Examine individual changes

'@@ -5,10 +5,10 @@ }} -The '''creative city''' is a concept developed by Australian [[David Yencken]] in 1988 and has since become a global movement reflecting a new planning paradigm for cities. It was first described in his article 'The Creative City',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yencken|first=D.|year=1988|title=The creative city|journal=Meanjin|volume=47}}</ref> published in the literary journal ''[[Meanjin]]''. In this article Yencken argues that while cities must be efficient and fair, a creative city must also be one that is committed to fostering creativity among its citizens and to providing emotionally satisfying places and experiences for them. +The '''creative city''' is a concept that argues creativity should be considered a strategic factor in urban development. In addition to cities being efficient and fair, a creative city provides places, experiences, and opportunities to foster creativity among its citizens.<ref>Yencken, David (1988). "The creative city". ''Meanjin''. '''47'''.</ref> ==Creativity and imagination in urban activities== The creative city when introduced was seen as aspirational; a clarion call to encourage open-mindedness and imagination implying a dramatic impact on organizational culture. Its philosophy is that there is always more creative potential in a place. It posits that conditions need to be created for people to think, plan and act with imagination in harnessing opportunities or addressing seemingly intractable urban problems. -This requires infrastructures beyond the hardware—buildings, roads or sewage. Creative infrastructure is a combination of the hard and the soft. The latter includes a city's mindset, how it approaches opportunities and problems; its atmosphere and incentives and regulatory regime. To be a creative city the soft infrastructure includes: A highly skilled and flexible labour force; dynamic thinkers, creators and implementers. In the creative city it is not only artists and those involved in the creative economy who are creative, although they play an important role. Creativity can come from any source including anyone who addresses issues in an inventive way be it a social worker, a business person, a scientist or public servant. Creativity is not only about having ideas, but also the capacity to implement them. +This requires infrastructures beyond the hardware—buildings, roads or sewage. Creative infrastructure is a combination of the hard and the soft. The latter includes a city's mindset, how it approaches opportunities and problems; its atmosphere and incentives and regulatory regime. To be a creative city the soft infrastructure includes: A highly skilled and flexible labor force; dynamic thinkers, creators and implementers. In the creative city it is not only artists and those involved in the creative economy who are creative, although they play an important role. Creativity can come from any source including anyone who addresses issues in an inventive way be it a social worker, a business person, a scientist or public servant. Creativity is not only about having ideas, but also the capacity to implement them. It advocates that a culture of creativity be embedded in how urban stakeholders operate. By encouraging and legitimizing the use of imagination within the public, private and community spheres, the ideas bank of possibilities and potential solutions to any urban problem will be broadened. @@ -21,25 +21,22 @@ == Early developments == -Partners for Livable Places (later Communities, but hereafter referred to as Partners) founded in 1977 was important in the early development of the creative city idea. Partners initially focused on design and culture as resources for livability. In the early 1980s, Partners launched a programme to document the economic value of design and cultural amenities. The ''Economics of Amenity'' programme explored how cultural amenities and the quality of life in a community are linked to economic development and job creation. This work was the catalyst for a significant array of economic impact studies of the arts across the globe. +Partners for Livable Places (later Communities, but hereafter referred to as Partners) founded in 1977 was important in the early development of the creative city idea. Partners initially focused on design and culture as resources for livability. In the early 1980s, Partners launched a program to document the economic value of design and cultural amenities. The ''Economics of Amenity'' program explored how cultural amenities and the quality of life in a community are linked to economic development and job creation. This work was the catalyst for a significant array of economic impact studies of the arts across the globe.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-05-15|title=The Economics of Amenity: Community Futures and Quality of Life; A Policy Guide to Urban Economic Development|url=https://www.americansforthearts.org/by-program/reports-and-data/legislation-policy/naappd/the-economics-of-amenity-community-futures-and-quality-of-life-a-policy-guide-to-urban-economic|access-date=2021-11-17|website=Americans for the Arts|language=en}}</ref> Core concepts used by Partners were cultural planning and cultural resources, which they saw as the planning of urban resources including quality design, architecture, parks, the natural environment, animation and especially arts activity and tourism. -From the late 1970s onwards [[UNESCO]] and the [[Council of Europe]] began to investigate the cultural industries. From the perspective of cities it was Nick Garnham, who when seconded to the [[Greater London Council]] in 1983/4 set up a [[cultural industries]] unit put the cultural industries on the agenda. Drawing on, re-reading and adapting the original work by Theodor Adorno and Walter Benjamin in the 1930s which had seen ''the culture industry'' as a kind of monster and influenced too by Hans Magnus Enzensberger he saw the cultural industries as a potentially liberating force. - -The first mention of the creative city as a concept was in a seminar organized by the Australia Council, the City of Melbourne, the Ministry of Planning and Environment (Victoria) and the Ministry for the Arts (Victoria) in September 1988. Its focus was to explore how arts and cultural concerns could be better integrated into the planning process for city development. A keynote speech by David Yencken former Secretary for Planning and Environment for Victoria spelt out a broader agenda stating that whilst efficiency of cities is important there is much more needed: "[The city] should be emotionally satisfying and stimulate creativity amongst its citizens". +From the late 1970s onwards [[UNESCO]] and the [[Council of Europe]] began to investigate the cultural industries. From the perspective of cities it was Nick Garnham, who when seconded to the [[Greater London Council]] in 1983/4 set up a [[cultural industries]] unit put the cultural industries on the agenda. Drawing on, re-reading and adapting the original work by Theodor Adorno and Walter Benjamin in the 1930s which had seen ''the culture industry'' as a kind of monster and influenced too by Hans Magnus Enzensberger he saw the cultural industries as a potentially liberating force. This investigation into the cultural industries of the time found that a city and nation which emphasized its development of cultural industries added value, exports, and new jobs, while supporting competitiveness continues to expand a city's and nation's growth in the global economy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moore|first=Ieva|date=2014-01|title=Cultural and Creative Industries Concept – A Historical Perspective|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.918|journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences|volume=110|pages=738–746|doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.918|issn=1877-0428}}</ref> -In subsequent writing about creative cities the tendency has been to concentrate on one or other of the two necessary characteristics proposed by Yencken for a creative city but rarely on both together. +The first mention of the creative city as a concept was in a seminar organized by the Australia Council, the City of Melbourne, the Ministry of Planning and Environment (Victoria) and the Ministry for the Arts (Victoria) in September 1988. Its focus was to explore how arts and cultural concerns could be better integrated into the planning process for city development. A keynote speech by [[David Yencken]] former Secretary for Planning and Environment for Victoria spelt out a broader agenda stating that whilst efficiency of cities is important there is much more needed: "[The city] should be emotionally satisfying and stimulate creativity amongst its citizens".<ref>Landry, Charles. ''Lineages of the Creative City''. <nowiki>http://charleslandry.com/panel/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2013/03/Lineages-of-the-Creative-City.pdf</nowiki>.</ref> -A significant follow-up initiative in Australia was a Creative Australia National Workshop in 1989 on 'The Relationship between Creativity and an Innovative Productive Future' jointly sponsored by the Commission for the Future and the Australia Council for the Arts".<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Commission for the Future and Australia Council for the Arts|date=2–4 July 1989|title=The Relationship between Creativity and an Innovative Productive Future|journal=Papers and Proceedings of the Creative Australia National Workshop}}</ref> +Another important early player was Comedia, founded in 1978 by [[Charles Landry]]. Its 1991 study, ''Glasgow: The Creative City and its Cultural Economy'' was followed in 1994 by a study on urban creativity called ''The Creative City in Britain and Germany''. <ref>{{Cite web|title=COMEDIA : Thinking about creative cities|url=https://www.comedia.org.uk/|access-date=2021-11-17|website=www.comedia.org.uk}}</ref> -Another important early player was Comedia, founded in 1978 by [[Charles Landry]]. Its 1991 study, ''Glasgow: The Creative City and its Cultural Economy'' was followed in 1994 by a study on urban creativity called ''The Creative City in Britain and Germany''. +==Anatomy== +As well as being centers of a creative economy and being home to a sizable creative class, creative cities have also been theorized to embody a particular structure. This structure comprises three categories of people, spaces, organizations, and institutions: the upperground, the underground, and the middleground. -The terms ''cultural industries'' and ''cultural resources'' were introduced into Europe by Franco Bianchini in 1990, who coming from Italy was acquainted with their notion of ''resorsi culturali'' and further developed in Australia by Colin Mercer from 1991. Bianchini based his notions on Wolf von Eckhardt, who in 1980 in ''The Arts & City Planning'' noted that "effective cultural planning involves all the arts, the art of urban design, the art of winning community support, the art of transportation planning and mastering the dynamics of community development", to which Bianchini added "the art of forming partnerships between the public, private and voluntary sectors and ensuring the fair distribution of economic, social and cultural resources". Mercer added cultural planning has to be "the strategic and integral use of cultural resources in urban and community development." Bianchini elaborated the term cultural resource in collaborative work with Landry. They stated: "Cultural resources are the raw materials of the city and its value base; its assets replacing coal, steel or gold. Creativity is the method of exploiting these resources and helping them grow." This focus draws attention to the distinctive, the unique and the special in any place. This approach has been criticized by Jamie Peck as a "[[Neoliberalism|neoliberalizing]]" of a city's culture, as cultural spaces and elements are reconfigured into economic resources, thus bringing them inside the neo-liberal market economy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peck|first=Jamie|date=December 2005|title=Struggling with the Creative Class|journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research|volume=29|issue=4|pages=740–770|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2427.2005.00620.x}}</ref> +The upperground consists of firms and businesses engaged in creative industries. These are the organizations that create the economic growth one hopes to find in a creative city, by taking the creative product of the city's residents and converting it into a good or service that can be sold. -==Anatomy== -As well as being centers of a creative economy and being home to a sizable creative class, creative cities have also been theorized to embody a particular structure. This structure comprises three categories of people, spaces, organizations, and institutions: the upperground, the underground, and the middleground. +The underground consists of the individual creative people—for example, artists, writers, or innovators—that produce this creative product. -The upperground consists of firms and businesses engaged in creative industries. These are the organizations that create the economic growth one hopes to find in a creative city, by taking the creative product of the city's residents and converting it into a good or service that can be sold. The underground consists of the individual creative people—for example, artists, writers, or innovators—that produce this creative product. -The middleground, then, serves as a space for the upperground and the underground to come into contact with one another. The middleground can consist of physical areas, for example neighborhoods with high populations of creative individuals, or galleries and bars where these individuals congregate. It can also consist of organizations, such as art collectives, that serve to bring together creative individuals. The middleground allows the creative product of the underground to be given a more concrete form by synthesizing disparate creative outputs into discrete products. In its capacity as space, it also allows individuals from the upperground and individuals from the underground to meet, facilitating the transfer of ideas and people from one level to another.<ref>Cohendet, P., Grandadam, D., Simon, L., 2010. The Anatomy of the Creative City. Industry and Innovation 17, 91–111. doi:10.1080/13662710903573869</ref> +The middleground, then, serves as a space for the upperground and the underground to come into contact with one another. The middleground can consist of physical areas, for example neighborhoods with high populations of creative individuals, or galleries and bars where these individuals congregate. It can also consist of organizations, such as art collectives, that serve to bring together creative individuals. The middleground allows the creative product of the underground to be given a more concrete form by synthesizing disparate creative outputs into discrete products. In its capacity as space, it also allows individuals from the upperground and individuals from the underground to meet, facilitating the transfer of ideas and people from one level to another. The policy implications of this theoretical framework are that, in order to harness the economic growth potential that creative industries bring with them, urban governments must foster the growth of the middleground and underground as well as the upperground. This can be done through urban planning initiatives that create spaces that can be used as a middleground, and policies that encourage the "creative class" that comprises the underground. @@ -48,9 +45,18 @@ ==The emergence of the creative economy and creative class== -In the first years of the 21st century, the publication of [[John Howkins]]'s ''The Creative Economy'' and [[Richard Florida]]'s ''The Rise of the Creative Class'' gave the movement a dramatic lift as global restructuring was hitting deep into the US. Florida's book hit a nerve with its clever slogans such as "talent, technology, tolerance" and interesting sounding indicators like the "bohemian index" or the "gay index", that gave numbers to ideas. Importantly it connected the three areas: a [[creative class]] – a novel idea, the [[Creative industries|creative economy]] and what conditions in cities attract the [[creative class]]. Florida concluded that economic development is driven in large measure by lifestyle factors, such as tolerance and diversity, urban infrastructure and entertainment. +There have been critiques of the creative city idea claiming it is only targeted at hipsters, property developers and those who gentrify areas or seek to glamorize them so destroying local distinctiveness.<ref>NYUAD, SIA (2019-03-08). "Gentrification and the Creative City: Lessons Learned from Berlin Urban Planning Policy". ''Medium''. Retrieved 2020-04-14.</ref> This has happened in places, but it is not inevitable. The creative challenge is to find appropriate regulations and incentives to obviate the negative aspects. A valid concern has been the conscious use of artists to be the vanguard of gentrification, to lift property values and to make areas safe before others move in this is artwashing.<ref>"Artwashing: Social Capital & Anti-Gentrification Activism". ''COLOURING IN CULTURE''. Retrieved 2020-04-14.</ref> + +Critiques of creative city and creative and cultural industries highlight them as a [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] tool to extract value from a city's culture and creativity. It treats cultural resources of a city as raw materials that can be used as assets in the 21st century---just as coal, steel, and gold were assets of the city in the 20th century. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peck|first=Jamie|date=2005-12|title=Struggling with the Creative Class|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2005.00620.x|journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|pages=740–770|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2427.2005.00620.x|issn=0309-1317}}</ref> + +Florida's work has been criticized by scholars such as Jamie Peck as, "work[ing] quietly with the grain of extant 'neoliberal' development agendas, framed around interurban competition, gentrification, middle-class consumption and place-marketing". In other words, Florida's prescriptions in favor of fostering a creative class are, rather than being revolutionary, simply a way of bolstering the conventional economic model of the city. The idea of the creative class serves to create a cultural hierarchy, and as such reproduce inequalities; indeed, even Florida himself has even acknowledged that the areas he himself touts as hotspots of the creative class are at the same time home to shocking disparities in economic status among their residents. In order to explain this, he points to the inflation of housing prices that an influx of creatives can bring to an area, as well as to the creative class' reliance on service industries that typically pay their employees low wages.<ref>Peck, Jamie (2005). "Struggling with the Creative Class". ''International Journal of Urban and Regional Research''. '''29'''(4): 740–770. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2005.00620.x. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] 1468-2427.</ref> -Florida's work has been criticized by scholars such as Jamie Peck as, "work[ing] quietly with the grain of extant 'neoliberal' development agendas, framed around interurban competition, gentrification, middle-class consumption and place-marketing". In other words, Florida's prescriptions in favor of fostering a creative class are, rather than being revolutionary, simply a way of bolstering the conventional economic model of the city. The idea of the creative class serves to create a cultural hierarchy, and as such reproduce inequalities; indeed, even Florida himself has even acknowledged that the areas he himself touts as hotspots of the creative class are at the same time home to shocking disparities in economic status among their residents. In order to explain this, he points to the inflation of housing prices that an influx of creatives can bring to an area, as well as to the creative class' reliance on service industries that typically pay their employees low wages.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peck|first=Jamie|date=December 2005|title=Struggling with the Creative Class|journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research|volume=29|issue=4|pages=740–770|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2427.2005.00620.x}}</ref> - -Critics also argue that the creative city idea has now become a catch-all phrase in danger of losing its meaning. Cities also tend to restrict its meaning to the arts and activities within the [[Creative industries|creative economy]] professions, calling any cultural plan a creative city plan, when such activities are only one aspect of a community's creativity. There is a tendency for cities to adopt the term without thinking through its real organizational consequences and the need to change their mindset. In some cases, such as the Indonesian city of Bandung, the 'friction' between critical and uncritical uses of the concept can lead to fruitful discussions on what the city should be.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=De Beukelaer|first=Christiaan|date=2021|title=Friction in the Creative City|journal=Open Cultural Studies|volume=5|issue=1|pages=40–53|doi=10.1515/culture-2021-0001|doi-access=free}}</ref> The creativity implied in the term, the creative city, is about lateral and integrative thinking in all aspects of city planning and urban development, placing people, not infrastructure, at the centre of planning processes. +Critics argue that the creative city idea has now become a catch-all phrase in danger of losing its meaning and in danger of hollowing out by general overuse of the word ‘creative’ as applied to people, activities, organizations, urban neighborhoods or cities that objectively are not especially creative. Cities still tend to restrict its meaning to the arts and cultural activities within the [[Creative industries|creative economy]] professions, calling any cultural plan a creative city plan, when such activities are only one aspect of a community's creativity. There is a tendency for cities to adopt the term without thinking through its real organizational consequences and the need to change their mindset. The creativity implied in the term, the creative city, is about lateral and integrative thinking in all aspects of city planning and urban development, placing people, not infrastructure, at the center of planning processes.<ref>Hartley, John; Potts, Jason; Flew, Terry; Cunningham, Stuart; Keane, Michael; Banks, John (2012-11-19). ''Key Concepts in Creative Industries''. SAGE Publications. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-0289-0|<bdi>978-1-4462-0289-0</bdi>]].</ref> + +The original Creative City vision of Landry has been almost entirely superseded by a Florida-based vision framed by economic innovation and its requisite skilled labor. The Creative City in many places has become a business project, not a framework for total urban policy transformation. It has scaled down its expectations, and no longer demands that urban policy develop a creative imagination. The “thesis” can be implemented as strategy without unsettling too many ruling assumptions on the role of cities in the global economic order. The debate about creative city still contains the two strands - the more holistic notion of comprehensive urban creativity and those that deem that the creative economy largely represents what a creative city is.<ref>Damme, Ilja Van; Munck, Bert De; Miles, Andrew (2017-09-18). ''Cities and Creativity from the Renaissance to the Present''. Routledge. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-1-351-68179-7|<bdi>978-1-351-68179-7</bdi>]].</ref> + +== Global impact == +In 2004, UNESCO established the [[Creative Cities Network]] (UCCN). UCCN was established to share best practices and partnerships that can help sustain and improve a city's creativity. All cities recognized as a member of the UCCN agree that creativity acts as a strategic factor of sustainable development. + +The UCCN have seven creative fields: crafts and folk art, design, film, gastronomy, literature, media arts, and music.<ref>UNESCO Creative Cities Network. (2017). ''Mission Statement''. UNESCO. <nowiki>https://en.unesco.org/creative-cities/sites/default/files/uccn_mission_statement_rev_nov_2017.pdf</nowiki></ref> ==See also== @@ -59,12 +65,19 @@ ==References== -{{Reflist}} -*Yencken, D. (1988). "The creative city", ''Meanjin'', Vol 47, Number 4. -*Commission for the Future and Australia Council for the Arts. (1989) "The Relationship between Creativity and an Innovative Productive Future", ''Papers and Proceedings of the Creative Australia National Workshop'', 2–4 July 1989, Workshop convenor Dr Jane Gilmour, Commission for the Future, Melbourne. -*Hall, Sir P. (1998). ''Cities in Civilisation: culture, innovation and urban order''. London: Weidenfeld. -*Landry, C. (2000). ''The Creative City: A toolkit for urban innovators'', London: Earthscan. -*Howkins, J. (2001). ''The Creative Economy: How people make money from ideas''. London: Penguin. -*Florida, R. (2002). ''The rise of the creative class—and how it is transforming leisure, community and everyday life''. New York: Basic Books. -*Carta, M. (2007). ''Creative City. Dynamics, Innovations'', Actions. Barcelona: List. + +# Yencken, David (1988). "The creative city". ''Meanjin''. '''47'''. +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-2|^]]''' "The Economics of Amenity: Community Futures and Quality of Life; A Policy Guide to Urban Economic Development". ''Americans for the Arts''. 2019-05-15. Retrieved 2021-11-17. +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-3|^]]'''  Moore, Ieva (2014-01). "Cultural and Creative Industries Concept – A Historical Perspective". ''Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences''. '''110''': 738–746. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.918. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] 1877-0428. +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-4|^]]''' Landry, Charles. ''Lineages of the Creative City''. <nowiki>http://charleslandry.com/panel/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2013/03/Lineages-of-the-Creative-City.pdf</nowiki>. +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-5|^]]''' "COMEDIA : Thinking about creative cities". ''www.comedia.org.uk''. Retrieved 2021-11-17. +# Cohendet, P., Grandadam, D., Simon, L., 2010. The Anatomy of the Creative City. Industry and Innovation 17, 91–111. doi:10.1080/13662710903573869 +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-6|^]]''' UNESCO Creative Cities Network. (2017). ''Mission Statement''. UNESCO. <nowiki>https://en.unesco.org/creative-cities/sites/default/files/uccn_mission_statement_rev_nov_2017.pdf</nowiki> +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-7|^]]''' NYUAD, SIA (2019-03-08). "Gentrification and the Creative City: Lessons Learned from Berlin Urban Planning Policy". ''Medium''. Retrieved 2020-04-14. +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-8|^]]''' "Artwashing: Social Capital & Anti-Gentrification Activism". ''COLOURING IN CULTURE''. Retrieved 2020-04-14. +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-9|^]]'''  Peck, Jamie (2005-12). "Struggling with the Creative Class". ''International Journal of Urban and Regional Research''. '''29''' (4): 740–770. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2005.00620.x. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] 0309-1317 +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-10|^]]''' Peck, Jamie (2005). "Struggling with the Creative Class". ''International Journal of Urban and Regional Research''. '''29'''(4): 740–770. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2005.00620.x. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] 1468-2427. +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-11|^]]''' Hartley, John; Potts, Jason; Flew, Terry; Cunningham, Stuart; Keane, Michael; Banks, John (2012-11-19). ''Key Concepts in Creative Industries''. SAGE Publications. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-0289-0|<bdi>978-1-4462-0289-0</bdi>]]. +# '''[[User:Andrew 43333/Creative city#cite%20ref-12|^]]''' Damme, Ilja Van; Munck, Bert De; Miles, Andrew (2017-09-18). ''Cities and Creativity from the Renaissance to the Present''. Routledge. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-1-351-68179-7|<bdi>978-1-351-68179-7</bdi>]]. +# UNESCO Creative Cities Network. (2017). ''Mission Statement''. UNESCO. <nowiki>https://en.unesco.org/creative-cities/sites/default/files/uccn_mission_statement_rev_nov_2017.pdf</nowiki> ==External links== '