Examine individual changes

'{{short description|Royal Navy carrier-borne attack aircraft}} <!--This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout.--> {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}} {{Use British English|date=May 2017}} {|{{Infobox aircraft begin |name= Buccaneer |image= File:Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer S2B, UK - Air Force AN0334965.jpg |caption=A Buccaneer taking off from [[Faro, Portugal]] }}{{Infobox aircraft type |type= [[naval aircraft|Maritime]] [[strike aircraft]] |national origin= United Kingdom |manufacturer= [[Blackburn Aircraft|Blackburn Aircraft Limited]]<br/>[[Hawker Siddeley]] |designer= |first flight= {{start date|1958|04|30|df=y}} |introduced= {{start date|1962|07|17|df=y}} |retired= {{end date|1994|03|31|df=y}} |primary user= [[Royal Navy]] |more users= [[Royal Air Force]] <br> [[South African Air Force]] |produced= |number built= 211 |variants with their own articles= }} |} The '''Blackburn Buccaneer''' is a British carrier-capable [[attack aircraft]] designed in the 1950s for the [[Royal Navy]] (RN). Designed and initially produced by [[Blackburn Aircraft]] at [[Brough Aerodrome|Brough]], it was later officially known as the '''Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer''' when Blackburn became a part of the [[Hawker Siddeley|Hawker Siddeley Group]], but this name is rarely used. The Buccaneer was originally designed in response to the [[Soviet Union]]'s [[Sverdlov-class cruiser|''Sverdlov''-class cruiser]] construction programme. Instead of building a new fleet of its own, the Royal Navy could use the Buccaneer to attack these ships by approaching at low altitudes below the ship's [[radar horizon]]. The Buccaneer could attack using a [[nuclear bomb]], or conventional weapons. It was later intended to carry short-range [[anti-shipping missile]]s to improve its survivability against more modern ship-based anti-aircraft weapons.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jackson|first=Robert|title=Aircraft from 1914 to the present day|year=2011|page=137|isbn=978-1-907446-02-3}}</ref> The Buccaneer entered Royal Navy service in 1962. The initial production aircraft suffered a series of accidents due to insufficient engine power, which was quickly addressed in the Buccaneer S.2, equipped with more powerful [[Rolls-Royce Spey]] jet engines. The Buccaneer was also offered as a possible solution for the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) requirement for a supersonic interdictor carrying nuclear weapons. It was rejected as not meeting the specification in favour of the much more advanced [[supersonic]] [[BAC TSR-2]], but the cost of the TSR-2 programme led to its cancellation, only to be followed by the cancellation of its selected replacement, the [[General Dynamics F-111K]]. The RAF purchased Buccaneers and American Phantom IIs as TSR-2 substitutes, the Buccaneer entering service in 1969. The Royal Navy retired the last of its large aircraft carriers in 1978, moving their strike role to the [[British Aerospace Sea Harrier]], and passing their Buccaneers to the RAF. After a crash in 1980 revealed [[metal fatigue]] problems, the RAF fleet was reduced to 60 aircraft, while the rest were scrapped. The ending of the [[Cold War]] led to a reduction in strength of the RAF, and the accelerated retirement of the remaining fleet, with the last Buccaneers in RAF service being retired in 1994 in favour of the [[Panavia Tornado]]. The [[South African Air Force]] (SAAF) also procured the type. Buccaneers saw combat action in the first [[Gulf War]] of 1991, and the [[South African Border War]]. ==Development== ===Royal Navy=== [[File:Buccaneer 62.jpg|thumb|Buccaneer S.1 at the 1962 Farnborough Airshow; the [[anti-flash white]] colour scheme is for the nuclear strike role.]] [[File:Blackburn Buccaneer Blcackburn Buccaneer (16525773894).jpg|thumb|A Buccaneer S.2 launches from HMS Eagle; the S.2 featured more powerful Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engines that allowed it to launch at its maximum take-off weight.]] Following the end of the [[World War II|Second World War]], the [[Royal Navy]] soon needed to respond to the threat posed by the rapid expansion of the [[Soviet Navy]]. Chief amongst Soviet naval developments in the early 1950s was the {{sclass-|Sverdlov|cruiser|1}}; these vessels were classifiable as [[light cruiser]]s, being fast, effectively armed, and numerous. Like the German "[[Deutschland-class cruiser|pocket battleships]]" during the Second World War, these new Soviet cruisers presented a serious threat to the merchant fleets in the Atlantic.<ref>Jefford et al. 2005, pp. 103-104.</ref> To counter this threat, the Royal Navy decided not to use a new ship class of its own, but instead introduce a specialised strike aircraft employing conventional or nuclear weapons. Operating from the Navy's [[fleet carrier]]s, and attacking at high speed and low level, it would offer a solution to the ''Sverdlov'' problem.<ref>Chesneau 2005, pp. 5–6.</ref> A detailed specification was issued in June 1952 as [[Naval Staff Requirement]] ''NA.39'', calling for a two-seat aircraft with folding wings, capable of flying at {{convert|550|kn||}} at [[sea level]], with a [[combat radius]] of {{convert|400|nmi||}} at low altitude, and {{convert|800|nmi|}} at higher cruising altitudes. A weapons load of {{convert|8000|lb||}} was required, including conventional bombs, the [[Red Beard (nuclear weapon)|Red Beard]] free-fall nuclear bomb, or the [[Green Cheese (missile)|Green Cheese]] anti-ship missile.<ref name="aeroap12 p72">English ''Aeroplane'' April 2012, p. 72.</ref> Based on the requirement, the [[Ministry of Supply]] issued specification ''M.148T'' in August 1952, and the first responses were returned in February 1953. Blackburn's design by [[Barry Laight|Barry P. Laight]], ''Project B-103'', won the tender in July 1955.<ref name="Jackson p480">Jackson 1968, p. 480.</ref> For reasons of secrecy, the aircraft was called ''BNA'' (Blackburn Naval Aircraft) or ''BANA'' (Blackburn Advanced Naval Aircraft) in documents, leading to the nickname of "Banana Jet". The first prototype made its [[maiden flight]] from [[RAE Bedford]] on 30 April 1958.<ref name="Jackson p481">Jackson 1968, p. 481.</ref><ref name="Chesneau 2005, pp. 6–8">Chesneau 2005, pp. 6–8.</ref> The first production Buccaneer model, the ''Buccaneer S.1'', entered squadron service with the [[Fleet Air Arm]] (FAA) in January 1963.<ref>Jefford et al. 2005, p. 104.</ref> It was powered by a pair of [[de Havilland Gyron Junior]] turbojets, producing {{convert|7100|lbf|N|lk=on|}} of thrust.<ref name="Macdonald">Green 1964, p. 430.</ref> This mark was somewhat underpowered, and as a consequence, could not achieve [[takeoff|take off]] if fully laden with both fuel and armament. A temporary solution to this problem was the "buddy system": aircraft took off with a full load of weaponry and minimal fuel, and would subsequently rendezvous with a [[Supermarine Scimitar]] that would deliver the full load of fuel by [[aerial refueling|aerial refuelling]].<ref name="WoF14 p48">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p. 48.</ref><ref>Bishop and Chant 2004, p. 162.</ref> The lack of power meant, however, that the loss of an engine during take-off, or landing at full load, when the aircraft was dependent on [[Blown flap|flap blowing]], could be catastrophic.<ref name="Jackson p487-8">Jackson 1968, pp. 487–488.</ref> The long-term solution to the underpowered S.1 was the development of the ''Buccaneer S.2'', fitted with the [[Rolls-Royce Spey]] engine, which provided 40% more thrust. The [[turbofan]] Spey also had significantly lower fuel consumption than the pure-jet Gyron, which provided improved range. The engine [[nacelle]]s had to be enlarged to accommodate the Spey, and the wing required minor aerodynamic modifications as a result.<ref name="WoF14 p49-0">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, pp. 49–50.</ref> Hawker Siddeley announced the production order for the S.2 in January 1962.<ref>''Flight International'' 11 January 1962, p. 38.</ref> All Royal Navy squadrons had converted to the improved S.2 by the end of 1966.<ref name="jeff105">Jefford et al. 2005, p. 105.</ref> However, [[736 Naval Air Squadron]] also used eight S.1 aircraft taken from storage to meet an extra training demand for RAF crews until December 1970.<ref>A Passion For Flying 8000 hours of RAF Flying, Group Captain Tom Eeles2008, Pen $ Sword Books Ltd., {{ISBN|978 1 84415 688 7}}, p.61/64</ref> ===South African Air Force=== In October 1962, 16 aircraft were ordered by the [[South African Air Force]] (SAAF), as the ''Buccaneer S.50''.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=tK1YAAAAIBAJ&sjid=TfcDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3774,3189117&dq=blackburn+buccaneer&hl=en "British to sell jets to Africa."] ''Spokane Daily Chronicle'', 12 October 1962. p. 10.</ref> These were S.2 aircraft with the addition of [[Bristol Siddeley BS.605]] rocket engines to provide additional thrust for the "[[hot and high]]" African airfields. The S.50 was also equipped with strengthened [[Landing gear|undercarriage]], and higher capacity wheel brakes, and had manually folded wings. They were equipped to use the [[AS-30]] [[Manual command to line of sight|command guided]] air-to-surface missiles. Due to the need to patrol the vast coastline, they also specified aerial refueling, and larger {{convert|430|gal|adj=on}} underwing tanks.<ref name="WoF14 p51-3">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, pp. 51–53.</ref> Once in service, the extra thrust of the BS.605 rocket engines proved to be unnecessary, and they were eventually removed from all aircraft.<ref>Van Pelt 2012, p. 180.</ref> South Africa later sought to procure further Buccaneers, but the British government blocked further orders, because of a [[Arms embargo#South Africa|voluntary arms embargo]] on that country.<ref>Laming 1996, pp. 11–12.</ref> ===Royal Air Force=== [[File:Buccaneer wing fold (9596287649).jpg|thumb|Buccaneer S.2 with [[Folding wing|wings folded]], a space-saving feature typically employed by carrier aircraft.]] Blackburn's first attempt to sell the Buccaneer to the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) occurred in 1957–1958, in response to the [[Air Ministry]] [[Operational Requirement]] OR.339, for a replacement for the RAF's [[English Electric Canberra]] light bombers, with supersonic speed, and a {{convert|1000|nmi|adj=on|}} combat radius; asking for an all-weather aircraft that could deliver [[nuclear weapon]]s over a long range, operate at high level at Mach 2+ or low level at Mach 1.2, with [[STOL]] performance.<ref>Wynn 1997, p. 503.</ref> Blackburn proposed two designs, the B.103A, a simple modification of the Buccaneer S.1 with more fuel, and the B.108, a more extensively modified aircraft with more sophisticated avionics. Against a background of inter-service distrust, political issues, and the [[1957 Defence White Paper]], both types were rejected by the RAF; as being firmly subsonic, and incapable of meeting the RAF's range requirements; while the B.108, which retained Gyron Junior engines while being {{convert|10000|lb||}} heavier than the S.1, would have been severely underpowered, giving poor short-take off performance. The [[BAC TSR-2]] was eventually selected in 1959.<ref name="AE59 p12-3,15-6,21-3">Buttler ''Air Enthusiast'' September/October 1995, pp. 12–13, 15–16, 21–23.</ref><ref name="Aeromar95 p29">Boot ''Aeroplane Monthly'' March 1995, p. 29.</ref> After the cancellation of the TSR-2, and then the substitute American [[General Dynamics F-111K]], the Royal Air Force still required a replacement for its Canberras in the low-level strike role, while the planned retirement for the Royal Navy's aircraft carriers meant that the RAF would also need to add a maritime strike capability. It was therefore decided in 1968 that the RAF would adopt the Buccaneer, both by the purchase of new-build aircraft, and by taking over the Fleet Air Arm's Buccaneers as the carriers were retired.<ref name="flight71 p203">Wynn ''Flight International'' 11 February 1971, p. 203.</ref><ref name="WoF14 p59-0">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, pp. 59–60.</ref><ref name="boot">Boot 1990, pp. 64–65.</ref> A total of 46 new-build aircraft for the RAF were built by Blackburn's successor, Hawker Siddeley, designated ''S.2B''. These had RAF-type communications and avionics equipment, [[Martel missile|Martel]] [[air-to-surface missile]] capability, and could be equipped with a bulged bomb-bay door containing an extra fuel tank.<ref name="ches 16"/> Some Fleet Air Arm Buccaneers were modified in-service to also carry the Martel anti-ship missile. Martel-capable FAA aircraft were later redesignated ''S.2D''. The remaining aircraft became ''S.2C''. RAF aircraft were given various upgrades. Self-defence was improved by the addition of the AN/ALQ-101 [[electronic countermeasures]] (ECM) pod (also found on RAF's [[SEPECAT Jaguar]] GR.3), [[Chaff (countermeasure)|chaff]] and [[Flare (countermeasure)|flare]] dispensers, and [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] capability. RAF low-level strike Buccaneers could carry out what was known as 'retard defence'; four {{convert|1000|lb|adj=on|}} retarded bombs carried internally could be dropped to provide an effective deterrent against any following aircraft. In 1979, the RAF obtained the American [[Pave Spike|AN/AVQ-23E Pave Spike]] [[laser designator]] pod for [[Paveway|Paveway II]] laser-guided bombs; allowing the aircraft to act as target designators for further Buccaneers, [[SEPECAT Jaguar|Jaguars]], and other strike aircraft.<ref name="ches 16"/> From 1986, [[No. 208 Squadron RAF]], then No. 12 (B) Squadron, replaced the Martel ASM with the [[Sea Eagle missile]].<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1984/1984%20-%200202.html "RAF plans Buccaneer update."] ''Flight International'', 4 February 1984. p. 316.</ref> ===Proposed developments=== Further developments beyond the Buccaneer S.2 were put forward by Hawker Siddeley in the 1960s and 1970s; however none would be pursued through to production by either the Royal Navy or the Royal Air Force. One such effort was designated as ''Buccaneer 2*'', which was presented as a cost-effective alternative to the TSR-2. The 2* would have featured newer equipment; such as [[head-up display]]s and onboard computers from the cancelled [[Hawker Siddeley P.1154]] [[VTOL]] aircraft, it would have also adopted the same radar system as that being developed for the TSR-2. An even more extensively upgraded model, the ''Buccaneer 2**'' was also mooted, which would have been furnished with more sophisticated land-strike capabilities derived from the TSR-2 again. According to [[Denis Healey]], [[Secretary of State for Defence|defence minister]] 1964–1970, the RAF had been hostile to the Buccaneer due to it being a naval aircraft; it has been further suggested that developing improved Buccaneers for the RAF would weaken arguments against the Royal Navy's planned [[CVA-01]]-class aircraft carriers.<ref>Hampshire 2013, p. 60.</ref> In one report by the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] (MoD), it was claimed that two Buccaneer 2* could do the job of one General Dynamics F-111, for less than half the unit cost.<ref>Hampshire 2013, pp. 60–61.</ref> ==Design== ===Overview=== [[File:Buccaneer DF-ST-83-04580.jpg|thumb|A 208 Sqn. RAF Buccaneer S.2B in 1981. Wrap-around camouflage was applied, as it would often be observed while manoeuvring at low levels.]] The Buccaneer was a mid-wing, twin-engine aircraft. It had a crew of two in a tandem-seat arrangement with the observer seated higher and offset from the pilot to give a clear view forwards to enable him to assist in visual search. Its operational profile included cruising at altitude (for reduced fuel consumption) before descending, just outside the anticipated enemy radar detection range, to {{convert|100|ft|||}} for a {{convert|500|knot|adj=on||}}<ref name=gunston>Attack Aircraft of the West, Bill Gunston1974, Ian Allan Ltd., {{ISBN|0 7110 0523 0}}, p.33</ref> dash to and from the target. Targets might be ships-at-sea or large shore-based installations at long range from the launching aircraft-carrier.<ref>From Spitfire To Eurofighter 45 Years of Combat Aircraft Design, Roy Boot 1990, Airlife Publishing Ltd., {{ISBN|1 85310 093 5}}, p.85</ref> To illustrate, in May 1966, an S.2 launched from HMS Victorious in the Irish Sea, performed a low-level simulated nuclear weapon toss on the airfield at Gibraltar and returned to the ship, a {{convert|2300|mi|adj=on||}} trip<ref name=gunston/> The aircraft had an all-weather operational capability provided by the pilot's head-up display and Airstream Direction Detector, for example, and the observer's navigation systems and fire control radar.<ref name=eeles>A Passion For Flying 8000 Hours of RAF Flying, Group Captain Tom Eeles, 2008, Pen & Sword Aviation, {{ISBN|978 1 84415 688 7}}, p.41/42</ref> The Buccaneer was one of the largest aircraft to operate from British aircraft carriers, and continued operating from them until the last conventional carrier was withdrawn in 1978.<ref name="polmar 184">Polmar 2006, p. 184.</ref> During its service, the Buccaneer was the backbone of the Navy's ground strike operations, including nuclear strike.<ref name="polmar 184"/> The majority of the rear fuselage's internal area was used to house electronics, such as elements of the radio, equipment supporting the aircraft's radar functionality, and the crew's liquid [[oxygen]] life support system; the whole compartment was actively cooled by [[Ram-air intake|ram air]] drawn from the tailfin.<ref>Gunston 1962, pp. 475, 478.</ref> For redundancy, the Buccaneer featured dual [[busbars]] for electrical systems, and three independent [[Hydraulic machinery|hydraulic systems]].<ref name="gunston 477">Gunston 1962, p. 477.</ref> The aircraft was made easier to control and land via an integrated flight control computer that performed auto-[[stabilizer (aircraft)|stabilisation]] and [[auto pilot]] functions.<ref name="gunston 479">Gunston 1962, p. 479.</ref> ===Armament and equipment=== [[File:HS Buccaneer S2B XX894 R-020 (7167294144).jpg|thumb|Head-on view of a Buccaneer.]] The Buccaneer had been designed specifically as a maritime nuclear strike aircraft. Its intended weapon was a nuclear air-to-surface missile codenamed [[Green Cheese (missile)|Green Cheese]], but this weapon's development was cancelled, and in its place was the unguided {{convert|2000|lb|adj=on|-2}} Red Beard, which had been developed for the English Electric Canberra. Red Beard had an explosive yield in the 10 to 20 [[kiloton]] range; and was mounted on a special bomb bay door, into which it nested neatly to reduce aerodynamic buffet on the launch aircraft. At low levels and high speeds, traditional [[bomb bay]] doors could not be opened safely into the air stream; therefore, doors were developed that rotated into the fuselage to expose the payload; this feature also proved convenient in providing ground-level access.<ref name = "win 31">Winchester 2006, p. 31.</ref> The bomb bay could also accommodate a {{convert|2000|l|adj=on|}} ferry tank, a photo-reconnaissance 'crate', or a cargo container. The reconnaissance package featured an assortment of six cameras, each at different angles or having different imaging properties, and was only mounted on missions specifically involving reconnaissance activities.<ref>Polmar 2006, p. 186.</ref> The Buccaneer also featured four underwing [[hard point]]s capable of mounting {{convert|1000|lb|adj=on}} bombs, missiles, fuel tanks, or other equipment such as flares;<ref name="polmar 184"/> later developments saw the adoption of wing-mounted [[electronic warfare]] and laser designator pods.<ref name="jeff105"/> A similar underwing configuration was latterly adopted by the SAAF.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.shapeways.com/product/SGXCN6WBC/buccaneer-h-2-raptor-weapon-pack|title=[SAAF] Buccaneer H-2 Raptor Weapon Pack|access-date=3 December 2019|quote=This weapon system was used by Buccaneers in the South-African Air Force (SAAF) in the late 1980's in the final phases of the South-African involvement in the Angolan conflict: 2x H2 Raptor Glide Bombs, 1x Communications Pod, 1x ELT-555 ECM Pod}}</ref> Upon its entry into service, the Buccaneer was capable of carrying practically all munitions then in use by Royal Navy aircraft.<ref name="gunston 478">Gunston 1962, p. 478.</ref> It was intended for a pack with twin 30 mm (1.2 in) ADEN cannons to be developed for the Buccaneer, but the effort was abandoned and the type was never equipped with a gun.<ref name="WoF14 p37">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p. 14.</ref> Early on in the Buccaneer's career, conventional [[anti-ship mission]]s would have employed a mix of iron bombs and rockets at close range. This tactic became increasingly impractical in the face of Soviet [[Surface-to-air missile|anti-aircraft missile]] advances; thus, later Buccaneers were adapted to make use of several missiles capable of striking enemy ships from a distance. The Anglo-French Martel missile was introduced upon the Buccaneer, but the weapon was said to have been "very temperamental", and its deployment required an attacking Buccaneer to increase its altitude and thus its vulnerability to being attacked itself.<ref name="ches 16"/> An extensive upgrade programme undertaken in the 1980s added compatibility with several new pieces of equipment; including the [[Sea Eagle (missile)|Sea Eagle missile]], a self-guiding 'fire-and-forget' missile capable of striking targets at an effective range of {{convert|60|mi|-1}}, five times that of the Martel AJ 168 anti-ship missile, while also being significantly more powerful.<ref>Jefford et al. 2005, pp. 113-114.</ref><!--'4 times greater than' is strictly correct, but liable to misinterpretation by people who think that it means the same as just 4x. I have added info on the Martel to make it clear that the 5x refers to a specific version of the missile, as there was also an AS37 Anti-Radar version with an effective range of 34 miles. The 60 and 12 mile ranges are the effective ranges as per www.blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk/Pages1_files/Technical_files--> ===Boundary layer control=== [[File:Buccanneer blown wings diagram (1).svg|thumb|left|A depiction of the Buccaneer, the blowing slots visible on the leading edges and the wing [[Flap (aircraft)|flaps]] are highlighted; these aerodynamic features contribute to the [[Coandă effect|Coandă]] airflow over the wing.]] In order to dramatically improve aerodynamic performance at slow speeds, such as during takeoff and landing, Blackburn adopted a new aerodynamic control technology, known as [[boundary layer control]] (BLC). BLC bled high pressure air directly from the [[Jet engine|engines]], which was "blown" against various parts of the aircraft's [[Flight control surfaces|wing surfaces]]. A full-span slit along the part of the wing's trailing edge was found to give almost 50% more lift than any contemporary scheme.<ref name="gunston 469"/> In order to counteract the severe pitch movements that would otherwise be generated by use of BLC, a self-[[Trim (aircraft)#Secondary controls|trimming]] system was interconnected with the BLC system, and additional blowing of the wing's leading edge was also introduced. The use of BLC allowed the use of [[Leading-edge slats|slats]] to be entirely discarded in the design.<ref name="gunston 469">Gunston 1962, p.469.</ref> Before landing, the pilot would open the BLC vents as well as lower the [[Flap (aircraft)|flaps]] to achieve slow, stable flight. A consequence of the blown wing was that the engines were required to run at high power for low-speed flight in order to generate sufficient compressor gas for blowing. Blackburn's solution to this situation was the adoption of a large air brake; this addition also allowed an overshooting aircraft to pull away more quickly during a failed landing attempt.<ref>Harding 2004, p. 85.</ref> The nose cone and radar antenna could also be swung around by 180&nbsp;degrees to reduce the length of the aircraft in the carrier hangar. This feature was particularly important due to the small size of the aircraft carriers from which the Buccaneer typically operated.<ref>Burns and Edwards 1971, pp. 56–58.</ref> For a carrier take-off, the Buccaneer was pulled tail-down on the catapult, with its nosewheel in the air to put the wing at about 11°. It could be launched "hands-off": the [[Aircraft pilot|pilot]] able to leave the tailplane in a neutral position.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=J.G.|last2=Edwards|first2=M.|date=14 January 1971|title=Blow, Blow Thou BLC Wind|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1971/1971%20-%200061.html|journal=[[Flight International]]|publisher=[[Flight Global]]|volume=99|issue=3227|pages=56–59|access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref> With blowing on, the Spey 101 output drops to around {{convert|9100|lbf|}}, though about {{convert|600|lbf|}} is recovered from the trailing edge slits which face aft. About 70% of the blown air goes over the flaps and ailerons, which are in a drooped position.<ref>''Flight International'' 14 January 1971, p. 58.</ref> Off an aircraft carrier, the minimum launch speed was around {{convert|120|kn|}} at {{convert|43000|lb|}}; from an [[airfield]], the Buccaneer took off in {{convert|3000|ft|-2}} at {{convert|144|kn|}} with blown air. The figures become {{convert|3700|ft|}} at {{convert|175|kn|round=5}} without blown air.<ref>Burns and Edwards 1971, pp. 58–59.</ref> ===Fuselage and structure=== [[File:Buccaneer-AirBrake.JPG|thumb|Close-up of the split [[air brake (aircraft)|air brake]] which made up the aircraft's rear fuselage tail cone.]] The [[fuselage]] of the Buccaneer was designed using the [[area rule]] technique, which had the effect of reducing [[aerodynamic drag]] while travelling at [[transonic]] speeds,<ref name="gunston 468"/> and gave rise to the characteristic curvy "[[Coke bottle]]" shape of the fuselage. The majority of the airframe and fuselage was machined from solid castings to give the required strength to endure the stress of low-level operations. Considerable effort went into ensuring that [[metal fatigue]] would not be a limiting factor of the Buccaneer's operational life, even under the formidable conditions imposed of low level flight.<ref name="gunston 468"/> However, design changes for the Mark 2 Buccaneer, the addition of extended wingtips and the position of a new bolt hole, did cause fatigue problems leading to the loss of two aircraft.<ref>From Spitfire To Eurofighter 45 Years of Combat Aircraft Design, Roy Boot,{{ISBN|1 85310 093 5}},p.181</ref> A large [[air brake (aircraft)|air brake]] formed the tail-cone of the aircraft. The hydraulically operated air brake formed two leaves that could be opened into the airstream to quickly decelerate the aircraft.<ref name="Aeromar95 p26">Boot ''Aeroplane Monthly'' March 1995, p. 26.</ref> The style of air brake chosen by Blackburn was highly effective in the dive-attack profile that the Buccaneer was intended to perform, as well as effectively balancing out induced drag from operating the BLC system.<ref name="gunston 468">Gunston 1962, p. 468.</ref> It featured a [[angle of incidence (aerodynamics)|variable incidence]] tailplane that could be trimmed to suit the particular requirements of low-speed handling, or high-speed flight;<ref name = "win 31"/> the tailplane had to be high mounted due to the positioning and functionality of the Buccaneer's air brake.<ref name="gunston 468"/> The wing design of the Buccaneer was a compromise between two requirements: a low [[aspect ratio]] for good gust response, and high aspect ratio to give good range performance.<ref>''Flight International'' 14 January 1971, p. 56.</ref> The small wing was suited to high-speed flight at low altitude; however, a small wing did not generate sufficient [[Lift (force)|lift]] that was essential for carrier operations. Therefore, BLC was used upon both the wing and tailplane, having the effect of energising and smoothing the [[boundary layer]] airflow, which significantly reduced airflow separation at the back of the wing, and therefore decreased stall speed, and increased effectiveness of [[trailing edge]] control surfaces, including flaps and [[aileron]]s.<ref>Fight's On! Airborne with the Aggressors, Tim Laming, Zenith Imprint 1996, {{ISBN|0-76030-260-X}}, p.11</ref> ==Operational history== ===Fleet Air Arm=== [[File:A-7E F-4K Bucc2B 1976 NAN7-76.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A Royal Navy Buccaneer S.2 ([[809 Naval Air Squadron|809 NAS]]), two Royal Navy [[Hawker-Siddeley/McDonnell-Douglas F-4K Phantom II FG.1|Phantom FG.1]] ([[892 Naval Air Squadron|892 NAS]]) from {{HMS|Ark Royal|R09|6}}, over Jacksonville, Florida in 1976, accompanied by three US Navy [[A-7E Corsair II]]s.]] The Buccaneer entered service with the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) on 17 July 1962, when [[801 NAS]] was commissioned at [[RNAS Lossiemouth]] in Scotland.<ref>"Buccaneer Enters Service Today." ''Times'' [London, England], 17 July 1962: 6 via ''The Times Digital Archive'', 3 May 2013.</ref> The Buccaneer quickly replaced the FAA's Supermarine Scimitar, which had previously been performing the naval attack role.<ref name="ches 9">Chesneau 2005, p. 9.</ref> In addition to conventional ordnance, the Buccaneer was cleared for nuclear weapons delivery in 1965; weapons deployed included Red Beard and [[WE.177]] free-fall bombs, which were carried internally on a rotating bomb-bay door. Two FAA operational squadrons, and a training unit were equipped with the Buccaneer S.1. The aircraft was well liked by Navy aircrew for its strength and flying qualities, and the BLC system gave them slower landing speeds than they were accustomed to. The Buccaneers were painted dark sea grey on top, and [[anti-flash white]] on the undersides.<ref name="ches 24">Chesneau 2005, p. 24.</ref> [[File:Buccaneer Eagle 1971.jpg|thumb|left|Buccaneer S.2 landing on {{HMS|Eagle|R05|6}}, ''circa'' 1971.]] Deficiences in the Buccaneer S.1's Gyron Junior engines led to the type's career coming to an abrupt end in December 1970.<ref name="Jackson p487-8"/> On 1 December, an S.1 attempted to overshoot from a misjudged landing approach but one engine surged and produced no thrust, forcing the two crewmen to eject. On 8 December, an S.1 on a training flight suffered a massive uncontained engine failure. The pilot successfully ejected, but due to a mechanical failure in his ejection seat the navigator was killed. Subsequent inspections concluded that the Gyron Junior engine was no longer safe to fly. All remaining S.1s were grounded immediately and permanently.<ref name="WoF14 p62">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p. 62.</ref> By April 1965, intensive trials of the new Buccaneer S.2 had begun, with the type entering operational service with the FAA later that year. The improved S.2 type proved its value when it became the first FAA aircraft to make a non-stop, unrefuelled crossing of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref name="ches 12">Chesneau 2005, p. 12.</ref> On 28 March 1967, Buccaneers from RNAS Lossiemouth bombed the shipwrecked [[Oil tanker|supertanker]] {{SS|Torrey Canyon||2}} off the western coast of [[Cornwall]] to make the oil burn in an attempt to avoid an [[environmental disaster]]. In 1972, Buccaneers of [[809 Naval Air Squadron]] operating from {{HMS|Ark Royal|R09|2}} took part in a {{convert|1500|mi|adj=on}} mission to show a military presence over [[British Honduras]] (now [[Belize]]) shortly before its independence, to deter a possible [[Guatemala]]n invasion in pursuit of [[Belizean-Guatemalan territorial dispute|its territorial claims over the country]].<ref>White 2009, p. 242.</ref> The Buccaneer also participated in regular patrols and exercises in the [[North Sea]], practising the type's role if war had broken out with the Soviet Union. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Royal Navy standardised the air wings operating from their carriers around the [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|Phantom]], Buccaneer, and the [[Fairey Gannet]] aircraft.<ref name="Bishop and Chant 2004, p. 115">Bishop and Chant 2004, p. 115.</ref> A total of six FAA squadrons were equipped with the Buccaneer: [[700 Naval Air Squadron|700B/700Z]] (intensive flying trials unit), 736 (training), [[800 Naval Air Squadron|800]], 801, [[803 Naval Air Squadron|803]] and 809 Naval Air Squadrons. Buccaneers were embarked on {{HMS|Victorious|R38|6}}, {{HMS|Eagle|R05|2}}, HMS ''Ark Royal'', and {{HMS|Hermes|R12|2}}.<ref>Bishop and Chant 2004, pp. 65, 71–72, 74.</ref> The Buccaneer was retired from FAA service with the decommissioning in 1978 of the ''Ark Royal'', the last of the navy's fleet carriers.<ref name="Bishop and Chant 2004, p. 115"/> Their retirement was part of a larger foreign policy agenda that was implemented throughout the 1970s. Measures such as the withdrawal of most British military forces stationed [[East of Suez]] were viewed as reducing the need for aircraft carriers, and fixed-wing naval aviation in general. The decision was highly controversial, particularly to those within the FAA.<ref>Jefford et al. 2005, p. 61.</ref> The Royal Navy would replace the naval strike capability of the Buccaneer with the smaller [[V/STOL]]-capable [[British Aerospace Sea Harrier]], which were operated from their {{sclass|Invincible|aircraft carrier|1}}s.<ref>Ford, Terry. [http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1683027&show=pdf "Sea Harrier – A New Dimension."] ''Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology'', Volume 53, Issue 6, 1981.</ref> ===Royal Air Force=== After the General Dynamics F-111K was cancelled in early 1968, due to the programme suffering serious cost escalation and delays, the RAF was forced to look for a replacement that was available and affordable, and reluctantly selected the Buccaneer.<ref name="laming 12">Laming 1996, p.12.</ref> The first RAF unit to receive the Buccaneer was [[No. 12 Squadron RAF|12 Squadron]] at [[RAF Honington]] in October 1969, in the maritime strike role, at first equipped with ex-Royal Navy Buccaneer S.2As.<ref name="ches 21">Chesneau 2005, p.21.</ref> This was to remain a key station for the type, as [[No. 15 Squadron RAF|15 Squadron]] equipped with the Buccaneer the following year, before moving to [[RAF Laarbruch]] in 1971, and the RAF Buccaneer conversion unit, [[No. 237 Operational Conversion Unit RAF]], forming at Honington in March 1971.<ref name="ches 21"/><ref name="aeroap12 p81-2">English ''Aeroplane'' April 2012, pp. 81–82.</ref> The Buccaneer was seen as an interim solution, but delays in the [[Panavia Tornado]] programme would ensure that the 'interim' period would stretch out, and the Buccaneer would remain in RAF service for over two decades, long after the FAA had given up the type.<ref name="laming 12"/> With the phased withdrawal of the Royal Navy's carrier fleet during the 1970s, the Fleet Air Arm's Buccaneers were transferred to the RAF, which had taken over the maritime strike role.<ref>Jefford et al. 2005, pp. 105-106.</ref> 62 of the 84 S.2 aircraft were eventually transferred, redesignated ''S.2A'';<ref name="laming 12"/> some of these were later upgraded to S.2B standard. Ex-FAA aircraft equipped [[No. 16 Squadron RAF|16 Squadron]], joining 15 Squadron at RAF Laarbruch, and 208 Squadron at Honington; the last ex-FAA aircraft went to [[No. 216 Squadron RAF|216 Squadron]].<ref name="ches 21"/> [[File:Blackburn Buccaneer S.2B, United Kingdom - Royal Air Force (RAF) JP5994926.jpg|thumb|RAF Buccaneer S.2B of [[No. 12 Squadron RAF]] at [[Faro Airport]], [[Portugal]], in 1987.]] From 1970, with 12 Squadron initially, followed by 15 Squadron, 16 Squadron, No. 237 OCU, 208 Squadron, and 216 Squadron, the RAF Buccaneer force re-equipped with WE.177 nuclear weapons. At peak strength, Buccaneers equipped six RAF squadrons, although for only a year. A more sustained strength of five squadrons was made up of three squadrons (15 Squadron, 16 Squadron, 208 Squadron), plus No. 237 OCU (a war reserve or [[Shadow squadron]]), all assigned to [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Supreme Allied Commander Europe]] (SACEUR) for land strike duties in support of land forces opposing [[Warsaw Pact]] forces in continental Europe, plus one squadron (12 Squadron) assigned to [[Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic]] (SACLANT) for maritime strike duties. Opportunities for Buccaneer squadrons to engage in realistic training were limited, and so when the US began its [[Red Flag (United States Air Force)|Red Flag]] military exercises at [[Nellis Air Force Base]] in 1975, the RAF became keenly interested. The first Red Flag in which RAF aircraft were involved was in 1977, with 10 Buccaneers and two [[Avro Vulcan]] bombers participating. Buccaneers would be involved in later Red Flags through to 1983, and in 1979, also participated in the similar [[Maple Flag]] exercise over Canada. The Buccaneer proved successful with its fast low-level attacks, which were highly accurate despite the aircraft's lack of terrain-following radar and other modern avionics. They were able to penetrate adversary defences, and were credited with 'kills' on defending fighters using AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. During the 1980 Red Flag exercises, one of the participating Buccaneers lost a wing in mid-flight due to a fatigue-induced crack and crashed, killing its crew. The entire RAF Buccaneer fleet was grounded in February 1980; subsequent investigation discovered serious [[Fatigue (material)|metal fatigue]] problems to be present on numerous aircraft.<ref>Chesneau 2005, pp. 16, 22.</ref> A total of 60 aircraft were selected to receive new [[spar ring]]s, while others were scrapped; the nascent 216 Squadron was subsequently disbanded due to a resulting reduction in aircraft numbers.<ref name="ches 22"/> Later the same year, the UK-based Buccaneer squadrons moved to [[RAF Lossiemouth]] in order to free space at Honington for the Tornado. [[File:BuccaneerSB2 12Sqn ChinaLake1981.jpeg|thumb|left|Buccaneer S.2B of [[No. 12 Squadron RAF]] at [[Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake]], United States, in 1981]] In 1983, six Buccaneer S.2s were sent to [[Cyprus]] to support British peacekeepers in [[Lebanon]] as a part of [[Operation Pulsator]]. On 11 September 1983, two of these aircraft flew low over [[Beirut]], their presence intended to intimidate insurgents, rather than inflict damage directly.<ref name="ches 22"/><ref name="WoF14 p84">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p. 84.</ref> After 1983, the land strike duties were mostly reassigned to the Tornado aircraft then entering service, and two Buccaneer squadrons remaining (12 Squadron, and 208 Squadron) were then assigned to SACLANT for maritime strike duties. Only the 'Shadow Squadron', No. 237 OCU, remained assigned to the role of land strike on long term assignment to SACEUR, No. 237 was also to operate as a designator for Jaguar ground strike aircraft in the event of conflict.<ref name="cope gulf">Cope, Bill. [http://www.raf.mod.uk/history/GulfWarBuccaneerOperations.cfm "Gulf War Buccaneer Operations."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016003311/http://www.raf.mod.uk/history/GulfWarBuccaneerOperations.cfm |date=16 October 2012 }} ''Royal Air Force'', Retrieved: 8 May 2013.</ref> The Buccaneer stood down from its reserve nuclear delivery duties in 1991. The Buccaneer took part in combat operations during the 1991 [[Gulf War]]. It had been anticipated that Buccaneers might need to perform in the target designation role, although early on, this had been thought to be "unlikely".<ref name="cope gulf"/> Following a short-notice decision to deploy, the first batch of six aircraft were readied to deploy in under 72&nbsp;hours, including the adoption of desert camouflage, and additional equipment, and departed from Lossiemouth for the Middle Eastern theatre early on 26 January 1991.<ref name="cope gulf"/> In theatre, it became common for each attack formation to comprise four Tornados and two Buccaneers; each Buccaneer carried a single laser designator pod, and acted as backup to the other in the event of an equipment malfunction.<ref name="cope gulf"/> The first combat mission took place on 2 February, operating at a medium [[altitude]] of roughly {{convert|18000|ft|m}}, and successfully attacked the As Suwaira Road Bridge.<ref name="cope gulf"/> [[File:Royal Air Force Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer S2B Lofting-1.jpg|thumb|RAF Buccaneer inflight in 1994.]] Operations continued on practically every available day; missions did not take place at night as the laser pod lacked night-time functionality. Approximately 20 road bridges were destroyed by Buccaneer-supported missions, restricting the [[Iraqi Army]]'s mobility and communications.<ref name="cope gulf"/> In conjunction with the advance of Coalition ground forces into [[Iraq]], the Buccaneers switched to airfield bombing missions, targeting bunkers, runways, and any aircraft sighted; following the guidance of the Tornado's laser-guided ordnance, the Buccaneers would commonly conduct dive-bombing runs upon remaining targets of opportunity in the vicinity.<ref name="cope gulf"/> In one incident on 21 February 1991, a pair of Buccaneers destroyed two Iraqi transport aircraft on the ground at Shayka Mazhar airfield.<ref name="cope gulf"/> The Buccaneers flew 218 missions during the Gulf War, in which they designated targets for other aircraft, and dropped 48 [[laser-guided bomb]]s.<ref name="Gething AI p143-4">Gething 1994, pp. 143–144.</ref> It had originally been planned for the Buccaneer to remain in service until the end of the 1990s, having been extensively modernized in a process lasting up to 1989; the end of the [[Cold War]] stimulated major changes in British defence policy, many aircraft being deemed to be surplus to requirements. It was decided that a number of Tornado GR1s would be modified for compatibility with the Sea Eagle missile, and take over the RAF's maritime strike mission, and the Buccaneer would be retired early.<ref name="jeff115">Jefford et al. 2005, p.115.</ref> Squadrons operating the Buccaneer were quickly re-equipped with the Tornado; by mid-1993, 208 Squadron was the sole remaining operator of the type.<ref name="ches 22">Chesneau 2005, p. 22.</ref> The last Buccaneers were withdrawn in March 1994, when 208 Squadron disbanded.<ref>Jefford 2001, p. 72.</ref> ===South African Air Force=== [[File:SAAF Buccaneer cockpit view.jpg|thumb|Buccaneer of 24 Squadron SAAF.]] [[South Africa]] was the only country other than the UK to operate the Buccaneer, where it was in service with the SAAF from 1965 to 1991. In January 1963, even before the S.2 entered squadron service, South Africa had purchased 16 Spey-powered Buccaneers. The order was part of the [[Simonstown Agreement]], in which the UK obtained use of the [[Naval Base Simon's Town|Simonstown naval base]] in South Africa, in exchange for maritime weapons.<ref>[http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1967/feb/08/simonstown-agreement "Simonstown Agreement."] ''Hansard'', 8 February 1967.</ref> An order for a further 20 Buccaneers was blocked by British Prime Minister [[Harold Wilson]]'s government.<ref name="cay 70">Caygill 2008, p.70.</ref> In the maritime strike role, SAAF Buccaneers were armed with the French radio-guided AS-30 missile. In March 1971, Buccaneers fired 12 AS-30s at a stricken tanker, the ''[[SS Wafra oil spill|Wafra]]'', but failed to sink it. The AS-30 missile was also used in ground attacks for effective precision strikes, one example being in 1981, when multiple missiles were used to strike a number of radar stations in southern [[Angola]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20130802042910/http://saaf25.saafmuseum.org/missiles/261-as-30-missile "SA-30 Air-to-Surface Missile."] ''SAAF Museum'', Retrieved: 19 May 2013.</ref> For overland attack, the SAAF Buccaneers carried up to four {{convert|450|kg|order=flip|adj=on|-2}} bombs in the rotary bomb bay, and four bombs, flares, or [[SNEB]] rocket packs on the underwing stores pylons. During the 1990s, it was revealed that [[South Africa and weapons of mass destruction|South Africa had manufactured six air-deliverable tactical nuclear weapons]] between 1978 and 1993. These nuclear weapons, containing [[Enriched uranium|highly enriched uranium]], with an estimated explosion yield of 10-18 kilotons, were designed for delivery by either the Buccaneer or the Canberra bomber.<ref>[http://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/south-africa-nuclear-disarmament "Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI)."] ''Nuclear Disarmament South Africa.'' Retrieved: 11 June 2012.</ref> SAAF Buccaneers saw active service in the 1970s and 1980s during the [[South Africa Border War]], frequently flying over Angola and [[Namibia]], launching attacks upon [[SWAPO]] guerilla camps. During a ground offensive, Buccaneers would often fly [[close air support]] (CAS) missions armed with [[anti-personnel]] rockets, as well as performing bombardment operations.<ref>Steenkamp 2006, pp. 151-153, 164.</ref> Buccaneers played a major role in the [[Battle of Cassinga]] in 1978, being employed in repeated strikes upon armoured vehicles, including enemy tanks, and to cover the withdrawal of friendly ground forces from the combat zone.<ref>Steenkamp 2006, pp. 178-179, 187.</ref> The Buccaneer was capable of carrying heavy load outs over a long range, and could remain in theatre for longer than other aircraft, making it attractive for the CAS role.<ref name="cay 70"/> On 3 January 1988 Buccaneers of the SADF destroyed the important bridge across the Cuito River using a Raptor [[glide bomb]], following on from a less successful attempt on 12 December 1987.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Scholtz|first1=Leopold|author-link=Leopold Scholtz|title=The SADF in the Border War 1966–1989|year=2013|publisher=Tafelberg (NB Publishers)|location=Cape Town|isbn=9780624054108|url=http://www.nb.co.za/Books/14632|access-date=13 October 2014|publication-date=15 May 2013|page=330|ref=Scholtz}}</ref> Only five aircraft remained operational by the time the Buccaneer was retired from service in 1991.<ref name="cay 70"/> ===Others=== Early in the Buccaneer programme, the [[US Navy]] had expressed mild interest in the aircraft, but quickly moved on to the development of its comparable [[Grumman A-6 Intruder]]. The [[West German Navy]] showed a greater interest, and considered replacing its [[Hawker Sea Hawk]]s with the type, although it eventually decided on the [[Lockheed F-104 Starfighter|Lockheed F-104G]] for its maritime strike requirement, following the bribing of West German government officials in the [[Lockheed bribery scandals]]. ==Variants== [[File:Buccaneer 700Z Lossiemouth NAN3 62.jpg|thumb|A 700Z Sqn Buccaneer S.1 at RNAS Lossiemouth in 1961.]] [[File:15 Buccaneer landing on Eagle Mediterranean Jan1970.jpg|thumb|A Buccaneer S.2 on the deck of HMS ''Eagle'' in the Mediterranean Sea, 1970.]] ;Blackburn NA.39 :Pre-production build of nine prototype NA.39 aircraft, and a development batch of fourteen S.1s ordered 2 June 1955.<ref>Chesneau 2005, pp.6–8</ref> ;Buccaneer S.1 :First production model, powered by [[de Havilland Gyron Junior|de Havilland Gyron Junior 101]] turbojet engines. Forty built, ordered on 25 September 1959, built at Brough and towed to [[RAF Holme-on-Spalding Moor|Holme-on-Spalding Moor]] for first flight and testing. First aircraft flown on 23 January 1962. A further ten S.1 aircraft ordered in September 1959 were completed as S.2s. ;Buccaneer S.2 :Development of the S.1 with various improvements, and powered by the more powerful [[Rolls-Royce Spey]] turbofan engines. From 1962, ten were built by Blackburn Aircraft Limited, and seventy-four by Hawker Siddeley Aviation Limited.<ref>Chesneau 2005, pp.11–12.</ref> ;Buccaneer S.2A :Ex-Royal Navy S.2 aircraft reworked for Royal Air Force.<ref name="ches 14">Chesneau 2005, p.14.</ref> ;Buccaneer S.2B :Variant of S.2 for [[RAF squadron]]s. Capable of carrying the [[Martel missile|Martel]] anti-radar or anti-shipping missile. Forty-six built between 1973 and 1977, plus three for [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] weapons trials work.<ref>Chesneau 2005, pp. 15–16.</ref> ;Buccaneer S.2C :Royal Navy aircraft upgraded to S.2A standard.<ref name="ches 16"/> ;Buccaneer S.2D :Royal Navy aircraft upgraded to S.2B standard, operational with Martels from 1975.<ref name="ches 16">Chesneau 2005, p.16.</ref> ;Buccaneer S.50 :Variant for South Africa. Wings could be folded, but folding was no longer powered. Aircraft could be equipped with two [[Bristol Siddeley 605]] single-stage [[JATO|RATO]] rockets to assist take-off from hot-and-high airfields like that of [[AFB Waterkloof]] in [[Pretoria]], where the type was mostly based.<ref name="ches 18">Chesneau 2005, p.18.</ref> ==Operators== [[File:Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer S.Mk 50.jpg|thumb|Retired S.50 at the [[South African National Museum of Military History]].]] [[File:buccaneer s2b xx889 at kemble arp.jpg|thumb|Preserved S.2B in 1991 [[Gulf War]] colours at [[Kemble Airport]], [[England]].]] [[File:Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer S2B, UK - Air Force AN0318484.jpg|thumb|Buccaneer S.2B in [[Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment]] (A&AEE) colours at Kemble Airport, England.]] ;{{flag|South Africa|1928}} * [[South African Air Force]] (SAAF) ** [[24 Squadron SAAF]] formed at Lossiemouth in Scotland on 1 May 1965, training its crews before moving back to South Africa in November that year, being based at [[AFB Waterkloof|Waterkloof]]. It disbanded on 28 March 1991.<ref name="WoF14 p103">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p.103.</ref> ;{{UK}} * [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) ** [[No. 12 Squadron RAF]] formed at [[RAF Honington]] on 1 October 1969, in an anti-shipping role. It moved to [[RAF Lossiemouth]] in Scotland in November 1980, and disbanded on 30 November 1993.<ref name="WoF14 p98">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p.98.</ref> ** [[No. 15 Squadron RAF]] formed at Honington on 1 October 1970, moving to [[RAF Laarbruch]] in Germany in January 1971, operating in the overland strike role. It disbanded on 1 July 1983, handing its aircraft to 16 Squadron.<ref name="WoF14 p99">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p.99.</ref> ** [[No. 16 Squadron RAF]] re-equipped from the [[English Electric Canberra|Canberra B(I)8]] at Laarbruch in October 1972. It discarded its Buccaneers on 29 February 1984, re-equipping with the [[Panavia Tornado]].<ref name="WoF14 p99"/> ** [[No. 208 Squadron RAF]] reformed at Honington on 1 July 1974 in the strike role. It switched its primary mission to anti-shipping in 1983, moving to Lossiemouth in July that year. It disbanded on 31 March 1994, the last of the RAF's Buccaneer squadrons.<ref name="WoF14 p100">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p.100.</ref> ** [[No. 216 Squadron RAF]] formed at Honington on 1 July 1979, with the intended role of anti-shipping operations. When the Buccaneer was grounded in 1980, the Squadron handed its aircraft to 12 Squadron without becoming operational.<ref name="WoF14 p100"/> ** [[No. 237 Operational Conversion Unit RAF]] formed at RAF Honington on 1 March 1971 as the Operational Conversion Unit for the Buccaneer. In 1984, it gained the additional role of laser designation support for [[Royal Air Force Germany]] (RAFG), and moved north to Lossiemouth in October 1984. The OCU disbanded on 1 October 1991, with training duties for the Buccaneer being handled by 208 Squadron.<ref name="WoF14 p101">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p.101.</ref> * [[Royal Navy]] [[Fleet Air Arm]] (FAA) ** [[700 Naval Air Squadron|700Z/700B Naval Air Squadron]] (S.1 and S.2 Intensive Flying Trials Units, respectively)<ref name="WoF14 p94">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p.94.</ref> ** [[736 Naval Air Squadron]] formed on 29 March 1965 as the Fleet Air Arm Buccaneer training squadron when 809 Squadron disbanded. It disbanded on 25 February 1972, with the task of training Buccaneer crews for the Fleet Air Arm transferred to 237 OCU.<ref name="WoF14 p95">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p.95.</ref> ** [[800 Naval Air Squadron]] commissioned on 18 March 1964, serving aboard HMS ''Eagle''. It disbanded on 23 February 1972.<ref name="WoF14 p95"/> ** [[801 Naval Air Squadron]] commissioned on 17 July 1962 as the Fleet Air Arm's first Buccaneer squadron. It made one shakedown deployment on HMS ''Ark Royal'', before being assigned to HMS ''Victorious''. After ''Victorious'' was retired following a fire in 1967, 801 Naval Air Squadron was assigned to HMS ''Hermes'', disbanding on 21 July 1970.<ref name="WoF14 p96">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p.96.</ref> ** [[803 Naval Air Squadron]] commissioned on 3 July 1967 at Lossiemouth as the Buccaneer trials and headquarters squadron, disbanding on 18 December 1969.<ref name="WoF14 p96"/> ** [[809 Naval Air Squadron]] commissioned on 15 January 1963 as the Buccaneer headquarters and training squadron. It disbanded in March 1965, when it was renumbered as 736 Naval Air Squadron. It reformed in January 1966 as an operational squadron equipped with the Buccaneer S.2, deploying on HMS ''Hermes'' in 1967–68, and on HMS ''Ark Royal'' from 1970 until the carrier decommissioned in 1978. It disbanded on 15 December 1978.<ref name="WoF14 p97">Calvert and Donald ''Wings of Fame'' Volume 14, p.97.</ref> ===Civil operators=== At one point, a total of three privately owned Buccaneers were being operated at [[Thunder City]].<ref>[http://www.thundercity.com/ "BAe 2 Buccaneer."] ''ThunderCity'', 2010</ref> ==Survivors== {{Main|List of surviving Blackburn Buccaneers}} In the United Kingdom, Buccaneer S.2 ''XX885'' has been rebuilt to flying condition by [[Hawker Hunter Aviation]]. It was granted [[Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)|UK CAA]] permission to fly in April 2006.<ref>White, Andy. [http://blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk/Pages4_files/Fly_Index.html "CAA Approval to Fly! XX885 (G-HHAA) To Return to the Sky."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106113641/http://www.blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk/Pages4_files/Fly_Index.html |date=6 January 2009 }} ''blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk'', 12 April 2006. Retrieved: 7 October 2009.</ref><ref>Scott, Richard [http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/hawker-hunter-aviations-new-model-air-force-220327/ "Hawker Hunter Aviation's new model air force."] ''Flight International'', 17 December 2007.</ref> Four Buccaneers in the UK are in fast taxiing condition.<ref>White, Andy. [http://www.blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk/Buccaneer_Index.html? "XX894."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802082848/http://www.blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk/Buccaneer_Index.html |date=2 August 2009 }} ''blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk'', 5 April 2009. Retrieved: 7 October 2009.</ref><ref>White, Andy. [http://www.blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk/Buccaneer_Index.html? "XW544."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802082848/http://www.blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk/Buccaneer_Index.html |date=2 August 2009 }} ''blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk'', 5 April 2009. Retrieved: 7 October 2009.</ref> ==Specifications (Buccaneer S.2)== [[File:HAWKER SIDDELEY BUCCANEER.png|right|400px|Orthographic projection of the Blackburn Buccaneer.]] {{External media|topic= |width=20%|align=right|video1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46a-7N_13Sk Documentary on the Buccaneer]|video2=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TRuPo2xIOZs RAF Buccaneer performing display flight in 1993]|video3=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuYwOEF5xag Footage of Buccaneer activities during US Red Flag exercise]}} {{Aircraft specs |ref=The Observer's Book of Aircraft,<ref name="Observer's">Green 1968, p. 136.</ref> Aeroguide 30: Blackburn Buccaneer S Mks. 1 and 2<ref name="ches 13">Chesneau 2005, p.13.</ref> |prime units?=kts <!-- General characteristics --> |crew=2 |length ft=63 |length in=5 |length note= |span ft=44 |span in= |span note= |width ft=<!-- if applicable --> |width in=<!-- if applicable --> |width note= |height ft=16 |height in=3 |height note= |wing area sqft=514 |wing area note= |aspect ratio=<!-- sailplanes --> |airfoil=<!--'''root:''' [[NACA airfoil|NACA ]]; '''tip:''' [[NACA airfoil|NACA ]]<ref name="Selig">{{cite web |last1=Lednicer |first1=David |title=The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage |url=https://m-selig.ae.illinois.edu/ads/aircraft.html |website=m-selig.ae.illinois.edu |access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref>--> |empty weight lb=30000 |empty weight note= |gross weight lb=62000 |gross weight note= |max takeoff weight lb= |max takeoff weight note= |fuel capacity= |more general= <!-- Powerplant --> |eng1 number=2 |eng1 name=[[Rolls-Royce Spey Mk.101]] |eng1 type=[[turbofan]] engines |eng1 lbf=11000 <!-- Performance --> |max speed kts=580 |max speed note=at {{cvt|200|ft}} |max speed mach=0.95 |cruise speed kts= |cruise speed note= |stall speed kts= |stall speed note= |never exceed speed kts= |never exceed speed note= |minimum control speed kts= |minimum control speed note= |range nmi=2000 |range note= |combat range nmi= |combat range note= |ferry range nmi= |ferry range note= |endurance=<!-- if range unknown --> |ceiling ft=40000 |ceiling note= |g limits=<!-- aerobatic --> |roll rate=<!-- aerobatic --> |climb rate ftmin= |climb rate note= |time to altitude= |wing loading lb/sqft=120.5 |wing loading note= |fuel consumption lb/mi= |thrust/weight=0.36 |more performance= <!-- Armament --> |hardpoints=4 × under-wing pylon stations for up to {{convert|12000|lb|abbr=on|lk=on|0}} of bombs, and 1 × internal rotating [[bomb bay]] |hardpoint capacity={{convert|4000|lb|abbr=on|lk=on|0}} |hardpoint bombs=Various [[unguided bomb]]s, [[laser-guided bomb]]s, as well as either the [[Red Beard (nuclear weapon)|Red Beard]] or [[WE.177]] tactical nuclear bombs |hardpoint rockets=4 × Matra rocket pods with 18 × [[SNEB]] 68-mm rockets each |hardpoint missiles=Either 2 × [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]s for self-defence, 2 × AS-37 [[Martel missile]]s, or 4 × [[Sea Eagle missile]] |hardpoint other=[[AN/ALQ-101]] [[electronic countermeasures|ECM protection pod]], [[Pave Spike|AN/AVQ-23 Pave Spike]] [[laser designator]] pod, [[buddy store|buddy refuelling]] pack ''or'' [[drop tank]]s for extended range/loitering time |avionics=[[AIRPASS|Blue Parrot]] ASV search/attack radar }} ==Notable appearances in media== <!-- All content about the aircraft in fictional and gaming use has been moved to [[Aircraft in fiction]], please see [[WP:AIRPOP]] --> {{Main|Aircraft in fiction#Blackburn Buccaneer}} ==See also== {{Portal|UK|Aviation}} {{aircontent |related= |similar aircraft= * [[Sukhoi Su-17]] * [[Republic F-105 Thunderchief]] * [[Grumman A-6 Intruder]] |lists= * [[List of aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm]] * [[List of attack aircraft]] |see also= }} ==References== ===Citations=== {{Reflist}} ===Bibliography=== {{Refbegin}} * Bishop, Chris and Chris Chant. ''Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft''. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2004. {{ISBN|0-76032-005-5}}. * Boot, Roy. "Father of the Buccaneer". ''[[Aeroplane Monthly]]'', Vol. 23, No. 3, March 1995,. pp.&nbsp;24–29. ISSN 0143-7240. * Boot, Roy. ''From Spitfire to Eurofighter: 45 Years of Combat Aircraft Design''. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 1990. {{ISBN|1-85310-093-5}}. * Burns, J.G. and M. Edwards. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1971/1971%20-%200061.html "Blow, blow thou BLC wind"]. ''Flight International'' Vol. 99, No. 3227, 14 January 1971, pp.&nbsp;56–59. * Buttler, Tony. "Strike Rivals: The ones that 'lost' when the TSR.2 'won'." ''[[Air Enthusiast]]'', No. 59, September/October 1995, pp.&nbsp;12–23. * Calvert, Denis J. and David Donald. "Blackburn Buccaneer". ''Wings of Fame'', Volume 14. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1999. pp.&nbsp;34–103. {{ISBN|1-86184-029-2}}. ISSN 1361-2034. * Caygill, Peter. "Flying the Buccaneer: Britain's Cold War Warrior." Casemate Publishers, 2008. {{ISBN|1-84415-669-9}}. * Chesneau, Roger. "Aeroguide 30 - Blackburn Buccaneer S Mks 1 and 2". Suffolk, UK: Ad Hoc Publications, 2005. {{ISBN|0-94695-840-8}}. * English, Malcolm. "Database: Blackburn (Hawker Siddeley) Buccaneer". ''[[Aeroplane Monthly|Aeroplane]]'', Vol. 40, No. 4, April 2012, pp.&nbsp;69–86. * Gething, Michael J. "The Buccaneer Bows Out: Valediction for the Sky Pirate". ''[[Air International]]'', Vol. 46, No 3, March 1994, pp.&nbsp;137–144. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0306-5634. * Green, William. ''Aircraft Handbook''. London: Macdonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1964. * Green, William. ''The Observer's Book of Aircraft''. London: Frederick Warne & Co. Ltd., 1968. * {{cite magazine |author-link=Bill Gunston |last=Gunston |first=Bill |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1963/1963%20-%200489.html |title=Buccaneer - An Outstanding Strike Aeroplane |work=[[Flight International]] |volume=83 |number=2821 |date= 4 April 1963 |pages=467–478 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306222503/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1963/1963%20-%200489.html |archive-date= 2016-03-06}} * Hampshire, Edward. ''From East of Suez to the Eastern Atlantic: British Naval Policy 1964-70''. Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing, 2013. {{ISBN|1-40946-614-0}}. * Harding, Richard. ''The Royal Navy 1930-1990: Innovation and Defense''. London: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-20333-768-9}}. * Jackson, A.J. ''Blackburn Aircraft since 1909''. London: Putnam, 1968. {{ISBN|0-370-00053-6}}. * Jefford, C.G. ''RAF Squadrons, a Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of all RAF Squadrons and their Antecedents since 1912''. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2001. {{ISBN|1-84037-141-2}}. * Jefford, C.G (ed.). [http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/documents/Research/RAF-Historical-Society-Journals/Journal-33-Seminar-Maritime-Operations.pdf "Seminar - Maritime Operations."] ''Royal Air Force Historical Society'', 2005. ISSN 1361-4231. * Laming, Tim. ''Fight's On!: Airborne with the Aggressors''. Zenith Imprint, 1996. {{ISBN|0-76030-260-X}}. * Polmar, Norman. ''Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events, Volume I: 1909-1945''. Herndon, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2006. {{ISBN|1-57488-663-0}}. * [[Willem Steenkamp|Steenkamp, Willem]]. ''Borderstrike!: South Africa into Angola 1975-1980'' (3rd ed.). Durban, South Africa: Just Done Productions Publishing, 2006first edition 1985. {{ISBN|978-1-920169-00-8}}. * Van Pelt, Michel. ''Rocketing into the Future: The History and Technology of Rocket Planes''. New York: Springer, 2012. {{ISBN|1-46143-200-6}}. * White, Rowland. ''Phoenix Squadron: HMS Ark Royal, Britain's Last Topguns and the Untold Story of Their Most Dramatic Mission.'' London: Bantam Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-59305-451-2}}. * Winchester, Jim, ed. "Blackburn Buccaneer." ''Military Aircraft of the Cold War'' (The Aviation Factfile). London: Grange Books plc, 2006. {{ISBN|1-84013-929-3}}. * Wynn, Humphrey. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1971/1971%20-%200217.html "RAF Buccaneers"]. ''Flight International'', 11 February 1971, Vol. 99 No. 3231, pp.&nbsp;202–207. * Wynn, Humphrey. ''The RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Their Origins, Roles and Deployment, 1946-1969: a Documentary History.'' London: HMO, 1997. {{ISBN|0-11772-833-0}}. {{Refend}} ==External links== {{commons category|Blackburn Buccaneer}} * [http://www.thunder-and-lightnings.co.uk/buccaneer/index.html Blackburn Buccaneer] from Thunder and Lightnings * [http://www.airvectors.net/avbucc.html The Blackburn Buccaneer] at Air Vectors * [http://www.blackburnbuccaneer.co.uk/ Blackburn Buccaneer: The awesome "Banana" Jet] * [http://www.FAABA.co.uk The FAA Buccaneer Association] * {{cite journal|last=J. G. Burns and M. Edwards|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1971/1971%20-%200061.html|title=Blow, blow thou BLC wind|year=1971|journal=Flight International}} - explanation of BLC on Buccaneer and comparison with Phantom * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180211185934/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1958/1958%20-%200611.html "NA.39 - Blackburn's Naval Bomber: A First Analytical Study"] a 1958 ''Flight'' article by [[Bill Gunston]] * [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1962/1962%20-%201005.html "Flying the Buccaneer"] a 1962 ''Flight'' article * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46a-7N_13Sk "1995 documentary about the Buccaneer's career"] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fptY5XtKDK4 Destruction of the Cuito River bridge on 3 January 1988 by a SAAF Buccaneer] {{Blackburn aircraft}} {{Hawker Siddeley aircraft}} {{British military aircraft since World War II}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Blackburn aircraft|Buccaneer]] [[Category:1950s British attack aircraft]] [[Category:Twinjets]] [[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]] [[Category:Air refueling]] [[Category:Mid-wing aircraft]] [[Category:T-tail aircraft]] [[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1958]]'