng_tzue-ze.JPG/196px-Akha_cuisine_Nue-phueng_tzue-ze.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div></div>
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<p><i>Nue phueng tzue-ze</i>: a sauce for on rice, made from peanuts, herbs and dried chili
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_cuisine_Sapi_thong-uh.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Akha_cuisine_Sapi_thong-uh.JPG/91px-Akha_cuisine_Sapi_thong-uh.JPG" decoding="async" width="91" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Akha_cuisine_Sapi_thong-uh.JPG/137px-Akha_cuisine_Sapi_thong-uh.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Akha_cuisine_Sapi_thong-uh.JPG/183px-Akha_cuisine_Sapi_thong-uh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1465" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div></div>
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<p><i>Sapi thong-ueh</i>: a spicy sauce of tomato, fresh chilies, garlic, scallions, coriander/cilantro, and shallot, similar to a <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salsa_(sauce)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salsa (sauce)">salsa cruda</a></i>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_cuisine_Manoh_lu-uh.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Akha_cuisine_Manoh_lu-uh.JPG/79px-Akha_cuisine_Manoh_lu-uh.JPG" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Akha_cuisine_Manoh_lu-uh.JPG/119px-Akha_cuisine_Manoh_lu-uh.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Akha_cuisine_Manoh_lu-uh.JPG/159px-Akha_cuisine_Manoh_lu-uh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div></div>
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<p><i>Manoh lue-ueh</i>: sliced <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chayote" title="Chayote">chayote</a> fried with pork and garlic
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_cha-uh.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_cha-uh.JPG/94px-Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_cha-uh.JPG" decoding="async" width="94" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_cha-uh.JPG/141px-Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_cha-uh.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_cha-uh.JPG/188px-Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_cha-uh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1503" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Hoh-pa cha-ueh<i>: a soupy vegetable dish of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kai-lan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kai-lan">kai-lan</a> and pork</i>
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</div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_chae_lu-uh.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_chae_lu-uh.JPG/89px-Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_chae_lu-uh.JPG" decoding="async" width="89" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_chae_lu-uh.JPG/134px-Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_chae_lu-uh.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_chae_lu-uh.JPG/179px-Akha_cuisine_Hoh-pa_chae_lu-uh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1434" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Hoh-pa chae lue-ueh<i>: stir-fried, pickled mustard greens</i>
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:35px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_cuisine_Guchi_chae.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Akha_cuisine_Guchi_chae.JPG/120px-Akha_cuisine_Guchi_chae.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Akha_cuisine_Guchi_chae.JPG/180px-Akha_cuisine_Guchi_chae.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Akha_cuisine_Guchi_chae.JPG/240px-Akha_cuisine_Guchi_chae.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1272" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><i>Guchi chae</i>: fried, pickled roots of a certain type of onion
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Akha_cuisine_Mochue_cha-uh.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Akha_cuisine_Mochue_cha-uh.JPG/79px-Akha_cuisine_Mochue_cha-uh.JPG" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Akha_cuisine_Mochue_cha-uh.JPG/119px-Akha_cuisine_Mochue_cha-uh.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Akha_cuisine_Mochue_cha-uh.JPG/159px-Akha_cuisine_Mochue_cha-uh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><i>Mochue cha-lu</i>: a stew of potatoes and pork
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Economy">Economy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_08.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_08.JPG/220px-Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_08.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_08.JPG/330px-Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_08.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_08.JPG/440px-Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_08.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1180" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Maejantai_Chiang_Rai_province_08.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Packing dried <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_arabica" title="Coffea arabica">arabica coffee beans</a> in Thailand</div></div></div>
<p>Although primarily subsistence farmers, the Akha have long been involved in cash cropping and trade. In the last century, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Opium_poppy" class="mw-redirect" title="Opium poppy">opium poppies</a> were the principal cash crops. More recent cash crops are chilies, soybeans, cabbages, and tomatoes. One or more families in a village may operate a small shop in their home selling items such as items as cigarettes and kerosene. Itinerant traders, either lowlanders or hill-dwelling Yunnan Chinese, come to buy livestock or cash crops, or to sell blankets and other goods.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>Increasingly, the Akha find themselves, whether solicited or not, in the business of tourism, specifically <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecotourism" title="Ecotourism">ecotourism</a>. Tourists pay a fee to Akha villages to be allowed to witness and participate in "everyday" Akha life, although much of what they see is often staged. The villagers dress up in their elaborate costumes and charge tourists to take photos with them. In addition to opening the village for visiting tourists, the Akha also sell their handicrafts, including hand woven baskets and even replicas of their traditional costumes.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Contemporary_issues">Contemporary issues</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Contemporary issues">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Akha+people%22">"Akha people"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Akha+people%22+-wikipedia">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?&q=%22Akha+people%22+site:news.google.com/newspapers&source=newspapers">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Akha+people%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Akha+people%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Akha+people%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christianity_in_Ahka_Villages" title="Christianity in Ahka Villages">Christianity in Ahka Villages</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ahchooh_Erica-Irene_Daes.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Ahchooh_Erica-Irene_Daes.jpg/220px-Ahchooh_Erica-Irene_Daes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Ahchooh_Erica-Irene_Daes.jpg/330px-Ahchooh_Erica-Irene_Daes.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Ahchooh_Erica-Irene_Daes.jpg/440px-Ahchooh_Erica-Irene_Daes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1776" data-file-height="1180" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ahchooh_Erica-Irene_Daes.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A representative of the Akha together with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erica-Irene_Daes" title="Erica-Irene Daes">Erica-Irene Daes</a>, a driving force at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Working_Group_on_Indigenous_Populations" title="Working Group on Indigenous Populations">Working Group on Indigenous Populations</a>, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in New York, 2006</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Elderly_Akha_couple_robbed_by_Thai_army.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Elderly_Akha_couple_robbed_by_Thai_army.jpg/220px-Elderly_Akha_couple_robbed_by_Thai_army.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Elderly_Akha_couple_robbed_by_Thai_army.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="235" data-file-height="280" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Elderly_Akha_couple_robbed_by_Thai_army.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Elderly Akha couple that was robbed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Thai_Army" title="Royal Thai Army">Thai army</a></div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:185px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Electric.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Electric.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="280" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="183" data-file-height="280" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Electric.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Arm wounds from having been subjected to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electrocution" title="Electrocution">electrocution</a></div></div></div>
<p>Being an ethnic minority with little easily accessible legal recourse, Akha everywhere have long been subject to rights abuses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Perhaps the most important issue facing the Akha pertains to their land. The Akha relationship to land is vitally connected to the continuation of the Akha culture, but they rarely have "official" or state-sanctioned land rights or claims to their land as land rights are considered traditional. These conceptions of land are at odds with those held by the nation states whose land the Akha now occupy. Most Akha are not full-fledged citizens of the country they inhabit and are thus not allowed to legally purchase land, although most Akha villagers are too poor to even consider purchasing land.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>It has been reported<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> by rights groups that several land seizures of Akha land have been undertaken in the name of the Queen of Thailand. Originally a semi-nomadic people, the Akha are often relocated by the presiding national government to permanent villages, after which the government allegedly sells to logging companies and other private corporations access to lands formerly occupied by the Akha. The land onto which the Akha are displaced is almost always less fertile than their previous plots. On their new lands, the Akha can rarely produce enough food to sustain themselves and are often forced to leave and seek employment outside the villages, thus disrupting their traditional culture and economy.
</p><p>In Thailand, laws have been passed that curb people's rights to the forest, including the 2007 Community Forest Act. According to the network of indigenous peoples in Thailand,
</p>
<blockquote><p>"These laws and resolutions have had severe impacts on indigenous peoples' rights to residence and land. Under these laws and resolutions millions of hectares of land have been declared as reserved and conservation forests, or protected areas. Today, 28.78% of Thailand is categorized as protected areas. As a result, thousands of farmers previously living in the forest or relying on the forest for their livelihood have been arrested and imprisoned and their lands seized. Cases have been filed against them for the so-called encroachment on government land."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Despite having signed and ratified the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a>, the Thai government has not changed laws to adhere to those recommendations emphasizing respect for the rights of indigenous peoples and their full and effective participation in protected areas management and policy-making.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>The reasons given for Akha relocations vary, but a common response on the part of the Thai government is to cite a concern for the preservation of forests and the promotion of more sustainable agricultural techniques than the slash and burn agriculture traditionally used by the Akha. The Thai government's involvement in relocation might also possibly be motivated by concerns of national security. According to international human rights lawyer Jonathan Levy,
</p>
<blockquote><p>"The Akha are identified with the opium growers who until recently dominated that portion of the "Golden Triangle" in Thailand. Thailand has taken steps to eradicate opium cultivation by resettling the Akha into permanent villages. However, both opium and long ingrained farming techniques are key to the complex Akha culture. While traditional opium cultivation has been suppressed, processed heroine and latest scourge, methamphetamine, is freely available from Burma. Thus Akha have become both impoverished farmers and in many cases narcotic addicts. As the Akha are resettled they come into contact with mainstream Thai culture, many Akha women are drawn to the "easy" money of the sex industry."<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-6">[6]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>The Akha are said to have the highest rates of addiction of all the hill tribes and are at the highest risk for contracting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS</a>, or an STD.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> Measures have been undertaken by state and human rights organizations including the UNESCO Asia Pacific Regional Bureau for Education in Bangkok, and NCA in Lao PDR, to provide hill tribes, including the Akha, with "comprehensive community-based, non-formal education" on HIV and drug abuse prevention. In addition, detoxification clinics have been opened in the region, with particularly positive consequences for women who tend to have lower rates of addiction, but often bear the brunt of compensating for their missing partners financially and emotionally.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>Despite their numbers, the Akha are the poorest of all the hill tribes. As roads bring accessibility and tourists, they provide relief from the poverty of village life, especially for the younger generations who increasingly find themselves engaged in labor outside the villages. Many villages report a population decrease as many leave to find work in the cities, often for very long periods. Many Akha complain that the younger generations are becoming increasingly less interested in traditional culture and ways and more and more susceptible to outside, mainstream, cultural influences. According to one author, where the village squares were once "filled with the sounds of courtship songs", radios are now more likely to play pop hits.<sup id="cite_ref-Kammerer_5-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kammerer-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>As it becomes increasingly difficult to remain self-sufficient through agriculture, and as roads open up the villages to the cities, the Akha must contend with the sometimes corrosive effects of the tourist industry. Not all Akha are happy to let tourists come in and observe village life. The Akha are often the objects of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecotourism" title="Ecotourism">ecotourism</a> which purports to open up remote spaces and people to Western tourists to expand their knowledge of the plight of the people and their perilous situation, and thus, expand their involvement in the fight to maintain their environment and way of life. It is pitched as "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sustainable_tourism" title="Sustainable tourism">responsible tourism</a>". There are many critiques<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (September 2013)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> of ecotourism as exploitative and a highly consumer-centered and contradictory activity<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> including detrimental effects on the environment from the amount of jet engine fuel burned on the flight there and back, the additional amenities that must be built to cater to Western expectations, the pollution and garbage associated with a Western lifestyle, the disturbance of flora and fauna and a bevy of other concerns expressed by environmentalist voices.
</p><p>While ecotourism agencies claim to help in exposing the plight of indigenous people, many Akha feel<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that they are being put on display for ecotourist groups, as they are encouraged or forced to wear their most elaborate ethnic clothing and perform ceremonies and rituals that have no meaning for them out of context. The Akha also participate in the regular tourist industry through the sale of their handicrafts and goods to local tourists, which they must often do under financial duress. Many of the Akha people<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2015)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> do not see the tourism as halting the Westernizing and globalizing pressures but, rather, as a coercive <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commercialization" title="Commercialization">commercialization</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commodification" title="Commodification">commodification</a> of their culture.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>According to a 2008 documentary, there have also been complaints about Christian missionary activity, which allegedly has tended to "paganize" the Akha traditional belief system. Some of the claims made against missionaries include the kidnapping of Akha children into orphanages and forced labor, the sterilization of Akha women and the forced or underpaid labor of Akha on farms.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akha_language" title="Akha language">Akha language</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Matthew_McDaniel" title="Matthew McDaniel">Matthew McDaniel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prisoners_of_a_White_God" title="Prisoners of a White God">Prisoners of a White God</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clement_Vismara" title="Clement Vismara">Clement Vismara</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Census2015-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Census2015_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lao.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/PHC-ENG-FNAL-WEB_0.pdf">"Results of Population and Housing Census 2015"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Lao Statistics Bureau<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Results+of+Population+and+Housing+Census+2015&rft.pub=Lao+Statistics+Bureau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flao.unfpa.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpub-pdf%2FPHC-ENG-FNAL-WEB_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030831012827/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EH29Ae01.html">"Christian conversion threatens hill tribe culture"</a>, <i>Asia Times</i></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html">The Akha Heritage Foundation</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chiang Mai's Hill Peoples in: Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, <i>Ancient Chiang Mai</i> Volume 3. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Kammerer-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kammerer_5-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKammerer1996" class="citation journal cs1">Kammerer, Cornelia Ann (1996). <span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANCE&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=cuny_hunter&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=3&contentSet=GALE%7CCX3458000748&&docId=GALE%7CCX3458000748&docType=GALE">"GALE search"</a></span>. <i>Gle Rubin Virtual Reference Library</i>. East and South East Asia. <b>5</b>: 11–13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gle+Rubin+Virtual+Reference+Library&rft.atitle=GALE+search&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=11-13&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Kammerer&rft.aufirst=Cornelia+Ann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgo.galegroup.com%2Fps%2Fretrieve.do%3FsgHitCountType%3DNone%26sort%3DRELEVANCE%26inPS%3Dtrue%26prodId%3DGVRL%26userGroupName%3Dcuny_hunter%26tabID%3DT003%26searchId%3DR1%26resultListType%3DRESULT_LIST%26contentSegment%3D%26searchType%3DBasicSearchForm%26currentPosition%3D3%26contentSet%3DGALE%257CCX3458000748%26%26docId%3DGALE%257CCX3458000748%26docType%3DGALE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Levy-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levy_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levy_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLevy" class="citation web cs1">Levy, Jonathan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000358/http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhamodernization.html">"The Akha and Modernization; A Quasi Legal Perspective"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhamodernization.html">the original</a> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Akha+and+Modernization%3B+A+Quasi+Legal+Perspective&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.akha.org%2Fcontent%2Faboutakhalife%2Fakhamodernization.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Thailine-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thailine_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thailine_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thailine_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thailine.com/thailand/english/hill-e/akha-e.htm">"Akha"</a>. <i>The Hilltribes of Thailand</i>. Thailand Online<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Hilltribes+of+Thailand&rft.atitle=Akha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thailine.com%2Fthailand%2Fenglish%2Fhill-e%2Fakha-e.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Hilltribe-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hilltribe_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hilltribe_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hilltribe_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hilltribe_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hilltribe.org/akha/">"The Akha"</a>. HillTribe.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Akha&rft.pub=HillTribe.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hilltribe.org%2Fakha%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Akha-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Akha_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Akha_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Akha_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174258/http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html">"An Overview of the Akha"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html">the original</a> on 3 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Overview+of+the+Akha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.akha.org%2Fcontent%2Faboutakhalife%2Fakhaoverview.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peoplesoftheworld.org/text?people=Akha">"Indigenous Peoples of the World - The Akha"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indigenous+Peoples+of+the+World+-+The+Akha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peoplesoftheworld.org%2Ftext%3Fpeople%3DAkha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Goodman-1996-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goodman-1996_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodman-1996_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodman-1996_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodman-1996_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1996" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Jim (1996). <i>Meet the Akha</i>. Bangkok: White Lotus Co Ltd. p. 113. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9748496562" title="Special:BookSources/9748496562"><bdi>9748496562</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meet+the+Akha&rft.place=Bangkok&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=White+Lotus+Co+Ltd&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9748496562&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Tooker-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tooker_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tooker_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTooker1992" class="citation journal cs1">Tooker, Deborah (1992). "Identity Systems of Highland Burma: 'Belief', Akha Zan, and a Critique of Interiorized Notions of Ethno-Religious Identity". <i>Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland</i>. <b>27</b> (4): 799–819. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.jstor.org/stable/2804175">2804175</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Royal+Anthropological+Institute+of+Great+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.atitle=Identity+Systems+of+Highland+Burma%3A+%27Belief%27%2C+Akha+Zan%2C+and+a+Critique+of+Interiorized+Notions+of+Ethno-Religious+Identity&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=799-819&rft.date=1992&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2804175%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tooker&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Belief-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belief_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belief_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhabelieflife.html">"The Akha Belief and Life System"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Akha+Belief+and+Life+System&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.akha.org%2Fcontent%2Faboutakhalife%2Fakhabelieflife.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hilltribe.org/akha/the-lron-equipmente-beating.php">"The Iron Equipment Beating"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Iron+Equipment+Beating&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hilltribe.org%2Fakha%2Fthe-lron-equipmente-beating.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2003" class="citation news cs1">Goodman, Jim (September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chiangmainews.com/ecmn/viewfa.php?id=497">"The Akha Swing Festival"</a>. <i>Chiang Mai City Life</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chiang+Mai+City+Life&rft.atitle=The+Akha+Swing+Festival&rft.date=2003-09&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chiangmainews.com%2Fecmn%2Fviewfa.php%3Fid%3D497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hilltribe.org/akha/akha-swing.php">"Sing Ceremony"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sing+Ceremony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hilltribe.org%2Fakha%2Fakha-swing.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120610014852/http://www.chiangmai-chiangrai.com/hilltribe_akha.html">"The Akha and the Spirits"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chiangmai-chiangrai.com/hilltribe_akha.html">the original</a> on 10 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Akha+and+the+Spirits&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chiangmai-chiangrai.com%2Fhilltribe_akha.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=10223&rog3=CH">"Joshua Project"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joshua+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.joshuaproject.net%2Fpeople-profile.php%3Fpeo3%3D10223%26rog3%3DCH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tudtu.tripod.com/hillsty1.htm">"High Fashion, Hill Style"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=High+Fashion%2C+Hill+Style&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftudtu.tripod.com%2Fhillsty1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.akha.org/content/aboutakhalife/akhaoverview.html">"An Overview of the Akha"</a>. <i>The Akha Heritage Foundation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Akha+Heritage+Foundation&rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+the+Akha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.akha.org%2Fcontent%2Faboutakhalife%2Fakhaoverview.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://greendiscoverylaos.com/nt-t-08.htm">"The Akha Experience"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Akha+Experience&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgreendiscoverylaos.com%2Fnt-t-08.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/focus/section2/2010/12/indigenous-peoples-of-thailand.html">"Indigenous Peoples of Thailand"</a>. Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indigenous+Peoples+of+Thailand&rft.pub=Asia-Pacific+Human+Rights+Information+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hurights.or.jp%2Farchives%2Ffocus%2Fsection2%2F2010%2F12%2Findigenous-peoples-of-thailand.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/news/2011/01/Media%20briefing_Thailand_IPs_and_PAs_Sharing_%20Power_2011_Eng.pdf">"Forest Peoples"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forest+Peoples&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forestpeoples.org%2Fsites%2Ffpp%2Ffiles%2Fnews%2F2011%2F01%2FMedia%2520briefing_Thailand_IPs_and_PAs_Sharing_%2520Power_2011_Eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/news/2011/01/Media%20briefing_Thailand_IPs_and_PAs_Sharing_%20Power_2011_Eng.pdf">"Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas in Thailand; A Review"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indigenous+Peoples+and+Protected+Areas+in+Thailand%3B+A+Review&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forestpeoples.org%2Fsites%2Ffpp%2Ffiles%2Fnews%2F2011%2F01%2FMedia%2520briefing_Thailand_IPs_and_PAs_Sharing_%2520Power_2011_Eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.unesco.org/en/files/25230/11434696181167_EX_Prevention_of_HIV-AIDS_among_Ethnic_Minorities_Mekong.pdf/167%2BEX%2BPrevention%2Bof%2BHIV-AIDS%2Bamong%2BEthnic%2BMinorities%2BMekong.pdf">"Prevention of HIV/AIDS among Ethnic Minorities of the Upper Mekong Region through Community-based Non-Formal and Formal Education"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNESCO<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prevention+of+HIV%2FAIDS+among+Ethnic+Minorities+of+the+Upper+Mekong+Region+through+Community-based+Non-Formal+and+Formal+Education&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.unesco.org%2Fen%2Ffiles%2F25230%2F11434696181167_EX_Prevention_of_HIV-AIDS_among_Ethnic_Minorities_Mekong.pdf%2F167%252BEX%252BPrevention%252Bof%252BHIV-AIDS%252Bamong%252BEthnic%252BMinorities%252BMekong.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFCoehn2002" class="citation journal cs1">Coehn, Paul (April 2002). "Opium-Reduction Programmes, Discourses of Addiction and Gender in Northwest Laos". <i>Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia</i>. <b>17</b> (1): 1–23. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1355%2FSJ17-1A">10.1355/SJ17-1A</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.jstor.org/stable/41057073">41057073</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sojourn%3A+Journal+of+Social+Issues+in+Southeast+Asia&rft.atitle=Opium-Reduction+Programmes%2C+Discourses+of+Addiction+and+Gender+in+Northwest+Laos&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-23&rft.date=2002-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1355%2FSJ17-1A&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41057073%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Coehn&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Lichtag, Steve (director) (2008). <i>Prisoners of A White God</i>. <i>Twin Star</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prisoners+of+A+White+God&rft.date=2008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFScott2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_C._Scott" title="James C. Scott">Scott, James C</a> (30 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300152289/art-not-being-governed"><i>The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(Hardcover)</span>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300152289" title="Special:BookSources/9780300152289"><bdi>9780300152289</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Not+Being+Governed%3A+An+Anarchist+History+of+Upland+Southeast+Asia&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009-09-30&rft.isbn=9780300152289&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=James+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyalebooks.yale.edu%2Fbook%2F9780300152289%2Fart-not-being-governed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Akha_people&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5sNFveHpkwI">"The Akha tribe in Laos: Between tradition and modernity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Video)</span>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a></i>. 13 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deutsche+Welle&rft.atitle=The+Akha+tribe+in+Laos%3A+Between+tradition+and+modernity&rft.date=2019-04-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D5sNFveHpkwI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAkha+people" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Myanmar&#124;link=Myanmar_Ethnic_groups_in_Myanmar" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r992953826">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Myanmar" title="Template:Ethnic groups in Myanmar"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnic_groups_in_Myanmar" title="Template talk:Ethnic groups in Myanmar"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Myanmar&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Myanmar&#124;link=Myanmar_Ethnic_groups_in_Myanmar" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar"><img alt="Myanmar" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/23px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/35px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/45px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Myanmar" title="List of ethnic groups in Myanmar">Ethnic groups in Myanmar</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kachin_people" title="Kachin people">Kachin</a> (12)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jingpo_people" title="Jingpo people">Jingpaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Dalaung_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dalaung people (page does not exist)">Dalaung</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gauri_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gauri people (page does not exist)">Gauri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Hkahku_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hkahku people (page does not exist)">Hkahku</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Duleng_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Duleng people (page does not exist)">Duleng</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lhao_Vo_language" title="Lhao Vo language">Maru (Lawgore)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hpon_language" title="Hpon language">Hpon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lachik" title="Lachik">Lashi (La Chit)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zaiwa_language" title="Zaiwa language">Atsi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lisu_people" title="Lisu people">Lisu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nung_Rawang" title="Nung Rawang">Rawang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taron_people" title="Taron people">Taron</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achang_people" title="Achang people">Ngochang</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kayah (9)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geba_Karen_language" title="Geba Karen language">Geba Karen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gheko_People&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gheko People (page does not exist)">Gheko</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karenni_people" title="Karenni people">Karenni</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kayan_people_(Myanmar)" title="Kayan people (Myanmar)">Ka-Yun (Kayan; Padaung)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karenni_people" title="Karenni people">Manu Manaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Pale_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pale people (page does not exist)">Pale</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Yin_Baw&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yin Baw (page does not exist)">Yin Baw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Yin_Talai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yin Talai (page does not exist)">Yin Talai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Zayein_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zayein people (page does not exist)">Zayein</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karen_people" title="Karen people">Kayin (Karen)</a> (11)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Pa-Le-Chi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pa-Le-Chi (page does not exist)">Pa-Le-Chi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mon_Kayin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mon Kayin (page does not exist)">Mon Kayin (Sarpyu)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/S%27gaw_people" title="S'gaw people">S'gaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Ta-Hlay-Pwa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ta-Hlay-Pwa (page does not exist)">Ta-Hlay-Pwa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Paku_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paku people (page does not exist)">Paku</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bwe_people" title="Bwe people">Bwe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Monpwa_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Monpwa people (page does not exist)">Monpwa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Monnepwa_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Monnepwa people (page does not exist)">Monnepwa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Shu_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu people (page does not exist)">Shu (Pwo)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chin_people" title="Chin people">Chin</a> (53)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Anu_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anu people (page does not exist)">Anu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Anun_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anun people (page does not exist)">Anun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asho_Chin_people" title="Asho Chin people">Asho</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kayaw_language" title="Kayaw language">Bre (Ka-Yaw)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cumtu_Chin_People" title="Cumtu Chin People">Cumtu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Daai_Chin" title="Daai Chin">Dai (Yindu)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zou_people" title="Zou people">Dim</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Eik-swair&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eik-swair (page does not exist)">Eik-swair</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gunte_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gunte people (page does not exist)">Gunte (Lyente)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guite_people" title="Guite people">Guite</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Haulngo_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haulngo people (page does not exist)">Haulngo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kaung_Saing_Chin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaung Saing Chin (page does not exist)">Kaung Saing Chin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kaungso&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaungso (page does not exist)">Kaungso</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kebar_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kebar people (page does not exist)">Kebar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Khawno&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khawno (page does not exist)">Khawno</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kwangli_(Sim)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kwangli (Sim) (page does not exist)">Kwangli (Sim)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kwelshin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kwelshin (page does not exist)">Kwelshin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kwe_Myi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kwe Myi (page does not exist)">Kwe Myi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Lai_(Haka_Chin)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lai (Haka Chin) (page does not exist)">Lai (Haka Chin)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Laizao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laizao (page does not exist)">Laizao</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lautu_language" title="Lautu language">Lawhtu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Laymyo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laymyo (page does not exist)">Laymyo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Lhinbu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lhinbu (page does not exist)">Lhinbu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Lyente&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lyente (page does not exist)">Lyente</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Magun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Magun (page does not exist)">Magun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Malin_(ethnic_group)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Malin (ethnic group) (page does not exist)">Malin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marma_people" title="Marma people">Marma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Matu_(ethnic_group)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Matu (ethnic group) (page does not exist)">Matu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meitei_people" title="Meitei people">Meithei (Kathe)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaang_language" title="Kaang language">Mgan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mi-er&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mi-er (page does not exist)">Mi-er</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mizo_people" title="Mizo people">Mizo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mro-Khimi_people" title="Mro-Khimi people">Mro-Khimi people</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naga_people" title="Naga people">Naga</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Ngorn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ngorn (page does not exist)">Ngorn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sh%C3%B6_language" title="Shö language">Oo-Pu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Panun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Panun (page does not exist)">Panun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Welaung_language" title="Welaung language">Rongtu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Saing_Zan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saing Zan (page does not exist)">Saing Zan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Saline_(ethnic_group)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saline (ethnic group) (page does not exist)">Saline</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Sentang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sentang (page does not exist)">Sentang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tanghkul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tanghkul (page does not exist)">Tanghkul</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tapong" title="Tapong">Tapong</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tay-Zan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tay-Zan (page does not exist)">Tay-Zan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuki_people" title="Kuki people">Thado</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tiddim_people" title="Tiddim people">Tiddim (Hai-Dim)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Torr_(Tawr)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Torr (Tawr) (page does not exist)">Torr (Tawr)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Yin_Gog&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yin Gog (page does not exist)">Yin Gog</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Za-How&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Za-How (page does not exist)">Za-How</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zanniat" title="Zanniat">Zahnyet (Zanniet)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sizang_people" title="Sizang people">Zizan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zyphe_language" title="Zyphe language">Zo-Pe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zotung_people" title="Zotung people">Zotung</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zou_people" title="Zou people">Zou</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bamar_people" title="Bamar people">Bamar (Burman)</a> (9)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Dawei_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dawei people (page does not exist)">Dawei</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Bey_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bey people (page does not exist)">Beik</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yaw_people" title="Yaw people">Yaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Yabein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yabein (page does not exist)">Yabein</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kadu_people" title="Kadu people">Kadu (Kado)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Ganan_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ganan people (page does not exist)">Ganan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Hpon_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hpon people (page does not exist)">Hpon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mon (1)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mon_people" title="Mon people">Mon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rakhine_people" title="Rakhine people">Rakhine <br />(Arakanese)</a> (7)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kamein" title="Kamein">Kamein</a> (Kaman)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Khami_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khami people (page does not exist)">Khami</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Daingnet_people" title="Daingnet people">Daingnet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barua_(Bangladesh)" title="Barua (Bangladesh)">Maramagyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Miram_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Miram people (page does not exist)">Miram (Mara)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mru_people" title="Mru people">Mru (Taung Mro)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Thet_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thet people (page does not exist)">Thet</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a> (33)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Danaw_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Danaw people (page does not exist)">Danaw (Danau)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Danu_people" title="Danu people">Danu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intha_people" title="Intha people">Intha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pa%27O_people" title="Pa'O people">Pa-O</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khamti_people" title="Khamti people">Khamti Shan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khmu_people" title="Khmu people">Khmu (Khamu)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kwi_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kwi people (page does not exist)">Kwi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kokang_Chinese" title="Kokang Chinese">Kokang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lahu_people" title="Lahu people">Lahu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palaung_people" title="Palaung people">Palaung</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Shan_Gale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shan Gale (page does not exist)">Shan Gale</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Shan_Gyi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shan Gyi (page does not exist)">Shan Gyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_Loi_language" title="Tai Loi language">Tai-Loi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tai-Lem&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tai-Lem (page does not exist)">Tai-Lem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tai-Lon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tai-Lon (page does not exist)">Tai-Lon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tai-Lay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tai-Lay (page does not exist)">Tai-Lay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Taishon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taishon (page does not exist)">Taishon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taungyo" title="Taungyo">Taungyo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wa_people" title="Wa people">Wa (Va)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yao_people" title="Yao people">Yao</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Riang_language" title="Riang language">Yin Kya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Riang_language" title="Riang language">Yin Net</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Thai_people" title="Northern Thai people">Yun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Man_Zi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Man Zi (page does not exist)">Man Zi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyen_language" title="Pyen language">Pyin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Eng_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eng people (page does not exist)">Eng</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Son_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Son people (page does not exist)">Son</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kaw (Akha-E-Kaw)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Maw_Shan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maw Shan (page does not exist)">Maw Shan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achang_people" title="Achang people">Maingtha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Hkun_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hkun people (page does not exist)">Hkun (Khün)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unrecognised / Others</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anglo-Burmese_people" title="Anglo-Burmese people">Anglo-Burmese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_people_in_Myanmar" title="Chinese people in Myanmar">Chinese</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Panthays" title="Panthays">Panthay</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bayingyi_people" title="Bayingyi people">Bayingyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burmese_Gurkha" title="Burmese Gurkha">Gurkha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burmese_Indians" title="Burmese Indians">Indian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Myanmar_Tamils" title="Myanmar Tamils">Tamils</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rohingya_people" title="Rohingya people">Rohingya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burmese_Malays" title="Burmese Malays">Malay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pakistanis_in_Myanmar" title="Pakistanis in Myanmar">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taungtha_people" title="Taungtha people">Taungtha</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Thailand&#124;link=Thailand_Ethnic_groups_in_Thailand_by_language_family" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Thailand" title="Template:Ethnic groups in Thailand"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnic_groups_in_Thailand" title="Template talk:Ethnic groups in Thailand"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Thailand&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Thailand&#124;link=Thailand_Ethnic_groups_in_Thailand_by_language_family" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand"><img alt="Thailand" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Thailand" title="Ethnic groups in Thailand">Ethnic groups</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px;"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top;"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em; text-align:center;;;;width:33%;"><div>
<div>
<p><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southwestern_Tai_languages" title="Southwestern Tai languages">Tai</a></b><br />
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isan_people" title="Isan people">Isan</a> (Northeastern Thai) <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khorat_Thai" title="Khorat Thai">Khorat Thai</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kh%C3%BCn" class="mw-redirect" title="Khün">Khün</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_people" title="Lao people">Lao</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Ga" title="Lao Ga">Lao Ga</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Krang" title="Lao Krang">Lao Krang</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Lom" title="Lao Lom">Lao Lom</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Loum" title="Lao Loum">Lao Loum</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Ngaew" class="mw-redirect" title="Lao Ngaew">Lao Ngaew</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Song" title="Lao Song">Lao Song</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Ti" title="Lao Ti">Lao Ti</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Wiang" title="Lao Wiang">Lao Wiang</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Lu people">Tai Lu</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Thai_people" title="Northern Thai people">Northern Thai (Tai Yuan)</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nyong_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyong people">Nyong</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phu_Thai_language" title="Phu Thai language">Phu Thai</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phuan_people" title="Phuan people">Phuan</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Thai_language" title="Southern Thai language">Southern Thai</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_Bueng" title="Tai Bueng">Tai Bueng</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_Daeng_people" title="Tai Daeng people">Tai Daeng</a> (Red Tai) <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_Dam_people" title="Tai Dam people">Tai Dam</a> (Black Tai) <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_Gapong" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai Gapong">Tai Gapong</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaleun_people" title="Kaleun people">Kaleun</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_N%C3%BCa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai Nüa language">Tai Nüa</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tai_Wang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tai Wang (page does not exist)">Tai Wang</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thai_people" title="Thai people">Thai</a> (Central Thai)
</p><p><span style="line-height:10pt;"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Tai_languages" title="Northern Tai languages">Northern Tai</a></b></span><br />
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saek_people" title="Saek people">Saek</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nyaw_people" title="Nyaw people">Nyaw</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yoy_people" title="Yoy people">Yoy</a>
</p><p><span style="line-height:10pt;"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Malayo-Polynesian languages">Malayo-Polynesian</a></b></span><br />
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cham_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cham people">Cham</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Filipinos_in_Thailand" title="Filipinos in Thailand">Filipino</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thai_Malays" title="Thai Malays">Malay</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moken_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Moken people">Moken</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Moklen_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moklen people (page does not exist)">Moklen</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urak_Lawoi%E2%80%99_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Urak Lawoi’ people">Urak Lawoi’</a>
</p>
</div>
</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em; text-align:center;;;;width:33%;"><div>
<div>
<p><b>Other <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></b><br />
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bru_people" title="Bru people">Bru</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chong_language" title="Chong language">Chong</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maniq_people" title="Maniq people">Kensiu</a> (Maniq) <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khmer_people" title="Khmer people">Khmer</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Khmer_people" title="Northern Khmer people">Northern</a>, Western) <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kintaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Kintaq">Kintaq</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuy_people" title="Kuy people">Kuy</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mani_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Mani people">Mani</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Negrito" title="Negrito">Negrito</a>) <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mon_people" title="Mon people">Mon</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nyah_Kur_people" title="Nyah Kur people">Nyah Kur</a> (Chao-bon) <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nyeu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyeu">Nyeu</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pear_people" title="Pear people">Pear</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sa%27och_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'och people">Sa'och</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thavung_language" title="Thavung language">Aheu</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">Vietnamese</a>
</p><p><span style="line-height:10pt;"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khmuic_peoples" title="Khmuic peoples">Khmuic</a></b></span><br />
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khmu_people" title="Khmu people">Khmu</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lua_people" title="Lua people">Lua</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mlabri_people" title="Mlabri people">Mlabri</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phai_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Phai people">Phai</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pray_people" title="Pray people">Pray</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mal_people" title="Mal people">Tin</a>
</p>
</div>
<p><span style="line-height:10pt;"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palaungic_languages" title="Palaungic languages">Palaungic</a></b></span><br />
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blang_people" title="Blang people">Blang</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lamet_people" title="Lamet people">Lamet</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lawa_people" title="Lawa people">Lawa</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mok_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mok people (page does not exist)">Mok</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palaung_people" title="Palaung people">Palaung</a> (De'ang)
</p>
</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em; text-align:center;;;;width:33%;"><div>
<div>
<p><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a></b><br />
<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Akha</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bamar_people" title="Bamar people">Bamar</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Bisu_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bisu people (page does not exist)">Bisu</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karen_people" title="Karen people">Karen</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Karen" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Karen">Kayah (Red Karen)</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lahu_people" title="Lahu people">Lahu</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lisu_people" title="Lisu people">Lisu</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yi_people" title="Yi people">Lolo</a> (Yi) <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mpi_people" title="Mpi people">Mpi</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pa%27O_people" title="Pa'O people">Pa'O</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phrae_Pwo" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrae Pwo">Phrae Pwo</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phunoi_people" title="Phunoi people">Phunoi</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pwo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pwo people">Pwo</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S%27gaw_people" title="S'gaw people">S'gaw</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ugong_people" title="Ugong people">Ugong</a>
</p><p><span style="line-height:10pt;"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></b></span><br />
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thai_Chinese" title="Thai Chinese">Thai Chinese</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teochew_people" title="Teochew people">Teochew</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hakka_people" title="Hakka people">Hakka</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hainan_people" title="Hainan people">Hainanese</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cantonese_people" title="Cantonese people">Cantonese</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hoklo_people" title="Hoklo people">Hokkien</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chin_Haw" title="Chin Haw">Chin Haw</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peranakan" class="mw-redirect" title="Peranakan">Phuket Baba</a>)
</p><p><span style="line-height:10pt;"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></b></span><br />
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yao_people" title="Yao people">Yao</a>/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iu_Mien_people" title="Iu Mien people">Iu Mien</a>
</p><p><span style="line-height:10pt;"><b>Other</b></span><br />
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Australians_in_Thailand" title="Australians in Thailand">Australians</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burmese_in_Thailand" title="Burmese in Thailand">Burmese</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farang" title="Farang">Farang</a> (Caucasians) <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indians_in_Thailand" title="Indians in Thailand">Indians</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iranians_in_Thailand" title="Iranians in Thailand">Iranians</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japanese_migration_to_Thailand" title="Japanese migration to Thailand">Japanese</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Koreans_in_Thailand" title="Koreans in Thailand">Koreans</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nepalis_in_Thailand" title="Nepalis in Thailand">Nepalis</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pakistanis_in_Thailand" title="Pakistanis in Thailand">Pakistanis</a>
</p>
</div>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Laos&#124;link=Laos_Ethnic_groups_in_Laos_by_language_family" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Laos" title="Template:Ethnic groups in Laos"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnic_groups_in_Laos" title="Template talk:Ethnic groups in Laos"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Laos&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Laos&#124;link=Laos_Ethnic_groups_in_Laos_by_language_family" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laos" title="Laos"><img alt="Laos" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/23px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/35px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/45px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Laos" title="List of ethnic groups in Laos">Ethnic groups</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_languages" title="Tai languages">Lao-Tai</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_people" title="Lao people">Lao</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Lu people">Lu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phuan_people" title="Phuan people">Phuan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Phu_Thai_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phu Thai people (page does not exist)">Phu Thai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saek_people" title="Saek people">Saek</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_Daeng_people" title="Tai Daeng people">Tai Daeng</a> (Red Tai)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_Dam_people" title="Tai Dam people">Tai Dam</a> (Black Tai)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_D%C3%B3n_people" title="Tai Dón people">Tai Khao</a> (White Tai)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tai_Maen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tai Maen (page does not exist)">Tai Maen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tai_Nua_people" title="Tai Nua people">Tai Nüa</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Bo_people_(Laos)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bo people (Laos) (page does not exist)">Bo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A9t_people" title="Chứt people">Chut</a> (May)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">Kinh/Vietnamese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Krih_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Krih people (page does not exist)">Krih</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Liha_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liha people (page does not exist)">Liha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Maleng_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maleng people (page does not exist)">Maleng</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Phong_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phong people (page does not exist)">Phong</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Phon_Sung_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phon Sung people (page does not exist)">Phon Sung</a> (Aheu)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Thavung_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thavung people (page does not exist)">Thavung</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tum_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tum people (page does not exist)">Tum</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mon-Khmer_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mon-Khmer languages">Mon–Khmer</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alak_people" title="Alak people">Alak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bit_people" title="Bit people">Bit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brau_people" title="Brau people">Brau</a> (Lavae)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bru_people" title="Bru people">Bru</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Katu_people" title="Katu people">Ca Tu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Doi_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doi people (page does not exist)">Doi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phai_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Phai people">Htin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Jeng_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jeng people (page does not exist)">Jeng</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaleun_people" title="Kaleun people">Kaleung</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Katang_people" title="Katang people">Kataang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Keu_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Keu people (page does not exist)">Keu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khang_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Khang people">Khang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khmu_people" title="Khmu people">Khamu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuy_people" title="Kuy people">Kuy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lamet_people" title="Lamet people">Lamet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Laven_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laven people (page does not exist)">Laven</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Lavy_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lavy people (page does not exist)">Lavy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Makong_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Makong people (page does not exist)">Makong</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mlabri_people" title="Mlabri people">Mlabri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nghe_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nghe people (page does not exist)">Nghe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nyaheun_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nyaheun people (page does not exist)">Nyaheun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/O_Du_people" title="O Du people">O Du</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Oy_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oy people (page does not exist)">Oy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacoh_people" title="Pacoh people">Pacoh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Samtao_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samtao people (page does not exist)">Samtao</a> (Kiorr)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sedang_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedang people">Sedang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Sou_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sou people (page does not exist)">Sou</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Talieng_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talieng people (page does not exist)">Talieng</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ta_Oi_people" title="Ta Oi people">Ta Oi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinh_Mun_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinh Mun people">Xinh Mun</a> (Puoc)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Yae_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yae people (page does not exist)">Yae</a> (Jeh)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Lanten_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanten people (page does not exist)">Lanten</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yao_people" title="Yao people">Yao</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Akha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hani_people" title="Hani people">Hani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kado_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kado people (page does not exist)">Kado</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kaduo_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaduo people (page does not exist)">Kaduo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lahu_people" title="Lahu people">Lahu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Phana%27_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phana' people (page does not exist)">Phana'</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phunoi_people" title="Phunoi people">Phunoi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Si_La_people" title="Si La people">Si La</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General groupping</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Loum" title="Lao Loum">Lao Loum</a></b> (Lowland)</li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Theung" title="Lao Theung">Lao Theung</a></b> (Highland)</li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lao_Sung" title="Lao Sung">Lao Sung</a></b> (Hill)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_Laos.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of Laos.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/32px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/48px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/64px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Laos" title="Portal:Laos">Laos portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control:_National_libraries_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q417628#identifiers&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Authority_control:_National_libraries_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q417628#identifiers&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control: National libraries</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q417628#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85071772">United States</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1626688088 |