Examine individual changes

'{{Short description|Spartan admiral in the 5th century BC}} {{About|the Spartan general}} {{Infobox military person | image = Lysander outside the walls of Athens 19th century lithograph.jpg | caption = Lysander outside the walls of Athens, ordering their destruction. 19th century lithograph | image_size = 300 | allegiance = [[Sparta]] | branch = | serviceyears = | rank = [[Navarch]] | unit = | commands = | battles = [[Peloponnesian War]] *[[Battle of Notium]] *[[Battle of Aegospotami]] [[Corinthian War]] *[[Battle of Haliartus]]{{KIA}} | awards = | relations = | laterwork = }} '''Lysander''' ({{IPAc-en|l|aɪ|ˈ|s|æ|n|d|ər|,_|ˈ|l|aɪ|ˌ|s|æ|n|d|ər}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Λύσανδρος|Lýsandros}}; died 395 BC) was a [[Sparta]]n admiral ([[navarch]]) who commanded the Spartan fleet in the [[Hellespont]]. He defeated the [[Ancient Athens|Athenians]] at [[battle of Aegospotami|Aegospotami]] in 405 BC. The following year, he was able to force the Athenians to capitulate, bringing the [[Peloponnesian War]] to an end. He then played a key role in Sparta's domination of Greece for the next decade until his death at the [[Battle of Haliartus]]. Lysander's vision for Sparta differed from most Spartans; he wanted to overthrow the Athenian Empire and replace it with Spartan hegemony.<ref>Donald Kagan, ''The Fall of the Athenian Empire'', Cornell University, 1987, p. 300.</ref> ==Early life== Little is known of Lysander's early life. Some ancient authors record that his mother was a [[Helots|helot]] or slave.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology|last=Smith|first=William|publisher=Little, Brown and co.|year=1867|location=Boston|pages=861}}</ref> Lysander's father was Aristocleitus, who was a member of the Spartan [[Heracleidae]]; that is, he claimed descent from [[Heracles]] but was not a member of a royal family. Lysander grew up in poverty and he showed himself obedient and conformable. According to [[Plutarch]] he had a "manly spirit".<ref name="lys-lives"/> == Battle of Notium == {{Main|Battle of Notium}} {{Location map+ |Greece |float = right |width = 300 |caption = Location of [[Ephesus]] and the [[Battle of Notium]] |nodiv = 1 |mini = 1 |relief=yes |places = {{location map~ |Greece |lat=37.992778|N |long=26.8475|E |label=[[Battle of Notium]]|position=left |label_size=80}} {{location map~ |Greece |lat=37.941111|N |long=27.341944|E |label=[[Ephesus]] |position=right |label_size=80 }} }} Lysander was appointed Spartan [[navarch]] (admiral) for the [[Aegean Sea]] in 407 BC. It was during this period that he gained the friendship and support of [[Cyrus the Younger]], a son of [[Darius II of Persia]] and [[Parysatis]]. Lysander then undertook the major project of creating a strong Spartan fleet based at [[Ephesus]] which could take on the Athenians and their allies.<ref name="lys-lives">[[Plutarch]], [[Parallel Lives|Lives]]. Life of Lysander. ([http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/lysander.html University of Massachusetts]/[[s:Lives/Cimon|Wikisource]])</ref><ref name="lys-xen">[[Xenophon]], [[Hellenica]]. ([[s:Hellenica|Wikisource]]/[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1174 Gutenberg Project])</ref> [[Alcibiades]] was appointed commander-in-chief with autocratic powers of the Athenian forces and left for [[Samos]] to rejoin his fleet and try and engage Lysander in battle. The Spartan navarch Lysander refused to be lured out of Ephesus to do battle with [[Alcibiades]]. However, while Alcibiades was away seeking supplies, the Athenian squadron was placed under the command of [[Antiochus (admiral)|Antiochus]], his helmsman. During this time Lysander managed to engage the Athenian fleet and they were routed by the Spartan fleet (with the help of the Persians under Cyrus) at the Battle of Notium in 406 BC. This defeat by Lysander gave the enemies of Alcibiades the excuse they needed to strip him of his command. He never returned again to Athens. He sailed north to the land he owned in the [[Thracian Chersonese]]. ==Out of office== However, Lysander ceased to be the Spartan [[Nauarchia|navarch]] after this victory and, in accordance with the Spartan law, was replaced by [[Callicratidas]]. Callicratidas' ability to continue the war at sea was neatly sabotaged when Lysander returned all the donated funds to Cyrus when he left office.<ref>"Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, p126</ref> In 406 BC, Callicratidas assembled a fleet and sailed to [[Mithymna|Methymna]], [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], which he then besieged. This move threatened the Athenian grain supply. Athens sent their admiral, [[Conon]], to relieve the siege. When Callicratidas attacked him, Conon retreated to [[Mytilene]], where he was blockaded by Callicratidas' Spartan fleet. To relieve Conon, the Athenians assembled a new fleet composed largely of newly constructed ships manned by inexperienced crews. While this fleet was inferior to the Spartans, the Athenians employed new and unorthodox tactics, which allowed them to secure a dramatic and unexpected victory in the [[Battle of Arginusae]], near Lesbos. The blockade of Conon by the Spartans was broken, the Spartan force was soundly defeated and Callicratidas was killed during the battle. == Return to command == After this defeat, Sparta's allies sought to have Lysander reappointed as navarch. However, Spartan law did not allow the reappointment of a previous navarch, so [[Aracus (admiral)|Aracus]] was appointed as navarch with Lysander as his deputy. Nonetheless, Lysander was effectively the commander of the Spartan fleet.<ref name="lys-lives"/><ref name="lys-xen"/> Cyrus, being especially pleased, once again started to supply the Spartan fleet with funds, even allowing Lysander to run his [[satrap]]y in his absence.<ref>"Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, p127</ref> Once back in command, Lysander directed the Spartan fleet towards the [[Hellespont]]. The Athenian fleet followed him there. In 404 BC, the Athenians gathered their remaining ships at [[Aegospotami]] (near the [[Thracian Chersonese]]). The Athenian fleet under Admiral Conon was then destroyed by the Spartans under Lysander in the [[Battle of Aegospotami]]. Conon withdrew to [[Cyprus]]. Then, Lysander's forces went to the [[Bosporus]] and captured both [[Byzantium]] and [[Chalcedon]], expelling the Athenians living in those cities. Lysander also captured [[Lesbos Island]].<ref name="lys-lives"/><ref name="lys-xen"/> == Defeat of Athens == [[File:Meeting between Cyrus the Younger and Lysander, by Francesco Antonio Grue (1618-1673), maiolica with a dusting technique, Castelli manufacture, Abruzzo. Italy, 17th century.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Encounter between [[Cyrus the Younger]] (left), Achaemenid satrap of [[Asia Minor]] and son of [[Darius II]], and Spartan general Lysander (right) in [[Sardis]]. The encounter was related by [[Xenophon]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rollin |first1=Charles |title=The Ancient History of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes and Persians, Grecians, and Macedonians |date=1851 |publisher=W. Tegg and Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancienthistorye03rollgoog/page/n123 110] |url=https://archive.org/details/ancienthistorye03rollgoog |language=en}}</ref> [[Francesco Antonio Grue]] (1618–1673).]] Following the victory at Aegospotami, the Spartans were in a position to finally force Athens to capitulate. The Spartan king, [[Pausanias of Sparta|Pausanias]], laid siege to Athens main city while Lysander's fleet blockaded the port of [[Piraeus]]. This action effectively closed the grain route to Athens through the Hellespont, thereby starving Athens. Realising the seriousness of the situation, [[Theramenes]] started negotiations with Lysander. These negotiations took three months, but in the end Lysander agreed to terms at Piraeus. An agreement was reached for the capitulation of Athens and the cessation of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC. [[File:Lysander has the walls of Athens demolished.jpg|thumb|Lysander has the [[Long Walls|walls of Athens]] demolished]] The Spartans required the Athenians to raze the walls of Piraeus as well as the [[Long Walls]] which connected Athens main town and the port (Piraeus); that the Athenians should abandon their colonies, and that Athens should surrender all but twelve of their ships to the Spartans. However, Theramenes did secure terms that saved the city of Athens from destruction. Greek towns across the [[Aegean Sea]] in [[Ionia]] were again to be subject to the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. == Command in Athens == {{Further|Thirty Tyrants}} Lysander then put in place a puppet government in Athens with the establishment of the [[oligarchy]] of the [[Thirty Tyrants]] under [[Critias]] which included Theramenes as a leading member. The puppet government executed a number of citizens and deprived all but a few of their former rights as citizens of Athens. Many of Athens' former allies were now ruled by boards of ten (decarchy), often reinforced with garrisons under a Spartan commander (called a [[harmost]], meaning "regulator".<ref>{{Cite book|title=A history of Greece to the death of Alexander the Great|last=Bury|first=J. B.|last2=Meiggs|first2=Russell|publisher=Macmillan|year=1956|location=London|pages=515}}</ref>). The practice started the period of [[Spartan hegemony]]. [[File:La mort d'Alcibiade Philippe Chéry 1791.jpg|thumb|The assassination of the exiled Athenian general [[Alcibiades]] was organized by [[Pharnabazus (5th century BC)|Pharnabazes]], at the request of Lysander.<ref name="lys-lives"/><ref name="lys-xen"/>]] After storming and seizing Samos, Lysander returned to Sparta. Alcibiades, the former Athenian leader, emerged after the Spartan victory at Aegospotami and took refuge in [[Phrygia]], northwestern [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] with [[Pharnabazus (5th century BC)|Pharnabazus]], its Persian [[satrap]]. He sought Persian assistance for the Athenians. However, the Spartans decided that Alcibiades must be removed and Lysander, with the help of Pharnabazus, arranged the assassination of Alcibiades.<ref name="lys-lives"/><ref name="lys-xen"/> Lysander amassed a huge fortune from his victories against the Athenians and brought the riches home to Sparta. For centuries the possession of money was illegal in Lacedaemonia, but the newly minted navy required funds and Persia could not be trusted to maintain financial support. Roman historian [[Plutarch]] strongly condemns Lysander's introduction of money;<ref name="lys-lives" /> despite being publicly held, he argues its mere presence corrupted rank-and-file Spartans who witnessed their government's newfound value for it. Corruption quickly followed; while general [[Gylippus]] ferried treasure home, he embezzled a great amount and was condemned to death in absentia. ==Resistance by Athens== The Athenian general [[Thrasybulus]], who had been exiled from Athens by the Spartans' [[puppet government]], led the democratic resistance to the new oligarchic government. In 403 BC, he commanded a small force of exiles that invaded [[Attica]] and, in successive battles, defeated first a Spartan garrison and then the forces of the oligarchic government (which included Lysander) in the [[Battle of Munychia]]. The leader of the Thirty Tyrants, Critias, was killed in the battle. The [[Battle of Piraeus]] was then fought between Athenian exiles who had defeated the government of the Thirty Tyrants and occupied Piraeus and a Spartan force sent to combat them. In the battle, the Spartans defeated the exiles, despite their stiff resistance. Despite opposition from Lysander, after the battle Pausanias the [[Kings of Sparta|Agiad King of Sparta]], arranged a settlement between the two parties which allowed the re-establishment of democratic government in Athens. ==Final years== Lysander still had influence in Sparta despite his setbacks in Athens. He was able to persuade the Spartans to select Agesilaus II as the new Eurypontid Spartan king following the death of [[Agis II]], and to persuade the Spartans to support Cyrus the Younger in his unsuccessful rebellion against his older brother, [[Artaxerxes II of Persia]]. Hoping to restore the juntas of oligarchic partisans that he had put in place after the defeat of the Athenians in 404 BC, Lysander arranged for Agesilaus II, the Eurypontid Spartan king, to take command of the Greeks against Persia in 396 BC. The Spartans had been called on by the Ionians to assist them against the Persian King Artaxerxes II. Lysander was arguably hoping to receive command of the Spartan forces not joining the campaign. However, Agesilaus had become resentful of Lysander's power and influence. So Agesilaus frustrated the plans of his former mentor and left Lysander in command of the troops in the Hellespont, far from Sparta and mainland Greece. Back in Sparta by 395 BC, Lysander was instrumental in starting a war with [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and other Greek cities, which came to be known as the [[Corinthian War]]. The Spartans prepared to send out an army against this new alliance of Athens, Thebes, [[Corinth]] and [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]] (with the backing of the Achaemenid Empire) and ordered Agesilaus to return to Greece. Agesilaus set out for Sparta with his troops, crossing the Hellespont and marching west through [[Thrace]]. ==Death== {{Main|Battle of Haliartus}} The Spartans arranged for two armies, one under Lysander and the other under [[Pausanias of Sparta]], to rendezvous at and attack the city of Haliartus in [[Boeotia]]. Lysander arrived before Pausanias and persuaded the city of [[Orchomenus (Boeotia)|Orchomenus]] to revolt from the [[Boeotian League]]. He then advanced to Haliartus with his troops. In the [[Battle of Haliartus]], Lysander was killed after bringing his forces too near to the walls of the city. Following his death, an abortive scheme by Lysander to increase his power by making the Spartan kingships collective and that the Spartan king should not automatically be given the leadership of the army, was "discovered" by Agesilaus II.<ref name="lys-lives" /><ref name="lys-nepos">[[Cornelius Nepos]], Life of Eminent Greeks .[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nepos.htm]</ref> There is argument amongst historians as to whether this was an invention to discredit Lysander after his death. However, in the view of Nigel Kennell, the plot fits with what we know of Lysander.<ref>"Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, p134</ref> ==Legacy== Lysander is one of the main protagonists of the history of Greece by Xenophon, a contemporary. For other (later) sources he remains an ambiguous figure. For instance, while the Roman biographer [[Cornelius Nepos]] charges him with "cruelty and perfidy",<ref name="lys-nepos"/> Lysander &ndash; according to Xenophon &ndash; nonetheless spared the population of captured Greek [[Polis|poleis]] such as [[Lampsacus]],.<ref name="lys-xen"/> The [[Westland Lysander]] aircraft has been named after him. ===Commemoration=== According to [[Duris of Samos]], Lysander was the first Greek to whom the cities erected altars and sacrificed to him as to a god and the Samians voted that their festival of Hera should be called Lysandreia.<ref>''The Hellenistic World'' by Frank William Walbank Page 213 {{ISBN|0-674-38726-0}}</ref> He was also the first Greek who had songs of triumph written about him.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} ==Sources== *{{cite book | last = Bommelaer | first = Jean-François | title = Lysandre de Sparte. Histoire et traditions | year = 1981 | url = http://cefael.efa.gr/detail.php?site_id=1&actionID=page&serie_id=BefarA&volume_number=240&issue_number=0 | publisher = De Boccard | location = Paris | language = fr}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== *[https://www.thoughtco.com/lysander-112459 Ancient/classical history (Lysander)] – About.com *[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/lysander.html Lysander by Plutarch] – The Internet Classics Archive on MIT {{Plutarch}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:5th-century BC births]] [[Category:395 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Spartan admirals]] [[Category:Spartans of the Peloponnesian War]] [[Category:Ancient Greeks killed in battle]] [[Category:5th-century BC Spartans]] [[Category:4th-century BC Spartans]] [[Category:Spartan hegemony]] [[Category:Heracleidae]]'