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{{Infobox royalty
| name = Xerxes I<br>{{lang|peo|𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠}}
| title = [[King of Kings]]<br>[[Great King]]<br>[[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]]<br>[[King of Babylon]]<br>[[Pharaoh of Egypt]]<br>[[King of the Lands|King of Countries]]
| image = National Museum of Iran Darafsh (785).JPG
| image_size =
| caption = [[Rock relief]] of an Achaemenid king, most likely Xerxes, located in the [[National Museum of Iran]]<ref>According to plate 2 in {{harvnb|Stoneman|2015}}; though it may also be [[Darius I]].</ref>
| succession = [[King of kings]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]]
| reign = October 486 – August 465 BC
| predecessor = [[Darius the Great]]
| successor = [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]
| spouse = [[Amestris]]
| dynasty = [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid]]
| issue = {{plainlist|
* [[Darius (son of Xerxes I)|Darius]]
* [[Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I)|Hystaspes]]
* [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]
* [[Arsames (satrap of Egypt)|Arsames]]
* [[Amytis]]
}}
| father = [[Darius the Great]]
| mother = [[Atossa]]
| birth_date = {{circa|518 BC}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = August 465 BC (aged approximately 53)
| death_place =
| place of burial = [[Naqsh-e Rostam]]
| religion = [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] religion <br />{{small|(possibly [[Zoroastrianism]])}}
}}
{{Hiero|Xerxes (Xašayaruša/Ḫašayaruša)<ref>Jürgen von Beckerath (1999), ''Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen'', Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. {{ISBN|3-8053-2310-7}}, pp. 220–221</ref>|<hiero>< xA-SA-i*i-A-rw-SA-A ></hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
'''Xerxes I''' ({{lang-peo|[[wiktionary:𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠|𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠]]}} {{transl|peo|Xšayār̥šā}}; {{lang-grc|[[wiktionary:Ξέρξης|Ξέρξης]]}} {{transl|grc|Xérxēs}}; {{circa|518}} – August 465 BC), commonly known as '''Xerxes the Great''', was the fourth [[King of Kings]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486 BC}}) and his mother was [[Atossa]], a daughter of [[Cyrus the Great]] ({{reign|550|530 BC}}), the founder of the Achaemenid empire. Like his father, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]], the commander of the royal bodyguard.
Xerxes I is notable in Western history for his [[Second Persian invasion of Greece|invasion of Greece]] in 480 BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland [[Greece]] north of the [[Isthmus of Corinth]]<ref name = L248>{{cite book|title=The Defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C.|author=Lazenby, J.F.|date=1993|publisher=Aris & Phillips|isbn=978-0856685910|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVRwQgAACAAJ|access-date=7 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="Warfare in the Ancient World">Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3OSfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT32&dq=persia+overran+modern+day+greece&hl=en&sa=X&ei=N9Z0VffXHoqR7AbFhoOYDQ&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=persia%20overran%20modern%20day%20greece&f=false ''Warfare in the Ancient World''] Pen and Sword, 19 January 2006 {{ISBN|1848846304}}</ref> until losses at [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]] and [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]] a year later reversed these gains and ended the second invasion decisively. However, Xerxes successfully crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon. [[Roman Ghirshman]] says that, "After this he ceased to use the title of 'king of Babylon', calling himself simply 'king of the Persians and the Medes'."<ref>Roman Ghirshman, ''Iran'' (1954), Penguin Books, p. 191.</ref> Xerxes also oversaw the completion of various construction projects at [[Susa]] and [[Persepolis]].
Xerxes is identified with the king [[Ahasuerus]] in the biblical [[Book of Esther]],{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=9}} which some scholars consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Book-of-Esther|title = Book of Esther | Summary & Facts}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica 1984">{{cite web | first=W. S. | last=McCullough | title=AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica | website=Encyclopædia Iranica | date= 28 July 2011 | orig-year=15 December 1984 | url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus | access-date=3 April 2020 | quote=There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Barton |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Muddiman |editor-first2=John |first=Carol|last=Meyers|title=The Oxford Bible Commentary |date=2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199277186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA325 |language=en | page=325 | quote=Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews.}}</ref><ref name="JewishEncyclopedia.com">{{cite web | author-first1=Emil G.|author-last1=Hirsch|author-first2=John|author-last2=Dyneley Prince|author-first3=Solomon|author-last3=Schechter|editor-first1=Isidor|editor-last1=Singer|editor-first2=Cyrus|editor-last2=Adler|title=ESTHER | website=JewishEncyclopedia.com | year=1906 | url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5872-esther | access-date=25 April 2020 | quote=The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance.}}</ref>
== Etymology ==
''Xérxēs'' ({{lang|grc|Ξέρξης}}) is the [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') transliteration of the [[Old Iranian]] ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part ''xšaya'', meaning "ruling", and the second ''ṛšā'', meaning "hero, man".<ref name="NAME">{{harvnb|Marciak|2017|p=80}}; {{harvnb|Schmitt|2000}}</ref> The name of Xerxes was known in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' and in [[Aramaic]] as ''ḥšyʾrš''.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000}} Xerxes would become a popular name among the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name="NAME" />
== Historiography ==
Much of Xerxes' bad reputation is due to propaganda by the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] king [[Alexander the Great]] ({{reign|336|323|era=BC}}), who had him vilified.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=2}} The modern historian Richard Stoneman regards the portrayal of Xerxes as more nuanced and tragic in the work of the contemporary [[Greeks|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]].{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=2}} However, many modern historians agree that Herodotus recorded spurious information.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=57}}{{sfn|Radner|2013|p=454}} Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=158, 516}} Many Achaemenid-era clay tablets and other reports written in [[Elamite language|Elamite]], [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], and [[Aramaic]] are frequently contradictory to the reports of classical authors, i.e. [[Ctesias]], [[Plutarch]], and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]].{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|pp=viii–ix}}
== Early life ==
=== Parentage and birth ===
Xerxes' father was [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486 BC}}), the incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of [[Cyrus the Great]], the founder of the empire.{{sfn|Llewellyn-Jones|2017|p=70}}{{sfn|Waters|1996|pp=11, 18}} Xerxes' mother was [[Atossa]], a daughter of Cyrus.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=132}} Darius and Atossa had married in 522 BC,{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=520}} with Xerxes being born around 518 BC.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=1}}
=== Upbringing and education ===
[[File:Caylus_vase_1762.jpg|thumb|upright|The "[[Caylus vase]]", a quadrilingual alabaster jar with cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions in the name of "Xerxes, the Great King". [[Cabinet des Médailles]], [[Paris]]<ref name="RMN">{{cite web |title=vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695 , BnF |url=http://medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr/ws/catalogue/app/collection/record/ark:/12148/c33gbts1b |website=medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr |language=fr}}</ref>]]
According to the Greek dialogue [[First Alcibiades]], which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes; they were raised by [[eunuchs]]. When reaching the age of 7, they learned how to ride and hunt; at age 14, they were taught by four teachers of aristocratic stock, who taught them how to be "wise, just, prudent and brave."{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} Persian princes were also taught on the basics of the [[Zoroastrian]] religion, to be truthful, have self-restraint, and to be courageous.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} The dialogue further added that "Fear, for a Persian, is the equivalent of slavery."{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} At the age of 16 or 17, they began their "national service" for 10 years, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}} Afterwards they served in the military for around 25 years, and were then elevated to the status of elders and advisers of the king.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}}
This account of education among the Persian elite is supported by [[Xenophon]]'s description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince [[Cyrus the Younger]], with whom he was well-acquainted.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}} Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favouring oral history over written literature.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as [[Abbas the Great]], king of the [[Safavid Empire]] in the 17th-century AD.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of [[Babylon]].{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=183}}
===Accession to the throne===
While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. Under Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions. When Darius decided to leave (487–486 BC), he (Darius) prepared his tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by [[Atossa]], as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486 BC at the age of 64.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|pp=178–179}}
[[Artobazan]] claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children; while Xerxes, on the other hand, argued that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes was also helped by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, Eurypontid king [[Demaratus]], who also argued that the eldest son does not universally mean they have claim to the crown, as Spartan law states that the first son born while the father is king is the heir to the kingship.<ref>[[Herodotus]] 7.1–5</ref> Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.<ref>[[#refshabani-xerxes|R. Shabani]] Chapter I, p. 15</ref> [[Artobazan]] was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son [[born in the purple]] after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.<ref>[[#ref|Olmstead: The history of Persian empire]]</ref>
Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC<ref name=chi-v2>[[#refchi-v2google|''The Cambridge History of Iran'' vol. 2]]. p. 509.</ref> when he was about 36 years old.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=180}} The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to the great authority of Atossa<ref name=atossa-EI>Schmitt, R., "[[#refatossa-EI|Atossa]]" in ''Encyclopaedia Iranica''.</ref> and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.<ref>[[#refcah-vv|''The Cambridge Ancient History'' vol. V]] p. 72.</ref>
== Consolidation of power ==
[[Image:Histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à présent (1742) (14598039057).jpg|thumb|Engraving of [[Babylon]] by H. Fletcher, 1690]]
At Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in [[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]], which seems to have been dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with a military campaign).{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC, and appointed his full-brother [[Achaemenes (satrap)|Achaemenes]] as [[satrap]] of the country, replacing the previous satrap [[Pherendates]], who was reportedly killed during the revolt.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1983|p=414}}{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=183}} The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} Xerxes thus had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took four years.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name [[Bel-shimanni]]. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}}
Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, [[Shamash-eriba]]. Beginning in the summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as [[Borsippa]] and [[Dilbat]], and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} It may have been due to tax increase.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=111}} Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire, the Achaemenid kings had been titled as "[[King of Babylon]]" and "[[King of the Lands]]", perceiving [[Babylonia]] as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a [[personal union]]. Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]'s territory) into smaller sub-units.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|pp=185–186}}
Using texts written by classical authors, it is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} The [[Esagila]] was allegedly exposed to great damage and Xerxes allegedly carried the [[statue of Marduk]] away from the city,{{sfn|Sancisi-Weerdenburg|2002|p=579}} possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors held that the statue was entirely made of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} Modern historian [[Amélie Kuhrt]] considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=39}} It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god [[Marduk]].{{sfn|Waerzeggers|Seire|2018|p=3}}{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=544}} Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian [[Akitu|New Year's Festival]] continued in some form during the Achaemenid period.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=40}} Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=41}}
==Campaigns==
===Invasion of the Greek mainland===
{{Main|Second Persian invasion of Greece}}
[[File:Xerxes all ethnicities.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The soldiers of Xerxes I, of all ethnicities,<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/uploads/files/Clothing/v5f7a014_f1_300.jpg Soldiers with names], after Walser</ref> on the tomb of Xerxes I, at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]]<ref>The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas [https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=arch_pubs p. 713]</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Naqš-e-Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/naqs-e-rostam |language=en}}</ref>]]
Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the [[Athens|Athenians]], [[Naxos Island|Naxians]], and [[Eretria]]ns for their interference in the [[Ionian Revolt]], the burning of [[Sardis]], and their victory over the Persians at [[Battle of Marathon|Marathon]]. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The [[Xerxes Canal]] was dug through the [[isthmus]] of the peninsula of [[Mount Athos]], provisions were stored in the stations on the road through [[Thrace]], and two [[pontoon bridge]]s later known as [[Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges]] were built across the [[Hellespont]]. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Babylonians]], [[Egyptians]], [[Jews]],<ref>Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). ''Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War''. Oxford, UK: Osprey. {{ISBN|1846031087}}, p. 77</ref> [[Macedon]]ians, European [[Thrace|Thracians]], [[Paionia|Paeonians]], Achaean [[Greeks]], [[Ionia]]ns, [[Aegean Islands|Aegean islanders]], [[Aeolis|Aeolians]], Greeks from [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], [[Colchians]], [[Indian people|Indians]] and many more.
According to the Greek historian [[Herodotus]], Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the [[flax]] and [[papyrus]] cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had [[fetters]] thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.<ref>Bailkey, Nels, ed. ''Readings in Ancient History'', p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., 1992.</ref> The [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] [[Sicilian Wars#The First Sicilian War (480 BC)|invasion of Sicily]] deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] and [[Agrigentum]]; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.<ref>G. Mafodda, ''La monarchia di Gelone tra pragmatismo, ideologia e propaganda'', (Messina, 1996) pp. 119–136</ref> Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially [[Thessaly]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]]. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.
Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from [[Sardis]] with a fleet and army which [[Herodotus]] estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the [[Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)|Immortals]]. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.<ref>Barkworth, 1993. "The Organization of Xerxes' Army." ''Iranica Antiqua'' Vol. 27, pp. 149–167</ref>
===Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens===
[[File:Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite.jpg|thumb|Achaemenid king killing a Greek [[hoplite]]. Impression from a [[cylinder seal]], sculpted c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]]
At the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], a small force of Greek warriors led by King [[Leonidas I|Leonidas]] of [[Sparta]] resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan [[phalanx]] after a Greek man called [[Ephialtes of Trachis|Ephialtes]] betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At [[Battle of Artemisium|Artemisium]], large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated.
[[File:Foundations of the Old Athena Temple (foreground).jpg|thumb|Foundations of the [[Old Temple of Athena]], destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the [[Destruction of Athens]] in 480 BC]]
After Thermopylae, [[Athens]] was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]] before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the [[Athenian Acropolis]], but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the [[Destruction of Athens]] and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the [[Perserschutt]].<ref>Martin Steskal, ''Der Zerstörungsbefund 480/79 der Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten Chronologiegerüst'', Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2004</ref> The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the [[Isthmus of Corinth]].<ref name="Warfare in the Ancient World"/>
===Battles of Salamis and Plataea===
Xerxes was induced, by the message of [[Themistocles]] (against the advice of [[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia]] of [[Halicarnassus]]), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the [[Peloponnesus]] and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The [[Battle of Salamis]] (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in [[Thessaly]].
According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the [[Hellespont]] and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him.<ref name=VIII97>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231406;layout=;loc=8.96.1 VIII, 97]</ref> Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in [[Babylon]], a key province of the [[Achaemenid Empire|empire]], required the king's personal attention.<ref name="livius">{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/saa-san/samas-eriba/samas-eriba.html|publisher=livius.org|title=Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba – Livius|access-date=7 September 2016}}</ref>
He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]], who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]] by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good.
==Construction projects==
[[File:Tomb of Xerxes.JPG|thumb|right|The rock-cut tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] north of [[Persepolis]], copying that of [[Darius the Great|Darius]], is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes]]
After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at [[Susa]] and [[Persepolis]]. He oversaw the building of the [[Gate of All Nations]] and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the [[Apadana]], the [[Tachara]] (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.<ref>Ghirshman, ''Iran'', p. 172</ref> He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the [[Apadana]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fergusson|first1=James|title=A History of Architecture in All Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day: 1. Ancient architecture. 2. Christian architecture. xxxi, 634 p. front., illus|pages=211}}</ref> He also maintained the [[Royal Road]] built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a [[Palace of Darius in Susa|palace in Susa]].<ref>Herodotus VII.11</ref>
==Death==
[[File:Clay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (609-447 BCE). From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg|thumb|left|This cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I by his son. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum]]
In August 465 BC, [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]], the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a [[eunuch]], Aspamitres. Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a [[Hyrcanian]], his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenids]].<ref>[[#refkhshayayrsha|Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p. 873]]</ref>
Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to [[Ctesias]] (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes]], to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to [[Aristotle]] (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.<ref>[[#refartabanus-ei|Dandamayev]]</ref> Participating in these intrigues was the general [[Megabyzus]], whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.<ref>[[#refartaxerxes|''History of Persian Empire'', Olmstead pp. 289/90]]</ref>
==Government==
===Religion===
While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by [[Zoroastrianism]],{{sfn|Malandra|2005}} it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in [[Ahura Mazda]], whom he saw as the supreme deity.{{sfn|Malandra|2005}} However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the [[Indo-Iranians|(Indo-)Iranian]] religious tradition.{{sfn|Malandra|2005}}{{sfn|Boyce|1984|pp=684–687}} On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors; he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=549}}
==Wives and children==
[[File:Designation of Xerxes I.jpg|thumb|Xerxes being designated by Darius I. Tripylon, [[Persepolis]]. The ethnicities of the Empire are shown supporting the throne. [[Ahuramazda]] crowns the scene.]]
'''By queen [[Amestris]]''':
* [[Amytis]], wife of [[Megabyzus]].
* [[Darius (son of Xerxes I)|Darius]], the first born son, murdered by [[Artaxerxes I]] or [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]].
* [[Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I)|Hystaspes]], murdered by [[Artaxerxes I]].
* [[Artaxerxes I]]
* [[Achaemenes (son of Xerxes I)|Achaemenes]], murdered by Egyptians.{{cn|reason=The Achaemenes murdered by Egyptians was most likely his brother instead, died in 459 BCE|date=September 2020}}
* [[Rhodogune (daughter of Xerxes I)|Rhodogune]]
'''By unknown wives or mistresses''':
* [[Artarius]], satrap of [[Babylon]].
* [[Tithraustes (son of Xerxes I)|Tithraustes]]
* [[Arsames (satrap of Egypt)|Arsames]] or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas, satrap of Egypt.{{cn|date=September 2020}}
* [[Parysatis (daughter of Xerxes I)|Parysatis]]<ref>Ctesias</ref>
* Ratashah<ref>M. Brosius, ''Women in ancient Persia''.</ref>
==Cultural depictions==
[[File:Trilingual inscription of Xerxes, Van, 1973.JPG|thumb|[[Xerses I's inscription at Van|Trilingual inscription of Xerxes at Van]] (present-day Turkey)]]
Xerxes is the central character of the [[Aeschylus]] play "[[The Persians]]". Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''[[Serse]]'' by the German-English [[Baroque]] composer [[George Frideric Handel]]. It was first performed in the [[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]] London on 15 April 1738. The famous [[aria]] "[[Ombra mai fù]]" opens the opera.
The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] is romanticised by the Italian poet [[Metastasio]] in his opera libretto ''[[Artaserse]]'', which was first set to music by [[Leonardo Vinci]], and subsequently by other composers such as [[Johann Adolf Hasse]] and [[Johann Christian Bach]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Adolph-Hasse|title=Johann Adolph Hasse {{!}} German composer|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfordwesternmusic.com/view/Volume2/actrade-9780195384826-div1-04005.xml|title=Metastasio's Musicians : Music In The Seventeenth And Eighteenth Centuries|website=www.oxfordwesternmusic.com|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://christermalmberg.se/documents/musik/klassiskt/bach_johann_christian/bach_johann_christian_verk_uvertyrer_cpo.php|title=Christer Malmbergs värld - Musik - Klassisk musik - Johann Christian Bach|website=christermalmberg.se|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref>
The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer [[Louis Couperus]] describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bibliotheek.nl/catalogus/titel.110734645.html/xerxes--of-de-hoogmoed/|title=Xerxes, of De hoogmoed|website=www.bibliotheek.nl|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Classe|first1=O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myLDA0_brhcC&q=Arrogance%3A+The+Conquests+of+Xerxes+by+Frederick+H.+Martens&pg=PA315|title=Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A-L|last2=AC02468681|first2=Anonymus|date=2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-36-7|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Esther haram.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Queen [[Esther]], a [[Jewish]] queen of Xerxes ([[Edwin Long]], 19th century)]]
Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of [[popular culture]]. He was played by [[David Farrar (actor)|David Farrar]] in the fictional film ''[[The 300 Spartans]]'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''[[300 (comics)|300]]'' and ''[[Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander]]'' by [[Frank Miller (comics)|Frank Miller]], as well as the film adaptation ''[[300 (film)|300]]'' (2007) and its sequel ''[[300: Rise of an Empire]]'' (2014), as portrayed by [[Brazil]]ian actor [[Rodrigo Santoro]], in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in [[Iran]].<ref>Boucher, Geoff [http://herocomplex.latimes.com/2010/06/01/xerxes-300-frank-miller-300-zack-snyder-300/ "Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever'"], ''The Los Angeles Times'', 1 June 2010, accessed 14 May 2010.</ref> [[Ken Davitian]] plays Xerxes in ''[[Meet the Spartans]]'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate [[anachronisms]].
Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of [[Esther]] have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game ''[[Assassin's Creed Odyssey]]'' and the film ''[[One Night with the King]]'' (2006), in which [[Ahasuerus]] (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor [[Luke Goss]]. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game ''[[Civilization II]]'' and ''[[Civilization III|III]]'' (along with [[Scheherazade]]), although ''[[Civilization IV]]'' replaces him with [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius I]].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} In the ''[[Age of Empires (video game)|Age of Empires]]'', Xerxes featured as a short swordsman.
[[File:Ahasuerus by Ernest Normand.jpg|thumb|upright|Xerxes ([[Ahasuerus]]) by [[Ernest Normand]], 1888 (detail)]]
[[Gore Vidal]], in his historical fiction novel ''[[Creation (novel)|Creation]]'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet [[Zoroaster]]. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period.<ref>Gore Vidal, ''Creation: A Novel'' (Random House, 1981)</ref>
Xerxes ([[Ahasuerus]]) is portrayed by [[Richard Egan (actor)|Richard Egan]] in the 1960 film ''[[Esther and the King]]'' and by [[Joel Smallbone]] in the 2013 film, ''[[The Book of Esther (film)|The Book of Esther]]''. In at least one of these films, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of [[alternate history]] taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by [[Harry Turtledove]] in his anthology ''[[Departures (collection)|Departures]]'' and "The Craft of War" by [[Lois Tilton]] in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
==See also==
* [[List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
===Ancient sources===
* {{ws | [[s:History of Herodotus/Book 6|The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato]] in ''History of Herodotus''}}
* {{ws | [[s:History of Herodotus/Book 7|The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia]] in ''History of Herodotus''}}
===Modern sources===
{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite journal|last=Barkworth|first=Peter R.|title=The Organization of Xerxes' Army|year=1993|journal=Iranica Antiqua|volume=27|pages=149–167|doi=10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126|ref=refbarkworth}}
* {{cite book|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1988|isbn=0-521-22804-2|volume=V|ref=refcah-vv|first1=John|last1=Boardman}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Boyce |first=Mary |title=Achaemenid Religion |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-religion |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refachaemenidr-EI}}
* {{cite book | title = Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | year = 1979 | publisher = Psychology Press | last = Boyce | first = Mary | author-link = Mary Boyce | pages = 1–252 | isbn = 9780415239028 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&q=false }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Ahura Mazdā | last = Boyce | first = Mary | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahura-mazda | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7 | pages = 684–687 | year = 1984 }}
* Bridges, Emma (2014). Imagining Xerxes: Ancient Perspectives on a Persian King. Bloomsbury. {{ISBN|978-1472511379}}
* {{cite book | title = From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire | year = 2002 | publisher = Eisenbrauns | last = Briant | first = Pierre | author-link = Pierre Briant | pages = 1–1196 | isbn = 9781575061207 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&q=false }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |article=Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia |last=Brosius |first=Maria |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |location=London et al. |year=2000}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Dandamayev |first=M.A. |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |title=Artabanus |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artabanus-achaemenid |access-date=25 February 2009 |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Pau |ref=refartabanus-ei}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Achaemenid taxation |last=Dandamayev |first=Muhammad A. |author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-taxation |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |year=2000}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ms30qA6nyMsC&q=shamash-eriba&pg=PA185|title=A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire|last=Dandamayev|first=Muhammad A.|publisher=BRILL|year=1989|isbn=978-9004091726|author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Dandamayev|first=Muhammad A.|date=1993|title=Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon|journal=[[Bulletin of the Asia Institute]]|volume=7|pages=41–45|jstor=24048423}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Cambyses II | last = Dandamayev | first = Muhammad A. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cambyses-opers | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7 | pages = 726–729 | year = 1990 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Achaemenes | last = Dandamayev | first = Muhammad A. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenes-greek | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 4 | pages = 414 | year = 1983 }}
* {{cite book |last=Frye |first=Richard N. |title=The Heritage of Persia |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |year=1963 |isbn=0-297-16727-8 |page=301 |ref=reffrye-hop}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Deloucas|first=Andrew Alberto Nicolas|date=2016|title=Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/42888/Deloucas%20-%20Balancing%20Power%20and%20Space%20digital%20copy.pdf?sequence=1|journal=Research Master's Thesis for Classical and Ancient Civilizations (Assyriology) |publisher=Universiteit Leiden}}
* {{cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Iran |volume=2 |first1=Ilya |last1=Gershevitch |first2=William |last2=Bayne Fisher |first3=J. |last3=A. Boyle |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-20091-1 |year=1985 |ref=refchi-v2}}
* {{cite book |first=Lloyd|last=Llewellyn-Jones|editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |title=King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE) |date=2017 |publisher=UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies |chapter=The Achaemenid Empire|pages=1–236|isbn=9780692864401|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unTjswEACAAJ}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest | last = Malandra | first = William W. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-historical-review | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2005 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Macaulay |first1=G.C. |title=The Histories |publisher=Spark Educational Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-59308-102-2 |ref=refherodotus-macaulay}}
* {{cite book|last=Marciak|first=Michał|title=Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West|date=2017|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004350724|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwEtDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=McCullough |first=W.S |title=Ahasuerus |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refMcCullough-EI}}
* {{cite journal |last=Schmeja |first=H. |title=Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3) |year=1975 |journal=Die Sprache |volume=21 |pages=184–188 |ref=refschmeja}}
* {{cite book |last1=Radner|first1=Karen|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Daniel T.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Assyria and the Medes}}
* {{Cite book|chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004217584/BP000026.xml|title=Brill's Companion to Herodotus|last=Sancisi-Weerdenburg|first=Heleen|publisher=BRILL|year=2002|isbn=9789004217584|pages=579–590|chapter=The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings|doi=10.1163/9789004217584_026}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |title=Achaemenid dynasty |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 3 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refachaemenids-EI}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |title=Atossa |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/atossa-achaemenid-queen |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 3 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refatossa-EI}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Xerxes i. The Name | last = Schmitt| first = Rüdiger | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xerxes-1-name | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2000 }}
* {{cite book |last=Shabani |first=Reza |title=Khshayarsha (Xerxes) |series=[http://www.iranculturestudies.com/persian/whatsiran.html What do I know about Iran? No. 75] |publisher=Cultural Research Bureau |isbn=978-964-379-109-4 |year=2007 |language=fa |page=120 |ref=refshabani-xerxes}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Shahbazi |first=A. Sh. |title=Darius I the Great |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-iii |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 7 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refdariusithegreat-EI}}
* {{cite book |title=Xerxes: A Persian Life |year=2015 |publisher=Yale University Press |last=Stoneman |first=Richard |isbn=978-0300180077|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WqtJCgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |title=History of the Persian Empire |first1=A.T. |last1=Olmstead|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0226497648 |year=1979 |orig-year=1948 |ref=#refartaxerxes}}
* {{cite journal |last1=van Rookhuijzen |first1=Jan Zacharias |title=How not to Appease Athena: A Reconsideration of Xerxes' Purported Visit to the Troad (Hdt. 7.42–43) |journal=Klio |date=2017 |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=464–484 |doi=10.1515/klio-2017-0033}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Waerzeggers|first1=Caroline|last2=Seire|first2=Maarja|title=Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence |publisher=Peeters Publishers|year=2018|isbn=978-90-429-3670-6 |url=http://www.peeters-leuven.be/pdf/9789042938090.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Waters|first1=Matt|title=Darius and the Achaemenid Line |date=1996 |journal=Ancient History Bulletin |volume=10 |pages=11–18 |location=London |url=https://www.academia.edu/1040688 |url-access=registration}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Xerxes I}}
* {{Cite EB1911|short=x|wstitle=Xerxes}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid dynasty]]||519 BC||465 BC}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Darius I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of kings of Persia|King of Kings of Persia]]|years=486 BC – 465 BC}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Pharaoh|Pharaoh of Egypt]]|years=486 BC – 465 BC}}
{{s-end}}
{{Median and Achaemenid kings}}
{{Pharaohs}}
{{Achaemenid rulers}}
{{Persepolis}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Xerxes 01}}
[[Category:Xerxes I| ]]
[[Category:510s BC births]]
[[Category:465 BC deaths]]
[[Category:5th-century BC Babylonian kings]]
[[Category:5th-century BC Iranian people]]
[[Category:5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire]]
[[Category:5th-century BC murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:5th-century BC Pharaohs]]
[[Category:5th-century BC rulers]]
[[Category:Ahasuerus]]
[[Category:Battle of Salamis]]
[[Category:Battle of Thermopylae]]
[[Category:Family of Darius the Great]]
[[Category:Kings of the Achaemenid Empire]]
[[Category:Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Murdered Persian monarchs]]
[[Category:Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars]]
[[Category:Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt]]
[[Category:Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '
'''Xerxes I''' ({{lang-peo|[[wiktionary:𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠|𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠]]}} {{transl|peo|Xšayār̥šā}}; {{lang-grc|[[wiktionary:Ξέρξης|Ξέρξης]]}} {{transl|grc|Xérxēs}}; {{circa|518}} – August 465 BC), commonly known as '''Xerxes the Great''', was the fourth [[King of Kings]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486 BC}}) and his mother was [[Atossa]], a daughter of [[Cyrus the Great]] ({{reign|550|530 BC}}), the founder of the Achaemenid empire. Like his father, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]], the commander of the royal bodyguard.
Xerxes I is notable in Western history for his [[Second Persian invasion of Greece|invasion of Greece]] in 480 BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland [[Greece]] north of the [[Isthmus of Corinth]]<ref name = L248>{{cite book|title=The Defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C.|author=Lazenby, J.F.|date=1993|publisher=Aris & Phillips|isbn=978-0856685910|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVRwQgAACAAJ|access-date=7 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="Warfare in the Ancient World">Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3OSfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT32&dq=persia+overran+modern+day+greece&hl=en&sa=X&ei=N9Z0VffXHoqR7AbFhoOYDQ&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=persia%20overran%20modern%20day%20greece&f=false ''Warfare in the Ancient World''] Pen and Sword, 19 January 2006 {{ISBN|1848846304}}</ref> until losses at [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]] and [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]] a year later reversed these gains and ended the second invasion decisively. However, Xerxes successfully crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon. [[Roman Ghirshman]] says that, "After this he ceased to use the title of 'king of Babylon', calling himself simply 'king of the Persians and the Medes'."<ref>Roman Ghirshman, ''Iran'' (1954), Penguin Books, p. 191.</ref> Xerxes also oversaw the completion of various construction projects at [[Susa]] and [[Persepolis]].
Xerxes is identified with the king [[Ahasuerus]] in the biblical [[Book of Esther]],{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=9}} which some scholars consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Book-of-Esther|title = Book of Esther | Summary & Facts}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica 1984">{{cite web | first=W. S. | last=McCullough | title=AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica | website=Encyclopædia Iranica | date= 28 July 2011 | orig-year=15 December 1984 | url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus | access-date=3 April 2020 | quote=There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Barton |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Muddiman |editor-first2=John |first=Carol|last=Meyers|title=The Oxford Bible Commentary |date=2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199277186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA325 |language=en | page=325 | quote=Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews.}}</ref><ref name="JewishEncyclopedia.com">{{cite web | author-first1=Emil G.|author-last1=Hirsch|author-first2=John|author-last2=Dyneley Prince|author-first3=Solomon|author-last3=Schechter|editor-first1=Isidor|editor-last1=Singer|editor-first2=Cyrus|editor-last2=Adler|title=ESTHER | website=JewishEncyclopedia.com | year=1906 | url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5872-esther | access-date=25 April 2020 | quote=The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance.}}</ref>
== Etymology ... ==
''Xérxēs'' ({{lang|grc|Ξέρξης}}) is the [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') transliteration of the [[Old Iranian]] ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part ''xšaya'', meaning "ruling", and the second ''ṛšā'', meaning "hero, man".<ref name="NAME">{{harvnb|Marciak|2017|p=80}}; {{harvnb|Schmitt|2000}}</ref> The name of Xerxes was known in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' and in [[Aramaic]] as ''ḥšyʾrš''.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000}} Xerxes would become a popular name among the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name="NAME" />
== Historiography ==
Much of Xerxes' bad reputation is due to propaganda by the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] king [[Alexander the Great]] ({{reign|336|323|era=BC}}), who had him vilified.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=2}} The modern historian Richard Stoneman regards the portrayal of Xerxes as more nuanced and tragic in the work of the contemporary [[Greeks|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]].{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=2}} However, many modern historians agree that Herodotus recorded spurious information.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=57}}{{sfn|Radner|2013|p=454}} Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=158, 516}} Many Achaemenid-era clay tablets and other reports written in [[Elamite language|Elamite]], [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], and [[Aramaic]] are frequently contradictory to the reports of classical authors, i.e. [[Ctesias]], [[Plutarch]], and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]].{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|pp=viii–ix}}
== Early life ==
=== Parentage and birth ===
Xerxes' father was [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486 BC}}), the incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of [[Cyrus the Great]], the founder of the empire.{{sfn|Llewellyn-Jones|2017|p=70}}{{sfn|Waters|1996|pp=11, 18}} Xerxes' mother was [[Atossa]], a daughter of Cyrus.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=132}} Darius and Atossa had married in 522 BC,{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=520}} with Xerxes being born around 518 BC.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=1}}
=== Upbringing and education ===
[[File:Caylus_vase_1762.jpg|thumb|upright|The "[[Caylus vase]]", a quadrilingual alabaster jar with cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions in the name of "Xerxes, the Great King". [[Cabinet des Médailles]], [[Paris]]<ref name="RMN">{{cite web |title=vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695 , BnF |url=http://medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr/ws/catalogue/app/collection/record/ark:/12148/c33gbts1b |website=medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr |language=fr}}</ref>]]
According to the Greek dialogue [[First Alcibiades]], which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes; they were raised by [[eunuchs]]. When reaching the age of 7, they learned how to ride and hunt; at age 14, they were taught by four teachers of aristocratic stock, who taught them how to be "wise, just, prudent and brave."{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} Persian princes were also taught on the basics of the [[Zoroastrian]] religion, to be truthful, have self-restraint, and to be courageous.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} The dialogue further added that "Fear, for a Persian, is the equivalent of slavery."{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} At the age of 16 or 17, they began their "national service" for 10 years, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}} Afterwards they served in the military for around 25 years, and were then elevated to the status of elders and advisers of the king.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}}
This account of education among the Persian elite is supported by [[Xenophon]]'s description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince [[Cyrus the Younger]], with whom he was well-acquainted.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}} Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favouring oral history over written literature.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as [[Abbas the Great]], king of the [[Safavid Empire]] in the 17th-century AD.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of [[Babylon]].{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=183}}
===Accession to the throne===
While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. Under Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions. When Darius decided to leave (487–486 BC), he (Darius) prepared his tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by [[Atossa]], as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486 BC at the age of 64.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|pp=178–179}}
[[Artobazan]] claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children; while Xerxes, on the other hand, argued that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes was also helped by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, Eurypontid king [[Demaratus]], who also argued that the eldest son does not universally mean they have claim to the crown, as Spartan law states that the first son born while the father is king is the heir to the kingship.<ref>[[Herodotus]] 7.1–5</ref> Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.<ref>[[#refshabani-xerxes|R. Shabani]] Chapter I, p. 15</ref> [[Artobazan]] was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son [[born in the purple]] after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.<ref>[[#ref|Olmstead: The history of Persian empire]]</ref>
Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC<ref name=chi-v2>[[#refchi-v2google|''The Cambridge History of Iran'' vol. 2]]. p. 509.</ref> when he was about 36 years old.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=180}} The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to the great authority of Atossa<ref name=atossa-EI>Schmitt, R., "[[#refatossa-EI|Atossa]]" in ''Encyclopaedia Iranica''.</ref> and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.<ref>[[#refcah-vv|''The Cambridge Ancient History'' vol. V]] p. 72.</ref>
== Consolidation of power ==
[[Image:Histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à présent (1742) (14598039057).jpg|thumb|Engraving of [[Babylon]] by H. Fletcher, 1690]]
At Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in [[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]], which seems to have been dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with a military campaign).{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC, and appointed his full-brother [[Achaemenes (satrap)|Achaemenes]] as [[satrap]] of the country, replacing the previous satrap [[Pherendates]], who was reportedly killed during the revolt.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1983|p=414}}{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=183}} The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} Xerxes thus had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took four years.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name [[Bel-shimanni]]. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}}
Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, [[Shamash-eriba]]. Beginning in the summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as [[Borsippa]] and [[Dilbat]], and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} It may have been due to tax increase.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=111}} Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire, the Achaemenid kings had been titled as "[[King of Babylon]]" and "[[King of the Lands]]", perceiving [[Babylonia]] as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a [[personal union]]. Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]'s territory) into smaller sub-units.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|pp=185–186}}
Using texts written by classical authors, it is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} The [[Esagila]] was allegedly exposed to great damage and Xerxes allegedly carried the [[statue of Marduk]] away from the city,{{sfn|Sancisi-Weerdenburg|2002|p=579}} possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors held that the statue was entirely made of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} Modern historian [[Amélie Kuhrt]] considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=39}} It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god [[Marduk]].{{sfn|Waerzeggers|Seire|2018|p=3}}{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=544}} Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian [[Akitu|New Year's Festival]] continued in some form during the Achaemenid period.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=40}} Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=41}}
==Campaigns==
===Invasion of the Greek mainland===
{{Main|Second Persian invasion of Greece}}
[[File:Xerxes all ethnicities.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The soldiers of Xerxes I, of all ethnicities,<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/uploads/files/Clothing/v5f7a014_f1_300.jpg Soldiers with names], after Walser</ref> on the tomb of Xerxes I, at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]]<ref>The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas [https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=arch_pubs p. 713]</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Naqš-e-Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/naqs-e-rostam |language=en}}</ref>]]
Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the [[Athens|Athenians]], [[Naxos Island|Naxians]], and [[Eretria]]ns for their interference in the [[Ionian Revolt]], the burning of [[Sardis]], and their victory over the Persians at [[Battle of Marathon|Marathon]]. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The [[Xerxes Canal]] was dug through the [[isthmus]] of the peninsula of [[Mount Athos]], provisions were stored in the stations on the road through [[Thrace]], and two [[pontoon bridge]]s later known as [[Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges]] were built across the [[Hellespont]]. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Babylonians]], [[Egyptians]], [[Jews]],<ref>Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). ''Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War''. Oxford, UK: Osprey. {{ISBN|1846031087}}, p. 77</ref> [[Macedon]]ians, European [[Thrace|Thracians]], [[Paionia|Paeonians]], Achaean [[Greeks]], [[Ionia]]ns, [[Aegean Islands|Aegean islanders]], [[Aeolis|Aeolians]], Greeks from [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], [[Colchians]], [[Indian people|Indians]] and many more.
According to the Greek historian [[Herodotus]], Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the [[flax]] and [[papyrus]] cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had [[fetters]] thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.<ref>Bailkey, Nels, ed. ''Readings in Ancient History'', p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., 1992.</ref> The [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] [[Sicilian Wars#The First Sicilian War (480 BC)|invasion of Sicily]] deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] and [[Agrigentum]]; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.<ref>G. Mafodda, ''La monarchia di Gelone tra pragmatismo, ideologia e propaganda'', (Messina, 1996) pp. 119–136</ref> Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially [[Thessaly]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]]. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.
Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from [[Sardis]] with a fleet and army which [[Herodotus]] estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the [[Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)|Immortals]]. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.<ref>Barkworth, 1993. "The Organization of Xerxes' Army." ''Iranica Antiqua'' Vol. 27, pp. 149–167</ref>
===Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens===
[[File:Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite.jpg|thumb|Achaemenid king killing a Greek [[hoplite]]. Impression from a [[cylinder seal]], sculpted c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]]
At the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], a small force of Greek warriors led by King [[Leonidas I|Leonidas]] of [[Sparta]] resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan [[phalanx]] after a Greek man called [[Ephialtes of Trachis|Ephialtes]] betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At [[Battle of Artemisium|Artemisium]], large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated.
[[File:Foundations of the Old Athena Temple (foreground).jpg|thumb|Foundations of the [[Old Temple of Athena]], destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the [[Destruction of Athens]] in 480 BC]]
After Thermopylae, [[Athens]] was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]] before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the [[Athenian Acropolis]], but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the [[Destruction of Athens]] and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the [[Perserschutt]].<ref>Martin Steskal, ''Der Zerstörungsbefund 480/79 der Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten Chronologiegerüst'', Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2004</ref> The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the [[Isthmus of Corinth]].<ref name="Warfare in the Ancient World"/>
===Battles of Salamis and Plataea===
Xerxes was induced, by the message of [[Themistocles]] (against the advice of [[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia]] of [[Halicarnassus]]), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the [[Peloponnesus]] and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The [[Battle of Salamis]] (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in [[Thessaly]].
According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the [[Hellespont]] and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him.<ref name=VIII97>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231406;layout=;loc=8.96.1 VIII, 97]</ref> Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in [[Babylon]], a key province of the [[Achaemenid Empire|empire]], required the king's personal attention.<ref name="livius">{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/saa-san/samas-eriba/samas-eriba.html|publisher=livius.org|title=Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba – Livius|access-date=7 September 2016}}</ref>
He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]], who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]] by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good.
==Construction projects==
[[File:Tomb of Xerxes.JPG|thumb|right|The rock-cut tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] north of [[Persepolis]], copying that of [[Darius the Great|Darius]], is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes]]
After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at [[Susa]] and [[Persepolis]]. He oversaw the building of the [[Gate of All Nations]] and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the [[Apadana]], the [[Tachara]] (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.<ref>Ghirshman, ''Iran'', p. 172</ref> He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the [[Apadana]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fergusson|first1=James|title=A History of Architecture in All Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day: 1. Ancient architecture. 2. Christian architecture. xxxi, 634 p. front., illus|pages=211}}</ref> He also maintained the [[Royal Road]] built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a [[Palace of Darius in Susa|palace in Susa]].<ref>Herodotus VII.11</ref>
==Death==
[[File:Clay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (609-447 BCE). From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg|thumb|left|This cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I by his son. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum]]
In August 465 BC, [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]], the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a [[eunuch]], Aspamitres. Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a [[Hyrcanian]], his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenids]].<ref>[[#refkhshayayrsha|Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p. 873]]</ref>
Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to [[Ctesias]] (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes]], to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to [[Aristotle]] (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.<ref>[[#refartabanus-ei|Dandamayev]]</ref> Participating in these intrigues was the general [[Megabyzus]], whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.<ref>[[#refartaxerxes|''History of Persian Empire'', Olmstead pp. 289/90]]</ref>
==Government==
===Religion===
While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by [[Zoroastrianism]],{{sfn|Malandra|2005}} it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in [[Ahura Mazda]], whom he saw as the supreme deity.{{sfn|Malandra|2005}} However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the [[Indo-Iranians|(Indo-)Iranian]] religious tradition.{{sfn|Malandra|2005}}{{sfn|Boyce|1984|pp=684–687}} On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors; he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=549}}
==Wives and children==
[[File:Designation of Xerxes I.jpg|thumb|Xerxes being designated by Darius I. Tripylon, [[Persepolis]]. The ethnicities of the Empire are shown supporting the throne. [[Ahuramazda]] crowns the scene.]]
'''By queen [[Amestris]]''':
* [[Amytis]], wife of [[Megabyzus]].
* [[Darius (son of Xerxes I)|Darius]], the first born son, murdered by [[Artaxerxes I]] or [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]].
* [[Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I)|Hystaspes]], murdered by [[Artaxerxes I]].
* [[Artaxerxes I]]
* [[Achaemenes (son of Xerxes I)|Achaemenes]], murdered by Egyptians.{{cn|reason=The Achaemenes murdered by Egyptians was most likely his brother instead, died in 459 BCE|date=September 2020}}
* [[Rhodogune (daughter of Xerxes I)|Rhodogune]]
'''By unknown wives or mistresses''':
* [[Artarius]], satrap of [[Babylon]].
* [[Tithraustes (son of Xerxes I)|Tithraustes]]
* [[Arsames (satrap of Egypt)|Arsames]] or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas, satrap of Egypt.{{cn|date=September 2020}}
* [[Parysatis (daughter of Xerxes I)|Parysatis]]<ref>Ctesias</ref>
* Ratashah<ref>M. Brosius, ''Women in ancient Persia''.</ref>
==Cultural depictions==
[[File:Trilingual inscription of Xerxes, Van, 1973.JPG|thumb|[[Xerses I's inscription at Van|Trilingual inscription of Xerxes at Van]] (present-day Turkey)]]
Xerxes is the central character of the [[Aeschylus]] play "[[The Persians]]". Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''[[Serse]]'' by the German-English [[Baroque]] composer [[George Frideric Handel]]. It was first performed in the [[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]] London on 15 April 1738. The famous [[aria]] "[[Ombra mai fù]]" opens the opera.
The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] is romanticised by the Italian poet [[Metastasio]] in his opera libretto ''[[Artaserse]]'', which was first set to music by [[Leonardo Vinci]], and subsequently by other composers such as [[Johann Adolf Hasse]] and [[Johann Christian Bach]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Adolph-Hasse|title=Johann Adolph Hasse {{!}} German composer|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfordwesternmusic.com/view/Volume2/actrade-9780195384826-div1-04005.xml|title=Metastasio's Musicians : Music In The Seventeenth And Eighteenth Centuries|website=www.oxfordwesternmusic.com|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://christermalmberg.se/documents/musik/klassiskt/bach_johann_christian/bach_johann_christian_verk_uvertyrer_cpo.php|title=Christer Malmbergs värld - Musik - Klassisk musik - Johann Christian Bach|website=christermalmberg.se|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref>
The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer [[Louis Couperus]] describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bibliotheek.nl/catalogus/titel.110734645.html/xerxes--of-de-hoogmoed/|title=Xerxes, of De hoogmoed|website=www.bibliotheek.nl|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Classe|first1=O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myLDA0_brhcC&q=Arrogance%3A+The+Conquests+of+Xerxes+by+Frederick+H.+Martens&pg=PA315|title=Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A-L|last2=AC02468681|first2=Anonymus|date=2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-36-7|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Esther haram.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Queen [[Esther]], a [[Jewish]] queen of Xerxes ([[Edwin Long]], 19th century)]]
Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of [[popular culture]]. He was played by [[David Farrar (actor)|David Farrar]] in the fictional film ''[[The 300 Spartans]]'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''[[300 (comics)|300]]'' and ''[[Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander]]'' by [[Frank Miller (comics)|Frank Miller]], as well as the film adaptation ''[[300 (film)|300]]'' (2007) and its sequel ''[[300: Rise of an Empire]]'' (2014), as portrayed by [[Brazil]]ian actor [[Rodrigo Santoro]], in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in [[Iran]].<ref>Boucher, Geoff [http://herocomplex.latimes.com/2010/06/01/xerxes-300-frank-miller-300-zack-snyder-300/ "Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever'"], ''The Los Angeles Times'', 1 June 2010, accessed 14 May 2010.</ref> [[Ken Davitian]] plays Xerxes in ''[[Meet the Spartans]]'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate [[anachronisms]].
Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of [[Esther]] have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game ''[[Assassin's Creed Odyssey]]'' and the film ''[[One Night with the King]]'' (2006), in which [[Ahasuerus]] (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor [[Luke Goss]]. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game ''[[Civilization II]]'' and ''[[Civilization III|III]]'' (along with [[Scheherazade]]), although ''[[Civilization IV]]'' replaces him with [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius I]].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} In the ''[[Age of Empires (video game)|Age of Empires]]'', Xerxes featured as a short swordsman.
[[File:Ahasuerus by Ernest Normand.jpg|thumb|upright|Xerxes ([[Ahasuerus]]) by [[Ernest Normand]], 1888 (detail)]]
[[Gore Vidal]], in his historical fiction novel ''[[Creation (novel)|Creation]]'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet [[Zoroaster]]. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period.<ref>Gore Vidal, ''Creation: A Novel'' (Random House, 1981)</ref>
Xerxes ([[Ahasuerus]]) is portrayed by [[Richard Egan (actor)|Richard Egan]] in the 1960 film ''[[Esther and the King]]'' and by [[Joel Smallbone]] in the 2013 film, ''[[The Book of Esther (film)|The Book of Esther]]''. In at least one of these films, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of [[alternate history]] taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by [[Harry Turtledove]] in his anthology ''[[Departures (collection)|Departures]]'' and "The Craft of War" by [[Lois Tilton]] in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
==See also==
* [[List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
===Ancient sources===
* {{ws | [[s:History of Herodotus/Book 6|The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato]] in ''History of Herodotus''}}
* {{ws | [[s:History of Herodotus/Book 7|The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia]] in ''History of Herodotus''}}
===Modern sources===
{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite journal|last=Barkworth|first=Peter R.|title=The Organization of Xerxes' Army|year=1993|journal=Iranica Antiqua|volume=27|pages=149–167|doi=10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126|ref=refbarkworth}}
* {{cite book|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1988|isbn=0-521-22804-2|volume=V|ref=refcah-vv|first1=John|last1=Boardman}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Boyce |first=Mary |title=Achaemenid Religion |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-religion |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refachaemenidr-EI}}
* {{cite book | title = Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | year = 1979 | publisher = Psychology Press | last = Boyce | first = Mary | author-link = Mary Boyce | pages = 1–252 | isbn = 9780415239028 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&q=false }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Ahura Mazdā | last = Boyce | first = Mary | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahura-mazda | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7 | pages = 684–687 | year = 1984 }}
* Bridges, Emma (2014). Imagining Xerxes: Ancient Perspectives on a Persian King. Bloomsbury. {{ISBN|978-1472511379}}
* {{cite book | title = From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire | year = 2002 | publisher = Eisenbrauns | last = Briant | first = Pierre | author-link = Pierre Briant | pages = 1–1196 | isbn = 9781575061207 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&q=false }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |article=Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia |last=Brosius |first=Maria |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |location=London et al. |year=2000}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Dandamayev |first=M.A. |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |title=Artabanus |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artabanus-achaemenid |access-date=25 February 2009 |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Pau |ref=refartabanus-ei}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Achaemenid taxation |last=Dandamayev |first=Muhammad A. |author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-taxation |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |year=2000}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ms30qA6nyMsC&q=shamash-eriba&pg=PA185|title=A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire|last=Dandamayev|first=Muhammad A.|publisher=BRILL|year=1989|isbn=978-9004091726|author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Dandamayev|first=Muhammad A.|date=1993|title=Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon|journal=[[Bulletin of the Asia Institute]]|volume=7|pages=41–45|jstor=24048423}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Cambyses II | last = Dandamayev | first = Muhammad A. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cambyses-opers | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7 | pages = 726–729 | year = 1990 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Achaemenes | last = Dandamayev | first = Muhammad A. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenes-greek | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 4 | pages = 414 | year = 1983 }}
* {{cite book |last=Frye |first=Richard N. |title=The Heritage of Persia |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |year=1963 |isbn=0-297-16727-8 |page=301 |ref=reffrye-hop}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Deloucas|first=Andrew Alberto Nicolas|date=2016|title=Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/42888/Deloucas%20-%20Balancing%20Power%20and%20Space%20digital%20copy.pdf?sequence=1|journal=Research Master's Thesis for Classical and Ancient Civilizations (Assyriology) |publisher=Universiteit Leiden}}
* {{cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Iran |volume=2 |first1=Ilya |last1=Gershevitch |first2=William |last2=Bayne Fisher |first3=J. |last3=A. Boyle |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-20091-1 |year=1985 |ref=refchi-v2}}
* {{cite book |first=Lloyd|last=Llewellyn-Jones|editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |title=King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE) |date=2017 |publisher=UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies |chapter=The Achaemenid Empire|pages=1–236|isbn=9780692864401|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unTjswEACAAJ}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest | last = Malandra | first = William W. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-historical-review | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2005 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Macaulay |first1=G.C. |title=The Histories |publisher=Spark Educational Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-59308-102-2 |ref=refherodotus-macaulay}}
* {{cite book|last=Marciak|first=Michał|title=Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West|date=2017|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004350724|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwEtDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=McCullough |first=W.S |title=Ahasuerus |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refMcCullough-EI}}
* {{cite journal |last=Schmeja |first=H. |title=Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3) |year=1975 |journal=Die Sprache |volume=21 |pages=184–188 |ref=refschmeja}}
* {{cite book |last1=Radner|first1=Karen|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Daniel T.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Assyria and the Medes}}
* {{Cite book|chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004217584/BP000026.xml|title=Brill's Companion to Herodotus|last=Sancisi-Weerdenburg|first=Heleen|publisher=BRILL|year=2002|isbn=9789004217584|pages=579–590|chapter=The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings|doi=10.1163/9789004217584_026}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |title=Achaemenid dynasty |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 3 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refachaemenids-EI}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |title=Atossa |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/atossa-achaemenid-queen |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 3 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refatossa-EI}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Xerxes i. The Name | last = Schmitt| first = Rüdiger | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xerxes-1-name | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2000 }}
* {{cite book |last=Shabani |first=Reza |title=Khshayarsha (Xerxes) |series=[http://www.iranculturestudies.com/persian/whatsiran.html What do I know about Iran? No. 75] |publisher=Cultural Research Bureau |isbn=978-964-379-109-4 |year=2007 |language=fa |page=120 |ref=refshabani-xerxes}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Shahbazi |first=A. Sh. |title=Darius I the Great |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-iii |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 7 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refdariusithegreat-EI}}
* {{cite book |title=Xerxes: A Persian Life |year=2015 |publisher=Yale University Press |last=Stoneman |first=Richard |isbn=978-0300180077|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WqtJCgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |title=History of the Persian Empire |first1=A.T. |last1=Olmstead|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0226497648 |year=1979 |orig-year=1948 |ref=#refartaxerxes}}
* {{cite journal |last1=van Rookhuijzen |first1=Jan Zacharias |title=How not to Appease Athena: A Reconsideration of Xerxes' Purported Visit to the Troad (Hdt. 7.42–43) |journal=Klio |date=2017 |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=464–484 |doi=10.1515/klio-2017-0033}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Waerzeggers|first1=Caroline|last2=Seire|first2=Maarja|title=Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence |publisher=Peeters Publishers|year=2018|isbn=978-90-429-3670-6 |url=http://www.peeters-leuven.be/pdf/9789042938090.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Waters|first1=Matt|title=Darius and the Achaemenid Line |date=1996 |journal=Ancient History Bulletin |volume=10 |pages=11–18 |location=London |url=https://www.academia.edu/1040688 |url-access=registration}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Xerxes I}}
* {{Cite EB1911|short=x|wstitle=Xerxes}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid dynasty]]||519 BC||465 BC}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Darius I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of kings of Persia|King of Kings of Persia]]|years=486 BC – 465 BC}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Pharaoh|Pharaoh of Egypt]]|years=486 BC – 465 BC}}
{{s-end}}
{{Median and Achaemenid kings}}
{{Pharaohs}}
{{Achaemenid rulers}}
{{Persepolis}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Xerxes 01}}
[[Category:Xerxes I| ]]
[[Category:510s BC births]]
[[Category:465 BC deaths]]
[[Category:5th-century BC Babylonian kings]]
[[Category:5th-century BC Iranian people]]
[[Category:5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire]]
[[Category:5th-century BC murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:5th-century BC Pharaohs]]
[[Category:5th-century BC rulers]]
[[Category:Ahasuerus]]
[[Category:Battle of Salamis]]
[[Category:Battle of Thermopylae]]
[[Category:Family of Darius the Great]]
[[Category:Kings of the Achaemenid Empire]]
[[Category:Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Murdered Persian monarchs]]
[[Category:Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars]]
[[Category:Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt]]
[[Category:Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,32 +1,3 @@
-{{pp-move-indef}}{{short description|Fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire}}
-{{Infobox royalty
-| name = Xerxes I<br>{{lang|peo|𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠}}
-| title = [[King of Kings]]<br>[[Great King]]<br>[[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]]<br>[[King of Babylon]]<br>[[Pharaoh of Egypt]]<br>[[King of the Lands|King of Countries]]
-| image = National Museum of Iran Darafsh (785).JPG
-| image_size =
-| caption = [[Rock relief]] of an Achaemenid king, most likely Xerxes, located in the [[National Museum of Iran]]<ref>According to plate 2 in {{harvnb|Stoneman|2015}}; though it may also be [[Darius I]].</ref>
-| succession = [[King of kings]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]]
-| reign = October 486 – August 465 BC
-| predecessor = [[Darius the Great]]
-| successor = [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]
-| spouse = [[Amestris]]
-| dynasty = [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid]]
-| issue = {{plainlist|
-* [[Darius (son of Xerxes I)|Darius]]
-* [[Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I)|Hystaspes]]
-* [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]
-* [[Arsames (satrap of Egypt)|Arsames]]
-* [[Amytis]]
-}}
-| father = [[Darius the Great]]
-| mother = [[Atossa]]
-| birth_date = {{circa|518 BC}}
-| birth_place =
-| death_date = August 465 BC (aged approximately 53)
-| death_place =
-| place of burial = [[Naqsh-e Rostam]]
-| religion = [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] religion <br />{{small|(possibly [[Zoroastrianism]])}}
-}}
-{{Hiero|Xerxes (Xašayaruša/Ḫašayaruša)<ref>Jürgen von Beckerath (1999), ''Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen'', Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. {{ISBN|3-8053-2310-7}}, pp. 220–221</ref>|<hiero>< xA-SA-i*i-A-rw-SA-A ></hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
+
'''Xerxes I''' ({{lang-peo|[[wiktionary:𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠|𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠]]}} {{transl|peo|Xšayār̥šā}}; {{lang-grc|[[wiktionary:Ξέρξης|Ξέρξης]]}} {{transl|grc|Xérxēs}}; {{circa|518}} – August 465 BC), commonly known as '''Xerxes the Great''', was the fourth [[King of Kings]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486 BC}}) and his mother was [[Atossa]], a daughter of [[Cyrus the Great]] ({{reign|550|530 BC}}), the founder of the Achaemenid empire. Like his father, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]], the commander of the royal bodyguard.
@@ -35,5 +6,5 @@
Xerxes is identified with the king [[Ahasuerus]] in the biblical [[Book of Esther]],{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=9}} which some scholars consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Book-of-Esther|title = Book of Esther | Summary & Facts}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica 1984">{{cite web | first=W. S. | last=McCullough | title=AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica | website=Encyclopædia Iranica | date= 28 July 2011 | orig-year=15 December 1984 | url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus | access-date=3 April 2020 | quote=There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Barton |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Muddiman |editor-first2=John |first=Carol|last=Meyers|title=The Oxford Bible Commentary |date=2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199277186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA325 |language=en | page=325 | quote=Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews.}}</ref><ref name="JewishEncyclopedia.com">{{cite web | author-first1=Emil G.|author-last1=Hirsch|author-first2=John|author-last2=Dyneley Prince|author-first3=Solomon|author-last3=Schechter|editor-first1=Isidor|editor-last1=Singer|editor-first2=Cyrus|editor-last2=Adler|title=ESTHER | website=JewishEncyclopedia.com | year=1906 | url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5872-esther | access-date=25 April 2020 | quote=The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance.}}</ref>
-== Etymology ==
+== Etymology ... ==
''Xérxēs'' ({{lang|grc|Ξέρξης}}) is the [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') transliteration of the [[Old Iranian]] ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part ''xšaya'', meaning "ruling", and the second ''ṛšā'', meaning "hero, man".<ref name="NAME">{{harvnb|Marciak|2017|p=80}}; {{harvnb|Schmitt|2000}}</ref> The name of Xerxes was known in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' and in [[Aramaic]] as ''ḥšyʾrš''.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000}} Xerxes would become a popular name among the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name="NAME" />
' |
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Lines added in edit (added_lines) | [
0 => ' ',
1 => '== Etymology ... =='
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '{{pp-move-indef}}{{short description|Fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire}}',
1 => '{{Infobox royalty',
2 => '| name = Xerxes I<br>{{lang|peo|𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠}}',
3 => '| title = [[King of Kings]]<br>[[Great King]]<br>[[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]]<br>[[King of Babylon]]<br>[[Pharaoh of Egypt]]<br>[[King of the Lands|King of Countries]]',
4 => '| image = National Museum of Iran Darafsh (785).JPG',
5 => '| image_size =',
6 => '| caption = [[Rock relief]] of an Achaemenid king, most likely Xerxes, located in the [[National Museum of Iran]]<ref>According to plate 2 in {{harvnb|Stoneman|2015}}; though it may also be [[Darius I]].</ref>',
7 => '| succession = [[King of kings]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]]',
8 => '| reign = October 486 – August 465 BC',
9 => '| predecessor = [[Darius the Great]]',
10 => '| successor = [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]',
11 => '| spouse = [[Amestris]]',
12 => '| dynasty = [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid]]',
13 => '| issue = {{plainlist|',
14 => '* [[Darius (son of Xerxes I)|Darius]]',
15 => '* [[Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I)|Hystaspes]]',
16 => '* [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]',
17 => '* [[Arsames (satrap of Egypt)|Arsames]]',
18 => '* [[Amytis]]',
19 => '}}',
20 => '| father = [[Darius the Great]]',
21 => '| mother = [[Atossa]]',
22 => '| birth_date = {{circa|518 BC}}',
23 => '| birth_place =',
24 => '| death_date = August 465 BC (aged approximately 53)',
25 => '| death_place =',
26 => '| place of burial = [[Naqsh-e Rostam]]',
27 => '| religion = [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] religion <br />{{small|(possibly [[Zoroastrianism]])}}',
28 => '}}',
29 => '{{Hiero|Xerxes (Xašayaruša/Ḫašayaruša)<ref>Jürgen von Beckerath (1999), ''Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen'', Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. {{ISBN|3-8053-2310-7}}, pp. 220–221</ref>|<hiero>< xA-SA-i*i-A-rw-SA-A ></hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}',
30 => '== Etymology =='
] |
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><p><b>Xerxes I</b> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Persian language">Old Persian</a>: <span lang="peo"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8E%A7%F0%90%8F%81%F0%90%8E%B9%F0%90%8E%A0%F0%90%8E%BC%F0%90%8F%81%F0%90%8E%A0" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠">𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠</a></span> <i lang="peo-Latn" title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language romanization">Xšayār̥šā</i>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%9E%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BE%CE%B7%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Ξέρξης">Ξέρξης</a></span> <i lang="grc-Latn" title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization">Xérxēs</i>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 518</span> – August 465 BC), commonly known as <b>Xerxes the Great</b>, was the fourth <a href="/enwiki/wiki/King_of_Kings" title="King of Kings">King of Kings</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r</abbr>. 522 – 486 BC</span>) and his mother was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atossa" title="Atossa">Atossa</a>, a daughter of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r</abbr>. 550 – 530 BC</span>), the founder of the Achaemenid empire. Like his father, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artabanus_of_Persia" title="Artabanus of Persia">Artabanus</a>, the commander of the royal bodyguard.
</p><p>Xerxes I is notable in Western history for his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">invasion of Greece</a> in 480 BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> north of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isthmus_of_Corinth" title="Isthmus of Corinth">Isthmus of Corinth</a><sup id="cite_ref-L248_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L248-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World-2">[2]</a></sup> until losses at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Plataea</a> a year later reversed these gains and ended the second invasion decisively. However, Xerxes successfully crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_Ghirshman" title="Roman Ghirshman">Roman Ghirshman</a> says that, "After this he ceased to use the title of 'king of Babylon', calling himself simply 'king of the Persians and the Medes'."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Xerxes also oversaw the completion of various construction projects at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>.
</p><p>Xerxes is identified with the king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahasuerus" title="Ahasuerus">Ahasuerus</a> in the biblical <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book_of_Esther" title="Book of Esther">Book of Esther</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman20159_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman20159-4">[4]</a></sup> which some scholars consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia_Britannica_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_Britannica-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Iranica_1984_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopædia_Iranica_1984-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia.com_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia.com-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology_..."><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology ...</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Historiography"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Historiography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Early_life"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Early life</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Parentage_and_birth"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Parentage and birth</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Upbringing_and_education"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Upbringing and education</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Accession_to_the_throne"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Accession to the throne</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Consolidation_of_power"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Consolidation of power</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Campaigns"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Campaigns</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Invasion_of_the_Greek_mainland"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Invasion of the Greek mainland</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_destruction_of_Athens"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Battles_of_Salamis_and_Plataea"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Battles of Salamis and Plataea</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Construction_projects"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Construction projects</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Death"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Death</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Government"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Government</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Religion"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Religion</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Wives_and_children"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Wives and children</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Cultural_depictions"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Cultural depictions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Ancient_sources"><span class="tocnumber">13.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Modern_sources"><span class="tocnumber">13.2</span> <span class="toctext">Modern sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology_...">Etymology ...</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology ...">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><i>Xérxēs</i> (<span lang="grc" title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Ξέρξης</span>) is the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> (<i>Xerxes</i>, <i>Xerses</i>) transliteration of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Iranian">Old Iranian</a> <i>Xšaya-ṛšā</i> ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part <i>xšaya</i>, meaning "ruling", and the second <i>ṛšā</i>, meaning "hero, man".<sup id="cite_ref-NAME_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAME-9">[9]</a></sup> The name of Xerxes was known in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> as <i>Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá</i> and in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> as <i>ḥšyʾrš</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt2000_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt2000-10">[10]</a></sup> Xerxes would become a popular name among the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-NAME_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAME-9">[9]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Historiography">Historiography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Much of Xerxes' bad reputation is due to propaganda by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a> king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r</abbr>. 336–323 BC</span>), who had him vilified.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman20152_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman20152-11">[11]</a></sup> The modern historian Richard Stoneman regards the portrayal of Xerxes as more nuanced and tragic in the work of the contemporary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman20152_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman20152-11">[11]</a></sup> However, many modern historians agree that Herodotus recorded spurious information.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200257_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200257-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERadner2013454_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2013454-13">[13]</a></sup> Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002158,_516_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002158,_516-14">[14]</a></sup> Many Achaemenid-era clay tablets and other reports written in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> are frequently contradictory to the reports of classical authors, i.e. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ctesias" title="Ctesias">Ctesias</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2015viii–ix_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2015viii–ix-15">[15]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life">Early life</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early life">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Parentage_and_birth">Parentage and birth</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Parentage and birth">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Xerxes' father was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r</abbr>. 522 – 486 BC</span>), the incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, the founder of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELlewellyn-Jones201770_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELlewellyn-Jones201770-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaters199611,_18_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaters199611,_18-17">[17]</a></sup> Xerxes' mother was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atossa" title="Atossa">Atossa</a>, a daughter of Cyrus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002132_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002132-18">[18]</a></sup> Darius and Atossa had married in 522 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002520_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002520-19">[19]</a></sup> with Xerxes being born around 518 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman20151_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman20151-20">[20]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Upbringing_and_education">Upbringing and education</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Upbringing and education">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Caylus_vase_1762.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Caylus_vase_1762.jpg/170px-Caylus_vase_1762.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Caylus_vase_1762.jpg/255px-Caylus_vase_1762.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Caylus_vase_1762.jpg/340px-Caylus_vase_1762.jpg 2x" data-file-width="481" data-file-height="759" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Caylus_vase_1762.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caylus_vase" title="Caylus vase">Caylus vase</a>", a quadrilingual alabaster jar with cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions in the name of "Xerxes, the Great King". <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cabinet_des_M%C3%A9dailles" title="Cabinet des Médailles">Cabinet des Médailles</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a><sup id="cite_ref-RMN_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RMN-21">[21]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>According to the Greek dialogue <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Alcibiades" title="First Alcibiades">First Alcibiades</a>, which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes; they were raised by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eunuchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuchs">eunuchs</a>. When reaching the age of 7, they learned how to ride and hunt; at age 14, they were taught by four teachers of aristocratic stock, who taught them how to be "wise, just, prudent and brave."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201527_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201527-22">[22]</a></sup> Persian princes were also taught on the basics of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a> religion, to be truthful, have self-restraint, and to be courageous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201527_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201527-22">[22]</a></sup> The dialogue further added that "Fear, for a Persian, is the equivalent of slavery."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201527_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201527-22">[22]</a></sup> At the age of 16 or 17, they began their "national service" for 10 years, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201528_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201528-23">[23]</a></sup> Afterwards they served in the military for around 25 years, and were then elevated to the status of elders and advisers of the king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201528_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201528-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>This account of education among the Persian elite is supported by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>'s description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrus_the_Younger" title="Cyrus the Younger">Cyrus the Younger</a>, with whom he was well-acquainted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201528_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201528-23">[23]</a></sup> Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201529_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201529-24">[24]</a></sup> It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favouring oral history over written literature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201529_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201529-24">[24]</a></sup> Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abbas_the_Great" title="Abbas the Great">Abbas the Great</a>, king of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a> in the 17th-century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201529_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201529-24">[24]</a></sup> Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989183_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989183-25">[25]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Accession_to_the_throne">Accession to the throne</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Accession to the throne">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. Under Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions. When Darius decided to leave (487–486 BC), he (Darius) prepared his tomb at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-e Rustam">Naqsh-e Rustam</a> (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atossa" title="Atossa">Atossa</a>, as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486 BC at the age of 64.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989178–179_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989178–179-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artobazan" class="mw-redirect" title="Artobazan">Artobazan</a> claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children; while Xerxes, on the other hand, argued that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes was also helped by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, Eurypontid king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demaratus" title="Demaratus">Demaratus</a>, who also argued that the eldest son does not universally mean they have claim to the crown, as Spartan law states that the first son born while the father is king is the heir to the kingship.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artobazan" class="mw-redirect" title="Artobazan">Artobazan</a> was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Born_in_the_purple" title="Born in the purple">born in the purple</a> after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup>
</p><p>Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC<sup id="cite_ref-chi-v2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chi-v2-30">[30]</a></sup> when he was about 36 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989180_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989180-31">[31]</a></sup> The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to the great authority of Atossa<sup id="cite_ref-atossa-EI_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atossa-EI-32">[32]</a></sup> and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Consolidation_of_power">Consolidation of power</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Consolidation of power">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Histoire_universelle_depuis_le_commencement_du_monde_jusqu%27%C3%A0_pr%C3%A9sent_(1742)_(14598039057).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Histoire_universelle_depuis_le_commencement_du_monde_jusqu%27%C3%A0_pr%C3%A9sent_%281742%29_%2814598039057%29.jpg/220px-Histoire_universelle_depuis_le_commencement_du_monde_jusqu%27%C3%A0_pr%C3%A9sent_%281742%29_%2814598039057%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Histoire_universelle_depuis_le_commencement_du_monde_jusqu%27%C3%A0_pr%C3%A9sent_%281742%29_%2814598039057%29.jpg/330px-Histoire_universelle_depuis_le_commencement_du_monde_jusqu%27%C3%A0_pr%C3%A9sent_%281742%29_%2814598039057%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Histoire_universelle_depuis_le_commencement_du_monde_jusqu%27%C3%A0_pr%C3%A9sent_%281742%29_%2814598039057%29.jpg/440px-Histoire_universelle_depuis_le_commencement_du_monde_jusqu%27%C3%A0_pr%C3%A9sent_%281742%29_%2814598039057%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3510" data-file-height="2384" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Histoire_universelle_depuis_le_commencement_du_monde_jusqu%27%C3%A0_pr%C3%A9sent_(1742)_(14598039057).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Engraving of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> by H. Fletcher, 1690</div></div></div>
<p>At Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Egypt</a>, which seems to have been dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with a military campaign).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525-34">[34]</a></sup> Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC, and appointed his full-brother <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenes_(satrap)" title="Achaemenes (satrap)">Achaemenes</a> as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> of the country, replacing the previous satrap <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pherendates" title="Pherendates">Pherendates</a>, who was reportedly killed during the revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1983414_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1983414-35">[35]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989183_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989183-25">[25]</a></sup> The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525-34">[34]</a></sup> Xerxes thus had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took four years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525-34">[34]</a></sup> There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bel-shimanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Bel-shimanni">Bel-shimanni</a>. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shamash-eriba" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamash-eriba">Shamash-eriba</a>. Beginning in the summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Borsippa" title="Borsippa">Borsippa</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dilbat" title="Dilbat">Dilbat</a>, and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341-36">[36]</a></sup> The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525-34">[34]</a></sup> It may have been due to tax increase.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2015111_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2015111-37">[37]</a></sup> Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire, the Achaemenid kings had been titled as "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/King_of_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Babylon">King of Babylon</a>" and "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/King_of_the_Lands" title="King of the Lands">King of the Lands</a>", perceiving <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a>. Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>'s territory) into smaller sub-units.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989185–186_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989185–186-38">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>Using texts written by classical authors, it is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341-36">[36]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esagila" title="Esagila">Esagila</a> was allegedly exposed to great damage and Xerxes allegedly carried the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Marduk" title="Statue of Marduk">statue of Marduk</a> away from the city,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESancisi-Weerdenburg2002579_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESancisi-Weerdenburg2002579-39">[39]</a></sup> possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors held that the statue was entirely made of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341-36">[36]</a></sup> Modern historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Am%C3%A9lie_Kuhrt" title="Amélie Kuhrt">Amélie Kuhrt</a> considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201639_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201639-40">[40]</a></sup> It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341-36">[36]</a></sup> and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marduk" title="Marduk">Marduk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaerzeggersSeire20183_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaerzeggersSeire20183-41">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002544_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002544-42">[42]</a></sup> Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">New Year's Festival</a> continued in some form during the Achaemenid period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201640_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201640-43">[43]</a></sup> Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201641_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201641-44">[44]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Campaigns">Campaigns</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Campaigns">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Invasion_of_the_Greek_mainland">Invasion of the Greek mainland</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Invasion of the Greek mainland">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:332px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg/330px-Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="162" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg/495px-Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg/660px-Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4770" data-file-height="2335" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The soldiers of Xerxes I, of all ethnicities,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> on the tomb of Xerxes I, at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athenians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naxos_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxos Island">Naxians</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretrians</a> for their interference in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a>, the burning of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>, and their victory over the Persians at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Marathon</a>. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xerxes_Canal" title="Xerxes Canal">Xerxes Canal</a> was dug through the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isthmus" title="Isthmus">isthmus</a> of the peninsula of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a>, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, and two <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" title="Pontoon bridge">pontoon bridges</a> later known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xerxes%27_Pontoon_Bridges" title="Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges">Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges</a> were built across the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a>. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babylonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonians">Babylonians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedonians</a>, European <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thracians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paionia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paionia">Paeonians</a>, Achaean <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aegean_Islands" title="Aegean Islands">Aegean islanders</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolians</a>, Greeks from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colchians" class="mw-redirect" title="Colchians">Colchians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indians</a> and many more.
</p><p>According to the Greek historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">flax</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fetters" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetters">fetters</a> thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthaginian</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sicilian_Wars#The_First_Sicilian_War_(480_BC)" title="Sicilian Wars">invasion of Sicily</a> deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syracuse,_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syracuse, Italy">Syracuse</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agrigentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrigentum">Agrigentum</a>; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese" title="Argos, Peloponnese">Argos</a>. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.
</p><p>Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a> with a fleet and army which <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Immortals_(Achaemenid_Empire)" title="Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)">Immortals</a>. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_destruction_of_Athens">Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg/220px-Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg/330px-Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg/440px-Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="970" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Achaemenid king killing a Greek <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a>. Impression from a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seal</a>, sculpted c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></div></div></div>
<p>At the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a>, a small force of Greek warriors led by King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonidas_I" title="Leonidas I">Leonidas</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a> after a Greek man called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ephialtes_of_Trachis" title="Ephialtes of Trachis">Ephialtes</a> betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a>, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Foundations_of_the_Old_Athena_Temple_(foreground).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Foundations_of_the_Old_Athena_Temple_%28foreground%29.jpg/220px-Foundations_of_the_Old_Athena_Temple_%28foreground%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Foundations_of_the_Old_Athena_Temple_%28foreground%29.jpg/330px-Foundations_of_the_Old_Athena_Temple_%28foreground%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Foundations_of_the_Old_Athena_Temple_%28foreground%29.jpg/440px-Foundations_of_the_Old_Athena_Temple_%28foreground%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1327" data-file-height="903" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Foundations_of_the_Old_Athena_Temple_(foreground).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Foundations of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Temple_of_Athena" title="Old Temple of Athena">Old Temple of Athena</a>, destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Destruction_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of Athens">Destruction of Athens</a> in 480 BC</div></div></div>
<p>After Thermopylae, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salamis_Island" title="Salamis Island">Salamis</a> before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Athenian_Acropolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenian Acropolis">Athenian Acropolis</a>, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Destruction_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of Athens">Destruction of Athens</a> and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perserschutt" title="Perserschutt">Perserschutt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isthmus_of_Corinth" title="Isthmus of Corinth">Isthmus of Corinth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Battles_of_Salamis_and_Plataea">Battles of Salamis and Plataea</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Battles of Salamis and Plataea">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Xerxes was induced, by the message of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a> (against the advice of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artemisia_I_of_Caria" title="Artemisia I of Caria">Artemisia</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Halicarnassus" title="Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</a>), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peloponnesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peloponnesus">Peloponnesus</a> and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a> (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a>.
</p><p>According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a> and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him.<sup id="cite_ref-VIII97_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VIII97-53">[53]</a></sup> Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, a key province of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">empire</a>, required the king's personal attention.<sup id="cite_ref-livius_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livius-54">[54]</a></sup>
He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a>, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Plataea</a> by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Construction_projects">Construction projects</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Construction projects">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Xerxes.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Tomb_of_Xerxes.JPG/220px-Tomb_of_Xerxes.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Tomb_of_Xerxes.JPG/330px-Tomb_of_Xerxes.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Tomb_of_Xerxes.JPG/440px-Tomb_of_Xerxes.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1333" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Xerxes.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The rock-cut tomb at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-e Rustam">Naqsh-e Rustam</a> north of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>, copying that of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius</a>, is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes</div></div></div>
<p>After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>. He oversaw the building of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gate_of_All_Nations" title="Gate of All Nations">Gate of All Nations</a> and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apadana" title="Apadana">Apadana</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tachara" title="Tachara">Tachara</a> (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apadana" title="Apadana">Apadana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> He also maintained the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Road" title="Royal Road">Royal Road</a> built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palace_of_Darius_in_Susa" title="Palace of Darius in Susa">palace in Susa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Death">Death</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Death">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Clay_tablet._The_cuneiform_text_mentions_the_murder_of_Xerxes_I_(r._485-465_BCE)_by_his_son_and_a_lunar_eclipse_(609-447_BCE)._From_Babylon,_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Clay_tablet._The_cuneiform_text_mentions_the_murder_of_Xerxes_I_%28r._485-465_BCE%29_by_his_son_and_a_lunar_eclipse_%28609-447_BCE%29._From_Babylon%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Clay_tablet._The_cuneiform_text_mentions_the_murder_of_Xerxes_I_%28r._485-465_BCE%29_by_his_son_and_a_lunar_eclipse_%28609-447_BCE%29._From_Babylon%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Clay_tablet._The_cuneiform_text_mentions_the_murder_of_Xerxes_I_%28r._485-465_BCE%29_by_his_son_and_a_lunar_eclipse_%28609-447_BCE%29._From_Babylon%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3410" data-file-height="2588" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Clay_tablet._The_cuneiform_text_mentions_the_murder_of_Xerxes_I_(r._485-465_BCE)_by_his_son_and_a_lunar_eclipse_(609-447_BCE)._From_Babylon,_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>This cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I by his son. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum</div></div></div>
<p>In August 465 BC, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artabanus_of_Persia" title="Artabanus of Persia">Artabanus</a>, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuch</a>, Aspamitres. Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hyrcanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyrcanian">Hyrcanian</a>, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup>
</p><p>Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ctesias" title="Ctesias">Ctesias</a> (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes I of Persia">Artaxerxes</a>, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> Participating in these intrigues was the general <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Megabyzus" title="Megabyzus">Megabyzus</a>, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Government">Government</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Government">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion">Religion</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalandra2005_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalandra2005-61">[61]</a></sup> it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a>, whom he saw as the supreme deity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalandra2005_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalandra2005-61">[61]</a></sup> However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">(Indo-)Iranian</a> religious tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalandra2005_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalandra2005-61">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984684–687_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984684–687-62">[62]</a></sup> On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors; he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002549_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002549-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Wives_and_children">Wives and children</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Wives and children">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Designation_of_Xerxes_I.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Designation_of_Xerxes_I.jpg/220px-Designation_of_Xerxes_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Designation_of_Xerxes_I.jpg/330px-Designation_of_Xerxes_I.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Designation_of_Xerxes_I.jpg/440px-Designation_of_Xerxes_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="786" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Designation_of_Xerxes_I.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Xerxes being designated by Darius I. Tripylon, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>. The ethnicities of the Empire are shown supporting the throne. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahuramazda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahuramazda">Ahuramazda</a> crowns the scene.</div></div></div>
<p><b>By queen <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amestris" title="Amestris">Amestris</a></b>:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amytis" title="Amytis">Amytis</a>, wife of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Megabyzus" title="Megabyzus">Megabyzus</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_(son_of_Xerxes_I)" title="Darius (son of Xerxes I)">Darius</a>, the first born son, murdered by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artabanus_of_Persia" title="Artabanus of Persia">Artabanus</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hystaspes_(son_of_Xerxes_I)" title="Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I)">Hystaspes</a>, murdered by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Achaemenes_(son_of_Xerxes_I)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Achaemenes (son of Xerxes I) (page does not exist)">Achaemenes</a>, murdered by Egyptians.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="The Achaemenes murdered by Egyptians was most likely his brother instead, died in 459 BCE (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Rhodogune_(daughter_of_Xerxes_I)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhodogune (daughter of Xerxes I) (page does not exist)">Rhodogune</a></li></ul>
<p><b>By unknown wives or mistresses</b>:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Artarius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Artarius (page does not exist)">Artarius</a>, satrap of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tithraustes_(son_of_Xerxes_I)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tithraustes (son of Xerxes I) (page does not exist)">Tithraustes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arsames_(satrap_of_Egypt)" title="Arsames (satrap of Egypt)">Arsames</a> or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas, satrap of Egypt.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Parysatis_(daughter_of_Xerxes_I)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parysatis (daughter of Xerxes I) (page does not exist)">Parysatis</a><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup></li>
<li>Ratashah<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Cultural_depictions">Cultural depictions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cultural depictions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes,_Van,_1973.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG/220px-Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG/330px-Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG/440px-Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="972" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes,_Van,_1973.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xerses_I%27s_inscription_at_Van" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerses I's inscription at Van">Trilingual inscription of Xerxes at Van</a> (present-day Turkey)</div></div></div>
<p>Xerxes is the central character of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a> play "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Persians" title="The Persians">The Persians</a>". Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serse" title="Serse">Serse</a></i> by the German-English <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> composer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">George Frideric Handel</a>. It was first performed in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Theatre" title="Her Majesty's Theatre">King's Theatre</a> London on 15 April 1738. The famous <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aria" title="Aria">aria</a> "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ombra_mai_f%C3%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="Ombra mai fù">Ombra mai fù</a>" opens the opera.
</p><p>The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (<i>Artabano</i>), execution of crown prince Darius (<i>Dario</i>), revolt by Megabyzus (<i>Megabise</i>), and subsequent succession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes I of Persia">Artaxerxes I</a> is romanticised by the Italian poet <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metastasio" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastasio">Metastasio</a> in his opera libretto <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaserse" title="Artaserse">Artaserse</a></i>, which was first set to music by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonardo_Vinci" title="Leonardo Vinci">Leonardo Vinci</a>, and subsequently by other composers such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johann_Adolf_Hasse" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Adolf Hasse">Johann Adolf Hasse</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johann_Christian_Bach" title="Johann Christian Bach">Johann Christian Bach</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>The historical novel <i>Xerxes of de Hoogmoed</i> (1919) by Dutch writer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_Couperus" title="Louis Couperus">Louis Couperus</a> describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation <i>Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes</i> by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Esther_haram.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Esther_haram.jpg/170px-Esther_haram.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Esther_haram.jpg/255px-Esther_haram.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Esther_haram.jpg/340px-Esther_haram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1200" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Esther_haram.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Queen <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esther" title="Esther">Esther</a>, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> queen of Xerxes (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edwin_Long" title="Edwin Long">Edwin Long</a>, 19th century)</div></div></div>
<p>Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a>, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>. He was played by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_Farrar_(actor)" title="David Farrar (actor)">David Farrar</a> in the fictional film <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_300_Spartans" title="The 300 Spartans">The 300 Spartans</a></i> (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/300_(comics)" title="300 (comics)">300</a></i> and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xerxes:_The_Fall_of_the_House_of_Darius_and_the_Rise_of_Alexander" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander">Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander</a></i> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frank_Miller_(comics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Miller (comics)">Frank Miller</a>, as well as the film adaptation <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/300_(film)" title="300 (film)">300</a></i> (2007) and its sequel <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/300:_Rise_of_an_Empire" title="300: Rise of an Empire">300: Rise of an Empire</a></i> (2014), as portrayed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> actor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rodrigo_Santoro" title="Rodrigo Santoro">Rodrigo Santoro</a>, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ken_Davitian" title="Ken Davitian">Ken Davitian</a> plays Xerxes in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meet_the_Spartans" title="Meet the Spartans">Meet the Spartans</a></i>, a parody of the first <i>300</i> movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anachronisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Anachronisms">anachronisms</a>.
</p><p>Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esther" title="Esther">Esther</a> have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assassin%27s_Creed_Odyssey" title="Assassin's Creed Odyssey">Assassin's Creed Odyssey</a></i> and the film <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/One_Night_with_the_King" title="One Night with the King">One Night with the King</a></i> (2006), in which <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahasuerus" title="Ahasuerus">Ahasuerus</a> (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Luke_Goss" title="Luke Goss">Luke Goss</a>. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civilization_II" title="Civilization II">Civilization II</a></i> and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civilization_III" title="Civilization III">III</a></i> (along with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scheherazade" title="Scheherazade">Scheherazade</a>), although <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civilization_IV" title="Civilization IV">Civilization IV</a></i> replaces him with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Age_of_Empires_(video_game)" title="Age of Empires (video game)">Age of Empires</a></i>, Xerxes featured as a short swordsman.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ahasuerus_by_Ernest_Normand.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ahasuerus_by_Ernest_Normand.jpg/170px-Ahasuerus_by_Ernest_Normand.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ahasuerus_by_Ernest_Normand.jpg/255px-Ahasuerus_by_Ernest_Normand.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ahasuerus_by_Ernest_Normand.jpg/340px-Ahasuerus_by_Ernest_Normand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1312" data-file-height="1616" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ahasuerus_by_Ernest_Normand.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Xerxes (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahasuerus" title="Ahasuerus">Ahasuerus</a>) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ernest_Normand" title="Ernest Normand">Ernest Normand</a>, 1888 (detail)</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gore_Vidal" title="Gore Vidal">Gore Vidal</a>, in his historical fiction novel <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Creation_(novel)" title="Creation (novel)">Creation</a></i> (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a>. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p><p>Xerxes (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahasuerus" title="Ahasuerus">Ahasuerus</a>) is portrayed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Richard_Egan_(actor)" title="Richard Egan (actor)">Richard Egan</a> in the 1960 film <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esther_and_the_King" title="Esther and the King">Esther and the King</a></i> and by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joel_Smallbone" title="Joel Smallbone">Joel Smallbone</a> in the 2013 film, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Book_of_Esther_(film)" title="The Book of Esther (film)">The Book of Esther</a></i>. In at least one of these films, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alternate_history" title="Alternate history">alternate history</a> taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harry_Turtledove" title="Harry Turtledove">Harry Turtledove</a> in his anthology <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Departures_(collection)" class="mw-redirect" title="Departures (collection)">Departures</a></i> and "The Craft of War" by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lois_Tilton" title="Lois Tilton">Lois Tilton</a> in <i>Alternate Generals</i> volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources" title="List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources">List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-L248-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-L248_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFLazenby,_J.F.1993" class="citation book cs1">Lazenby, J.F. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mVRwQgAACAAJ"><i>The Defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C.</i></a> Aris & Phillips. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0856685910" title="Special:BookSources/978-0856685910"><bdi>978-0856685910</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Defence+of+Greece%2C+490%E2%80%93479+B.C.&rft.pub=Aris+%26+Phillips&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0856685910&rft.au=Lazenby%2C+J.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmVRwQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warfare_in_the_Ancient_World_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3OSfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT32&dq=persia+overran+modern+day+greece&hl=en&sa=X&ei=N9Z0VffXHoqR7AbFhoOYDQ&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=persia%20overran%20modern%20day%20greece&f=false"><i>Warfare in the Ancient World</i></a> Pen and Sword, 19 January 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1848846304" title="Special:BookSources/1848846304">1848846304</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roman Ghirshman, <i>Iran</i> (1954), Penguin Books, p. 191.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman20159-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman20159_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStoneman2015">Stoneman 2015</a>, p. 9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia_Britannica-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_Britannica_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Book-of-Esther">"Book of Esther | Summary & Facts"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Book+of+Esther+%26%23124%3B+Summary+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FBook-of-Esther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Encyclopædia_Iranica_1984-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Iranica_1984_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMcCullough2011" class="citation web cs1">McCullough, W. S. (28 July 2011) [15 December 1984]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus">"AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2020</span>. <q>There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.atitle=AHASUREUS+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2011-07-28&rft.aulast=McCullough&rft.aufirst=W.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fahasureus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMeyers2007" class="citation book cs1">Meyers, Carol (2007). Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DWUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA325"><i>The Oxford Bible Commentary</i></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 325. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199277186" title="Special:BookSources/9780199277186"><bdi>9780199277186</bdi></a>. <q>Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Bible+Commentary&rft.pages=325&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780199277186&rft.aulast=Meyers&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDWUTDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia.com-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia.com_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHirschDyneley_PrinceSchechter1906" class="citation web cs1">Hirsch, Emil G.; Dyneley Prince, John; Schechter, Solomon (1906). Singer, Isidor; Adler, Cyrus (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5872-esther">"ESTHER"</a>. <i>JewishEncyclopedia.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2020</span>. <q>The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=ESTHER&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Hirsch&rft.aufirst=Emil+G.&rft.au=Dyneley+Prince%2C+John&rft.au=Schechter%2C+Solomon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F5872-esther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-NAME-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NAME_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NAME_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarciak2017">Marciak 2017</a>, p. 80; <a href="#CITEREFSchmitt2000">Schmitt 2000</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitt2000-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitt2000_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmitt2000">Schmitt 2000</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman20152-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman20152_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman20152_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStoneman2015">Stoneman 2015</a>, p. 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200257-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200257_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 57.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERadner2013454-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERadner2013454_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRadner2013">Radner 2013</a>, p. 454.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002158,_516-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002158,_516_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, pp. 158, 516.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2015viii–ix-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2015viii–ix_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStoneman2015">Stoneman 2015</a>, pp. viii–ix.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELlewellyn-Jones201770-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELlewellyn-Jones201770_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLlewellyn-Jones2017">Llewellyn-Jones 2017</a>, p. 70.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaters199611,_18-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaters199611,_18_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaters1996">Waters 1996</a>, pp. 11, 18.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002132-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002132_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 132.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002520-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002520_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 520.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman20151-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman20151_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStoneman2015">Stoneman 2015</a>, p. 1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-RMN-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RMN_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr/ws/catalogue/app/collection/record/ark:/12148/c33gbts1b">"vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695 , BnF"</a>. <i>medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr</i> (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr&rft.atitle=vase+%28inv.65.4695%29+-+inv.65.4695+%2C+BnF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedaillesetantiques.bnf.fr%2Fws%2Fcatalogue%2Fapp%2Fcollection%2Frecord%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fc33gbts1b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201527-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201527_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201527_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201527_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStoneman2015">Stoneman 2015</a>, p. 27.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201528-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201528_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201528_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201528_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStoneman2015">Stoneman 2015</a>, p. 28.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman201529-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201529_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201529_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman201529_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStoneman2015">Stoneman 2015</a>, p. 29.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989183-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989183_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989183_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDandamayev1989">Dandamayev 1989</a>, p. 183.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989178–179-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989178–179_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDandamayev1989">Dandamayev 1989</a>, pp. 178–179.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> 7.1–5</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refshabani-xerxes">R. Shabani</a> Chapter I, p. 15</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#ref">Olmstead: The history of Persian empire</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-chi-v2-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chi-v2_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refchi-v2google"><i>The Cambridge History of Iran</i> vol. 2</a>. p. 509.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989180-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989180_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDandamayev1989">Dandamayev 1989</a>, p. 180.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-atossa-EI-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-atossa-EI_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schmitt, R., "<a href="#refatossa-EI">Atossa</a>" in <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refcah-vv"><i>The Cambridge Ancient History</i> vol. V</a> p. 72.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002525_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 525.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1983414-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1983414_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDandamayev1983">Dandamayev 1983</a>, p. 414.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev199341_36-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDandamayev1993">Dandamayev 1993</a>, p. 41.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2015111-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2015111_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStoneman2015">Stoneman 2015</a>, p. 111.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989185–186-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamayev1989185–186_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDandamayev1989">Dandamayev 1989</a>, pp. 185–186.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESancisi-Weerdenburg2002579-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESancisi-Weerdenburg2002579_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSancisi-Weerdenburg2002">Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2002</a>, p. 579.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201639-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201639_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeloucas2016">Deloucas 2016</a>, p. 39.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaerzeggersSeire20183-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaerzeggersSeire20183_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaerzeggersSeire2018">Waerzeggers & Seire 2018</a>, p. 3.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002544-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002544_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 544.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201640-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201640_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeloucas2016">Deloucas 2016</a>, p. 40.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201641-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeloucas201641_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeloucas2016">Deloucas 2016</a>, p. 41.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/uploads/files/Clothing/v5f7a014_f1_300.jpg">Soldiers with names</a>, after Walser</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=arch_pubs">p. 713</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/naqs-e-rostam"><i>Naqš-e-Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naq%C5%A1-e-Rostam+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fnaqs-e-rostam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). <i>Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War</i>. Oxford, UK: Osprey. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1846031087" title="Special:BookSources/1846031087">1846031087</a>, p. 77</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bailkey, Nels, ed. <i>Readings in Ancient History</i>, p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., 1992.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Mafodda, <i>La monarchia di Gelone tra pragmatismo, ideologia e propaganda</i>, (Messina, 1996) pp. 119–136</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barkworth, 1993. "The Organization of Xerxes' Army." <i>Iranica Antiqua</i> Vol. 27, pp. 149–167</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Steskal, <i>Der Zerstörungsbefund 480/79 der Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten Chronologiegerüst</i>, Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2004</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-VIII97-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VIII97_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231406;layout=;loc=8.96.1">VIII, 97</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-livius-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-livius_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/saa-san/samas-eriba/samas-eriba.html">"Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba – Livius"</a>. livius.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=B%C3%AAl-%C5%A1im%C3%A2nni+and+%C5%A0ama%C5%A1-eriba+%E2%80%93+Livius&rft.pub=livius.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fsaa-san%2Fsamas-eriba%2Fsamas-eriba.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ghirshman, <i>Iran</i>, p. 172</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFergusson" class="citation book cs1">Fergusson, James. <i>A History of Architecture in All Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day: 1. Ancient architecture. 2. Christian architecture. xxxi, 634 p. front., illus</i>. p. 211.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Architecture+in+All+Countries%2C+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present+Day%3A+1.+Ancient+architecture.+2.+Christian+architecture.+xxxi%2C+634+p.+front.%2C+illus&rft.pages=211&rft.aulast=Fergusson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus VII.11</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refkhshayayrsha">Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p. 873</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refartabanus-ei">Dandamayev</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refartaxerxes"><i>History of Persian Empire</i>, Olmstead pp. 289/90</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalandra2005-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalandra2005_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalandra2005_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalandra2005_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalandra2005">Malandra 2005</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984684–687-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984684–687_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyce1984">Boyce 1984</a>, pp. 684–687.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002549-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2002549_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 549.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ctesias</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Brosius, <i>Women in ancient Persia</i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Adolph-Hasse">"Johann Adolph Hasse | German composer"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Johann+Adolph+Hasse+%7C+German+composer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FJohann-Adolph-Hasse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordwesternmusic.com/view/Volume2/actrade-9780195384826-div1-04005.xml">"Metastasio's Musicians : Music In The Seventeenth And Eighteenth Centuries"</a>. <i>www.oxfordwesternmusic.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.oxfordwesternmusic.com&rft.atitle=Metastasio%27s+Musicians+%3A+Music+In+The+Seventeenth+And+Eighteenth+Centuries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordwesternmusic.com%2Fview%2FVolume2%2Factrade-9780195384826-div1-04005.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://christermalmberg.se/documents/musik/klassiskt/bach_johann_christian/bach_johann_christian_verk_uvertyrer_cpo.php">"Christer Malmbergs värld - Musik - Klassisk musik - Johann Christian Bach"</a>. <i>christermalmberg.se</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=christermalmberg.se&rft.atitle=Christer+Malmbergs+v%C3%A4rld+-+Musik+-+Klassisk+musik+-+Johann+Christian+Bach&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchristermalmberg.se%2Fdocuments%2Fmusik%2Fklassiskt%2Fbach_johann_christian%2Fbach_johann_christian_verk_uvertyrer_cpo.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bibliotheek.nl/catalogus/titel.110734645.html/xerxes--of-de-hoogmoed/">"Xerxes, of De hoogmoed"</a>. <i>www.bibliotheek.nl</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bibliotheek.nl&rft.atitle=Xerxes%2C+of+De+hoogmoed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibliotheek.nl%2Fcatalogus%2Ftitel.110734645.html%2Fxerxes--of-de-hoogmoed%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFClasseAC024686812000" class="citation book cs1">Classe, O.; AC02468681, Anonymus (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=myLDA0_brhcC&q=Arrogance%3A+The+Conquests+of+Xerxes+by+Frederick+H.+Martens&pg=PA315"><i>Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A-L</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-36-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-36-7"><bdi>978-1-884964-36-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Literary+Translation+Into+English%3A+A-L&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-36-7&rft.aulast=Classe&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=AC02468681%2C+Anonymus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmyLDA0_brhcC%26q%3DArrogance%253A%2BThe%2BConquests%2Bof%2BXerxes%2Bby%2BFrederick%2BH.%2BMartens%26pg%3DPA315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boucher, Geoff <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://herocomplex.latimes.com/2010/06/01/xerxes-300-frank-miller-300-zack-snyder-300/">"Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever'"</a>, <i>The Los Angeles Times</i>, 1 June 2010, accessed 14 May 2010.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gore Vidal, <i>Creation: A Novel</i> (Random House, 1981)</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_sources">Ancient sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Ancient sources">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="Wikisource-logo.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_Herodotus/Book_6" class="extiw" title="s:History of Herodotus/Book 6">The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato</a> in <i>History of Herodotus</i>.</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="Wikisource-logo.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_Herodotus/Book_7" class="extiw" title="s:History of Herodotus/Book 7">The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia</a> in <i>History of Herodotus</i>.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_sources">Modern sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Modern sources">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="refbarkworth" class="citation journal cs1">Barkworth, Peter R. (1993). "The Organization of Xerxes' Army". <i>Iranica Antiqua</i>. <b>27</b>: 149–167. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2143%2Fia.27.0.2002126">10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranica+Antiqua&rft.atitle=The+Organization+of+Xerxes%27+Army&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=149-167&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2143%2Fia.27.0.2002126&rft.aulast=Barkworth&rft.aufirst=Peter+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="refcah-vv" class="citation book cs1">Boardman, John (1988). <i>The Cambridge Ancient History</i>. <b>V</b>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22804-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-22804-2"><bdi>0-521-22804-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-521-22804-2&rft.aulast=Boardman&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="refachaemenidr-EI" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Boyce, Mary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-religion">"Achaemenid Religion"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 1</i>. Routledge & Kegan Paul.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Achaemenid+Religion&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+1&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.aulast=Boyce&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fachaemenid-religion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBoyce1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mary_Boyce" title="Mary Boyce">Boyce, Mary</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&q=false"><i>Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices</i></a>. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415239028" title="Special:BookSources/9780415239028"><bdi>9780415239028</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoroastrians%3A+Their+Religious+Beliefs+and+Practices&rft.pages=1-252&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780415239028&rft.aulast=Boyce&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da6gbxVfjtUEC%26q%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBoyce1984" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Boyce, Mary (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahura-mazda">"Ahura Mazdā"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7</i>. pp. 684–687.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ahura+Mazd%C4%81&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+I%2C+Fasc.+7&rft.pages=684-687&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Boyce&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fahura-mazda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Bridges, Emma (2014). Imagining Xerxes: Ancient Perspectives on a Persian King. Bloomsbury. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472511379" title="Special:BookSources/978-1472511379">978-1472511379</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBriant2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pierre_Briant" title="Pierre Briant">Briant, Pierre</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&q=false"><i>From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781575061207" title="Special:BookSources/9781575061207"><bdi>9781575061207</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Cyrus+to+Alexander%3A+A+History+of+the+Persian+Empire&rft.pages=1-1196&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781575061207&rft.aulast=Briant&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlxQ9W6F1oSYC%26q%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBrosius2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Brosius, Maria (2000). "Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i></a>. London et al.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Women+i.+In+Pre-Islamic+Persia&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.place=London+et+al.&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Brosius&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fwomen-i&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="refartabanus-ei" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dandamayev, M.A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artabanus-achaemenid">"Artabanus"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. Routledge & Kegan Pau<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Artabanus&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Pau&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Dandamayev&rft.aufirst=M.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fartabanus-achaemenid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDandamayev2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_Dandamayev" title="Muhammad Dandamayev">Dandamayev, Muhammad A.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-taxation">"Achaemenid taxation"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Achaemenid+taxation&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Dandamayev&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fachaemenid-taxation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDandamayev1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_Dandamayev" title="Muhammad Dandamayev">Dandamayev, Muhammad A.</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ms30qA6nyMsC&q=shamash-eriba&pg=PA185"><i>A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004091726" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004091726"><bdi>978-9004091726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+History+of+the+Achaemenid+Empire&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-9004091726&rft.aulast=Dandamayev&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dms30qA6nyMsC%26q%3Dshamash-eriba%26pg%3DPA185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDeloucas2016" class="citation journal cs1">Deloucas, Andrew Alberto Nicolas (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/42888/Deloucas%20-%20Balancing%20Power%20and%20Space%20digital%20copy.pdf?sequence=1">"Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Research Master's Thesis for Classical and Ancient Civilizations (Assyriology)</i>. Universiteit Leiden.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Research+Master%27s+Thesis+for+Classical+and+Ancient+Civilizations+%28Assyriology%29&rft.atitle=Balancing+Power+and+Space%3A+a+Spatial+Analysis+of+the+Ak%C4%ABtu+Festival+in+Babylon+after+626+BCE&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Deloucas&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Alberto+Nicolas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenaccess.leidenuniv.nl%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1887%2F42888%2FDeloucas%2520-%2520Balancing%2520Power%2520and%2520Space%2520digital%2520copy.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="refchi-v2" class="citation book cs1">Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). <i>The Cambridge history of Iran</i>. <b>2</b>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20091-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20091-1"><bdi>0-521-20091-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+Iran&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-521-20091-1&rft.aulast=Gershevitch&rft.aufirst=Ilya&rft.au=Bayne+Fisher%2C+William&rft.au=A.+Boyle%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLlewellyn-Jones2017" class="citation book cs1">Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=unTjswEACAAJ"><i>King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE)</i></a>. UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780692864401" title="Special:BookSources/9780692864401"><bdi>9780692864401</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Achaemenid+Empire&rft.btitle=King+of+the+Seven+Climes%3A+A+History+of+the+Ancient+Iranian+World+%283000+BCE+-+651+CE%29&rft.pages=1-236&rft.pub=UCI+Jordan+Center+for+Persian+Studies&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780692864401&rft.aulast=Llewellyn-Jones&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DunTjswEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMalandra2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Malandra, William W. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-historical-review">"Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zoroastrianism+i.+Historical+review+up+to+the+Arab+conquest&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Malandra&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fzoroastrianism-i-historical-review&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSancisi-Weerdenburg2002" class="citation book cs1">Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004217584/BP000026.xml">"The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings"</a>. <i>Brill's Companion to Herodotus</i>. BRILL. pp. 579–590. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004217584_026">10.1163/9789004217584_026</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004217584" title="Special:BookSources/9789004217584"><bdi>9789004217584</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Personality+of+Xerxes%2C+King+of+Kings&rft.btitle=Brill%27s+Companion+to+Herodotus&rft.pages=579-590&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004217584_026&rft.isbn=9789004217584&rft.aulast=Sancisi-Weerdenburg&rft.aufirst=Heleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004217584%2FBP000026.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="refatossa-EI" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schmitt, Rüdiger. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/atossa-achaemenid-queen">"Atossa"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 3</i>. Routledge & Kegan Paul.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Atossa&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+3&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fatossa-achaemenid-queen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xerxes-1-name">"Xerxes i. The Name"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Xerxes+i.+The+Name&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fxerxes-1-name&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="refshabani-xerxes" class="citation book cs1">Shabani, Reza (2007). <i>Khshayarsha (Xerxes)</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranculturestudies.com/persian/whatsiran.html">What do I know about Iran? No. 75</a> (in Persian). Cultural Research Bureau. p. 120. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-964-379-109-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-964-379-109-4"><bdi>978-964-379-109-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Khshayarsha+%28Xerxes%29&rft.series=%5Bhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranculturestudies.com%2Fpersian%2Fwhatsiran.html+What+do+I+know+about+Iran%3F+No.+75%5D&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Cultural+Research+Bureau&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-964-379-109-4&rft.aulast=Shabani&rft.aufirst=Reza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="refdariusithegreat-EI" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shahbazi, A. Sh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-iii">"Darius I the Great"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 7</i>. Routledge & Kegan Paul.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Darius+I+the+Great&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+7&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.aulast=Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=A.+Sh.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fdarius-iii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStoneman2015" class="citation book cs1">Stoneman, Richard (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WqtJCgAAQBAJ"><i>Xerxes: A Persian Life</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300180077" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300180077"><bdi>978-0300180077</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Xerxes%3A+A+Persian+Life&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0300180077&rft.aulast=Stoneman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWqtJCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="#refartaxerxes" class="citation book cs1">Olmstead, A.T. (1979) [1948]. <i>History of the Persian Empire</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226497648" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226497648"><bdi>978-0226497648</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Persian+Empire&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0226497648&rft.aulast=Olmstead&rft.aufirst=A.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFvan_Rookhuijzen2017" class="citation journal cs1">van Rookhuijzen, Jan Zacharias (2017). "How not to Appease Athena: A Reconsideration of Xerxes' Purported Visit to the Troad (Hdt. 7.42–43)". <i>Klio</i>. <b>99</b> (2): 464–484. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fklio-2017-0033">10.1515/klio-2017-0033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Klio&rft.atitle=How+not+to+Appease+Athena%3A+A+Reconsideration+of+Xerxes%27+Purported+Visit+to+the+Troad+%28Hdt.+7.42%E2%80%9343%29&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=464-484&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fklio-2017-0033&rft.aulast=van+Rookhuijzen&rft.aufirst=Jan+Zacharias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWaerzeggersSeire2018" class="citation book cs1">Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peeters-leuven.be/pdf/9789042938090.pdf"><i>Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Peeters Publishers. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-3670-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-3670-6"><bdi>978-90-429-3670-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Xerxes+and+Babylonia%3A+The+Cuneiform+Evidence&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-90-429-3670-6&rft.aulast=Waerzeggers&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft.au=Seire%2C+Maarja&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peeters-leuven.be%2Fpdf%2F9789042938090.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWaters1996" class="citation journal cs1">Waters, Matt (1996). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1040688">"Darius and the Achaemenid Line"</a></span>. <i>Ancient History Bulletin</i>. London. <b>10</b>: 11–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+History+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Darius+and+the+Achaemenid+Line&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=11-18&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Waters&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1040688&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Xerxes_I" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a></span>.</td></tr>
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<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Xerxes"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Xerxes">"Xerxes" </a></span>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Xerxes&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXerxes+I" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>Xerxes I </div><div><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid dynasty</a></b></div><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"><b>Born:</b> 519 BC</span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"> <b>Died:</b> 465 BC</span>
</td></tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td style="width:30%;" rowspan="2">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a></div>
</td>
<td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Kings of Persia</a> </b><br />486 BC – 465 BC
</td>
<td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes I of Persia">Artaxerxes I</a></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh of Egypt</a> </b><br />486 BC – 465 BC
</td></tr></tbody></table>
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transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Median_and_Achaemenid_kings&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Median_and_Achaemenid_kings" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> kings</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Family_tree"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">Family tree</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:90%;">(728–550 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deioces" title="Deioces">Deioces</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phraortes" title="Phraortes">Phraortes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Madyes" title="Madyes">Madyes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:90%;">(550–330 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenes" title="Achaemenes">Achaemenes</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ariaramnes" title="Ariaramnes">Ariaramnes</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arsames" title="Arsames">Arsames</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teispes" title="Teispes">Teispes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrus_I" title="Cyrus I">Cyrus I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambyses_I" title="Cambyses I">Cambyses I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bardiya" title="Bardiya">Smerdis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gaumata" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaumata">Gaumata</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great (Darius I)</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xerxes_II_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes II of Persia">Xerxes II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sogdianus_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdianus of Persia">Sogdianus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II Nothus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_II_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes II of Persia">Artaxerxes II Mnemon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III Ochus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arses_of_Persia" title="Arses of Persia">Artaxerxes IV Arses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III Codomannus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bessus" title="Bessus">Artaxerxes V Bessus</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1057682214"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pharaohs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1054937957"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Pharaohs" title="Template:Pharaohs"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Pharaohs" title="Template talk:Pharaohs"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Pharaohs&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pharaohs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Protodynastic_to_First_Intermediate_Period_(" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Protodynastic</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"> (<3150–2040 BC)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li>Pharaohs  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">(male</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">female<sup>♀</sup>)</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><i>uncertain</i></span></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Protodynastic</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(pre-3150 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hedju_Hor" title="Hedju Hor">Hedju Hor</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ny-Hor" title="Ny-Hor">Ny-Hor</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hsekiu" title="Hsekiu">Hsekiu</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khayu" title="Khayu">Khayu</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tiu_(pharaoh)" title="Tiu (pharaoh)">Tiu</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thesh" title="Thesh">Thesh</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neheb" title="Neheb">Neheb</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wazner" title="Wazner">Wazner</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hat_Hor" title="Hat Hor">Hat Hor</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mekh" title="Mekh">Mekh</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Double_Falcon" title="Double Falcon">Double Falcon</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wash_(pharaoh)" title="Wash (pharaoh)">Wash</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finger_Snail" title="Finger Snail">Finger Snail</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fish_(pharaoh)" title="Fish (pharaoh)">Fish</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elephant_(pharaoh)" title="Elephant (pharaoh)">Pen-Abu</a></i></li>
<li><i>Animal</i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stork_(pharaoh)" title="Stork (pharaoh)">Stork</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canide_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canide (Pharaoh)">Canide</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bull_(pharaoh)" title="Bull (pharaoh)">Bull</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scorpion_I" title="Scorpion I">Scorpion I</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crocodile_(pharaoh)" title="Crocodile (pharaoh)">Shendjw</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iry-Hor" title="Iry-Hor">Iry-Hor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ka_(pharaoh)" title="Ka (pharaoh)">Ka</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scorpion_II" title="Scorpion II">Scorpion II</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(3150–2686 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djer" title="Djer">Djer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djet" title="Djet">Djet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Den_(pharaoh)" title="Den (pharaoh)">Den</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anedjib" title="Anedjib">Anedjib</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semerkhet" title="Semerkhet">Semerkhet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qa%27a" title="Qa'a">Qa'a</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sneferka" title="Sneferka">Sneferka</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horus_Bird_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Horus Bird (Pharaoh)">Horus Bird</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hotepsekhemwy" title="Hotepsekhemwy">Hotepsekhemwy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebra_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebra (Pharaoh)">Nebra/Raneb</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nynetjer" title="Nynetjer">Nynetjer</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ba_(pharaoh)" title="Ba (pharaoh)">Ba</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubnefer" title="Nubnefer">Nubnefer</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horus_Sa" title="Horus Sa">Horus Sa</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Weneg_(pharaoh)" title="Weneg (pharaoh)">Weneg-Nebty</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wadjenes" title="Wadjenes">Wadjenes</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senedj" title="Senedj">Senedj</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sekhemib-Perenmaat" title="Sekhemib-Perenmaat">Sekhemib-Perenmaat</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkara_I" title="Neferkara I">Neferkara I</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkasokar" title="Neferkasokar">Neferkasokar</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hudjefa_I" title="Hudjefa I">Hudjefa I</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khasekhemwy" title="Khasekhemwy">Khasekhemwy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(2686–2181 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">III</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sekhemkhet" title="Sekhemkhet">Sekhemkhet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanakht" title="Sanakht">Sanakht</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebka" title="Nebka">Nebka</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khaba" title="Khaba">Khaba</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qahedjet" title="Qahedjet">Qahedjet</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huni" title="Huni">Huni</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Snefru</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bikheris" title="Bikheris">Bikheris</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shepseskaf" title="Shepseskaf">Shepseskaf</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thamphthis" title="Thamphthis">Thamphthis</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">V</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sahure" title="Sahure">Sahure</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferirkare_Kakai" title="Neferirkare Kakai">Neferirkare Kakai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferefre" title="Neferefre">Neferefre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shepseskare" title="Shepseskare">Shepseskare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nyuserre_Ini" title="Nyuserre Ini">Nyuserre Ini</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Menkauhor_Kaiu" title="Menkauhor Kaiu">Menkauhor Kaiu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djedkare_Isesi" title="Djedkare Isesi">Djedkare Isesi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">VI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teti" title="Teti">Teti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Userkare" title="Userkare">Userkare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pepi_I_Meryre" title="Pepi I Meryre">Pepi I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_I" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf I">Merenre Nemtyemsaf I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkare" title="Pepi II Neferkare">Pepi II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_II" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf II">Merenre Nemtyemsaf II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Netjerkare_Siptah" title="Netjerkare Siptah">Netjerkare Siptah</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">1<sup>st</sup> Intermediate</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(2181–2040 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">VII</a>/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">VIII</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Menkare" title="Menkare">Menkare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkare_II" title="Neferkare II">Neferkare II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkare_Neby" title="Neferkare Neby">Neferkare III Neby</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djedkare_Shemai" title="Djedkare Shemai">Djedkare Shemai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkare_Khendu" title="Neferkare Khendu">Neferkare IV Khendu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merenhor" title="Merenhor">Merenhor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkamin" title="Neferkamin">Neferkamin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikare" title="Nikare">Nikare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkare_Tereru" title="Neferkare Tereru">Neferkare V Tereru</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkahor" title="Neferkahor">Neferkahor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkare_Pepiseneb" title="Neferkare Pepiseneb">Neferkare VI Pepiseneb</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkamin_Anu" title="Neferkamin Anu">Neferkamin Anu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qakare_Ibi" title="Qakare Ibi">Qakare Iby</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkaure" title="Neferkaure">Neferkaure</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkauhor" title="Neferkauhor">Neferkauhor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferirkare" title="Neferirkare">Neferirkare</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wadjkare" title="Wadjkare">Wadjkare</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khuiqer" title="Khuiqer">Khuiqer</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khui" title="Khui">Khui</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">IX</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meryibre_Khety" title="Meryibre Khety">Meryibre Khety</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkare,_ninth_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Neferkare, ninth dynasty">Neferkare VII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebkaure_Khety" title="Nebkaure Khety">Nebkaure Khety</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Setut" title="Setut">Setut</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">X</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meryhathor" title="Meryhathor">Meryhathor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferkare_VIII" title="Neferkare VIII">Neferkare VIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wahkare_Khety" title="Wahkare Khety">Wahkare Khety</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merikare" title="Merikare">Merykare</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Middle_Kingdom_and_Second_Intermediate_Period_(2040–1550_BC)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"> (2040–1550 BC)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li>Pharaohs  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">(male</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">female<sup>♀</sup>)</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><i>uncertain</i></span></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(2040–1802 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">XI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mentuhotep_I" title="Mentuhotep I">Mentuhotep I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intef_II" title="Intef II">Intef II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intef_III" title="Intef III">Intef III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mentuhotep_III" title="Mentuhotep III">Mentuhotep III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep IV</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em">Nubia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Segerseni" title="Segerseni">Segerseni</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qakare_Ini" title="Qakare Ini">Qakare Ini</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iyibkhentre" title="Iyibkhentre">Iyibkhentre</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">XII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenemhat_II" title="Amenemhat II">Amenemhat II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senusret_II" title="Senusret II">Senusret II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenemhat_IV" title="Amenemhat IV">Amenemhat IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sobekneferu" title="Sobekneferu">Sobekneferu</a><sup>♀</sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">2<sup>nd</sup> Intermediate</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1802–1550 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sekhemre_Khutawy_Sobekhotep" title="Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep">Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sonbef" title="Sonbef">Sonbef</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nerikare" title="Nerikare">Nerikare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sekhemkare" title="Sekhemkare">Sekhemkare Amenemhat V</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ameny_Qemau" title="Ameny Qemau">Ameny Qemau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hotepibre" title="Hotepibre">Hotepibre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iufni" title="Iufni">Iufni</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenemhet_VI" title="Amenemhet VI">Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semenkare_Nebnuni" title="Semenkare Nebnuni">Semenkare Nebnuni</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sehetepibre" title="Sehetepibre">Sehetepibre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sewadjkare" title="Sewadjkare">Sewadjkare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nedjemibre" title="Nedjemibre">Nedjemibre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khaankhre_Sobekhotep" title="Khaankhre Sobekhotep">Khaankhre Sobekhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renseneb" title="Renseneb">Renseneb</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hor" title="Hor">Hor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sekhemrekhutawy_Khabaw" title="Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw">Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djedkheperew" title="Djedkheperew">Djedkheperew</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sebkay" title="Sebkay">Sebkay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sedjefakare" title="Sedjefakare">Sedjefakare</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wegaf" title="Wegaf">Wegaf</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khendjer" title="Khendjer">Khendjer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imyremeshaw" title="Imyremeshaw">Imyremeshaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sehetepkare_Intef" title="Sehetepkare Intef">Sehetepkare Intef</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seth_Meribre" title="Seth Meribre">Seth Meribre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sobekhotep_III" title="Sobekhotep III">Sobekhotep III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferhotep_I" title="Neferhotep I">Neferhotep I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sihathor" title="Sihathor">Sihathor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sobekhotep_IV" title="Sobekhotep IV">Sobekhotep IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merhotepre_Sobekhotep" title="Merhotepre Sobekhotep">Merhotepre Sobekhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sobekhotep_VI" title="Sobekhotep VI">Khahotepre Sobekhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wahibre_Ibiau" title="Wahibre Ibiau">Wahibre Ibiau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merneferre_Ay" title="Merneferre Ay">Merneferre Ay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merhotepre_Ini" title="Merhotepre Ini">Merhotepre Ini</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sankhenre_Sewadjtu" title="Sankhenre Sewadjtu">Sankhenre Sewadjtu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mersekhemre_Ined" title="Mersekhemre Ined">Mersekhemre Ined</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sewadjkare_Hori" title="Sewadjkare Hori">Sewadjkare Hori</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merkawre_Sobekhotep" title="Merkawre Sobekhotep">Merkawre Sobekhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mershepsesre_Ini_II" title="Mershepsesre Ini II">Mershepsesre Ini II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sewahenre_Senebmiu" title="Sewahenre Senebmiu">Sewahenre Senebmiu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merkheperre" title="Merkheperre">Merkheperre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merkare" title="Merkare">Merkare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sewadjare_Mentuhotep" title="Sewadjare Mentuhotep">Sewadjare Mentuhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seheqenre_Sankhptahi" title="Seheqenre Sankhptahi">Seheqenre Sankhptahi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XIV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakbim_Sekhaenre" title="Yakbim Sekhaenre">Yakbim Sekhaenre</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ya%27ammu_Nubwoserre" title="Ya'ammu Nubwoserre">Ya'ammu Nubwoserre</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qareh" title="Qareh">Qareh Khawoserre</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aahotepre" title="Aahotepre">'Ammu Ahotepre</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sheshi" title="Sheshi">Maaibre Sheshi</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nehesy" title="Nehesy">Nehesy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khakherewre" class="mw-redirect" title="Khakherewre">Khakherewre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebefawre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebefawre">Nebefawre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sehebre" title="Sehebre">Sehebre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merdjefare" title="Merdjefare">Merdjefare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sewadjkare_III" title="Sewadjkare III">Sewadjkare III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebdjefare" title="Nebdjefare">Nebdjefare</a></li>
<li>Webenre</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebsenre" title="Nebsenre">Nebsenre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sekheperenre" title="Sekheperenre">Sekheperenre</a></li>
<li>Djedkherewre</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bebnum" title="Bebnum">Bebnum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%27Apepi" title="'Apepi">'Apepi</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuya" title="Nuya">Nuya</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wazad" title="Wazad">Wazad</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sheneh_(pharaoh)" title="Sheneh (pharaoh)">Sheneh</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shenshek" title="Shenshek">Shenshek</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khamure" title="Khamure">Khamure</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakareb" title="Yakareb">Yakareb</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yaqub-Har" title="Yaqub-Har">Yaqub-Har</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semqen" title="Semqen">Semqen</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aperanat" title="Aperanat">'Aper-'Anati</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salitis" title="Salitis">Salitis</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sakir-Har" title="Sakir-Har">Sakir-Har</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khyan" title="Khyan">Khyan</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yanassi" title="Yanassi">Yanassi</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apepi_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apepi (pharaoh)">Apepi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khamudi" title="Khamudi">Khamudi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XVI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djehuti" title="Djehuti">Djehuti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sobekhotep_VIII" title="Sobekhotep VIII">Sobekhotep VIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferhotep_III" title="Neferhotep III">Neferhotep III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seankhenre_Mentuhotepi" title="Seankhenre Mentuhotepi">Mentuhotepi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebiryraw_I" title="Nebiryraw I">Nebiryraw I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebiriau_II" title="Nebiriau II">Nebiriau II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semenre" title="Semenre">Semenre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bebiankh" title="Bebiankh">Bebiankh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sekhemre_Shedwast" title="Sekhemre Shedwast">Sekhemre Shedwast</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dedumose_I" title="Dedumose I">Dedumose I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dedumose_II" title="Dedumose II">Dedumose II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djedankhre_Montemsaf" title="Djedankhre Montemsaf">Montuemsaf</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merankhre_Mentuhotep" title="Merankhre Mentuhotep">Merankhre Mentuhotep</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senusret_IV" title="Senusret IV">Senusret IV</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pepi_III" title="Pepi III">Pepi III</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senebkay" title="Senebkay">Senebkay</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wepwawetemsaf" title="Wepwawetemsaf">Wepwawetemsaf</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pantjeny" title="Pantjeny">Pantjeny</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Snaaib" title="Snaaib">Snaaib</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">XVII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rahotep" title="Rahotep">Rahotep</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebmaatre" title="Nebmaatre">Nebmaatre</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sobekemsaf_I" title="Sobekemsaf I">Sobekemsaf I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sobekemsaf_II" title="Sobekemsaf II">Sobekemsaf II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sekhemre-Wepmaat_Intef" title="Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef">Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubkheperre_Intef" title="Nubkheperre Intef">Nubkheperre Intef</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat_Intef" title="Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef">Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senakhtenre_Ahmose" title="Senakhtenre Ahmose">Senakhtenre Ahmose</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seqenenre_Tao" title="Seqenenre Tao">Seqenenre Tao</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kamose" title="Kamose">Kamose</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="New_Kingdom_and_Third_Intermediate_Period_(1550–664_BC)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate Period</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"> (1550–664 BC)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li>Pharaohs  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">(male</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">female<sup>♀</sup>)</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><i>uncertain</i></span></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1550–1070 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XVIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thutmose_II" title="Thutmose II">Thutmose II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenhotep_II" title="Amenhotep II">Amenhotep II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thutmose_IV" title="Thutmose IV">Thutmose IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Smenkhkare" title="Smenkhkare">Smenkhkare</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neferneferuaten" title="Neferneferuaten">Neferneferuaten</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ay" title="Ay">Ay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XIX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_I" title="Ramesses I">Ramesses I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenmesse" title="Amenmesse">Amenmesses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seti_II" title="Seti II">Seti II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siptah" title="Siptah">Siptah</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twosret" title="Twosret">Twosret</a><sup>♀</sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">XX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Setnakhte" title="Setnakhte">Setnakhte</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_V" title="Ramesses V">Ramesses V</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_VI" title="Ramesses VI">Ramesses VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_VII" title="Ramesses VII">Ramesses VII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_VIII" title="Ramesses VIII">Ramesses VIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_IX" title="Ramesses IX">Ramesses IX</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_X" title="Ramesses X">Ramesses X</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">3<sup>rd</sup> Intermediate</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1069–664 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">XXI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenemnisu" title="Amenemnisu">Amenemnisu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psusennes_I" title="Psusennes I">Psusennes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenemope_(pharaoh)" title="Amenemope (pharaoh)">Amenemope</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osorkon_the_Elder" title="Osorkon the Elder">Osorkon the Elder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siamun" title="Siamun">Siamun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psusennes_II" title="Psusennes II">Psusennes II</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt">XXII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osorkon_I" title="Osorkon I">Osorkon I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shoshenq_II" title="Shoshenq II">Shoshenq II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Takelot_I" title="Takelot I">Takelot I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shoshenq_III" title="Shoshenq III">Shoshenq III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shoshenq_IV" title="Shoshenq IV">Shoshenq IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pami" title="Pami">Pami</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shoshenq_V" title="Shoshenq V">Shoshenq V</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pedubast_II" title="Pedubast II">Pedubast II</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt">XXIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harsiese_A" title="Harsiese A">Harsiese A</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pedubast_I" title="Pedubast I">Pedubast I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shoshenq_VI" title="Shoshenq VI">Shoshenq VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Osorkon III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Takelot_III" title="Takelot III">Takelot III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rudamun" title="Rudamun">Rudamun</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shoshenq_VII" title="Shoshenq VII">Shoshenq VII</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ini_(pharaoh)" title="Ini (pharaoh)">Menkheperre Ini</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">XXIV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tefnakht" title="Tefnakht">Tefnakht</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bakenranef" title="Bakenranef">Bakenranef</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">XXV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanutamun</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Late_Period_and_Hellenistic_Period_(664–30_BC)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a> and Hellenistic Period <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"> (664–30 BC)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li>Pharaohs  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">(male</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">female<sup>♀</sup>)</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><i>uncertain</i></span></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(664–332 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">XXVI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Necho_II" title="Necho II">Necho II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psamtik_II" title="Psamtik II">Psamtik II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apries" title="Apries">Wahibre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Ahmose II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">XXVII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petubastis_III" title="Petubastis III">Petubastis III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius I</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Xerxes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">XXVIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amyrtaeus" title="Amyrtaeus">Amyrtaeus</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">XXIX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nepherites_I" title="Nepherites I">Nepherites I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hakor" title="Hakor">Hakor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psammuthes" title="Psammuthes">Psammuthes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nepherites_II" title="Nepherites II">Nepherites II</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">XXX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nectanebo_I" title="Nectanebo I">Nectanebo I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teos_of_Egypt" title="Teos of Egypt">Teos</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">XXXI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khabash" title="Khabash">Khabash</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arses_of_Persia" title="Arses of Persia">Arses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em">Hellenistic<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(332–30 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III Arrhidaeus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berenice_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice II">Berenice II Euergetes</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arsinoe_III_Philopator" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsinoe III Philopator">Arsinoe III Philopator</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cleopatra_I_Syra" title="Cleopatra I Syra">Cleopatra I Syra</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cleopatra_II" title="Cleopatra II">Cleopatra II</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Euergetes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cleopatra_III" title="Cleopatra III">Cleopatra III</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Soter</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cleopatra_IV" title="Cleopatra IV">Cleopatra IV</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berenice_III" title="Berenice III">Berenice III</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cleopatra_V" title="Cleopatra V">Cleopatra V</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berenice_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice IV of Egypt">Berenice IV Epiphaneia</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cleopatra_VI_Tryphaena" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VI Tryphaena">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a></i><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arsinoe_IV" title="Arsinoe IV">Arsinoe IV</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XIV">Ptolemy XIV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Dynastic_genealogies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Dynastic genealogies</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="First Dynasty of Egypt family tree">1<sup>st</sup></a></li>
<li>2<sup>nd</sup></li>
<li>3<sup>rd</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">4<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree">11<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">12<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">18<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">19<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">20<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/21st,_22nd_%26_23rd_dynasties_of_Egypt_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="21st, 22nd & 23rd dynasties of Egypt family tree">21<sup>st</sup> to 23<sup>rd</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt#Family_tree" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">24<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">25<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">26<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">27<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt#Family_tree" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">30<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">31<sup>st</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemaic_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic family tree">Ptolemaic</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">List of pharaohs</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1057682214"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rulers_in_the_Achaemenid_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1054937957"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Achaemenid_rulers" title="Template:Achaemenid rulers"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Achaemenid_rulers" title="Template talk:Achaemenid rulers"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Achaemenid_rulers&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rulers_in_the_Achaemenid_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Rulers" title="Category:Rulers">Rulers</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div id="Family_tree_-_Achaemenid_Kingdom"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">Family tree</a> - <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Kingdom" title="Achaemenid Kingdom">Achaemenid Kingdom</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Kings of Kings<br />of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenes" title="Achaemenes">Achaemenes</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ariaramnes" title="Ariaramnes">Ariaramnes</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arsames" title="Arsames">Arsames</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teispes" title="Teispes">Teispes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrus_I" title="Cyrus I">Cyrus I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambyses_I" title="Cambyses I">Cambyses I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bardiya" title="Bardiya">Smerdis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gaumata" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaumata">Gaumata</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great (Darius I)</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xerxes_II_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes II of Persia">Xerxes II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sogdianus_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdianus of Persia">Sogdianus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_II_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes II of Persia">Artaxerxes II Mnemon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III Ochus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arses_of_Persia" title="Arses of Persia">Artaxerxes IV Arses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III Codomannus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bessus" title="Bessus">Artaxerxes V Bessus</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="16" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><div class="floatright"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Darius_In_Parse.JPG" class="image"><img alt="Darius In Parse.JPG" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/120px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="211" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/180px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/240px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1787" data-file-height="3136" /></a></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Satraps of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lydia_(satrapy)" title="Lydia (satrapy)">Lydia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tabalus" title="Tabalus">Tabalus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mazares" title="Mazares">Mazares</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harpagus" title="Harpagus">Harpagus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oroetus" title="Oroetus">Oroetus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bagaeus" title="Bagaeus">Bagaeus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Otanes_(son_of_Sisamnes)" title="Otanes (son of Sisamnes)">Otanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaphernes" title="Artaphernes">Artaphernes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaphernes_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaphernes II">Artaphernes II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pissuthnes" title="Pissuthnes">Pissuthnes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tissaphernes" title="Tissaphernes">Tissaphernes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrus_the_Younger" title="Cyrus the Younger">Cyrus the Younger</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tissaphernes" title="Tissaphernes">Tissaphernes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tithraustes" title="Tithraustes">Tithraustes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tiribazus" title="Tiribazus">Tiribazus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Struthas" title="Struthas">Struthas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autophradates" title="Autophradates">Autophradates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spithridates" title="Spithridates">Spithridates</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Satraps of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mitrobates" title="Mitrobates">Mitrobates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Megabazus" title="Megabazus">Megabazus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Megabates" title="Megabates">Megabates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oebares_II" title="Oebares II">Oebares II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artabazos_I_of_Phrygia" title="Artabazos I of Phrygia">Artabazus I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharnabazus_I" title="Pharnabazus I">Pharnabazus I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharnaces_II_of_Phrygia" title="Pharnaces II of Phrygia">Pharnaces II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharnabazus_II" title="Pharnabazus II">Pharnabazus II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ariobarzanes_of_Phrygia" title="Ariobarzanes of Phrygia">Ariobarzanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artabazos_II" title="Artabazos II">Artabazus II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharnabazus_III" title="Pharnabazus III">Pharnabazus III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arsites" title="Arsites">Arsites</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Satraps of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cappadocia_(satrapy)" title="Cappadocia (satrapy)">Cappadocia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Datames" title="Datames">Datames</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ariamnes" title="Ariamnes">Ariamnes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mithrobuzanes" title="Mithrobuzanes">Mithrobuzanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ariarathes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes I of Cappadocia">Ariarathes I</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Greek Governors of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miltiades" title="Miltiades">Miltiades</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demaratus" title="Demaratus">Demaratus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gongylos" title="Gongylos">Gongylos</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eurysthenes_(Pergamon)" title="Eurysthenes (Pergamon)">Eurysthenes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prokles_(Pergamon)" title="Prokles (Pergamon)">Prokles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Histiaeus" title="Histiaeus">Histiaeus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aristagoras" title="Aristagoras">Aristagoras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archeptolis" title="Archeptolis">Archeptolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aridolis" title="Aridolis">Aridolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amyntas_II_(son_of_Bubares)" title="Amyntas II (son of Bubares)">Amyntas II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philiscus_of_Abydos" title="Philiscus of Abydos">Philiscus</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Dynasts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Kheziga</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kybernis" title="Kybernis">Kybernis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuprlli" title="Kuprlli">Kuprlli</a></li>
<li>Harpagus</li>
<li>Teththiweibi</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kheriga" title="Kheriga">Kheriga</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kherei" title="Kherei">Kherei</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arbinas" title="Arbinas">Arbinas</a></li>
<li>Artembares</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artumpara" title="Artumpara">Artumpara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mithrapata" title="Mithrapata">Mithrapata</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pericles,_Dynast_of_Lycia" title="Pericles, Dynast of Lycia">Perikle</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Dynasts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lygdamis_of_Halicarnassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lygdamis of Halicarnassus">Lygdamis I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artemisia_I_of_Caria" title="Artemisia I of Caria">Artemisia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pisindelis" title="Pisindelis">Pisindelis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lygdamis_II_of_Halicarnassus" title="Lygdamis II of Halicarnassus">Lygdamis II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adusius" title="Adusius">Adusius</a> (satrap)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hecatomnus" title="Hecatomnus">Hecatomnus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mausolus" title="Mausolus">Mausolus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artemisia_II_of_Caria" title="Artemisia II of Caria">Artemisia II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idrieus" title="Idrieus">Idrieus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ada_of_Caria" title="Ada of Caria">Ada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pixodarus" title="Pixodarus">Pixodarus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orontobates" title="Orontobates">Orontobates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ada_of_Caria" title="Ada of Caria">Ada</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Kings of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amyntas_I_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas I of Macedon">Amyntas I of Macedon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Mattan IV</li>
<li>Boulomenus</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdemon" title="Abdemon">Abdemon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evagoras_I" title="Evagoras I">Evagoras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azemilcus,_King_of_Tyre" title="Azemilcus, King of Tyre">Azemilcus</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eshmunazar_I" title="Eshmunazar I">Eshmunazar I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tabnit" title="Tabnit">Tabnit</a></li>
<li>Queen Amoashtart (regent)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eshmunazar_II" title="Eshmunazar II">Eshmunazar II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bodashtart" title="Bodashtart">Bodashtart</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yatonmilk" title="Yatonmilk">Yatonmilk</a></li>
<li>Anysos</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tetramnestos" title="Tetramnestos">Tetramnestos</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baalshillem_I" title="Baalshillem I">Baalshillem I</a></li>
<li>Baana</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baalshillem_II" title="Baalshillem II">Baalshillem II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdashtart_I" title="Abdashtart I">Abdashtart I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tennes" title="Tennes">Tennes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evagoras_II" title="Evagoras II">Evagoras II</a></li>
<li>Abdashtart II</li>
<li>Abdashtart III</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Satraps of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artasyrus" title="Artasyrus">Artasyrus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orontes_I" title="Orontes I">Orontes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orontes_II" title="Orontes II">Orontes II</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Satraps of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aryandes" title="Aryandes">Aryandes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pherendates" title="Pherendates">Pherendates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenes_(satrap)" title="Achaemenes (satrap)">Achaemenes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arsames_(satrap_of_Egypt)" title="Arsames (satrap of Egypt)">Arsames</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pherendates_II" title="Pherendates II">Pherendates II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sabaces" title="Sabaces">Sabaces</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mazaces" title="Mazaces">Mazaces</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Satraps of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hystaspes_(father_of_Darius_I)" title="Hystaspes (father of Darius I)">Hystaspes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dadarsi" title="Dadarsi">Dadarsi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Masistes" title="Masistes">Masistes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bessus" title="Bessus">Bessus</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Satraps of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hydarnes" title="Hydarnes">Hydarnes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hydarnes_the_Younger" title="Hydarnes the Younger">Hydarnes the Younger</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atropates" title="Atropates">Atropates</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Satraps of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syennesis_(5th_century)" title="Syennesis (5th century)">Syennesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Camisares" title="Camisares">Camisares</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mazaeus" title="Mazaeus">Mazaeus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arsames_(satrap_of_Cilicia)" title="Arsames (satrap of Cilicia)">Arsames</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Other known satraps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Megabyzus" title="Megabyzus">Megabyzus</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abrocomas" title="Abrocomas">Abrocomas</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belesys" title="Belesys">Belesys</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Ochus</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Hyrcania</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satibarzanes" title="Satibarzanes">Satibarzanes</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aria" title="Aria">Aria</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atizyes" title="Atizyes">Atizyes</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greater_Phrygia" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Phrygia">Greater Phrygia</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phrataphernes" title="Phrataphernes">Phrataphernes</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ariobarzanes_of_Persis" title="Ariobarzanes of Persis">Ariobarzanes</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persis" title="Persis">Persis</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abulites" title="Abulites">Abulites</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Susiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Susiana">Susiana</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mazaeus" title="Mazaeus">Mazaeus</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Hellenistic_satraps" title="Template:Hellenistic satraps">Hellenistic satraps</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Hellenistic_rulers" title="Template:Hellenistic rulers">Hellenistic rulers</a> from around 330 BC</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1057682214"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Persepolis" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1054937957"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Persepolis" title="Template:Persepolis"><abbr title="View this template" style="background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Persepolis" title="Template talk:Persepolis"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Persepolis&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Persepolis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321;width:1%">Palace</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tachara" title="Tachara">Tachara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gate_of_All_Nations" title="Gate of All Nations">Gate of All Nations</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tachar_Persepolis_Iran.JPG" class="image"><img alt="Tachar Persepolis Iran.JPG" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tachar_Persepolis_Iran.JPG/200px-Tachar_Persepolis_Iran.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tachar_Persepolis_Iran.JPG/300px-Tachar_Persepolis_Iran.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tachar_Persepolis_Iran.JPG/400px-Tachar_Persepolis_Iran.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321;width:1%">Other sections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tomb_of_Artaxerxes_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Artaxerxes III">Tomb of Artaxerxes III</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321;width:1%">builders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Xerxes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321;width:1%">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heidemarie_Koch" title="Heidemarie Koch">Heidemarie Koch</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erich_Schmidt_(archaeologist)" title="Erich Schmidt (archaeologist)">Erich Schmidt (archaeologist)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alireza_Shapour_Shahbazi" title="Alireza Shapour Shahbazi">Alireza Shapour Shahbazi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tangeh_Bolaghi" title="Tangeh Bolaghi">Tangeh Bolaghi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2,500_year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sivand_Dam" title="Sivand Dam">Sivand Dam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives" title="Persepolis Administrative Archives">Persepolis Administrative Archives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Waterskin" title="Waterskin">Waterskin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid architecture</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321;background-color:#B9AB83; color:#363321"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Persepolis" title="Category:Persepolis">Category:Persepolis</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1057682214"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129165#identifiers&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129165#identifiers&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129165#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118808109">Integrated Authority File (Germany)</a></span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISNI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISNI (identifier)">ISNI</a>
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000063008852">1</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/VIAF_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="VIAF (identifier)">VIAF</a>
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/282770127">1</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/84647018">2</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/545159474208227661770">3</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/852159474197427661164">4</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/835154381042230292043">5</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/305065028">6</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/230159474179227661365">7</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/identities/viaf-19983268/">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National libraries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1153338">Spain</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb150689088">France</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb150689088">(data)</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cantic.bnc.cat/registres/CUCId/a12318310">Catalonia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n81070675">United States</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000054067&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=mzk2005313022&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an66228176">Australia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uli.nli.org.il/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000437459&local_base=nlx10">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p073636711">Netherlands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mak.bn.org.pl/cgi-bin/KHW/makwww.exe?BM=1&NU=1&IM=4&WI=9810644973005606">Poland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/auth/259706">Sweden</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/495_27255">Vatican</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art research institutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500354810">Artist Names (Getty)</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1859099/">Faceted Application of Subject Terminology</a></span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/SUDOC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SUDOC (identifier)">SUDOC (France)</a>
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/050588400">1</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trove_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trove (identifier)">Trove (Australia)</a>
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1808084">1</a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1638904293 |