Examine individual changes

'{{short description|Country in Western Asia}} {{Other uses}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{pp-30-500|small=yes}} {{Use American English|date=July 2020}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}} {{Coord|31|N|35|E|region:IL_type:country|display=title}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = State of Israel | native_name = {{unbulleted list|{{nobold|{{Script/Hebrew|מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל}} ([[Modern Hebrew|Hebrew]])}}|{{nobold|{{Script/Arabic|دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل}} ([[Arabic]])}}}} | common_name = Israel | image_flag = Flag of Israel.svg | alt_flag = Centered blue star within a horizontal triband | image_coat = Emblem of Israel.svg | alt_coat = Centered menorah surrounded by two olive branches | symbol_type = Emblem | national_anthem = ''[[Hatikvah]]''<br />({{Lang-en|"The Hope"}}){{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Hatikvah instrumental.ogg]]}} | image_map = ISR orthographic.svg | alt_map = Location of Israel (in green) on the globe. | image_map2 = Israel - Location Map (2012) - ISR - UNOCHA.svg | map_caption2 = 1949 armistice border ([[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]]) | capital = [[Jerusalem]] <br />([[Status of Jerusalem|limited recognition]])<!-- DO NOT put this into a note, "(limited recognition)" is the parenthetical comment used per last RfC (see RfC link in the talk page's FAQ) -->{{refn|group=fn|Recognition by other UN member states: [[Australia]] ([[West Jerusalem]]),<ref name="ausj">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-australia-46576716 |title=Australia recognises West Jerusalem as Israeli capital |work=[[BBC News]]|date=15 December 2018 |access-date= 14 August 2020}}</ref> [[Russia]] ([[West Jerusalem]]),<ref>{{cite web |title=Foreign Ministry statement regarding Palestinian-Israeli settlement |url=http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/-/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2717182 |website=www.mid.ru |date=6 April 2017}}</ref> the [[Czech Republic]] ([[West Jerusalem]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Breaking-News/Czech-Republic-announces-it-recognizes-West-Jerusalem-as-Israels-capital-517241|title=Czech Republic announces it recognizes West Jerusalem as Israel's capital|newspaper=Jerusalem Post|date=6 December 2017|access-date=6 December 2017|quote="The Czech Republic currently, before the peace between Israel and Palestine is signed, recognizes Jerusalem to be in fact the capital of Israel in the borders of the demarcation line from 1967." The Ministry also said that it would only consider relocating its embassy based on "results of negotiations."}}</ref> [[Honduras]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Honduras recognizes Jerusalem as Israel's capital |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/honduras-recognizes-jerusalem-as-israels-capital/ |work=The Times of Israel |date=29 August 2019}}</ref> [[Guatemala]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/america/mundo/2017/12/24/guatemala-se-suma-a-eeuu-y-tambien-trasladara-su-embajada-en-israel-a-jerusalen/|title=Guatemala se suma a EEUU y también trasladará su embajada en Israel a Jerusalén|trans-title=Guatemala joins US, will also move embassy to Jerusalem|website=Infobae|date=24 December 2017|language=es}} Guatemala's embassy was located in Jerusalem until the 1980s, when it was moved to Tel Aviv.</ref> [[Nauru]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Nauru recognizes J'lem as capital of Israel |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/268084 |work=Israel National News |date=29 August 2019 |language=en}}</ref> and the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/06/world/middleeast/trump-jerusalem-israel-capital.html|title=Trump Recognizes Jerusalem as Israel's Capital and Orders U.S. Embassy to Move|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=6 December 2017|access-date=6 December 2017}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=fn|Jerusalem is Israel's largest city if including [[East Jerusalem]], which is widely recognized as occupied territory.<ref>{{citation|title=The Legal Status of East Jerusalem|publisher=[[Norwegian Refugee Council]]|date=December 2013|url=https://www.nrc.no/globalassets/pdf/reports/the-legal-status-of-east-jerusalem.pdf|pages=8, 29}}</ref>}} | coordinates = {{coord|31|47|N|35|13|E|region:IL-JM_type:city(880000)}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[Modern Hebrew|Hebrew]] | languages_type = Recognized languages | languages = [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]{{refn|group=fn|Arabic previously had been an official language of the State of Israel.<ref name=lang1>{{cite web |title=Arabic in Israel: an official language and a cultural bridge |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/IsraelExperience/Culture/Pages/Arabic-in-Israel--an-official-language-and-a-cultural-bridge-18-December-2016.aspx |website=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=18 December 2016|access-date=8 August 2018}}</ref> In 2018 [[Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People|its classification]] was changed to a 'special status in the state' with its use by state institutions to be set in law.<ref name=lang2>{{cite news |title=Israel Passes 'National Home' Law, Drawing Ire of Arabs |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/18/world/middleeast/israel-passes-national-home-law.html |work=The New York Times |date=19 July 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=lang3>{{cite news |last1=Lubell |first1=Maayan |title=Israel adopts divisive Jewish nation-state law |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-politics-law/israel-adopts-divisive-jewish-nation-state-law-idUSKBN1K901V |work=Reuters |date=19 July 2018}}</ref><ref name=lang4>{{cite web |title=Press Releases from the Knesset |url=https://knesset.gov.il/spokesman/eng/PR_eng.asp?PRID=13978 |website=Knesset website |date=19 July 2018 |quote=The Arabic language has a special status in the state; Regulating the use of Arabic in state institutions or by them will be set in law.}}</ref>}} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list|74.2% [[Israeli Jews|Jews]]|20.9% [[Arab citizens of Israel|Arabs]]|4.8% [[Demographics of Israel|Others]]}} | ethnic_groups_year = 2019 | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="population_stat2019"/> | religion = {{unbulleted list|74.2% [[Judaism]]|17.8% [[Islam in Israel|Islam]]|2.0% [[Christianity in Israel|Christianity]]|1.6% [[Druze in Israel|Druze]]|4.4% [[Religion in Israel|Others]]}} | religion_year = 2019 | religion_ref = <ref name="population_stat2019"/> | demonym = [[Israelis|Israeli]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[parliamentary republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Israel|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Isaac Herzog]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Naftali Bennett]] | leader_title3 = [[Alternate Prime Minister of Israel|Alternate Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Yair Lapid]] | leader_title4 = [[List of Knesset speakers|Knesset Speaker]] | leader_name4 = [[Mickey Levy]] | leader_title5 = [[Supreme Court of Israel|Chief Justice]] | leader_name5 = [[Esther Hayut]] | legislature = [[Knesset]] | sovereignty_type = Independence {{nobold|following the [[end of the British Mandate for Palestine]]}} | established_event1 = [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|Declaration]] | established_date1 = 14 May 1948 | established_event2 = [[Israel and the United Nations|Admission]] to the<br />[[United Nations]] | established_date2 = 11 May 1949 | established_event3 = [[Basic Laws of Israel|Basic Laws]] | established_date3 = 1958–2018 | area_km2 = 20,770–22,072 | area_sq_mi = 8,019–8,522 | area_rank = 149th | area_footnote = {{ref label|area|a}} | percent_water = 2.71 (as of 2015)<ref>{{cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=11 October 2020|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER#}}</ref> | population_estimate = {{data Israel|poptoday|formatnum}}<ref name="cbs_main">{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/cw_usr_view_Folder?ID=141 |title=Home page |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=20 February 2017}}</ref><ref name=oecd group=fn/> | population_estimate_year = {{CURRENTYEAR}} | population_estimate_rank = 99th | population_census = 7,412,200<ref>{{cite report |date=2008 |title=Population Census 2008 |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/www/mifkad/mifkad_2008/profiles/rep_e_000000.pdf |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref><ref name=oecd group=fn/> | population_census_year = 2008 | population_density_km2 = {{pop density|{{data Israel|poptoday}}|22072|km2|prec=0|disp=num}} | population_density_rank = 35th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $372.314 billion{{refn|group=fn|name=oecd|Israeli population and economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.{{sfn|OECD|2011}}<ref>[http://mas.ps/files/server/20141911093442-1.pdf ''Quarterly Economic and Social Monitor''], Volume 26, October 2011, p. 57: "When Israel bid in March 2010 for membership in the 'Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development'... some members questioned the accuracy of Israeli statistics, as the Israeli figures (relating to gross domestic product, spending and number of the population) cover geographical areas that the Organization does not recognize as part of the Israeli territory. These areas include East Jerusalem, Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the Golan Heights."</ref>}} | GDP_PPP_rank = 51st | GDP_PPP_year = 2020<ref name="IMFWEOIL">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2017&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=51&pr1.y=11&c=436&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |website=[[International Monetary Fund]] |access-date=23 March 2020}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $40,336<ref name=oecd group=fn/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 34th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $410.501 billion<ref name=oecd group=fn/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 31st | GDP_nominal_year = 2020<ref name="IMFWEOIL"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $44,474<ref name=oecd group=fn/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 19th | Gini = 34.8 | Gini_ref = <ref name=oecd group=fn/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/chart/60V4 |title=Income inequality |website=data.oecd.org |publisher=OECD|access-date=29 June 2020}}</ref> | Gini_year = 2018 | HDI_year = 2019<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI = 0.919 | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_rank = 19th | HDI_ref = <ref name=oecd group=fn/><ref name="HDI">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> | currency = [[Israeli new shekel|New shekel]] ({{lang|he|₪}}) | currency_code = ILS | time_zone = [[Israel Standard Time|IST]] | utc_offset = +2 | time_zone_DST = [[Israel Summer Time|IDT]] | utc_offset_DST = +3 | date_format = {{unbulleted list|{{lang|he|יי-חח-שששש}} ([[Anno Mundi|AM]])|dd-mm-yyyy ([[Common Era|CE]])}} | drives_on = right | cctld = [[.il]] | iso3166code = IL | calling_code = +972 | footnote_a = {{note|area}} 20,770&nbsp;km² is Israel within the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]]. 22,072&nbsp;km² includes the annexed [[Golan Heights]] (c. {{convert|1,200|km2|abbr=on}}) and [[East Jerusalem]] (c. {{convert|64|km²|0|abbr=on}}). }} {{Contains special characters |special=[[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] text |fix=Help:Multilingual support}} '''Israel''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|r|i|.|ə|l|,_|-|r|eɪ|-}}; {{lang-he|יִשְׂרָאֵל|translit=Yīsrāʾēl}}; {{lang-ar|إِسْرَائِيل|translit=ʾIsrāʾīl}}), officially the '''State of Israel''' ({{lang-he|מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל|label=none|translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl}}; {{Lang-ar|دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل|translit=Dawlat ʾIsrāʾīl|label=none}}), is a country in [[Western Asia]]. It is situated on the [[Eastern Mediterranean|southeastern shore]] of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the northern shore of the [[Red Sea]], and [[Borders of Israel|shares borders]] with [[Lebanon]] to the north, [[Syria]] to the northeast, [[Jordan]] to the east, and [[Egypt]] to the southwest; it is also bordered by the [[Palestinian territories]] of the [[West Bank]] and the [[Gaza Strip]] to the east and west, respectively. [[Tel Aviv]] is the [[Economy of Israel|economic]] and [[Science and technology in Israel|technological center]] of the country, while its seat of government is in its proclaimed capital of [[Jerusalem]], although [[Status of Jerusalem|Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem is unrecognized internationally]].<ref>Akram, Susan M., Michael Dumper, Michael Lynk, and Iain Scobbie, eds. 2010.&nbsp;''International Law and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A Rights-Based Approach to Middle East Peace''.&nbsp;Routledge. p. 119: "UN General Assembly Resolution 181 recommended the creation of an international zone, or&nbsp;corpus separatum, in Jerusalem to be administered by the UN for a 10-year period, after which there would be a referendum to determine its future.&nbsp;This approach applies equally to West and East Jerusalem and is not affected by the occupation of East Jerusalem in 1967.&nbsp;To a large extent it is this approach that still guides the diplomatic behaviour of states and thus has greater force in international law."</ref>{{refn|group=fn|The [[Jerusalem Law]] states that "Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel" and the city serves as the seat of the government, home to the President's residence, government offices, supreme court, and [[Knesset|parliament]]. [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 478]] (20 August 1980; 14–0, U.S. abstaining) declared the Jerusalem Law "null and void" and called on member states to withdraw their diplomatic missions from Jerusalem (see {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kellerman|1993|p=140}}). See [[Status of Jerusalem]] for more information.}} Israel has evidence of the earliest [[Hominidae|hominid]] migrations [[Recent African origin of modern humans|out of Africa]].<ref>Charles A. Repenning & Oldrich Fejfar, [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v299/n5881/abs/299344a0.html ''Evidence for earlier date of 'Ubeidiya, Israel, hominid site''] Nature 299, 344–347 (23 September 1982)</ref> [[Canaan]]ite tribes are archaeologically attested in the region since the [[Middle Bronze Age]],<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Canaan-historical-region-Middle-East Encyclopædia Britannica] article on Canaan</ref><ref name="Golden">Jonathan M Golden,[https://books.google.com/books?id=EResmS5wOnkC&pg=PA3 ''Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction,''] OUP, 2009 pp. 3–4.</ref> while the [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|kingdoms of Israel and Judah]] emerged during the [[Iron Age]].<ref name="Finkelstein" /><ref name="Pitcher">[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date."</ref> The northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] was destroyed by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] around 720 BCE,<ref name="Broshi 2001 174" /> and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] was incorporated into the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in 586 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faust |first=Avraham |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28 |title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period |date=2012-08-29 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-641-9 |pages=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28 }}</ref> Some of the Judean population [[Babylonian captivity|was exiled to Babylon]], [[Return to Zion|only to return]] after [[Cyrus the Great]] conquered the region.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Stökl, Caroline Waerzegger |title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context |date=2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co |pages=7–11, 30, 226}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2nd |volume=3 |page=27}}</ref> The [[Maccabean Revolt]] against [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid rule]] led to an [[Hasmonean dynasty|independent Hasmonean kingdom]] by 110 BCE.<ref name="BangScheidel2013">{{cite book|author1=Peter Fibiger Bang|author2=Walter Scheidel|title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|url={{Google books|GCj09AmtvvwC|page=PA184|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|pages=184–187}}</ref> The kingdom became a client state of the [[Roman Republic]] in 63 BCE, following which the [[Herodian dynasty]] was installed by 37 BCE, and in 6 CE, the former kingdom was finally incorporated into the [[Roman Empire]] as the [[Judaea (Roman province)|province of Judaea]] ({{lang-la|Iudaea}}).<ref name="Malamat1976">{{cite book|author=Abraham Malamat|title=A History of the Jewish People|url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=1976|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6|pages=223–239}}</ref> A series of unsuccessful [[Jewish–Roman wars|Jewish revolts against the Romans]] that broke out during the first and second centuries resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/988856967 |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |others=Joshua Schwartz, Peter J. Tomson |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |pages=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967}}</ref> the [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|expulsion of many Jews]], and the renaming of ''Iudaea'' to ''[[Syria Palaestina]]''.<ref name="FahlbuschBromiley2005">{{cite book|author1=Erwin Fahlbusch|author2=Geoffrey William Bromiley|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|url={{Google books|C5V7oyy69zgC|page=PA15|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2005|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|pages=15–}}</ref> In the 7th century CE, the [[Diocese of the East|Byzantine-ruled Levant]] was [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|taken by Arab forces]] and incorporated into the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. It remained [[Bilad al-Sham|in Muslim hands]] until the [[First Crusade]] of 1096–1099 [[Crusader states|re-established a Christian sovereign presence]]; [[Crusades|Crusader]] control was partly dismantled by the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubids]] in 1187, but ultimately lasted until 1291. The [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]] extended its control over the region by the end of the 13th century until [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|its defeat in 1516]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]]. During the 19th century, a national awakening among Jews led to the founding of [[Zionism]], a movement that espouses the return of a [[Homeland for the Jewish people|Jewish homeland]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], also known as the [[Land of Israel]], which was followed by the [[Aliyah|immigration of diaspora Jews]]. Following [[World War I]], Britain controlled the entirety of the territory of what makes up Israel, the Palestinian territories, and Jordan as a [[Mandate for Palestine|League of Nations mandate]]. After [[World War II]], the newly formed [[United Nations]] adopted the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|Partition Plan for Palestine]] in 1947, recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states, and an [[Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)|internationalized Jerusalem]].<ref name="181(II)" /> The plan was accepted by the [[Jewish Agency]] but rejected by Arab leaders.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMorris200866" /><ref name="FOOTNOTEMorris200875" /><ref name="FOOTNOTEMorris2008396" /> Following a [[1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine|civil war within Mandatory Palestine]] between [[Yishuv]] and Palestinian Arab forces, Israel [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] at the termination of the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate]]. The war internationalized into the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] between Israel and several surrounding Arab states and concluded with the [[1949 Armistice Agreements]] that saw Israel in control of most of the former mandate territory, while the [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|West Bank]] and [[All-Palestine Protectorate|Gaza]] were held by Jordan and Egypt respectively. Israel has since fought [[Arab–Israeli conflict|several wars]] with Arab countries,<ref name="RoutledgeAtlas">{{Harvnb|Gilbert|2005|p=1}}</ref> and since the [[Six-Day War]] in June 1967 has [[military occupation|occupied]] several territories, and continues to occupy the [[Golan Heights]] and the Palestinian territories of the [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|West Bank, including East Jerusalem]], and the Gaza Strip, though whether Gaza remains occupied following the [[Israeli disengagement from Gaza|Israeli disengagement]] is disputed. Israel has [[Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem|effectively annexed]] [[East Jerusalem]] and [[Golan Heights Law|the Golan Heights]], though these actions have been rejected as illegal by the international community, and established [[Israeli settlements|settlements]] within the occupied territories, which the international community also considers [[international law and Israeli settlements|illegal under international law]]. [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|Efforts]] to resolve the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] have not resulted in a final peace agreement, while Israel has signed peace treaties with both [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty|Egypt]] and [[Israel–Jordan peace treaty|Jordan]], and more recently has [[Abraham Accords|normalized relations]] with a number of other Arab countries. In its [[Basic Laws of Israel|Basic Laws]], Israel defines itself as a [[Jewish and democratic state]], and as the [[Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People|nation-state of the Jewish people]].<ref name=freedomhouse2008>{{cite web |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/israel/freedom-world/2020 |website=Freedom in the World |title=Israel |publisher=Freedom House |year=2020 |access-date=13 October 2020}}</ref> The country is a [[liberal democracy]] with a [[parliamentary system]], [[proportional representation]], and [[universal suffrage]]. The [[Prime Minister of Israel|prime minister]] serves as head of [[Cabinet of Israel|government]] and the [[Knesset]] is the [[Unicameralism|unicameral legislature]].<ref>{{cite web|title=How Israel's electoral system works - CNN.com|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/02/05/israel.elections.explainer/index.html|access-date=2021-10-14|website=CNN}}</ref> Israel is a [[developed country]] and an [[OECD]] member,<ref name="OECD">{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/israel/israelsaccessiontotheoecd.htm |title=Israel's accession to the OECD |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=12 August 2012}}</ref> and has a [[Demographics of Israel|population of over 9 million people]] {{As of|2021|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web|author=T. O. I. staff|title=Israel's population rises to over 9.3 million on Rosh Hashanah eve|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israels-population-stands-at-over-9-3-million-on-rosh-hashanah-eve/|access-date=2021-10-14|website=Times of Israel|language=en-US}}</ref> It has the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|31st-largest economy by nominal GDP]], and is the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|most developed country]] that is [[List of ongoing armed conflicts|currently in conflict]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.acleddata.com/curated-data-files/|title=Current conflicts|date=13 June 2019}}</ref> The [[standard of living in Israel]] is the highest in the [[Middle East]],<ref name="HDI"/> and the country [[List of countries by Human Development Index#Countries|ranks high on the global HDI list]]. Israel also ranks among the world's top countries by [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|percentage of citizens with military training]],<ref name=IISS_military>[[#IISS2018|IISS 2018]], pp. 339–340</ref> [[List of countries by tertiary education attainment|percentage of citizens holding a tertiary education degree]],<ref name="OECD_education">{{cite report |date=15 September 2016 |title=Education at a Glance: Israel |url=http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/education/education-at-a-glance-2016/israel_eag-2016-63-en |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=18 January 2017}}</ref> [[List of countries by research and development spending|research and development spending by GDP percentage]],<ref name=OECD_R&D>{{cite web|url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm|title=Research and development (R&D) – Gross domestic spending on R&D – OECD Data|website=data.oecd.org|access-date=10 February 2016}}</ref> [[Women in Israel|women's safety]],<ref name="NWW_women">{{cite web|last=Australia|first=Chris Pash, Business Insider|date=2017|title=The 10 safest countries in the world for women|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/the-10-safest-countries-in-the-world-for-women-2018-1|access-date=23 March 2019|website=Business Insider}}</ref> [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]],<ref name=OECD_life_expec>{{cite web|url=https://data.oecd.org/healthstat/life-expectancy-at-birth.htm|title=Health status – Life expectancy at birth – OECD Data|website=theOECD}}</ref> [[Science and technology in Israel|innovativeness]],<ref name=Bloomberg_innovation>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-22/germany-nearly-catches-korea-as-innovation-champ-u-s-rebounds|title=These Are the World's Most Innovative Countries|website=Bloomberg.com|date=22 January 2019|access-date=24 January 2019}}</ref> and [[World Happiness Report|happiness]].<ref name=UN_happiness>{{cite web|url=http://worldhappiness.report/ed/2018/|title=World Happiness Report 2018|last=Report|first=World Happiness|date=14 March 2018|website=World Happiness Report|language=en-US|access-date=26 February 2019}}</ref> =={{anchor|Etymology}} Etymology== <!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before saving your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. See [[Template:Anchor]] for details. (This text: [[Template:Anchor comment]]) --> [[File:Merneptah Israel Stele Cairo.JPG|thumb|upright|The [[Merneptah Stele]] (13th century BCE). The majority of [[Biblical Archeology|biblical archeologists]] translate a set of hieroglyphs as "Israel," the first instance of the name in the record.]] Under the [[Mandate for Palestine|British Mandate]] (1920–1948), the whole region was known as 'Palestine' ({{Lang-he|פלשתינה [א״י]|lit=Palestine [Eretz Israel]}}).<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://time.com/3445003/mandatory-palestine/|title=Mandatory Palestine: What It Was and Why It Matters|author=Noah Rayman|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]|date=29 September 2014|access-date=5 December 2015}}</ref> Upon [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|independence]] in 1948, the country formally adopted the name 'State of Israel' ({{lang-he|מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל}}, {{Audio|He-Medinat Israel2.ogg|{{transl|he|''Medīnat Yisrā'el''}}|help=no}} {{IPA-he|mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel|}}; {{lang-ar|دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل}}, {{transl|ar|ALA-LC|''Dawlat Isrāʼīl''}}, {{IPA-ar|dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl|}}) after other [[Israeli Declaration of Independence#Name|proposed historical and religious names]] including '[[Land of Israel]]' (''Eretz Israel''), Ever (from ancestor [[Eber]]), [[Zion]], and [[Judea]], were considered but rejected,<ref>{{cite news |work=The Palestine Post |location=Jerusalem |date=7 December 1947 |page=1 |title=Popular Opinion |url=http://www.jpress.org.il/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToSaveGifMSIE_TAUEN&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=PLS/1947/12/07&ChunkNum=-1&ID=Ar00105&PageLabel=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815030044/http://www.jpress.org.il/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib%3ALowLevelEntityToSaveGifMSIE_TAUEN&Type=text%2Fhtml&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=PLS%2F1947%2F12%2F07&ChunkNum=-1&ID=Ar00105&PageLabel=1 |archive-date=15 August 2012 }}</ref> while the name 'Israel' was suggested by [[Ben-Gurion]] and passed by a vote of 6–3.<ref>[http://info.jpost.com/1998/Supplements/Jubilee/2.html One Day that Shook the world] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112220409/http://info.jpost.com/1998/Supplements/Jubilee/2.html |date=12 January 2012 }} ''The Jerusalem Post'', 30 April 1998, by Elli Wohlgelernter</ref> In the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term "[[Israelis|Israeli]]" to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by [[Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] [[Moshe Sharett]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798687-2,00.html |magazine=Time |location=New York |date=31 May 1948 |title=On the Move |access-date=6 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016074447/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C798687-2%2C00.html |archive-date=16 October 2007 }}</ref> The names [[Land of Israel]] and [[Children of Israel]] have historically been used to refer to the biblical [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Kingdom of Israel]] and the [[Jewish people|entire Jewish people]] respectively.<ref name=levine>{{cite news | last = Levine |first = Robert A. |title = See Israel as a Jewish Nation-State, More or Less Democratic |work=The New York Times |date = 7 November 2000 |access-date =19 January 2011 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/07/opinion/07iht-edlevine.t.html}}</ref> The [[Israel (name)|name 'Israel']] (Hebrew:&nbsp;''Yisraʾel'', ''Isrāʾīl''; [[Septuagint]] {{lang-el|Ἰσραήλ}}, ''Israēl'', 'El (God) persists/rules', though after {{Bibleverse|Hosea|12:4}} often interpreted as 'struggle with God')<ref>William G. Dever, [https://books.google.com/books?id=IGR7-OSz7bUC&pg=PA186 ''Did God Have a Wife?: Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel''], Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2005 p. 186.</ref><ref>Geoffrey W. Bromiley, [https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA907 'Israel,'] in ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E–J,''Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1995 p. 907.</ref><ref>R.L. Ottley, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AWZsAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 ''The Religion of Israel: A Historical Sketch,''] Cambridge University Press, 2013 pp. 31–32 note 5.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Longman pronunciation dictionary |first=John C. |last=Wells |publisher=Longman |location=Harlow, England |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-582-05383-0 |page=381}} entry "Jacob".</ref> in these phrases refers to the patriarch [[Jacob]] who, according to the [[Hebrew Bible]], was given the name after he successfully wrestled with the angel of the Lord.<ref>"And he said, Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel: for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and hast prevailed." ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], 32:28, 35:10). See also [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1312.htm Hosea 12:5].</ref> Jacob's twelve sons became the ancestors of the [[Israelites]], also known as the ''[[Twelve Tribes of Israel]]'' or ''Children of Israel''. Jacob and his sons had lived in [[Canaan]] but were forced by famine to go into [[Egypt]] for four generations, lasting 430 years,<ref>{{Bibleverse||Exodus|12:40–41|HE}}</ref> until [[Moses]], a great-great-grandson of Jacob,<ref>{{Bibleverse||Exodus|6:16–20|HE}}</ref> led the Israelites back into [[Canaan]] during the "[[The Exodus|Exodus]]". The earliest known archaeological artifact to mention the word "Israel" as a collective is the [[Merneptah Stele]] of [[ancient Egypt]] (dated to the late 13th century BCE).<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Barton|Bowden|2004|p=126}}. "The Merneptah Stele ... is arguably the oldest evidence outside the Bible for the existence of Israel as early as the 13th century BCE."</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Israel}} ===Prehistory=== {{Further|Prehistory of the Levant}} The oldest evidence of [[early humans]] in the territory of modern Israel, dating to 1.5 [[million years ago]], was found in [[Ubeidiya prehistoric site|Ubeidiya]] near the [[Sea of Galilee]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tchernov |first=Eitan |author-link=Eitan Tchernov |date=1988 |title=The Age of 'Ubeidiya Formation (Jordan Valley, Israel) and the Earliest Hominids in the Levant |journal=[[Paléorient]] |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=63–65 |doi=10.3406/paleo.1988.4455 }}</ref> Other notable [[Paleolithic]] sites include the caves [[Tabun Cave|Tabun]], [[Qesem Cave|Qesem]] and [[Manot Cave|Manot]]. The oldest fossils of [[anatomically modern human]]s found [[Recent African origin of modern humans|outside Africa]] are the [[Skhul and Qafzeh hominins]], who lived in the area that is now northern Israel 120,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rincon |first=Paul |date=14 October 2015 |title=Fossil teeth place humans in Asia '20,000 years early' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-34531861 |work=BBC News |access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref> Around 10th millennium BCE, the [[Natufian culture]] existed in the area.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bar-Yosef |first=Ofer |author-link=Ofer Bar-Yosef |date=7 December 1998 |title=The Natufian Culture in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/anthropology/v1007/baryo.pdf |journal=[[Evolutionary Anthropology (journal)|Evolutionary Anthropology]] |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=159–177 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<159::AID-EVAN4>3.0.CO;2-7 |access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref> ===Antiquity=== {{Main|History of ancient Israel and Judah}} {{Further|Israelites|Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Judah}} [[File:City of David - King David's Palace IMG 5815.JPG|thumb|The [[Large Stone Structure]], an archaeological site in [[Jerusalem]]]] The early history of the territory is unclear.<ref name=Finkelstein>{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|title=The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|date=2001|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|edition=1st Touchstone}}</ref>{{rp|104}} Modern [[archaeology]] has questioned [[Historicity of the Bible|the historicity]] of the narrative in the [[Torah]] concerning the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]], [[The Exodus]], and [[Early Israelite campaigns|the conquest of Canaan]] described in the [[Book of Joshua]], and instead views the narrative as constituting the [[Israelites]]' [[national myth]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |year=2001 |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=978-3-927120-37-2 |url={{Google books|6-VxwC5rQtwC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}</ref> Despite the absence of any archaeological evidence, a majority of scholars agree that the Exodus probably has some historical basis.{{sfn|Faust|2015|p=476}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=87|ps=: "The biblical text has its own inner logic and consistency, largely divorced from the concerns of secular history. [...] conversely, the Bible, never intended to function primarily as a historical document, cannot meet modern canons of historical accuracy and reliability. There is, in fact, remarkably little of proven or provable historical worth or reliability in the biblical Exodus narrative, and no reliable independent witnesses attest to the historicity or date of the Exodus events."}} The [[Canaan]]<nowiki/>ites are archaeologically attested in the [[Bronze Age|Middle Bronze Age]] (2100–1550 BCE).<ref name="Golden" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lemche |first1=Niels Peter |url={{Google books|JIoY7PagAOAC|page=PA35|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=The Israelites in History and Tradition |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-664-22727-2 |page=35}}</ref> During the [[Late Bronze Age]] (1550–1200 BCE), large parts of Canaan formed [[vassal state]]s paying tribute to the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]], whose administrative headquarters lay in [[Gaza city|Gaza]].<ref>{{Cite journal | jstor=10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0001| doi=10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0001|title = The Meaning of Egyptian-Style Objects in the Late Bronze Cemeteries of Tell el-Farʿah (South)| journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research| volume=364| issue=364| pages=1–36|year = 2011|last1 = Braunstein|first1 = Susan L.| s2cid=164054005}}</ref> Ancestors of the Israelites are thought to have included [[ancient Semitic-speaking peoples]] native to this area.<ref name="Miller1986">{{Cite book|last1=Miller|first1=James Maxwell|last2=Hayes|first2=John Haralson|title=A History of Ancient Israel and Judah|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1986|isbn=978-0-664-21262-9|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mill}}</ref>{{rp|78–79}} The Israelites and their culture, according to the modern archaeological account, did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of these [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite peoples]] and their cultures through the development of a distinct [[monolatrism|monolatristic]]—and later [[monotheism|monotheistic]]—religion centered on [[Yahweh]].<ref>Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14</ref><ref>Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000&nbsp;BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)</ref><ref>Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |location=England |isbn=1-85075-657-0 |pages=28, 31}}</ref>{{sfn|McNutt|1999|p=35}}<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.2307/3268384| issn = 0021-9231| volume = 122| issue = 3| pages = 401–425| last = Bloch-Smith| first = Elizabeth| title = Israelite Ethnicity in Iron I: Archaeology Preserves What Is Remembered and What Is Forgotten in Israel's History| journal = Journal of Biblical Literature| date = 2003| jstor = 3268384| s2cid = 160020536| url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/814c842d2de5a49881f6e731f9a0a4ec0b85f11d}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=September 2021}} The archaeological evidence indicates a society of village-like centers, but with more limited resources and a small population.<ref>Lehman in Vaughn 1992, pp. 156–162.{{full citation needed|date=March 2015}}</ref> Villages had populations of up to 300 or 400,{{sfn|McNutt|1999|p=70}}{{sfn|Miller|2012|p=98}} which lived by farming and herding, and were largely self-sufficient;{{sfn|McNutt|1999|p=72}} economic interchange was prevalent.{{sfn|Miller|2012|p=99}} Writing was known and available for recording, even in small sites.{{sfn|Miller|2012|p=105}} While it is unclear if there was ever a [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|United Monarchy]],<ref name="lipschits">{{cite book|last1=Lipschits|first1=Oded|editor1-last=Berlin|editor1-first=Adele|editor2-last=Brettler|editor2-first=Marc Zvi|title=The Jewish Study Bible|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-997846-5|year=2014|edition=2nd|chapter-url={{Google books|yErYBAAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|language=en|chapter=The History of Israel in the Biblical Period}}</ref><ref name="Kuhrtp438">{{cite book|last=Kuhrt|first=Amiele|title=The Ancient Near East|year=1995|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-16762-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438 438]|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438}}</ref> there is well-accepted archeological evidence referring to "Israel" in the [[Merneptah Stele]] which dates to about 1200 BCE.<ref name="NollMerneptah">K.L. Noll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hMeRK7B1EsMC&pg=PA139 ''Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion,''] A&C Black, 2012, rev.ed. pp. 137ff.</ref><ref name="ThompsonMerneptah">[[Thomas L. Thompson]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=RwrrUuHFb6UC&pg=PA275 ''Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources,''] Brill, 2000 pp. 275–276: 'They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.'</ref><ref>The [[Israel (name)|personal name "Israel"]] appears much earlier, in material from [[Ebla]]. {{Cite journal|last=Hasel|first=Michael G.|date=1 January 1994|title=Israel in the Merneptah Stela|jstor=1357179|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|volume=296|issue=296|pages=45–61|doi=10.2307/1357179|s2cid=164052192}}; {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC&q=ebla%20israel%20ishmael%20abraham&pg=PA317|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia|last=Bertman|first=Stephen|date=14 July 2005|publisher=OUP|isbn=978-0-19-518364-1}} and {{cite book|title=Between Evidence and Ideology Essays on the History of Ancient Israel read at the Joint Meeting of the Society for Old Testament Study and the Oud Testamentisch Werkgezelschap Lincoln, July 2009|date=2010|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-18737-5|page=47|chapter=Origins of Israel between history and ideology|author1=Meindert Dijkstra|editor1-last=Becking|editor1-first=Bob|editor2-last=Grabbe|editor2-first=Lester|editor1-link=Lester L. Grabbe|quote=As a West Semitic personal name it existed long before it became a tribal or a geographical name. This is not without significance, though is it rarely mentioned. We learn of a maryanu named ysr"il (*Yi¡sr—a"ilu) from Ugarit living in the same period, but the name was already used a thousand years before in Ebla. The word Israel originated as a West Semitic personal name. One of the many names that developed into the name of the ancestor of a clan, of a tribe and finally of a people and a nation.}}</ref> There is debate about the earliest existence of the [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Kingdoms of Israel and Judah]] and their extent and power, but historians and archaeologists agree that a [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed by {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 900 BCE<ref name="Finkelstein" />{{rp|169–195}}<ref name="Wright">{{cite web|last1=Wright|first1=Jacob L.|date=July 2014|title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel)|url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml|archive-date=1 March 2021|access-date=15 May 2021|website=The Bible and Interpretation}}</ref> and that a [[Kingdom of Judah]] emerged in the late 9th century BCE.<ref>{{Citation |last=Maeir |first=Aren M. |title=Israel and Judah |date=2012-10-26 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah01103 |work=The Encyclopedia of Ancient History |place=Hoboken, NJ, USA |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |access-date=2022-04-05}} "This initial stage was followed by the formation of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, during Iron Age II (tenth to eighth centuries). Some scholars follow the biblical narrative (in Samuel and Kings), according to which the Kingdom of Judah was established first, under the rule of David and Solomon (the United Monarchy), and it was subsequently divided into the northern and southern kingdoms, Israel and Judah (the Divided Monarchy). Others argue that the Kingdom of Israel was the first substantial polity to form, while the Kingdom of Judah emerged later (in the late ninth century)"</ref> The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power;{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146-7|ps=:Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} during the days of the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Israel.|first=Finkelstein|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/949151323|title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel|isbn=978-1-58983-910-6|pages=74|oclc=949151323}}</ref> It was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].<ref name="Broshi 2001 174">{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |url={{Google books|etTUEorS1zMC|page=PA174|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2001 |page=174 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6}}</ref> The Kingdom of Judah later became a [[client state]] of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire and then the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]. [[File:Kingdoms of Israel and Judah map 830.svg|thumb|upright|Map of [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] in the 9th century BCE]]In 586 BCE, the Babylonians [[Jewish–Babylonian war|conquered]] Judah. According to the Hebrew Bible, [[Solomon's Temple]] and [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BCE)|Jerusalem were destroyed]] by King [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], who subsequently [[Babylonian captivity|exiled the Jews]] to [[Babylon]]. The defeat was also recorded in the [[Babylonian Chronicles]].<ref name=BabylonianChronicles>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |title=British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE) |access-date=30 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |archive-date=30 October 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html|title=ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius|website=www.livius.org|access-date=26 March 2020|archive-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Babylonian exile]] ended around 538 BCE under the rule of the Medo-Persian [[Cyrus the Great]] after he captured Babylon.<ref name="rennert">{{cite web|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html |title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE to 70 CE) Persian Rule |publisher=Biu.ac.il |access-date=15 March 2014}}</ref><ref>''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103</ref> The [[Second Temple]] was constructed around 520 BCE.<ref name="rennert"/> As part of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]], the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (''[[Yehud Medinata]]'') with different borders, covering a smaller territory.<ref name="Grabbe355">{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1 |year=2004 |publisher=T & T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-08998-4 |url={{Google books|-MnE5T_0RbMC|page=PA355|keywords=|text=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the|plainurl=yes}} |page=355}}</ref> The population of the province was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom, archaeological surveys showing a population of around 30,000 people in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.<ref name=Finkelstein/>{{rp|308}} ===Classical period=== {{Main|Second Temple period}} {{Further|Hasmonean dynasty|Herodian dynasty|Jewish–Roman wars}} [[File:Temple Scroll.png|thumb|upright|Portion of the [[Temple Scroll]], one of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], written during the [[Second Temple period]]]] With successive [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian rule]], the autonomous province ''[[Yehud Medinata]]'' was gradually developing back into urban society, largely dominated by Judeans. The [[Hellenistic Greece|Greek]] conquests largely skipped the region without any resistance or interest. Incorporated into the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic]] and finally the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] empires, the southern Levant was heavily [[Coele-Syria|hellenized]], building the tensions between Judeans and Greeks. The conflict erupted in 167 BCE with the [[Maccabean Revolt]], which succeeded in establishing an independent [[Hasmonean Kingdom]] in Judah, which later expanded over much of modern Israel and parts of Jordan and Lebanon, as the Seleucids gradually lost control in the region.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Helyer|first1=Larry R.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/961153992|title=The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts|last2=McDonald|first2=Lee Martin|publisher=Baker Academic|year=2013|isbn=978-0-8010-9861-1|editor-last=Green|editor-first=Joel B.|pages=45–47|chapter=The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era|oclc=961153992|quote=The ensuing power struggle left Hyrcanus with a free hand in Judea, and he quickly reasserted Jewish sovereignty... Hyrcanus then engaged in a series of military campaigns aimed at territorial expansion. He first conquered areas in the Transjordan. He then turned his attention to Samaria, which had long separated Judea from the northern Jewish settlements in Lower Galilee. In the south, Adora and Marisa were conquered; (Aristobulus') primary accomplishment was annexing and Judaizing the region of Iturea, located between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains|editor-last2=McDonald|editor-first2=Lee Martin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ben-Sasson|first=H.H.|title=A History of the Jewish People|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1976|isbn=0-674-39731-2|pages=226|quote=The expansion of Hasmonean Judea took place gradually. Under Jonathan, Judea annexed southern Samaria and began to expand in the direction of the coast plain... The main ethnic changes were the work of John Hyrcanus... it was in his days and those of his son Aristobulus that the annexation of Idumea, Samaria and Galilee and the consolidation of Jewish settlement in Trans-Jordan was completed. Alexander Jannai, continuing the work of his predecessors, expanded Judean rule to the entire coastal plain, from the Carmel to the Egyptian border... and to additional areas in Trans-Jordan, including some of the Greek cities there.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ben-Eliyahu|first=Eyal|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1103519319|title=Identity and Territory: Jewish Perceptions of Space in Antiquity|date=30 April 2019|isbn=978-0-520-29360-1|pages=13|oclc=1103519319|quote=From the beginning of the Second Temple period until the Muslim conquest—the land was part of imperial space. This was true from the early Persian period, as well as the time of Ptolemy and the Seleucids. The only exception was the Hasmonean Kingdom, with its sovereign Jewish rule—first over Judah and later, in Alexander Jannaeus’s prime, extending to the coast, the north, and the eastern banks of the Jordan.}}</ref> The [[Roman Republic]] invaded the region in 63 BCE, first [[Third Mithridatic War|taking control of Syria]], and then intervening in the [[Hasmonean Civil War]]. The [[Roman–Parthian Wars|struggle]] between pro-Roman and pro-[[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] factions in Judea eventually led to the installation of [[Herod the Great]] and consolidation of the [[Herodian kingdom]] as a vassal Judean state of [[Ancient Rome|Rome]]. Herod undertook many colossal building projects, including fully rebuilding and enlarging the Second Temple. With the decline of the [[Herodian dynasty]], Judea, transformed into a [[Judea (Roman province)|Roman province]], became the site of a violent struggle of Jews against [[Roman people|Romans]], culminating in the [[Jewish–Roman wars]], ending in wide-scale destruction, expulsions, [[genocide]], and [[Slavery in ancient Rome|enslavement]] of masses of Jewish captives. An estimated 1,356,460 Jews were killed as a result of the [[Great Jewish Revolt]] (66–73 CE)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wolfe |title=From Habiru to Hebrews and Other Essays |date=2011 |page=65}}</ref> during which the entire city of Jerusalem, including the Second Temple, [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|were destroyed]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bunson|first=Matthew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HsrGEFpW80UC&pg=PA212|title=A Dictionary of the Roman Empire|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0195102338|page=212|language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Few decades later, the [[Kitos War]] (115–117) led to the death of more than 200,000 Jews,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beck |title=True Jew: Challenging the Stereotype |date=2012 |page=18}}</ref> and the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] (132–136) resulted in the death of 580,000 Jewish soldiers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Armstrong |title=Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths |date=2011 |page=163}}</ref> Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt.<ref>Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. ''Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society''. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.</ref> Nevertheless, there was a continuous small Jewish presence and [[Galilee]] became its religious center.<ref>{{cite book |title=Atlas of Jewish History |last=Cohn-Sherbok |first=Dan |year=1996 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-08800-8 |page=58}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://sunburst.usd.edu/~clehmann/erp/Palestine/palestin.htm |title=Palestine |last=Lehmann |first=Clayton Miles |date=18 January 2007 |website=Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces |publisher=University of South Dakota |access-date=9 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130407005423/http://sunburst.usd.edu/~clehmann/erp/Palestine/palestin.htm |archive-date=7 April 2013 }}</ref> The [[Mishnah]] and part of the [[Jerusalem Talmud|Talmud]], central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in [[Tiberias]] and [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Morçöl|2006|p=304}}</ref> The region came to be populated predominantly by Greco-Romans on the coast and [[Samaritans]] in the hill-country. [[Early Christianity|Christianity]] was gradually evolving over [[Roman Paganism]], when the area stood under [[Diocese of the East|Byzantine rule]]. Through the 5th and 6th centuries, the dramatic events of the repeated [[Samaritan revolts]] reshaped the land, with massive destruction to Byzantine Christian and Samaritan societies and a resulting decrease of the population. After the [[Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem|Persian conquest]] and the installation of a short-lived [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|Jewish Commonwealth]] in 614 CE, the Byzantine Empire [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|reconquered]] the country in 628. ===Middle Ages and modern history=== {{Further|History of Jerusalem during the Middle Ages|Muslim conquest of the Levant|Crusades|Old Yishuv}} [[File:Ruins of the Ancient Synagogue at Bar'am.jpg|thumb|[[Kfar Bar'am]], an ancient Jewish village, abandoned some time between the 7th–13th centuries CE.<ref>Judaism in late antiquity, Jacob Neusner, Bertold Spuler, Hady R Idris, Brill, 2001, p. 155</ref>]] In 634–641 CE, the region, including Jerusalem, was [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|conquered]] by the [[Arabs]] who had recently adopted [[Islam]]. Control of the region transferred between the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliph]]s, [[Umayyad]]s, [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]], [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]], [[Seljuks]], [[Crusader states|Crusaders]], and [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubids]] throughout the next three centuries.<ref name="MosheGil">{{cite book |title=A History of Palestine, 634–1099 |last=Gil |first=Moshe |year=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-59984-9 }}</ref> During the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|siege of Jerusalem]] by the [[First Crusade]] in 1099, the Jewish inhabitants of the city fought side by side with the Fatimid garrison and the Muslim population who tried in vain to defend the city against the [[Crusaders]]. When the city fell, around 60,000 people were massacred, including 6,000 Jews seeking refuge in a synagogue.<ref name="Cooper2009">{{cite book|author=Allan D. Cooper|title=The geography of genocide|url={{Google books|Uyh8kdcuA1kC|page=PA132|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=1 January 2012|year=2009|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-7618-4097-8|page=132}}</ref> At this time, a full thousand years after the fall of the Jewish state, there were Jewish communities all over the country. Fifty of them are known and include Jerusalem, [[Tiberias]], [[Ramla|Ramleh]], [[Ashkelon]], [[Caesarea]], and [[Gaza City|Gaza]].<ref>Carmel, Alex. ''The History of Haifa Under Turkish Rule''. Haifa: Pardes, 2002 ({{ISBN|965-7171-05-9}}), pp. 16–17</ref> According to [[Albert of Aachen]], the Jewish residents of [[Haifa]] were the main fighting force of the city, and "mixed with Saracen [Fatimid] troops", they fought bravely for close to a month until forced into retreat by the Crusader fleet and land army.<ref name=634to1099>{{cite book |title=A History of Palestine, 634–1099 |author= Moshe Gil|year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=829 |isbn=978-0-521-40437-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSM4AAAAIAAJ&q=1100+%22haifa%22+fatimid+jews&pg=PA829 |quote=Haifa was taken [...] in August 1100 or June 1101, according to Muslim sources which contradict one another. Albert of Aachen does not mention the date in a clear manner either. From what he says, it appears that it was mainly the Jewish inhabitants of the city who defended the fortress of Haifa. In his rather strange Latin style, he mentions that there was a Jewish population in Haifa, and that they fought bravely within the walls of the city. He explains that the Jews there were protected people of the Muslims (the Fatimids). They fought side by side with units of the Fatimid army, striking back at Tancred's army from above the walls of the citadel (... ''Judaei civis comixtis Sarracenorum turmis'') until the Crusaders overcame them and they were forced to abandon the walls. The Muslims and the Jews then managed to escape from the fortress with their lives, while the rest of the population fled the city ''en masse''. Whoever remained was slaughtered, and huge quantities of spoils were taken. [...] [Note #3: Albert of Aachen (Albericus, Albertus Aquensis), ''Historia Hierosolymitanae Expeditionis'', in: [[Recueil des historiens des croisades|''RHC'']] (Occ.), IV. p. 523; etc.] |access-date=17 May 2015 }}</ref><ref name="Resnick2012">{{cite book|author=Irven M. Resnick|title=Marks of Distinctions: Christian Perceptions of Jews in the High Middle Ages|url={{Google books|LarC4PG9osUC|page=PA49|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2012|publisher=CUA Press|isbn=978-0-8132-1969-1 |pages=48–49 |quote=citizens of the Jewish race, who lived in the city by the favour and consent of the king of Egypt in return for payment of tribute, got on the walls bearing arms and put up a very stubborn defence, until the Christians, weighed down by various blows over the period of two weeks, absolutely despaired and held back their hands from any attack. [...] the Jewish citizens, mixed with Saracen troops, at once fought back manfully,... and counter-attacked. [Albert of Aachen, ''Historia Ierosolimitana'' 7.23, ed. and transl. Susan B. Edgington (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2007), 516 and 521.] }}</ref> In 1165, [[Maimonides]] visited Jerusalem and prayed on the [[Temple Mount]], in the "great, holy house."<ref>Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3. Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, 6 [[Cheshvan]], commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, 9 Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]].</ref> In 1141, the Spanish-Jewish poet [[Yehuda Halevi]] issued a call for Jews to migrate to the Land of Israel, a journey he undertook himself. In 1187, Sultan [[Saladin]], founder of the [[Ayyubid dynasty]], defeated the Crusaders in the [[Battle of Hattin]] and subsequently captured Jerusalem and almost all of Palestine. In time, Saladin issued a proclamation inviting Jews to return and settle in Jerusalem,<ref name="Bloch1987">{{cite book|author=Abraham P. Bloch|title=One a day: an anthology of Jewish historical anniversaries for every day of the year|chapter-url={{Google books|mjxJAFawRasC|page=PA277|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=26 December 2011|year=1987|publisher=KTAV Publishing House, Inc.|isbn=978-0-88125-108-1|page=277|chapter=Sultan Saladin Opens Jerusalem to Jews}}</ref> and according to [[Yehuda Alharizi|Judah al-Harizi]], they did: "From the day the Arabs took Jerusalem, the Israelites inhabited it."<ref name="Ben-Gurion1974">{{cite book|author=Benzion Dinur|editor=David Ben-Gurion|title=The Jews in their Land|chapter-url={{Google books|5sVtAAAAMAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=26 December 2011|year=1974|publisher=Aldus Books|page=217|chapter=From Bar Kochba's Revolt to the Turkish Conquest}}</ref> Al-Harizi compared Saladin's decree allowing Jews to re-establish themselves in Jerusalem to the one issued by the Persian king [[Cyrus the Great]] over 1,600 years earlier.<ref name="Hindley2007">{{cite book|author=Geoffrey Hindley|title=Saladin: hero of Islam|url={{Google books|fDYsAQAAIAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=26 December 2011|year=2007|publisher=Pen & Sword Military|isbn=978-1-84415-499-9|page=xiii}}</ref> [[File:Ramban shul.jpg|thumb|The 13th-century [[Ramban Synagogue]] in Jerusalem]] In 1211, the Jewish community in the country was strengthened by the arrival of a group headed by over 300 [[rabbi]]s from France and England,<ref name="CarmelSchäfer1990">{{cite book|author1=Alex Carmel|author2=Peter Schäfer|author3=Yossi Ben-Artzi|title=The Jewish settlement in Palestine, 634–1881|url={{Google books|c71tAAAAMAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=21 December 2011|year=1990|publisher=L. Reichert|isbn=978-3-88226-479-1|page=31}}</ref> among them Rabbi [[Samson ben Abraham of Sens]].<ref>[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13073-samson-ben-abraham-of-sens Samson ben Abraham of Sens], ''Jewish Encyclopedia''.</ref> [[Nachmanides]] (Ramban), the 13th-century Spanish rabbi and recognised leader of Jewry, greatly praised the Land of Israel and viewed its settlement as a positive commandment incumbent on all Jews. He wrote "If the [[gentile]]s wish to make peace, we shall make peace and leave them on clear terms; but as for the land, we shall not leave it in their hands, nor in the hands of any nation, not in any generation."<ref name="Lichtman2006">{{cite book|author=Moshe Lichtman|title=Eretz Yisrael in the Parshah: The Centrality of the Land of Israel in the Torah|url={{Google books|g95csSXsDpcC|page=PA302|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=23 December 2011|year=2006|publisher=Devora Publishing|isbn=978-1-932687-70-5|page=302}}</ref> In 1260, control passed to the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk sultans of Egypt]].<ref name="GudrunKramer">{{cite book|title=A History of Palestine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel |last=Kramer |first=Gudrun |year=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11897-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpalesti00krea/page/376 376] |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpalesti00krea/page/376 }}</ref> The country was located between the two centres of Mamluk power, [[Cairo]] and [[Damascus]], and only saw some development along the postal road connecting the two cities. Jerusalem, although left without the protection of any [[Walls of Jerusalem|city walls]] since 1219, also saw a flurry of new construction projects centred around the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] compound on the Temple Mount. In 1266, the Mamluk Sultan [[Baybars]] converted the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]] into an exclusive Islamic sanctuary and banned Christians and Jews from entering, who previously had been able to enter it for a fee. The ban remained in place until Israel took control of the building in 1967.<ref>{{cite book |author=M. Sharon |title=Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition |year=2010 |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |chapter=Al Khalil}}</ref><ref>''International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa'' by Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda, pp. 336–339</ref> [[File:Jews at Western Wall by Felix Bonfils, 1870s.jpg|thumb|Jews at the [[Western Wall]] in the 1870s]] In 1470, Isaac b. Meir Latif arrived from Italy and counted 150 Jewish families in Jerusalem.<ref name="Bahat1976">{{cite book|author=Dan Bahat |title=Twenty centuries of Jewish life in the Holy Land: the forgotten generations|url={{Google books|zoGgAAAAMAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=23 December 2011|year=1976|publisher=Israel Economist|page=48|author-link=Dan Bahat}}</ref> Thanks to [[Joseph Saragossi]] who had arrived in the closing years of the 15th century, [[Safed]] and its environs had developed into the largest concentration of Jews in Palestine. With the help of the [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] immigration from Spain, the Jewish population had increased to 10,000 by the early 16th century.<ref name="Andrews1976">{{cite book|author=Fannie Fern Andrews|title=The Holy Land under mandate|url={{Google books|n5NtAAAAMAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=25 December 2011|year=1976|publisher=Hyperion Press|isbn=978-0-88355-304-6|page=145}}</ref> In 1516, the region was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]]; it remained under [[Ottoman Syria|Turkish rule]] until the end of the [[First World War]], when Britain defeated the Ottoman forces and set up a [[Occupied Enemy Territory Administration|military administration]] across the former [[Ottoman Syria]]. In 1660, a [[Druze power struggle (1658–1667)#Lebanon and Galilee campaign|Druze revolt]] led to the destruction of [[1660 destruction of Safed|Safed]] and [[1660 destruction of Tiberias|Tiberias]].<ref>Joel Rappel, History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), vol. 2, p. 531. "In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived to Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few of former Safed residents had returned...."</ref> In the late 18th century, local Arab [[Sheikh]] [[Zahir al-Umar]] created a de facto independent Emirate in the Galilee. Ottoman attempts to subdue the Sheikh failed, but after Zahir's death the Ottomans regained control of the area. In 1799 governor [[Jazzar Pasha]] successfully repelled an [[Siege of Acre (1799)|assault on Acre]] by troops of [[Napoleon]], prompting the French to abandon the Syrian campaign.<ref>{{cite web |title=Palestine – Ottoman rule |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine#ref45065 |website=www.britannica.com |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=27 November 2018}}</ref> In 1834 a [[Peasants' revolt in Palestine|revolt by Palestinian Arab peasants]] broke out against Egyptian conscription and taxation policies under [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]]. Although the revolt was suppressed, Muhammad Ali's army retreated and Ottoman rule was restored with British support in 1840.<ref>Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. [https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme38pale#page/40/mode/1up 40]</ref> Shortly after, the [[Tanzimat]] reforms were implemented across the Ottoman Empire. In 1920, after the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign|conquered the Levant during World War I]], the territory was divided between Britain and France under the [[League of Nations mandate|mandate system]], and the British-administered area which included modern day Israel was named [[Mandatory Palestine]].<ref name="GudrunKramer"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp#art22 |title=The Covenant of the League of Nations |website=Article 22 |access-date=18 October 2012}}</ref><ref>"Mandate for Palestine," ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', Vol. 11, p. 862, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972</ref> ===Zionism and British Mandate=== {{main|Zionism|Yishuv|Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem|Mandatory Palestine|Mandate for Palestine}} {{further|Balfour Declaration|Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine}} [[File:THEODOR HERZL AT THE FIRST ZIONIST CONGRESS IN BASEL ON 25.8.1897. תאודור הרצל בקונגרס הציוני הראשון - 1897.8.25.jpg|thumb|The [[First Zionist Congress]] (1897) in [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]]]] Since the existence of the earliest [[Jewish diaspora]], many Jews have aspired to [[Aliyah|return]] to "Zion" and the "Land of Israel",<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Rosenzweig|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wKuU3ZBS7gEC&pg=PA1 1]}} "Zionism, the urge of the Jewish people to return to Palestine, is almost as ancient as the Jewish diaspora itself. Some Talmudic statements ... Almost a millennium later, the poet and philosopher Yehuda Halevi ... In the 19th century&nbsp;..."</ref> though the amount of effort that should be spent towards such an aim was a matter of dispute.<ref name="Return_to_Zion">{{cite journal |url=http://www.answers.com/topic/return-to-zion |title= Return to Zion |editor=Geoffrey Wigoder, G.G.|journal=The New Encyclopedia of Judaism |via=[[Answers.com]] |access-date=8 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/959229.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418192523/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/959229.html |archive-date=18 April 2010 |title=An invention called 'the Jewish people' |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=9 March 2010}}</ref> The hopes and yearnings of Jews living in exile are an important theme of the Jewish belief system.<ref name="Return_to_Zion"/> After the Jews were [[Alhambra Decree|expelled from Spain]] in 1492, some communities settled in Palestine.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Gilbert|2005|p=2}}. "Jews sought a new homeland here after their expulsions from Spain (1492)&nbsp;..."</ref> During the 16th century, Jewish communities struck roots in the [[Four Holy Cities]]—[[Jerusalem]], [[Tiberias]], [[Hebron]], and [[Safed]]—and in 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led a group of 1,500 Jews to Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |title=Miraculous journey: a complete history of the Jewish people from creation to the present |last=Eisen |first=Yosef |year=2004 |publisher=Targum Press |isbn=978-1-56871-323-6 |page=700}}</ref> In the second half of the 18th century, Eastern European [[Misnagdim|opponents]] of [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidism]], known as the [[Perushim]], settled in Palestine.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel |last=Morgenstern |first=Arie |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530578-4 |page=304}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: Under the Patronage of the Istanbul committee of Officials for Palestine |last=Barnai |first=Jacob |year=1992 |publisher=University Alabama Press |isbn=978-0-8173-0572-7 |page=320}}</ref> {{Quote box |quote = "Therefore I believe that a wonderous generation of Jews will spring into existence. The Maccabaeans will rise again. Let me repeat once more my opening words: The Jews wish to have a State, and they shall have one. We shall live at last as free men on our own soil, and die peacefully in our own home. The world will be freed by our liberty, enriched by our wealth, magnified by our greatness. And whatever we attempt there to accomplish for our own welfare will react with beneficent force for the good of humanity." |source = {{cite wikisource |author=Theodor Herzl |title=A Jewish State |wslink=A Jewish State (1917 translation)/Conclusion |year=1896 |scan=Page:A Jewish State 1917.djvu/60}} |align = left |width = 240px }} The first wave of modern Jewish migration to [[Southern Syria|Ottoman-ruled Palestine]], known as the [[First Aliyah]], began in 1881, as Jews fled [[Pogrom#Pogroms against Jews|pogroms]] in Eastern Europe.<ref name="aliyot">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Immigration/immigtoc.html |encyclopedia=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=29 March 2012 |title=Immigration to Israel}} The source provides information on the First, Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth Aliyot in their respective articles. The White Paper leading to Aliyah Bet is discussed {{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Immigration/Aliyah_during_war.html |title=Aliyah During World War II and its Aftermath}}</ref> The First Aliyah laid the cornerstone for widespread Jewish settlement in Palestine. From 1881 to 1903, the Jews had established dozens of settlements and purchased about 350,000 [[dunam]]s of land. At the same time, the [[revival of the Hebrew language]] began among Jews in Palestine, spurred on largely by [[Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]], a Russian-born Jew who had settled in Jerusalem in 1881. Jews were encouraged to speak Hebrew in the place of other languages, a Hebrew school system began to emerge, and new words were coined or borrowed from other languages for modern inventions and concepts. As a result, Hebrew gradually became the predominant language of the Jewish community of Palestine, which until then had been divided into different linguistic communities that primarily used Hebrew for religious purposes and as a means of communication between Jews with different native languages. Although the Zionist movement already existed in practice, [[Austro-Hungarian]] journalist [[Theodor Herzl]] is credited with founding political [[Zionism]],<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Kornberg|1993}} "How did Theodor Herzl, an assimilated German nationalist in the 1880s, suddenly in the 1890s become the founder of Zionism?"</ref> a movement that sought to establish a [[Jewish state]] in the Land of Israel, thus offering a solution to the so-called [[Jewish question]] of the European states, in conformity with the goals and achievements of other national projects of the time.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Herzl|1946|p=11}}</ref> In 1896, Herzl published ''[[Der Judenstaat]]'' (''The Jewish State''), offering his vision of a future Jewish state; the following year he presided over the [[First Zionist Congress]] in [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Chapter One|url = http://www.jewishagency.org/israel/content/23396|website = The Jewish Agency for Israel1|access-date = 21 September 2015|date = 21 July 2005}}</ref> The [[Second Aliyah]] (1904–14) began after the [[Kishinev pogrom]]; some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine, although nearly half of them left eventually.<ref name="aliyot"/> Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainly [[Orthodox Jews]],<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Stein|2003|p=88}}. "As with the First Aliyah, most Second Aliyah migrants were non-Zionist orthodox Jews&nbsp;..."</ref> although the Second Aliyah included [[Labor Zionism|socialist]] groups who established the ''[[kibbutz]]'' movement.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Romano|2003|p=30}}</ref> Though the immigrants of the Second Aliyah largely sought to create communal agricultural settlements, the period also saw the establishment of [[Tel Aviv]] in 1909 as the "first Hebrew city." This period also saw the appearance of Jewish armed self-defense organizations as a means of defense for Jewish settlements. The first such organization was [[Bar-Giora (organization)|Bar-Giora]], a small secret guard founded in 1907. Two years later, larger [[Hashomer]] organization was founded as its replacement. During [[World War I]], British Foreign Secretary [[Arthur Balfour]] sent the [[Balfour Declaration]] to [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Baron Rothschild]] (Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild), a leader of the British Jewish community, that stated that Britain intended for the creation of a Jewish "[[Homeland for the Jewish people|national home]]" in Palestine.<ref name=macintyre>{{cite news |last=Macintyre |first=Donald |title=The birth of modern Israel: A scrap of paper that changed history |work=The Independent |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=26 May 2005 |url=http://maof.rjews.net/english/37-english/19351-the-birth-of-modern-israel-a-scrap-of-paper-that-changed-history}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Making of the Modern Near East 1792–1923 |last=Yapp |first=M.E. |author-link=Malcolm Yapp |year=1987 |publisher=Longman |location=Harlow, England |isbn=978-0-582-49380-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/makingofmodern00yapp/page/290 290] |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofmodern00yapp/page/290 }}</ref> In 1918, the [[Jewish Legion]], a group primarily of Zionist volunteers, assisted in the British [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign|conquest of Palestine]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title = Jewish Legion|encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Judaica|url = http://go.galegroup.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CCX2587510141|year = 2007|location = Detroit|publisher = Macmillan Reference|access-date = 6 August 2014|first = Joseph B.|last = Schechtman|page = 304|volume = 11}}</ref> Arab opposition to British rule and Jewish immigration led to the [[1920 Palestine riots]] and the formation of a Jewish militia known as the [[Haganah]] (meaning "The Defense" in Hebrew) in 1920 as an outgrowth of Hashomer, from which the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]] (or the Stern Gang) paramilitaries later split off.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Scharfstein|1996|p=269}}. "During the First and Second Aliyot, there were many Arab attacks against Jewish settlements ... In 1920, [[Hashomer]] was disbanded and [[Haganah]] ("The Defense") was established."</ref> In 1922, the [[League of Nations]] granted Britain the [[Mandate for Palestine]] under terms which included the Balfour Declaration with its promise to the Jews, and with similar provisions regarding the Arab Palestinians.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1922mandate.html |title=League of Nations: The Mandate for Palestine, July 24, 1922 |journal=Modern History Sourcebook |date=24 July 1922 |access-date=27 August 2007 }}</ref> The [[Demographic history of Palestine (region)|population of the area]] at this time was predominantly Arab and Muslim, with Jews accounting for about 11%,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=J. V. W. |title=A Survey of Palestine |edition=Reprint |volume= I: Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry |year=1991 |orig-year=1946 |publisher=Institute for Palestine Studies |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-88728-213-3 |oclc=22345421 |page=148 |chapter=Chapter VI: Population |url=http://www.palestine-studies.org/books.aspx?id=543&href=details}}</ref> and Arab Christians about 9.5% of the population.<ref>{{cite web|title=Report to the League of Nations on Palestine and Transjordan, 1937 |publisher=British Government |year=1937 |access-date=14 July 2013 |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/7BDD2C11C15B54C2052565D10057251E |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923061547/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/7BDD2C11C15B54C2052565D10057251E |archive-date=23 September 2013 }}</ref> The [[Third Aliyah|Third]] (1919–23) and [[Fourth Aliyah]]s (1924–29) brought an additional 100,000 Jews to Palestine.<ref name="aliyot"/> The [[Hitler's rise to power|rise of Nazism]] and the increasing persecution of Jews in 1930s Europe led to the [[Fifth Aliyah]], with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This was a major cause of the [[1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine|Arab revolt of 1936–39]], which was launched as a reaction to continued Jewish immigration and land purchases. Several hundred Jews and British security personnel were killed, while the British Mandate authorities alongside the Zionist militias of the Haganah and Irgun killed 5,032 Arabs and wounded 14,760,<ref>{{cite book|url={{Google books|hEt5PWCTMJMC|page=PA374|keywords=irgun%20and%20haganah%20in%20the%201936 riots|text=irgun+and+haganah+in+the+1936+riots|plainurl=yes}}|title=A History of Zionism: From the French Revolution to the Establishment of the State of Israel|access-date=15 October 2015|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|author=Walter Laqueur|year=2009|isbn=978-0-307-53085-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hughes | first1 = M | year = 2009 | title = The banality of brutality: British armed forces and the repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936–39 | url = http://v-scheiner.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/7251/4/The%20banality%20of%20brutality.pdf | journal = English Historical Review | volume = CXXIV | issue = 507 | pages = 314–354 | doi = 10.1093/ehr/cep002 | url-status = bot: unknown | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160221163210/http://v-scheiner.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/7251/4/The%20banality%20of%20brutality.pdf | archive-date = 21 February 2016 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> resulting in over ten percent of the adult male [[Palestinian Arab]] population killed, wounded, imprisoned or exiled.<ref>[[Walid Khalidi|Khalidi, Walid]] (1987). ''From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948''. Institute for Palestine Studies. {{ISBN|978-0-88728-155-6}}</ref> The British introduced restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine with the [[White Paper of 1939]]. With countries around the world turning away [[Jewish refugees]] fleeing [[the Holocaust]], a clandestine movement known as [[Aliyah Bet]] was organized to bring Jews to Palestine.<ref name="aliyot"/> By the end of [[World War II]], the Jewish population of Palestine had increased to 31% of the total population.<ref>Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, Village Statistics, 1945.</ref> ===After World War II=== {{further|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|1947–1949 Palestine war|Israeli Declaration of Independence}} [[File:UN Palestine Partition Versions 1947.jpg|thumb|197px|[[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|UN Map]], "Palestine plan of partition with economic union"]] After World War II, the UK found itself facing a Jewish [[Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine|guerrilla campaign]] over Jewish immigration restrictions, as well as continued conflict with the Arab community over limit levels. The Haganah joined Irgun and Lehi in an armed struggle against British rule.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Fraser|2004|p=27}}</ref> At the same time, hundreds of thousands of Jewish [[Holocaust survivors]] and refugees sought a new life far from their destroyed communities in Europe. The Haganah attempted to bring these refugees to Palestine in a program called [[Aliyah Bet]] in which tens of thousands of Jewish refugees attempted to enter Palestine by ship. Most of the ships were intercepted by the [[Royal Navy]] and the refugees rounded up and placed in detention camps in [[Atlit detainee camp|Atlit]] and [[Cyprus internment camps|Cyprus]] by the British.<ref name="Golani2013">{{cite book|author=Motti Golani|title=Palestine Between Politics and Terror, 1945–1947|url={{Google books|Mp7BAgAAQBAJ|page=PA130|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2013|publisher=UPNE|isbn=978-1-61168-388-2|page=130}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Michael J |title=Britain's Moment in Palestine:Retrospect and Perspectives, 1917–1948 |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon and New York |isbn=978-0-415-72985-7 |page=474 |edition=First |url={{Google books|DLPpAgAAQBAJ|page=PA474|keywords=British%20detention%20camps%20at%20atlit%20and cyprus|text=British+detention+camps+at+atlit+and+cyprus|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> On 22 July 1946, Irgun [[King David Hotel bombing|bombed]] the British administrative headquarters for Palestine, which was housed in the southern wing<ref>The Terrorism Ahead: Confronting Transnational Violence in the Twenty-First | By Paul J. Smith | M.E. Sharpe, 2007 | p. 27</ref> of the [[King David Hotel]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>''Encyclopedia of Terrorism'', Harvey W. Kushner, Sage, 2003 p. 181</ref><ref name="brtca_irgun">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293947/Irgun-Zvai-Leumi#ref112521 Encyclopædia Britannica] article on the Irgun Zvai Leumi</ref><ref>The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism. William Roger Louis, Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 430</ref> A total of 91 people of various nationalities were killed and 46 were injured.<ref name="tclarke81">[[Thurston Clarke|Clarke, Thurston]]. ''By Blood and Fire'', G.P. Puttnam's Sons, New York, 1981</ref> The hotel was the site of the Secretariat of the Government of Palestine and the Headquarters of the British Armed Forces in Mandatory Palestine and [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]].<ref name="tclarke81"/><ref name="bethell">{{Cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Bethell|title=The Palestine Triangle|publisher=Andre Deutsch|year=1979}}</ref> The attack initially had the approval of the Haganah. It was conceived as a response to [[Operation Agatha]] (a series of widespread raids, including one on the [[Jewish Agency for Israel|Jewish Agency]], conducted by the British authorities) and was the deadliest directed at the British during the Mandate era.<ref name="tclarke81"/><ref name="bethell"/> The Jewish insurgency continued throughout the rest of 1946 and 1947 despite concerted efforts by the British military and [[Palestine Police Force]] to suppress it. British efforts to mediate a negotiated solution with Jewish and Arab representatives also failed as the Jews were unwilling to accept any solution that did not involve a Jewish state and suggested a partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, while the Arabs were adamant that a Jewish state in any part of Palestine was unacceptable and that the only solution was a unified Palestine under Arab rule. In February 1947, the British referred the Palestine issue to the newly formed [[United Nations]]. On 15 May 1947, the [[General Assembly of the United Nations|General Assembly]] of the United Nations resolved that the [[United Nations Special Committee on Palestine]] be created "to prepare for consideration at the next regular session of the Assembly a report on the question of Palestine."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/F5A49E57095C35B685256BCF0075D9C2 |title=A/RES/106 (S-1) |date=15 May 1947 |website=General Assembly resolution |publisher=United Nations |access-date=12 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806072438/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/F5A49E57095C35B685256BCF0075D9C2 |archive-date=6 August 2012 }}</ref> In the Report of the Committee dated 3 September 1947 to the General Assembly,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/07175DE9FA2DE563852568D3006E10F3 |title=A/364 |date=3 September 1947 |website=Special Committee on Palestine |publisher=United Nations |access-date=12 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610173759/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/07175DE9FA2DE563852568D3006E10F3 |archive-date=10 June 2012 }}</ref> the majority of the Committee in Chapter VI [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|proposed a plan]] to replace the British Mandate with "an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem [...] the last to be under an International Trusteeship System."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/2248AF9A92B498718525694B007239C6 |publisher=United Nations |date=20 April 1949 |access-date=31 July 2007 |title=Background Paper No. 47 (ST/DPI/SER.A/47) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103014616/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/2248AF9A92B498718525694B007239C6 |archive-date=3 January 2011 }}</ref> Meanwhile, the Jewish insurgency continued and peaked in July 1947, with a series of widespread guerrilla raids culminating in [[the Sergeants affair]]. After three Irgun fighters had been sentenced to death for their role in the [[Acre Prison break]], a May 1947 Irgun raid on [[Acre Prison]] in which 27 Irgun and Lehi militants were freed, the Irgun captured two British sergeants and held them hostage, threatening to kill them if the three men were executed. When the British carried out the executions, the Irgun responded by killing both hostages and hanged their bodies from eucalyptus trees, booby-trapping one of them with a mine which injured a British officer as he cut the body down. The hangings caused widespread outrage in Britain and were a major factor in the consensus forming in Britain that it was time to evacuate Palestine. In September 1947, the British cabinet decided that the Mandate was no longer tenable, and to evacuate Palestine. According to Colonial Secretary [[Arthur Creech Jones]], four major factors led to the decision to evacuate Palestine: the inflexibility of Jewish and Arab negotiators who were unwilling to compromise on their core positions over the question of a Jewish state in Palestine, the economic pressure that stationing a large garrison in Palestine to deal with the Jewish insurgency and the possibility of a wider Jewish rebellion and the possibility of an Arab rebellion put on a British economy already strained by World War II, the "deadly blow to British patience and pride" caused by the hangings of the sergeants, and the mounting criticism the government faced in failing to find a new policy for Palestine in place of the [[White Paper of 1939]].<ref>Hoffman, Bruce: ''Anonymous Soldiers'' (2015)</ref> On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly adopted [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|Resolution 181 (II)]] recommending the adoption and implementation of the ''Plan of Partition with Economic Union''.<ref name="181(II)">{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/DPA/DPR/unispal.nsf/0/7F0AF2BD897689B785256C330061D253 |title=Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine |date=29 November 1947 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=21 March 2017}}</ref> The plan attached to the resolution was essentially that proposed by the majority of the Committee in the report of 3 September. The [[Jewish Agency]], which was the recognized representative of the Jewish community, accepted the plan.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=75|ps=: "The night of 29–30 November passed in the Yishuv's settlements in noisy public rejoicing. Most had sat glued to their radio sets broadcasting live from Flushing Meadow. A collective cry of joy went up when the two-thirds mark was achieved: a state had been sanctioned by the international community."}}{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=396|ps=: "The immediate trigger of the 1948 War was the November 1947 UN partition resolution. The Zionist movement, except for its fringes, accepted the proposal.", "The Arab war aim, in both stages of the hostilities, was, at a minimum, to abort the emergence of a Jewish state or to destroy it at inception. The Arab states hoped to accomplish this by conquering all or large parts of the territory allotted to the Jews by the United Nations. And some Arab leaders spoke of driving the Jews into the sea and ridding Palestine "of the Zionist plague." The struggle, as the Arabs saw it, was about the fate of Palestine/ the Land of Israel, all of it, not over this or that part of the country. But, in public, official Arab spokesmen often said that the aim of the May 1948 invasion was to "save" Palestine or "save the Palestinians," definitions more agreeable to Western ears."}} The [[Arab League]] and [[Arab Higher Committee]] of Palestine rejected it, and indicated that they would reject any other plan of partition.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=66|ps=: at 1946 "The League demanded independence for Palestine as a "unitary" state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews.", p. 67: at 1947 "The League's Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called "aggression," "without mercy." The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance "in manpower, money and equipment" should the United Nations endorse partition.", p. 72: at December 1947 "The League vowed, in very general language, "to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.""}}<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bregman|2002|pp=40–41}}</ref> On the following day, 1 December 1947, the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike, and [[1947 Jerusalem riots|riots broke out in Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Palestine 1948 |last=Gelber |first=Yoav |year=2006 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |location=Brighton |isbn=978-1-902210-67-4 |page=17}}</ref> The situation spiraled into a [[1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]]; just two weeks after the UN vote, Colonial Secretary [[Arthur Creech Jones]] announced that the British Mandate would end on 15 May 1948, at which point the British would evacuate. As Arab militias and gangs attacked Jewish areas, they were faced mainly by the [[Haganah]], as well as the smaller Irgun and Lehi. In April 1948, the Haganah moved onto the offensive.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=77–78}}<ref>{{cite book |title=War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy |last=Tal |first=David |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7146-5275-7 |page=471}}</ref> During this period 250,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled, due to [[Causes of the 1948 Palestinian exodus|a number of factors]].{{sfn|Morris|2008}} {{multiple image |align=left |image1=Declaration of State of Israel 1948.jpg |caption1=[[David Ben-Gurion]] proclaiming the [[Israeli Declaration of Independence]] on 14 May 1948 |image2=Raising the Ink Flag at Umm Rashrash (Eilat).jpg |caption2=Raising of the [[Ink Flag]] on 10 March 1949, marking the end of the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|1948 war]] |width1=224 |width2=100 }} On 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]], the head of the Jewish Agency, [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|declared]] "the establishment of a Jewish state in [[Eretz-Israel]], to be known as the State of Israel."<ref name="Declaration">{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/peace/guide/pages/declaration%20of%20establishment%20of%20state%20of%20israel.aspx |title=Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel |date=14 May 1948 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=21 March 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317223538/http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/peace/guide/pages/declaration%20of%20establishment%20of%20state%20of%20israel.aspx |archive-date=17 March 2017 }}</ref><ref>Clifford, Clark, "Counsel to the President: A Memoir", 1991, p. 20.</ref> The only reference in the text of the Declaration to the borders of the new state is the use of the term ''Eretz-Israel'' ("[[Land of Israel]]").<ref>{{cite news |url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/07/the-elephant-in-the-map-room/ |title=The Elephant in the Map Room |last=Jacobs |first=Frank |date=7 August 2012 |work=Borderlines |publisher=The New York Times |access-date=3 September 2012}}</ref> The following day, the armies of four Arab countries—[[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]], [[Syrian Republic (1946–63)|Syria]], [[Jordan|Transjordan]] and [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]]—entered what had been British Mandatory Palestine, launching the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]];<ref>{{cite book |title=The Arab–Israeli conflict: The Palestine War 1948 |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-372-9|page=50}}</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Ben-Sasson|1985|p=1058}}</ref> contingents from [[Yemen]], [[Morocco]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Sudan]] joined the war.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=205}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present |last=Rabinovich |first=Itamar |author2=Reinharz, Jehuda |year=2007 |publisher=Brandeis |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780874519624/page/74 74] |isbn=978-0-87451-962-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780874519624/page/74 }}</ref> The apparent purpose of the invasion was to prevent the establishment of the Jewish state at inception, and some Arab leaders talked about driving the Jews into the sea.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Tal|title=War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy|url={{Google books|Vs2PAgAAQBAJ|page=PR4|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-77513-1|page=469|quote=some of the Arab armies invaded Palestine in order to prevent the establishment of a Jewish state, Transjordan...}}</ref><ref name="FOOTNOTEMorris2008396"/>{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=187|ps=: "A week before the armies marched, Azzam told Kirkbride: "It does not matter how many [ Jews] there are. We will sweep them into the sea." ... Ahmed Shukeiry, one of Haj Amin al-Husseini's aides (and, later, the founding chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization), simply described the aim as "the elimination of the Jewish state." ... al-Quwwatli told his people: "Our army has entered ... we shall win and we shall eradicate Zionism""}} According to [[Benny Morris]], Jews were worried that the invading Arab armies held the intent to slaughter them.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=198|ps=: "the Jews felt that the Arabs aimed to reenact the Holocaust and that they faced certain personal and collective slaughter should they lose"}} The Arab league stated the invasion was to restore law and order and to prevent further bloodshed.<ref name=cablegram>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=S/745 |title=PDF copy of Cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the Secretary-General of the United Nations: S/745: 15 May 1948 |publisher=Un.org |date=9 September 2002 |access-date=13 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107030419/http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=S%2F745 |archive-date=7 January 2014 }}</ref> After a year of fighting, a [[1949 Armistice Agreements|ceasefire was declared]] and temporary borders, known as the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]], were established.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Arab–Israeli conflict: The Palestine War 1948 |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-372-9}}</ref> Jordan [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|annexed]] what became known as the [[West Bank]], including [[East Jerusalem]], and Egypt [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|occupied]] the [[Gaza Strip]]. The UN estimated that more than 700,000 Palestinians were [[1948 Palestinian exodus|expelled by or fled from]] advancing [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli forces]] during the conflict—what would become known in Arabic as the ''[[Nakba]]'' ("catastrophe").<ref>{{cite book|last=Morris|first=Benny|author-link=Benny Morris|title=The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited|isbn=978-0-521-00967-6|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=602 |year=2004}}</ref> Some 156,000 remained and became [[Arab citizens of Israel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=13336|title=עיצוב יחסי יהודים - ערבים בעשור הראשון|website=lib.cet.ac.il}}</ref> ===Early years of the State of Israel=== {{further|Arab–Israeli conflict}} Israel [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 273|was admitted]] as a member of the UN by majority vote on 11 May 1949.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/1ce874ab1832a53e852570bb006dfaf6/0b3ab8d2a7c0273d8525694b00726d1b |publisher=The United Nations |title=Two Hundred and Seventh Plenary Meeting |date=11 May 1949 |access-date=13 July 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912101430/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/1ce874ab1832a53e852570bb006dfaf6/0b3ab8d2a7c0273d8525694b00726d1b |archive-date=12 September 2007 }}</ref> An Israeli-Jordanian attempt at negotiating a peace agreement broke down after the [[British government]], fearful of the Egyptian reaction to such a treaty, expressed their opposition to the [[Government of Jordan|Jordanian government]].<ref>{{cite book|author=William Roger Louis|title=The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism|url={{Google books|ATQQ0FMS1FQC|page=PA579|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1984|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-822960-5|page=579 | quote="The transcript makes it clear that British policy acted as a brake on Jordan. "King Abdullah was personally anxious to come to agreement with Israel", Kirkbride stated, "and in fact it was our restraining influence which had so far prevented him from doing so". Knox Helm confirmed that the Israelis hoped to have a settlement with Jordan, and that they now genuinely wished to live peacefully within their frontiers, if only for economic reasons".}}</ref> In the early years of the state, the [[Labor Zionism|Labor Zionist]] movement led by Prime Minister [[David Ben-Gurion]] dominated [[Politics of Israel|Israeli politics]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Lustick|1988|pp=37–39}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/iltoc.html |title=Israel (Labor Zionism) |journal=Country Studies |access-date=12 February 2010 }}</ref> The [[kibbutzim]], or collective farming communities, played a pivotal role in establishing the new state.<ref name="Jewish Virtual Library">{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/kibbutz.html |title=The Kibbutz & Moshav: History & Overview |website=Jewish Virtual Library |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref> Immigration to Israel during the late 1940s and early 1950s was aided by the Israeli Immigration Department and the non-government sponsored [[Mossad LeAliyah Bet]] ({{Abbr|lit.|literally|class=small}} "Institute for [[Aliyah Bet|Immigration B]]") which organized illegal and clandestine immigration.<ref>{{cite book | author = Anita Shapira | title = Land and Power | pages = 416, 419 | publisher = Stanford University Press | year = 1992}}</ref> Both groups facilitated regular immigration logistics like arranging transportation, but the latter also engaged in clandestine operations in countries, particularly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, where the lives of Jews were believed to be in danger and exit from those places was difficult. Mossad LeAliyah Bet was disbanded in 1953.<ref>Segev, Tom. 1949: The First Israelis. "The First Million". Trans. Arlen N. Weinstein. New York: The Free Press, 1986. Print. pp. 105–107</ref> The immigration was in accordance with the [[One Million Plan]]. The immigrants came for differing reasons: some held Zionist beliefs or came for the promise of a better life in Israel, while others moved to escape persecution or were expelled.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Forgotten Millions: The Modern Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands |last=Shulewitz |first=Malka Hillel |year=2001 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-4764-7}}</ref><ref>Laskier, Michael "Egyptian Jewry under the Nasser Regime, 1956–70" pp. 573–619 from ''Middle Eastern Studies'', Volume 31, Issue # 3, July 1995 p. 579.</ref> An [[Aliyah#Early statehood (1948–1960)|influx of Holocaust survivors]] and [[Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries|Jews from Arab and Muslim countries]] to Israel during the first three years increased the number of Jews from 700,000 to 1,400,000. By 1958, the population of Israel rose to two million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_02&CYear=2016 |title=Population, by Religion |date=2016 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref> Between 1948 and 1970, approximately 1,150,000 Jewish refugees relocated to Israel.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bard|first=Mitchell|title=The Founding of the State of Israel|year=2003|publisher=Greenhaven Press|page=15}}</ref> Some new immigrants arrived as refugees with no possessions and were housed in temporary camps known as ''[[ma'abarot]]''; by 1952, over 200,000 people were living in these tent cities.<ref>{{cite book |title=Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After |last=Hakohen |first=Devorah |year=2003 |publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-2969-6}}; for ma'abarot population, see p. 269.</ref> [[Ashkenazi Jews|Jews of European background]] were often treated more favorably than Jews from [[Mizrahi Jews|Middle Eastern]] and [[Sephardi Jews|North African]] countries—housing units reserved for the latter were often re-designated for the former, with the result that Jews newly arrived from Arab lands generally ended up staying in transit camps for longer.<ref>Clive Jones, Emma Murphy, [https://books.google.com/books?id=A144y7qwRJMC&pg=PA37 ''Israel: Challenges to Identity, Democracy, and the State,''] [[Routledge]] 2002 p. 37: "Housing units earmarked for the Oriental Jews were often reallocated to European Jewish immigrants; Consigning Oriental Jews to the privations of ''ma'aborot'' (transit camps) for longer periods."</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Segev|2007|pp=155–157}}</ref> During this period, food, clothes and furniture had to be rationed in what became known as the [[Austerity in Israel|austerity period]]. The need to solve the crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign a [[Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany|reparations agreement with West Germany]] that triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea that Israel could accept monetary compensation for the Holocaust.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Shindler|2002|pp=49–50}}</ref> [[File:1961-04-13 Tale Of Century - Eichmann Tried For War Crimes.ogv|thumb|U.S. newsreel on the trial of [[Adolf Eichmann]]]] During the 1950s, Israel was frequently [[List of attacks against Israeli civilians before 1967|attacked]] by [[Palestinian fedayeen]], nearly always against civilians,<ref>{{cite book|author=Kameel B. Nasr|title=Arab and Israeli Terrorism: The Causes and Effects of Political Violence, 1936–1993|url={{Google books|QRXURzwdXS4C|page=PA40|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=1996|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-3105-2|pages=40–|quote=Fedayeen to attack...almost always against civilians}}</ref> mainly from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip,<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Gilbert|2005|p=58}}</ref> leading to several Israeli [[reprisal operations]]. In 1956, the United Kingdom and France aimed at regaining control of the [[Suez Canal]], which the Egyptians had nationalized. The continued blockade of the Suez Canal and [[Straits of Tiran]] to Israeli shipping, together with the growing amount of Fedayeen attacks against Israel's southern population, and recent Arab grave and threatening statements, prompted Israel to attack Egypt.<ref>{{cite book|author=Isaac Alteras|title=Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.-Israeli Relations, 1953–1960|url={{Google books|ydRHCPWngioC|page=PA192|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=1993|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0-8130-1205-6|pages=192–|quote="the removal of the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran at the entrance of the Gulf of Aqaba. The blockade closed Israel's sea lane to East Africa and the Far East, hindering the development of Israel's southern port of Eilat and its hinterland, the Nege. Another important objective of the Israeli war plan was the elimination of the terrorist bases in the Gaza Strip, from which daily fedayeen incursions into Israel made life unbearable for its southern population. And last but not least, the concentration of the Egyptian forces in the Sinai Peninsula, armed with the newly acquired weapons from the Soviet bloc, prepared for an attack on Israel. Here, Ben-Gurion believed, was a time bomb that had to be defused before it was too late. Reaching the Suez Canal did not figure at all in Israel's war objectives. "}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Dominic Joseph Caraccilo|title=Beyond Guns and Steel: A War Termination Strategy|url={{Google books|FDA8dQyaQ9MC|page=PA113|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-39149-1|pages=113–|quote=The escalation continued with the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran, and Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal in July 1956. On October 14, Nasser made clear his intent:"I am not solely fighting against Israel itself. My task is to deliver the Arab world from destruction through Israel's intrigue, which has its roots abroad. Our hatred is very strong. There is no sense in talking about peace with Israel. There is not even the smallest place for negotiations." Less than two weeks later, on October 25, Egypt signed a tripartite agreement with Syria and Jordan placing Nasser in command of all three armies. The continued blockade of the Suez Canal and Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping, combined with the increased fedayeen attacks and the bellicosity of recent Arab statements, prompted Israel, with the backing of Britain and France, to attack Egypt on October 29, 1956.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Alan Dowty|title=Israel/Palestine|url={{Google books|9iFxq6NPPgEC|page=PA102|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2005|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-3202-5|pages=102–|quote=Gamal Abdel Nasser, who declared in one speech that "Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes, the disciples of Pharaoh and the sons of Islam and they will cleanse the land of Palestine....There will be no peace on Israel's border because we demand vengeance, and vengeance is Israel's death."...The level of violence against Israelis, soldiers and civilians alike, seemed to be rising inexorably.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Jewish Virtual Library, The Sinai-Suez Campaign: Background & Overview|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Suez_War.html|quote=In 1955, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser began to import arms from the Soviet Bloc to build his arsenal for the confrontation with Israel. In the short-term, however, he employed a new tactic to prosecute Egypt's war with Israel. He announced it on August 31, 1955: Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes, the disciples of Pharaoh and the sons of Islam and they will cleanse the land of Palestine....There will be no peace on Israel's border because we demand vengeance, and vengeance is Israel's death. These "heroes" were Arab terrorists, or fedayeen, trained and equipped by Egyptian Intelligence to engage in hostile action on the border and infiltrate Israel to commit acts of sabotage and murder.}}</ref> Israel joined [[Protocol of Sèvres|a secret alliance]] with the United Kingdom and France and overran the [[Sinai Peninsula]] but was pressured to withdraw by the UN in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights in the [[Red Sea]] via the Straits of Tiran and the Canal.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/5195582.stm|title=Suez Crisis: Key players|date=21 July 2006|access-date=19 July 2018|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://sunnycv.com/steve/20th/suez.html |title=The Suez Crisis |last=Schoenherr |first=Steven |date=15 December 2005 |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Suez Crisis |last=Gorst |first=Anthony |author2=Johnman, Lewis |year=1997 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-11449-3}}</ref> The war, known as the [[Suez Crisis]], resulted in significant reduction of Israeli border infiltration.<ref>{{cite book|author=Benny Morris|title=Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–1998|url={{Google books|jGtVsBne7PgC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=25 May 2011|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-78805-4|pages=300, 301|quote=[p. 300] In exchange (for Israeli withdrawal) the United states had indirectly promised to guarantee Israel's right of passage through the straits (to the Red sea) and its right to self defense if the Egyptian closed them....(p 301) The 1956 war resulted in a significant reduction of...Israeli border tension. Egypt refrained from reactivating the Fedaeen, and...Egypt and Jordan made great effort to curb infiltration}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=National insurance institute of Israel, Hostile Action Casualties|url=http://www.btl.gov.il/English%20Homepage/Benefits/Benefits%20for%20Victims%20of%20Hostilities/Pages/default.aspx|language=he|quote=list of people who were killed in hostile action: [http://laad.btl.gov.il/Web/He/Victims/112.aspx?lastName=&firstName=&fatherName=&motherName=&place=&year=1956&month=&day=&region=&period=3&grave= 53 In 1956], [http://laad.btl.gov.il/Web/He/Victims/112.aspx?lastName=&firstName=&fatherName=&motherName=&place=&year=1957&month=&day=&region=&period=3&grave= 19 in 1957], [http://laad.btl.gov.il/Web/He/Victims/112.aspx?lastName=&firstName=&fatherName=&motherName=&place=&year=1958&month=&day=&region=&period=3&grave= 15 in 1958]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=jewish virtual library, Terrorism Against Israel: Number of Fatalities|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Peace/osloterr.html|quote=53 at 1956, 19 at 1957, 15 at 1958}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jewish virtual library, MYTH "Israel's military strike in 1956 was unprovoked."|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths3/MF1956.html|quote=Israeli Ambassador to the UN Abba Eban explained ... As a result of these actions of Egyptian hostility within Israel, 364 Israelis were wounded and 101 killed. In 1956 alone, as a result of this aspect of Egyptian aggression, 28 Israelis were killed and 127 wounded.}}</ref> In the early 1960s, Israel captured Nazi war criminal [[Adolf Eichmann]] in Argentina and brought him to Israel for [[Eichmann trial|trial]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/eichmann.html |title=Adolf Eichmann |encyclopedia=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=18 September 2007 }}</ref> The trial had a major impact on public awareness of the Holocaust.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Cole|2003|p=27}}. "...&nbsp;the Eichmann trial, which did so much to raise public awareness of the Holocaust&nbsp;..."</ref> Eichmann remains the only person executed in Israel by conviction in an [[Israeli judicial system|Israeli civilian court]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Shlomo Shpiro | title = No place to hide: Intelligence and civil liberties in Israel | journal = Cambridge Review of International Affairs | volume = 19 | issue = 44 | pages = 629–648 |year = 2006 | doi=10.1080/09557570601003361| s2cid = 144734253 }}</ref> During the spring and summer of 1963 Israel was engaged in a, now declassified [[1963 Israel–United States standoff|diplomatic standoff with the United States]] due to the Israeli [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|nuclear program]].<ref name="Haaretz2019">{{Cite news | url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-how-a-standoff-with-the-u-s-almost-blew-up-israel-s-nuclear-program-1.7193419 |title = How a Standoff with the U.S. Almost Blew up Israel's Nuclear Program|newspaper = Haaretz|date = 3 May 2019|last1 = Cohen|first1 = Avner}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2019-05-02/battle-letters-1963-john-f-kennedy-david-ben-gurion-levi-eshkol-us-inspections-dimona | title=The Battle of the Letters, 1963: John F. Kennedy, David Ben-Gurion, Levi Eshkol, and the U.S. Inspections of Dimona &#124; National Security Archive| date=29 April 2019}}</ref> [[File:Six Day War Territories.svg|thumb|upright|Territory held by Israel: {{legend|#ffffd0|before the [[Six-Day War]]}} {{legend|#f7d3aa|after the war}} The [[Sinai Peninsula]] was returned to Egypt in 1982.]] Since 1964, Arab countries, concerned over Israeli plans to divert waters of the [[Jordan River]] into the [[Israeli coastal plain|coastal plain]],<ref>"The Politics of Miscalculation in the Middle East", by Richard B. Parker (1993 Indiana University Press) p. 38</ref> had been trying to divert the headwaters to deprive Israel of water resources, provoking [[War over Water (Jordan river)|tensions]] between Israel on the one hand, and Syria and Lebanon on the other. [[Arab nationalist]]s led by Egyptian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] refused to recognize Israel and called for its destruction.<ref name=RoutledgeAtlas/><ref>{{cite book |title=Syria and Israel: From War to Peacemaking |last=Maoz |first=Moshe |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-828018-7 |page=70 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/5/newsid_2654000/2654251.stm |title=On This Day 5 Jun |date= 5 June 1967|publisher=BBC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> By 1966, Israeli-Arab relations had deteriorated to the point of actual battles taking place between Israeli and Arab forces.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Segev|2007|p=178}}</ref> In May 1967, Egypt massed its army near the border with Israel, expelled [[United Nations Emergency Force|UN peacekeepers]], stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1957, and blocked Israel's access to the Red Sea.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gat |first=Moshe |title=Britain and the Conflict in the Middle East, 1964–1967: The Coming of the Six-Day War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntLdA8QIgXIC&q=On+the+night+of+May+22-23,+Nasser+declared+the+Gulf+of+Aqaba+closed+to+Israeli+shipping&pg=PA202 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2003 |page=202 |isbn=978-0-275-97514-2}}</ref><ref>[[John Quigley (academic)|John Quigley]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=0zEi3qGWLFIC&pg=PA32 ''The Six-Day War and Israeli Self-Defense: Questioning the Legal Basis for Preventive War''], Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 32.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Samir A. Mutawi|title=Jordan in the 1967 War|url={{Google books |g9bBJusRJIMC |page= |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press| isbn=978-0-521-52858-0|page=93| quote=Although Eshkol denounced the Egyptians, his response to this development was a model of moderation. His speech on 21 May demanded that Nasser withdraw his forces from Sinai but made no mention of the removal of UNEF from the Straits nor of what Israel would do if they were closed to Israeli shipping. The next day Nasser announced to an astonished world that henceforth the Straits were, indeed, closed to all Israeli ships}}</ref> Other Arab states mobilized their forces.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Segev|2007|p=289}}</ref> Israel reiterated that these actions were a ''[[casus belli]]'' and, on 5 June, launched a [[Operation Focus|pre-emptive strike]] against Egypt. Jordan, Syria and Iraq responded and attacked Israel. In a [[Six-Day War]], Israel captured and occupied the West Bank from Jordan, the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, and the [[Golan Heights]] from Syria.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Smith|2006|p=126}}. "Nasser, the Egyptian president, decided to mass troops in the Sinai{{nbsp}}... ''casus belli'' by Israel."</ref> Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged, incorporating [[East Jerusalem]], and the 1949 [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]] became the administrative boundary between Israel and the [[Israeli-occupied territories|occupied territories]].{{citation needed|date=June 2021}} Following the 1967 war and the "[[Three Nos]]" resolution of the Arab League and during the 1967–1970 [[War of Attrition]], Israel faced attacks from the Egyptians in the Sinai Peninsula, and from Palestinian groups targeting Israelis in the occupied territories, in Israel proper, and around the world. Most important among the various Palestinian and Arab groups was the [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]] (PLO), established in 1964, which initially committed itself to "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/13/magazine/13PALESTINIANS.html |title=The Interregnum |last=Bennet |first=James |date=13 March 2005 |work=The New York Times Magazine |access-date=11 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign+Relations/Israels+Foreign+Relations+since+1947/1947-1974/33+The+Palestinian+National+Covenant-+July+1968.htm |title=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs&nbsp;– The Palestinian National Covenant – July 1968 |publisher=Mfa.gov.il |access-date=13 March 2009}}</ref> In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launched a [[Palestinian political violence|wave of attacks]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Research on Terrorism: Trends, Achievements and Failures |last=Silke |first=Andrew |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7146-8273-0 |page=149 (256 pp.) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rSpfNJQ4CbAC&q=palestinian+terror+1970s&pg=PA149 |access-date=8 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Routledge Atlas of the Arab–Israeli Conflict: The Complete History of the Struggle and the Efforts to Resolve It |last=Gilbert|first=Martin |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28116-4 |page=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNvJ1FOwiAwC&q=palestinian+terror+1970s&pg=PA82 |access-date=8 March 2010}}</ref> against Israeli and Jewish targets around the world,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/middleeast/27habash.html |title=George Habash, Palestinian Terrorism Tactician, Dies at 82 |first1=Edmund |last1=Andrews |author-link=Edmund Andrews (reporter) |first2=John |last2=Kifner |author-link2=John Kifner |newspaper=The New York Times |date=27 January 2008 |access-date=29 March 2012}}</ref> including [[Munich massacre|a massacre of Israeli athletes]] at the [[1972 Summer Olympics]] in Munich. The Israeli government responded with an [[Operation Wrath of God|assassination campaign]] against the organizers of the massacre, a [[1972 Israeli air raid in Syria and Lebanon|bombing]] and a [[1973 Israeli raid on Lebanon|raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon]]. On 6 October 1973, as Jews were observing [[Yom Kippur]], the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched [[Operation Badr (1973)|a surprise attack]] against Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights, that opened the [[Yom Kippur War]]. The war ended on 25 October with Israel successfully repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but having suffered over 2,500 soldiers killed in a war which collectively took 10–35,000 lives in about 20 days.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/6/newsid_2514000/2514317.stm |title=1973: Arab states attack Israeli forces |work=On This Day |publisher=BBC News |access-date=15 July 2007 | date=6 October 1973}}</ref> An [[Agranat Commission|internal inquiry]] exonerated [[Fifteenth government of Israel|the government]] of responsibility for failures before and during the war, but public anger forced Prime Minister [[Golda Meir]] to resign.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/lexicon/eng/agranat_eng.htm |title=Agranat Commission |publisher=Knesset |year=2008 |access-date=8 April 2010}}</ref> In July 1976, an airliner was hijacked during its flight from Israel to France by Palestinian guerrillas and landed at [[Entebbe International Airport]], [[Uganda]]. Israeli commandos carried out [[Operation Entebbe|an operation]] in which 102 out of 106 Israeli hostages were successfully rescued. ===Further conflict and peace process=== {{Further|Israeli–Palestinian peace process|Iran–Israel proxy conflict}} {{See also|One-state solution|Two-state solution|Three-state solution|Lieberman Plan}} The [[1977 Israeli legislative election|1977 Knesset elections]] marked a major turning point in Israeli political history as [[Menachem Begin]]'s [[Likud]] party took control from the [[Labor Party (Israel)|Labor Party]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bregman|2002|pp=169–170}} "In hindsight we can say that 1977 was a turning point&nbsp;..."</ref> Later that year, Egyptian President [[Anwar El Sadat]] made a trip to Israel and spoke before the [[Knesset]] in what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bregman|2002|pp=171–174}}</ref> In the two years that followed, Sadat and Begin signed the [[Camp David Accords]] (1978) and the [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty]] (1979).<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bregman|2002|pp=186–187}}</ref> In return, Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over an autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bregman|2002|pp=186}}</ref> On 11 March 1978, a PLO guerilla raid from Lebanon led to the [[Coastal Road massacre]]. Israel responded by launching an [[1978 South Lebanon conflict|invasion of southern Lebanon]] to destroy the PLO bases south of the [[Litani River]]. Most PLO fighters withdrew, but Israel was able to secure southern Lebanon until a [[United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon|UN force]] and the Lebanese army could take over. The PLO soon resumed its [[Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon|policy of attacks]] against Israel. In the next few years, the PLO infiltrated the south and kept up a sporadic shelling across the border. Israel carried out numerous retaliatory attacks by air and on the ground. [[File:View from Tayelet during Snow 07.jpg|thumb|Israel's 1980 [[Jerusalem Law|law]] declared that "[[Jerusalem]], complete and united, is the capital of Israel."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic10_eng.htm |title=Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel |publisher=Knesset |access-date=14 January 2017}}</ref>]] Meanwhile, Begin's government provided incentives for Israelis to [[Israeli settlements|settle]] in the [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|occupied West Bank]], increasing friction with the Palestinians in that area.<ref>{{cite book|title=A history of the modern Middle East |last=Cleveland |first=William L. |year=1999 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-3489-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernm00clev/page/356 356] |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernm00clev/page/356 }}</ref> The [[Jerusalem Law|Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel]], passed in 1980, was believed by some to reaffirm Israel's 1967 annexation of Jerusalem by government decree, and [[UN Security Council Resolution 478|reignited international controversy]] over the [[Positions on Jerusalem|status of the city]]. No Israeli legislation has defined the territory of Israel and no act specifically included East Jerusalem therein.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lustick |first=Ian |year=1997 |title=Has Israel Annexed East Jerusalem? |journal=Middle East Policy |volume=V |issue=1 |pages=34–45 |issn=1061-1924 |oclc=4651987544 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4967.1997.tb00247.x |url=https://www.sas.upenn.edu/polisci/sites/www.sas.upenn.edu.polisci/files/Lustick_Has%20Israel%20Annexed%20Jerusalem_1997.pdf |access-date=1 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091120090306/http://www.mepc.org/journal_vol5/9701_lustick.asp |archive-date=20 November 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1981 Israel [[Golan Heights Law|effectively annexed]] the [[Golan Heights]], although annexation was not recognized internationally.<ref name="bbc_golan_profile">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14724842 |title=Golan Heights profile |date=27 November 2015 |work=BBC News |access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> The international community largely rejected these moves, with the UN Security Council declaring both the Jerusalem Law and the Golan Heights Law null and void.<ref>{{cite book | last=Hillier | first=T. | title=Sourcebook on Public International Law | publisher=Routledge| year=1998 | isbn=978-1-135-35366-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmuPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA242 | access-date=2021-10-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Monacella | first1=R. | last2=Ware | first2=S.A. | title=Fluctuating Borders: Speculations about Memory and Emergence | publisher=RMIT University Press | year=2007 | isbn=978-1-921166-48-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7r4wd57FqIC&pg=RA1-PA62 | access-date=2021-10-12}}</ref> Israel's population diversity expanded in the 1980s and 1990s. Several waves of [[Ethiopian Jews]] [[Aliyah from Ethiopia|immigrated]] to Israel since the 1980s, while between 1990 and 1994, [[1990s Post-Soviet aliyah|immigration from the post-Soviet states]] increased Israel's population by twelve percent.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Economics/Papers/1996/pdfs/96-28.pdf |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |date=November 2001 |title=The Impact of Mass Migration on the Israeli Labor Market |last=Friedberg |first=Rachel M. |pages=1373–1408 |issue=4 |doi=10.1162/003355301753265606 |volume=116|hdl=10419/102605 |citeseerx=10.1.1.385.2596 }}</ref> On 7 June 1981, during the [[Iran–Iraq War]], the Israeli air force [[Operation Opera|destroyed]] Iraq's sole [[Osirak|nuclear reactor]] under construction just outside [[Baghdad]], in order to impede Iraq's nuclear weapons program. Following a series of PLO attacks in 1982, Israel [[1982 Lebanon War|invaded]] Lebanon that year to destroy the bases from which the PLO launched attacks and missiles into northern Israel.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bregman|2002|p=199}}</ref> In the first six days of fighting, the Israelis destroyed the military forces of the PLO in Lebanon and decisively defeated the Syrians. An Israeli government inquiry—the [[Kahan Commission]]—would later hold Begin and several Israeli generals as indirectly responsible for the [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]] and hold [[Defense Minister of Israel|Defense minister]] [[Ariel Sharon]] as bearing "personal responsibility" for the massacre.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Schiff |first1= Ze'ev |author-link= Ze'ev Schiff |last2= Ehud |first2= Yaari |author-link2= Ehud Yaari |title= Israel's Lebanon War |publisher= [[Simon & Schuster]] |year= 1984 |page= [https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa0000schi/page/284 284] |isbn= 978-0-671-47991-6 |url= https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa0000schi/page/284 }}</ref> Sharon was forced to resign as Defense Minister.<ref>{{cite book |last= Silver |first= Eric |author-link= Eric Silver |title= Begin: The Haunted Prophet |publisher= [[Random House]] |year= 1984 |page= [https://archive.org/details/beginhauntedprop00silv/page/239 239] |isbn= 978-0-394-52826-7 |url= https://archive.org/details/beginhauntedprop00silv/page/239 }}</ref> In 1985, Israel responded to a Palestinian [[Larnaca yacht killings|terrorist attack]] in [[Cyprus]] by [[Operation Wooden Leg|bombing]] the PLO headquarters in Tunisia. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but maintained a [[Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon|borderland buffer zone]] in southern Lebanon until 2000, from where Israeli forces [[South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000)|engaged in conflict]] with [[Hezbollah]]. The [[First Intifada]], a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule,<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict |last=Tessler |first=Mark A. |year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20873-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofisraeli00tess_0/page/677 677] |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofisraeli00tess_0/page/677 }}</ref> broke out in 1987, with waves of uncoordinated demonstrations and violence occurring in the occupied West Bank and Gaza. Over the following six years, the Intifada became more organized and included economic and cultural measures aimed at disrupting the Israeli occupation. More than a thousand people were killed in the violence.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Stone|Zenner|1994|p=246}}. "Toward the end of 1991 ... were the result of internal Palestinian terror."</ref> During the 1991 [[Gulf War]], the PLO supported [[Saddam Hussein]] and Iraqi Scud missile [[Iraqi rocket attacks on Israel|attacks against Israel]]. Despite public outrage, Israel heeded American calls to refrain from hitting back and did not participate in that war.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE7DB173EF93AA35751C1A967958260 |title=After 4 Years, Intifada Still Smolders |work=The New York Times |date=9 December 1991 |access-date=28 March 2008 |last=Haberman |first=Clyde}}</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets |Mowlana |Gerbner |Schiller |1992 |p=111}}</ref> [[File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Foreign Min. Peres and King Hussein.jpg|thumb|[[Shimon Peres]] (left) with [[Yitzhak Rabin]] (center) and King [[Hussein of Jordan]] (right), prior to signing the [[Israel–Jordan peace treaty]] in 1994.]] In 1992, [[Yitzhak Rabin]] became prime minister following [[1992 Israeli legislative election|an election]] in which his party called for compromise with Israel's neighbors.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bregman|2002|p=236}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bc.edu/dam/files/research_sites/cjl/texts/cjrelations/resources/education/Israel_Palestine/cold_war_ends.htm |publisher=[[Boston College]] |title=From the End of the Cold War to 2001 |access-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827235024/http://www.bc.edu/dam/files/research_sites/cjl/texts/cjrelations/resources/education/Israel_Palestine/cold_war_ends.htm |archive-date=27 August 2013 }}</ref> The following year, [[Shimon Peres]] on behalf of Israel, and [[Mahmoud Abbas]] for the PLO, signed the [[Oslo Accords]], which gave the [[Palestinian National Authority]] the right to govern [[West Bank Areas in the Oslo II Accord|parts of the West Bank]] and the Gaza Strip.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1990-2000/Oslo |publisher=U.S. Department of State |title=The Oslo Accords, 1993 |access-date=30 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100122102530/http://history.state.gov/milestones/1990-2000/Oslo |archive-date=22 January 2010 }}</ref> The PLO also [[Israel–Palestine Liberation Organization letters of recognition|recognized]] Israel's right to exist and pledged an end to terrorism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace%20Process/Guide%20to%20the%20Peace%20Process/Israel-PLO%20Recognition%20-%20Exchange%20of%20Letters%20betwe |publisher=Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Israel–PLO Recognition&nbsp;– Exchange of Letters between PM Rabin and Chairman Arafat&nbsp;– Sept 9, 1993 |access-date=31 March 2010 }}</ref> In 1994, the [[Israel–Jordan peace treaty]] was signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize relations with Israel.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harkavy|Neuman|2001|p=270}}. "Even though Jordan in 1994 became the second country, after Egypt to sign a peace treaty with Israel&nbsp;..."</ref> Arab public support for the Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israeli settlements<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fmep.org/settlement_info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/sources-of-population-growth-total-israeli-population-and-settler-population-1991-2003 |title=Sources of Population Growth: Total Israeli Population and Settler Population, 1991–2003 |access-date=20 March 2012 |publisher=[[Foundation for Middle East Peace]] |website=Settlements information |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826051148/http://www.fmep.org/settlement_info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/sources-of-population-growth-total-israeli-population-and-settler-population-1991-2003 |archive-date=26 August 2013 }}</ref> and [[Israeli checkpoint|checkpoints]], and the deterioration of economic conditions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Negotiating Arab-Israeli peace: American leadership in the Middle East |last=Kurtzer |first=Daniel |author2=Lasensky, Scott |year=2008 |publisher=United States Institute of Peace Press |isbn=978-1-60127-030-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/negotiatingarabi0000kurt/page/44 44] |url=https://archive.org/details/negotiatingarabi0000kurt/page/44 }}</ref> Israeli public support for the Accords waned as Israel was struck by [[List of Palestinian suicide attacks|Palestinian suicide attacks]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A history of the modern Middle East |last=Cleveland |first=William L. |year=1999 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-3489-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernm00clev/page/494 494] |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernm00clev/page/494 }}</ref> In November 1995, Yitzhak Rabin [[assassination of Yitzhak Rabin|was assassinated]] as he left a peace rally by [[Yigal Amir]], a far-right Jew who opposed the Accords.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel marks Rabin assassination |newspaper=BBC News |date=12 November 2005 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4431728.stm}}</ref> [[File:PikiWiki_Israel_19099_ruins_of_tel_aviv_dolphinarium.JPG|thumb|The site of the 2001 Tel Aviv [[Dolphinarium discotheque massacre]], in which 21 Israelis were killed.]] Under the leadership of [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] at the end of the 1990s, Israel [[Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron|withdrew]] from [[Hebron]],<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bregman|2002|p=257}}</ref> and signed the [[Wye River Memorandum]], giving greater control to the Palestinian National Authority.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://1997-2001.state.gov/www/regions/nea/981023_interim_agmt.html|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]]|title=The Wye River Memorandum |date=23 October 1998 |access-date=30 March 2010}}</ref> [[Ehud Barak]], [[1999 Israeli general election|elected]] Prime Minister in 1999, began the new millennium by withdrawing forces from Southern Lebanon and conducting negotiations with Palestinian Authority Chairman [[Yasser Arafat]] and U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] at the [[2000 Camp David Summit]]. During the summit, Barak offered a plan for the establishment of a [[Palestinian state]]. The proposed state included the entirety of the Gaza Strip and over 90% of the West Bank with Jerusalem as a shared capital.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Gelvin|2005|p=240}}</ref> Each side blamed the other for the failure of the talks. After a controversial visit by Likud leader [[Ariel Sharon]] to the [[Temple Mount]], the [[Second Intifada]] began. Some commentators contend that the uprising was pre-planned by Arafat due to the collapse of peace talks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejc.com/news/world-news/114827/the-big-myth-he-caused-second-intifada |title=The big myth: that he caused the Second Intifada |last=Gross |first=Tom |date=16 January 2014 |newspaper=The Jewish Chronicle |access-date=22 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hong |first=Nicole |date=23 February 2015 |title=Jury Finds Palestinian Authority, PLO Liable for Terrorist Attacks in Israel a Decade Ago |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/jury-finds-palestinian-authority-plo-liable-for-terrorist-attacks-in-israel-a-decade-ago-1424715529 |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=22 April 2016}}</ref><ref name=jewishweek>{{cite news |url=http://jewishweek.org/news/newscontent.php3?artid=3846 |title=PA: Intifada Was Planned |last=Ain |first=Stewart |date=20 December 2000 |newspaper=The Jewish Week |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013083338/http://jewishweek.org/news/newscontent.php3?artid=3846 |archive-date=13 October 2007}}</ref><ref name=atlantic>{{cite news |title=In a Ruined Country |first=David |last=Samuels |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/09/in-a-ruined-country/304167/ |newspaper=The Atlantic |date=1 September 2005 |access-date=27 March 2013}}</ref> Sharon became prime minister in a [[2001 Israeli prime ministerial election|2001 special election]]. During his tenure, Sharon carried out his plan to [[Israeli disengagement from Gaza|unilaterally withdraw]] from the Gaza Strip and also spearheaded the construction of the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]],<ref>{{cite news|title=West Bank barrier route disputed, Israeli missile kills 2 |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-07-29-west-bank_x.htm |newspaper=USA Today |date=29 July 2004 |access-date=1 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020225835/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-07-29-west-bank_x.htm |archive-date=20 October 2012 }}</ref> ending the Intifada.<ref name=rage>{{cite news |title=Years of rage |first1=Amos |last1=Harel |first2=Avi |last2=Issacharoff |url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/years-of-rage-1.316603 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=1 October 2010 |access-date=12 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Losing Faith in the Intifada |first=Laura |last=King |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2004/sep/28/world/fg-intifada28 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=28 September 2004 |access-date=12 August 2012 }}; {{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A52801-2004Sep26.html |title=From Jenin To Fallujah? |last=Diehl |first=Jackson |date=27 September 2004 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=12 August 2012 }}; {{cite web|url=http://www.jcpa.org/text/Amidror-perspectives-2.pdf |title=Winning Counterinsurgency War: The Israeli Experience |last=Amidror |first=Yaakov |website=Strategic Perspectives |publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs |access-date=12 August 2012 }}; {{cite news|url=http://www.danielpipes.org/5893/must-counterinsurgency-wars-fail |title=Must Counterinsurgency Wars Fail? |last=Pipes |first=Daniel |date=14 September 2008 |newspaper=The Washington Times |access-date=12 August 2012 }}; {{cite web|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/perspectives57.html |title=The Need for a Decisive Israeli Victory Over Hamas |last=Frisch |first=Hillel |date=12 January 2009 |website=Perspectives Papers on Current Affairs |publisher=Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies |access-date=12 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614054502/http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/perspectives57.html |archive-date=14 June 2012 }}; {{cite web|url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA449421 |title=The "Defensive Shield" Operation as a Turning Point in Israel's National Security Strategy |last=Buchris |first=Ofek |date=9 March 2006 |website=Strategy Research Project |publisher=United States Army War College |access-date=12 August 2012 }}; {{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50910-2004Jun17.html |title=Israel's Intifada Victory |last=Krauthammer |first=Charles |date=18 June 2004 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=12 August 2012 }}; {{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3558676,00.html |title=2nd Intifada forgotten |last=Plocker |first=Sever |date=22 June 2008 |work=Ynetnews |access-date=12 August 2012 }}; {{cite web|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus64.pdf |title=Lessons from the Palestinian 'War' against Israel |last=Ya'alon |first=Moshe |date=January 2007 |website=Policy Focus |publisher=Washington Institute for Near East Policy |access-date=12 August 2012 }}; {{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/1,7340,L-3957131,00.html |title=Letting the IDF win |last=Hendel |first=Yoaz |date=20 September 2010 |work=Ynetnews |access-date=12 August 2012 }}; {{cite book|author1=Zvi Shtauber|author2=Yiftah Shapir|title=The Middle East strategic balance, 2004–2005|url={{Google books|t7C-ZDXrfOgC|page=PA7|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=12 February 2012|year=2006|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-84519-108-5|page=7}}</ref> By this time 1,100 Israelis had been killed, mostly in suicide bombings.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Terrorism/victims.html#2000;|title=Comprehensive Listing of Terrorism Victims in Israel|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref> The Palestinian fatalities, from 2000 to 2008, reached 4,791 killed by Israeli security forces, 44 killed by Israeli civilians, and 609 killed by Palestinians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.btselem.org/statistics/fatalities/before-cast-lead/by-date-of-event |title=Fatalities before Operation "Cast Lead" |publisher=B'Tselem |access-date=14 January 2017}}</ref> In July 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's northern border communities and a [[2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid|cross-border abduction]] of two Israeli soldiers precipitated the month-long [[Second Lebanon War]].<ref name="UN1701">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sc8808.doc.htm |title=Security Council Calls for End to Hostilities between Hizbollah, Israel, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 1701 (2006) |website=[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701]] |date=11 August 2006}}<br />Escalation of hostilities in Lebanon and in Israel since Hizbollah's attack on Israel on 12 July 2006</ref><ref name="HRTZ_Harel">{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/hezbollah-kills-8-soldiers-kidnaps-two-in-offensive-on-northern-border-1.192965 |title=Hezbollah kills 8 soldiers, kidnaps two in offensive on northern border |access-date=20 March 2012 |last=Harel |first=Amos |date=13 July 2006 |newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref> On 6 September 2007, the Israeli Air Force [[Operation Orchard|destroyed]] a nuclear reactor in Syria. At the end of 2008, Israel entered another conflict as [[2008 Israel–Hamas ceasefire|a ceasefire]] between [[Hamas]] and Israel collapsed. The [[Gaza War (2008–09)|2008–09 Gaza War]] lasted three weeks and ended after Israel announced a unilateral ceasefire.<ref>{{cite news |first = Jason |last = Koutsoukis |title = Battleground Gaza: Israeli ground forces invade the strip |url = http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/battleground-gaza/2009/01/04/1231003847085.html |work=Sydney Morning Herald |date = 5 January 2009 |access-date =5 January 2009}}</ref><ref name=ravid>{{cite news |last=Ravid |first=Barak |title=IDF begins Gaza troop withdrawal, hours after ending 3-week offensive |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=18 January 2009 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/idf-begins-gaza-troop-withdrawal-hours-after-ending-3-week-offensive-1.268326}}</ref> Hamas announced its own ceasefire, with its own conditions of complete withdrawal and opening of [[Blockade of the Gaza Strip|border crossings]]. Despite neither the [[Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel|rocket launchings]] nor Israeli [[List of Israeli attacks on the Gaza strip|retaliatory strikes]] having completely stopped, the fragile ceasefire remained in order.<ref>{{cite news |first=Yuval |last=Azoulay |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/two-idf-soldiers-civilian-lightly-hurt-as-gaza-mortars-hit-negev-1.266841 |title=Two IDF soldiers, civilian lightly hurt as Gaza mortars hit Negev |newspaper=Haaretz |date=1 January 2009 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> In what Israel described as a response to [[List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel, 2012|more than a hundred Palestinian rocket attacks]] on southern Israeli cities,<ref name="pound">{{cite news |title=Gaza groups pound Israel with over 100 rockets |first1=Yaakov |last1=Lappin |first2=Tovah |last2=Lazaroff |url=http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Gaza-groups-pound-Israel-with-over-100-rockets |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=12 November 2012 |access-date=27 March 2013}}</ref> Israel began an [[Operation Pillar of Defense|operation]] in Gaza on 14 November 2012, lasting eight days.<ref>{{cite news|author=Stephanie Nebehay |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/palestinians-israel-humanitarian-idUSL5E8MK6MG20121120 |title=UN rights boss, Red Cross urge Israel, Hamas to spare civilians |work=Reuters |date=20 November 2012 |access-date=20 November 2012}}; {{cite news |title=Hamas leader defiant as Israel eases Gaza curbs |first=Nidal |last=al-Mughrabi |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-palestinians-israel-hamas-idUSBRE8AD0WP20121124 |newspaper=Reuters |date=24 November 2012 |access-date=8 February 2013}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Article.aspx?id=291779|title=Israeli air strike kills top Hamas commander Jabari|website=The Jerusalem Post|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref> Israel started another [[Operation Protective Edge|operation]] in Gaza following an [[List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel, 2014|escalation of rocket attacks]] by Hamas in July 2014.<ref>{{cite news|title=Israel and Hamas Trade Attacks as Tension Rises|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/09/world/middleeast/israel-steps-up-offensive-against-hamas-in-gaza.html|website=The New York Times|date=8 July 2014}}</ref> In May 2021, another [[Operation Guardian of the Walls|round of fighting]] took place in Gaza and Israel, lasting eleven days.<ref>{{cite news|title=Israel and Hamas agree Gaza truce, Biden pledges assistance|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-official-predicts-ceasefire-soon-israel-gaza-fight-goes-2021-05-19/|website=Reuters|date=21 May 2021}}</ref> In September 2010, Israel was invited to join the [[OECD]].<ref name="OECD" /> Israel has also signed [[free trade agreement]]s with the [[European Union]], the [[Israel–United States Free Trade Agreement|United States]], the [[European Free Trade Association]], Turkey, Mexico, [[Canada–Israel Free Trade Agreement|Canada]], Jordan, and Egypt, and in 2007, it became the first non-Latin-American country to sign a free trade agreement with the [[Mercosur]] trade bloc.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.tamas.gov.il/NR/exeres/A01F7E09-0217-47F9-B04F-5D0DEE3D91FB.htm |title=Israel's Free Trade Area Agreements |publisher=Tamas |place=IL |access-date=8 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003060204/http://www.tamas.gov.il/NR/exeres/A01F7E09-0217-47F9-B04F-5D0DEE3D91FB.htm |archive-date=3 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFA+events/Around+the+world/Israel+signs+free+trade+agreement+with+MERCOSUR+18-Dec-2007.htm |title=Israel signs free trade agreement with Mercosur |date=19 December 2007 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=15 October 2012}}</ref> By the 2010s, the [[Arab states–Israeli alliance against Iran|increasing regional cooperation]] between Israel and [[Arab League]] countries, with many of whom peace agreements (Jordan, Egypt) diplomatic relations (UAE, Palestine) and unofficial relations (Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Tunisia), have been established, the Israeli security situation shifted from the traditional [[Arab–Israeli conflict|Arab–Israeli hostility]] towards regional rivalry with [[Iran]] and its proxies. The [[Iran–Israel proxy conflict]] gradually emerged from the declared hostility of post-revolutionary Islamic Republic of Iran towards Israel since the [[1979 Revolution]], into covert Iranian support of Hezbollah during the [[South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000)]] and essentially developed into a proxy regional conflict from 2005. With increasing [[Iranian involvement in the Syrian Civil War]] from 2011 the conflict shifted from proxy warfare into direct confrontation by early 2018. ==Geography and environment== {{Main|Geography of Israel|Wildlife of Israel}} {{Israel Geographical Map}} {{multiple image|caption_align=center|total_width=220|image1=Satellite image of Israel in January 2003.jpg|width1=727|height1=1731|image2=Israel at night.jpg|width2=425|height2=934|footer=[[Satellite imagery|Satellite images]] of Israel and neighboring territories during the day (left) and night (right)}} Israel is located in the [[Levant]] area of the [[Fertile Crescent]] region. The country is at the [[Eastern Mediterranean|eastern end]] of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank to the east, and Egypt and the Gaza Strip to the southwest. It lies between latitudes [[29th parallel north|29°]] and [[34th parallel north|34° N]], and longitudes [[34th meridian east|34°]] and [[36th meridian east|36° E]]. The sovereign territory of Israel (according to the demarcation lines of the [[1949 Armistice Agreements]] and excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967 [[Six-Day War]]) is approximately {{convert|20770|km2|sqmi|0|sp=us}} in area, of which two&nbsp;percent is water.<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel/ |title=Israel |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=5 January 2017}}</ref> However Israel is so narrow (100&nbsp;km at its widest, compared to 400&nbsp;km from north to south) that the [[exclusive economic zone]] in the Mediterranean is double the land area of the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/israel-navy-to-devote-majority-of-missile-boats-to-secure-offshore-drilling-rafts-1.406203 |title=Israel Navy to devote majority of missile boats to secure offshore drilling rafts |first=Gili |last=Cohen |date=9 January 2012 |newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref> The total area under Israeli law, including [[East Jerusalem]] and the [[Golan Heights]], is {{convert|22072|km2|sqmi|0|sp=us}},<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st01_01&CYear=2012 |title=Area of Districts, Sub-Districts, Natural Regions and Lakes |date=11 September 2012 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=13 June 2013}}</ref> and the total area under Israeli control, including the military-controlled and partially [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian-governed]] territory of the [[West Bank]], is {{convert|27799|km2|sqmi|0|sp=us}}.<ref name="loc-geo">{{cite journal |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/iltoc.html |date=7 May 2009 |title=Israel (Geography) |journal=Country Studies |access-date=12 February 2010 }}</ref> Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from the [[Negev]] desert in the south to the inland fertile [[Jezreel Valley]], mountain ranges of the [[Galilee]], [[Mount Carmel|Carmel]] and toward the [[Golan Heights|Golan]] in the north. The [[Israeli coastal plain]] on the shores of the Mediterranean is home to most of the nation's population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Tourist%20Information/Discover%20Israel/Geographic%20Regions/pages/The%20coastal%20plain.aspx |title=The Coastal Plain |publisher=Israel Ministry of Tourism |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107171405/http://goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Tourist%20Information/Discover%20Israel/Geographic%20Regions/pages/The%20coastal%20plain.aspx |archive-date=7 January 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> East of the central highlands lies the [[Jordan Rift Valley]], which forms a small part of the {{convert|6500|km|mi|0|adj=on|sp=us}} [[Great Rift Valley]]. The [[Jordan River]] runs along the Jordan Rift Valley, from [[Mount Hermon]] through the [[Hulah Valley]] and the [[Sea of Galilee]] to the [[Dead Sea]], the [[Extreme points of Earth|lowest point]] on the surface of the Earth.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/livingwatersmyth0000krei |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=20 July 2007 |year=1999 |title=The Living Dead Sea |isbn=978-0-8264-0406-0 |url-access=registration }}</ref> Further south is the [[Arabah]], ending with the [[Gulf of Aqaba|Gulf of Eilat]], part of the [[Red Sea]]. Unique to Israel and the [[Sinai Peninsula]] are [[makhtesh]]im, or erosion cirques.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1486/ |publisher=UNESCO |title=Makhteshim Country |access-date=19 September 2007 |isbn=978-954-642-135-7 |year=2001 }}</ref> The largest makhtesh in the world is [[Ramon Crater]] in the Negev,<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Jacobs|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TRc9ea_CKOUC&pg=PA284 284]}}. "The extraordinary Makhtesh Ramon&nbsp;– the largest natural crater in the world&nbsp;..." {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/israelpalestinia00jaco |title=Israel and the Palestinian Territories |access-date=24 February 2016 |isbn=978-1-85828-248-0 |last1=Jacobs |first1=Daniel |last2=Eber |first2=Shirley |last3=Silvani |first3=Francesca |last4=(Firm) |first4=Rough Guides |year=1998 }}</ref> which measures {{convert|40|by|8|km|mi|0|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vie/Ramon.html |encyclopedia=Jewish Virtual Library |title=Makhtesh Ramon |access-date=12 February 2010 }}</ref> A report on the environmental status of the [[Mediterranean Basin]] states that Israel has the largest number of plant species per square meter of all the countries in the basin.<ref name=rinat>{{cite news |last=Rinat |first=Zafrir |title=More endangered than rain forests? |newspaper=Haaretz |location=Tel Aviv |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=29 May 2008 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/more-endangered-than-rain-forests-1.246839}}</ref> Israel contains four terrestrial ecoregions: [[Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests]], [[Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests]], [[Arabian Desert]], and [[Mesopotamian shrub desert]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> It had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 4.14/10, ranking it 135th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Tectonics and seismicity=== {{Further|List of earthquakes in the Levant}} The [[Jordan Rift Valley]] is the result of tectonic movements within the [[Dead Sea Transform]] (DSF) fault system. The DSF forms the [[transform fault|transform boundary]] between the [[African Plate]] to the west and the [[Arabian Plate]] to the east. The Golan Heights and all of [[Jordan]] are part of the Arabian Plate, while the Galilee, West Bank, Coastal Plain, and Negev along with the Sinai Peninsula are on the African Plate. This tectonic disposition leads to a relatively high [[List of earthquakes in the Levant|seismic activity in the region]]. The entire Jordan Valley segment is thought to have ruptured repeatedly, for instance during the last two major [[Geography of Israel#Seismic activity|earthquakes]] along this structure in [[749 Galilee earthquake|749]] and 1033. The deficit in [[Fault (geology)#Slip, heave, throw|slip]] that has built up since the 1033 event is sufficient to cause an earthquake of {{M|w}}~7.4.<ref name="Ferry">{{cite journal |title= A 48-kyr-long slip rate history for the Jordan Valley segment of the Dead Sea Fault |author1=Ferry M. |author2=Meghraoui M. |author3=Karaki A.A. |author4=Al-Taj M. |author5=Amoush H. |author6=Al-Dhaisat S. |author7=Barjous M. |journal= Earth and Planetary Science Letters |year=2008 |volume=260 |issue=3–4 |pages=394–406 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2007.05.049 |bibcode=2007E&PSL.260..394F }}</ref> The most catastrophic known earthquakes occurred in 31 BCE, [[Galilee earthquake of 363|363]], 749, and 1033 CE, that is every {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 400 years on average.<ref name="MarcoAFTAU">American Friends of the Tel Aviv University, ''Earthquake Experts at Tel Aviv University Turn to History for Guidance'' (4 October 2007). Quote: The major ones were recorded along the Jordan Valley in the years 31 B.C.E., 363 C.E., 749 C.E., and 1033 C.E. "So roughly, we are talking about an interval of every 400 years. If we follow the patterns of nature, a major quake should be expected any time because almost a whole millennium has passed since the last strong earthquake of 1033." (Tel Aviv University Associate Professor Dr. Shmuel (Shmulik) Marco). [http://www.aftau.org/news-page-environment--ecology?storyid4703=2015&ncs4703=3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811164733/https://www.aftau.org/news-page-environment--ecology?storyid4703=2015&ncs4703=3 |date=11 August 2020 }}</ref> Destructive earthquakes leading to serious loss of life strike about every 80 years.<ref name="IllPreped">Zafrir Renat, ''Israel Is Due, and Ill Prepared, for Major Earthquake'', Haaretz, 15 January 2010. "On average, a destructive earthquake takes place in Israel once every 80 years, causing serious casualties and damage." [http://www.haaretz.com/israel-is-due-and-ill-prepared-for-a-major-earthquake-1.261497]</ref> While stringent construction regulations are currently in place and recently built structures are earthquake-safe, {{As of|2007|lc=y}} the majority of the buildings in Israel were older than these regulations and many public buildings as well as 50,000 residential buildings did not meet the new standards and were "expected to collapse" if exposed to a strong earthquake.<ref name="IllPreped"/> ===Climate=== [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map ISR present.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Köppen climate classification]] map of Israel and the [[Golan Heights]]]] Temperatures in Israel vary widely, especially during the winter. Coastal areas, such as those of [[Tel Aviv]] and [[Haifa]], have a typical [[Mediterranean climate]] with cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The area of [[Beersheba]] and the Northern Negev have a [[semi-arid climate]] with hot summers, cool winters, and fewer rainy days than the Mediterranean climate. The Southern Negev and the Arava areas have a [[desert climate]] with very hot, dry summers, and mild winters with few days of rain. The highest temperature in the world outside Africa and North America {{As of|2021|lc=y}}, 54&nbsp;°C (129&nbsp;°F), was recorded in 1942 at [[Tirat Zvi]] kibbutz in the northern Jordan River valley.<ref name=watzman>{{cite news |last=Watzman |first=Haim |title=Left for dead |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=8 February 1997 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg15320684.400-left-for-dead.html |newspaper=New Scientist |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://wmo.asu.edu/content/wmo-region-vi-europe-highest-temperature|title=WMO Region 6: Highest Temperature |publisher=World Meteorological Organization|url-status=live|access-date=14 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912112228/https://wmo.asu.edu/content/world-meteorological-organization-global-weather-climate-extremes-archive|archive-date=12 September 2021}}</ref> At the other extreme, mountainous regions can be windy and cold, and areas at elevation of {{Convert|750|m|}} or more (same elevation as Jerusalem) will usually receive at least one [[Snow in Israel|snowfall]] each year.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Goldreich|2003|p=85}}</ref> From May to September, rain in Israel is rare.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weather.com/outlook/travel/businesstraveler/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/ISXX0026 |publisher=[[The Weather Channel]] |access-date=11 July 2007 |title=Average Weather for Tel Aviv-Yafo |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120111750/http://www.weather.com/outlook/travel/businesstraveler/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/ISXX0026 |archive-date=20 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weather.com/outlook/events/weddings/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/ISXX0010 |publisher=[[The Weather Channel]] |access-date=11 July 2007 |title=Average Weather for Jerusalem |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120111740/http://www.weather.com/outlook/events/weddings/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/ISXX0010 |archive-date=20 January 2013 }}</ref> With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water-saving technologies, including [[drip irrigation]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/land/focus%20on%20israel-%20development%20of%20limited%20water%20reso |publisher=Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=7 November 2007 |title=Development of Limited Water Resources – Historical and Technological Aspects |date=20 September 2003 |last=Sitton |first=Dov }}</ref> Israelis also take advantage of the considerable sunlight available for [[solar energy]], making [[Solar power in Israel|Israel the leading nation in solar energy]] use per capita—practically every house uses solar panels for water heating.<ref name="Solar energy"/> There are four different [[phytogeographic]] regions in Israel, due to the country's location between the temperate and tropical zones, bordering the Mediterranean Sea in the west and the desert in the east. For this reason, the flora and fauna of Israel are extremely diverse. There are 2,867 known [[List of endemic flora of Israel|species of plants found in Israel]]. Of these, at least 253 species are [[List of adventive wild plants in Israel|introduced]] and non-native.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://flora.huji.ac.il/browse.asp?action=browse&name=1070 |title=Flora of Israel Online |publisher=Flora.huji.ac.il |access-date=29 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140430091717/http://flora.huji.ac.il/browse.asp?action=browse&name=1070 |archive-date=30 April 2014 }}</ref> There are 380 [[National parks and nature reserves of Israel|Israeli nature reserves]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Articles/Attractions/Pages/National%20Parks%20and%20Nature%20Reserves.aspx |title=National Parks and Nature Reserves, Israel |publisher=Israel Ministry of Tourism |access-date=18 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019042219/http://www.goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Articles/Attractions/Pages/National%20Parks%20and%20Nature%20Reserves.aspx |archive-date=19 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Israel|Israelis}} [[File:Israelpop.svg|thumb|[[Population pyramid]] of Israel]] As of {{CURRENTYEAR}}, Israel's population was an estimated {{data Israel|poptoday|formatnum}}, of whom 74.2% were recorded by the civil government as [[Israeli Jews|Jews]].<ref name="population_stat2019">{{cite report|url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2019/134/11_19_134b.pdf|title=Israel's Independence Day 2019|date=6 May 2019|publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics|access-date=7 May 2019}}</ref> [[Arab citizens of Israel|Arabs]] accounted for 20.9% of the population, while non-Arab Christians and people who have no religion listed in the civil registry made up 4.8%.<ref name="population_stat2019" /> Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from [[Romania]], [[Thailand]], [[China]], Africa, and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown, as many of them are living in the country illegally,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report/85270/ISRAEL-Crackdown-on-illegal-migrants-and-visa-violators |title=ISRAEL: Crackdown on illegal migrants and visa violators |newspaper=IRIN |date=14 July 2009}}</ref> but estimates run from 166,000<ref name="population_stat2019" /> to 203,000.<ref name="Adriana Kemp">Adriana Kemp, "Labour migration and racialisation: labour market mechanisms and labour migration control policies in Israel", ''Social Identities'' 10:2, 267–292, 2004</ref> By June 2012, approximately 60,000 [[Illegal immigration from Africa to Israel|African migrants]] had entered Israel.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-africans-idUSBRE85A0VI20120611 |title=Israel rounds up African migrants for deportation |newspaper=Reuters |date=11 June 2012}}</ref> About 92% of Israelis live in urban areas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Land/Pages/THE%20LAND-%20Urban%20Life.aspx |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=The Land: Urban Life |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607003443/http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/aboutisrael/land/pages/the%20land-%20urban%20life.aspx |archive-date=7 June 2013 }}</ref> 90% of [[Palestinian citizens of Israel|Palestinian Israelis]] reside in 139 densely populated towns and villages concentrated in the Galilee, [[Triangle (Israel)|Triangle]] and [[Negev]] regions, with the remaining 10% in mixed cities and neighborhoods.<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/MDE1551412022ENGLISH.pdf ''Israel’s Apartheid against Palestinians: Cruel System of Domnination and Crime Against Humanity,''] [[Amnesty International]] 2022 p.16:'Today, Palestinian citizens and permanent residents of Israel comprise some 21% of Israel’s population and number approximately 1.9 million. Some 90% of Palestinians with Israeli citizenship live in 139 densely populated towns and villages in the Galilee and Triangle regions in northern Israel and the Negev/Naqab region in the south, as a result of deliberate segregation policies. The vast majority of the remaining 10% live in "mixed cities".'</ref><ref>[https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2021/04/israel_palestine0421_web_0.pdf ‘A Threshold Crossed,’ ] [[Human Rights Watch]] 27 April 2021 pp.7,57-63:’ This policy, which aims to maximize Jewish Israeli control over land, concentrates the majority of Palestinians who live outside Israel’s major, predominantly Jewish cities into dense, under-served enclaves and restricts their access to land and housing, while nurturing the growth of nearby Jewish communities.’</ref><ref>[[Nimer Sultany]], [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41804808 ‘The Making of an Underclass: The Palestinian Citizens of Israel,’] [[Israel Studies Review]] Vol. 27, No. 2, (Winter 2012), pp. 190-200 pp.191,194.’the Palestinian Israeli population grew from 156,000 in 1948 to 1.4 million in 2012. Their villages became overcrowded as their land reserves steadily decreased. The lands were transferred from Palestinian private hands to state control. . .While the state has established hundreds of Jewish communities, it has not established any new Palestinian communities since 1948—except in the forced concentration of the Bedouin communities in poor towns.’</ref><ref>Gershon Shafir , [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743817000915 From Overt to Veiled Segregation: Israel's Palestinian Arab Citizens in the Galilee], [[International Journal of Middle East Studies]], Volume 50 Issue 1 February 2018, pp.1-22 pp.4,7:’ With about 90 percent of Israel’s Palestinian citizens living in Arab-only towns and villages, they suffer from the hypersegregation typical of African American urban neighborhoods and its attendant deleterious consequences. This remarkable similarity, however, has different origins...Palestinian residents in old mixed cities are congregated into distinct neighborhoods, whereas in new mixed cities they form distinct enclaves, distinguished by strong family and communal ties’</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/06/04/can-jews-palestinians-live-peacefully-israel-data-mixed-neighborhoods-says-yes/|access-date=15 February 2022|title=Can Jews and Palestinians live peacefully in Israel? The data on mixed neighborhoods says yes|newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref> Data published by the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] in 2016 estimated the average [[life expectancy]] of Israelis at 82.5 years, making it the [[List of countries by life expectancy|6th-highest in the world]].<ref name=OECD_life_expec /> Israeli Arab life expectancy lags behind by 3 to 4 years,<ref>Saabneh 2016</ref><ref>Dov Chernichovsky, Bishara Bisharat, Liora Bowers, Aviv Brill, and Chen Sharony, [https://www.taubcenter.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/healthofthearabisraelipopulation.pdf "The Health of the Arab Israeli Population"]. Taub Center for Social Policy Studies in Israel December 2017 pp.1-50, 13 (2015)</ref> still highest among Arabs or Muslims in the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-5062493,00.html#:~:text=The%20life%20expectancy%20of%20Israel's,developed%20countries'%20average%20of%2081.6.|access-date=15 February 2022|title=Taub Center report shows discrepancy in Jewish, Arab life expectancy|newspaper=Ynetnews}}</ref> [[File:Aliyah 1948-2015.png|upright=1.35|thumb|[[Immigration to Israel]] in the years 1948–2015. The two peaks were in 1949 and 1990.]] Israel was established as a [[homeland for the Jewish people]] and is often referred to as a [[Jewish state]]. The country's [[Law of Return]] grants all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry the right to [[Israeli nationality law|Israeli citizenship]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/return.htm |publisher=Knesset |title=The Law of Return |access-date=14 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127033448/http://www.irac.org/article_e.asp?artid=199 |archive-date=27 November 2005 }}</ref> Retention of Israel's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration.<ref>{{cite book |last= DellaPergola |first= Sergio |author-link= Sergio DellaPergola|contribution= Still Moving: Recent Jewish Migration in Comparative Perspective |editor=Daniel J. Elazar |editor2=Morton Weinfeld|title= The Global Context of Migration to Israel |orig-year= 2000 |year= 2000|publisher=Transaction Publishers |location= New Brunswick, NJ |isbn= 978-1-56000-428-8 |pages= 13–60 }}</ref> Jewish emigration from Israel (called ''[[yerida]]'' in Hebrew), primarily to the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest,<ref>{{cite magazine | last = Herman | first = Pini | title = The Myth of the Israeli Expatriate | magazine=Moment Magazine | volume = 8 |issue = 8 | pages = 62–63| date = 1 September 1983 }}</ref> but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Eric D. |last2=Moav |first2=Omer |year=2007 |title=Israel's Brain Drain |journal=Israel Economic Review |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |ssrn=2180400 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Rettig Gur |first=Haviv |title=Officials to US to bring Israelis home |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=6 April 2008 |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=97254 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> Three quarters of the population are Jews from a [[Jewish ethnic divisions|diversity of Jewish backgrounds]]. Approximately 75% of [[Israeli Jews]] are [[Sabra (person)|born in Israel]],<ref name="population_stat2019" /> 16% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 7% are immigrants from Asia and Africa (including the [[Arab world]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_09&CYear=2017 |title=Jews, by Continent of Origin, Continent of Birth & Period of Immigration |date=6 September 2017 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=19 September 2017}}</ref> Jews from Europe and the former [[Soviet Union]] and their descendants born in Israel, including [[Ashkenazi Jews]], constitute approximately 50% of Jewish Israelis. [[Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries|Jews who left or fled Arab and Muslim countries]] and their descendants, including both [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi]] Jews,<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jss/summary/v015/15.1.goldberg.html |title=From Sephardi to Mizrahi and Back Again: Changing Meanings of "Sephardi" in Its Social Environments|journal=Jewish Social Studies|volume=15|issue=1|pages=165–188|year=2008|last1=Goldberg|first1=Harvey E.|doi=10.18647/2793/JJS-2008}}</ref> form most of the rest of the Jewish population.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/apr/03/israel-arab-jewish-mizrahi |title=The myth of the Mizrahim |work=The Guardian |date=3 April 2009 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/jewref.html |title=Jewish Refugees from Arab Countries |last=Shields |first=Jacqueline |encyclopedia=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=26 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewcy.com/post/missing_mizrahim |title= Missing Mizrahim|date= 31 August 2009}}</ref> Jewish intermarriage rates run at over 35% and recent studies suggest that the percentage of Israelis descended from both Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews increases by 0.5 percent every year, with over 25% of school children now originating from both communities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sociology.huji.ac.il/docs/Okun-paper-2006-01.pdf |title=Socioeconomic Status and Demographic Behavior of Adult Multiethnics: Jews in Israel |last1=Okun |first1=Barbara S. |last2=Khait-Marelly |first2=Orna |year=2006 |publisher=Hebrew University of Jerusalem |access-date=26 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029210049/http://sociology.huji.ac.il/docs/Okun-paper-2006-01.pdf |archive-date=29 October 2013 }}</ref> Around 4% of Israelis (300,000), ethnically defined as "others", are [[1990s Post-Soviet aliyah|Russian descendants]] of Jewish origin or family who are not Jewish according to rabbinical law, but were eligible for Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return.<ref name="DellaPergola, Sergio 2011">{{cite web | url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Jewish_Demographic_Policies.pdf | title=Jewish Demographic Policies | publisher=The Jewish People Policy Institute |year=2011 | author=DellaPergola, Sergio}}</ref><ref name="Israel people">{{cite encyclopedia | url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Israel_(people).aspx | title=Israel (people) | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Yoram Ettinger|title=Defying demographic projections|url=http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_opinion.php?id=3913|access-date=29 October 2013|newspaper=[[Israel Hayom]]|date=5 April 2013}}</ref> The total number of [[Israeli settlement|Israeli settlers]] beyond the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]] is over 600,000 (≈10% of the Jewish Israeli population).<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Gorenberg |first=Gershom |date=26 June 2017 |title=Settlements: The Real Story |url=http://prospect.org/article/settlements-real-story |magazine=The American Prospect |access-date=25 August 2017}}</ref> {{As of|2016|alt=In 2016}}, 399,300 Israelis [[Population statistics for Israeli settlements in the West Bank|lived]] in [[West Bank]] settlements,<ref name="districts_pop"/> including those that predated the establishment of the State of Israel and which were re-established after the [[Six-Day War]], in cities such as [[Hebron]] and [[Gush Etzion]] bloc. In addition to the West Bank settlements, there were more than 200,000 Jews living in [[East Jerusalem]],<ref name="jerusalem_pop"/> and 22,000 in the [[Golan Heights]].<ref name="districts_pop"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/op-ed/2019/05/07/the-golan-heights-factor-and-the-future-of-destabilized-syria|title=The Golan Heights factor and the future of destabilized Syria|last=Beat|first=Maria|date=7 May 2019|website=Daily Sabah|access-date=9 May 2019}}</ref> Approximately 7,800 Israelis [[Population statistics for Israeli Gaza Strip settlements|lived in settlements]] in the Gaza Strip, known as [[Gush Katif]], until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005 [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|disengagement plan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fmep.org/settlement_info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-gaza-strip-1 |title=Settlements in the Gaza Strip |access-date=12 December 2007 |website=Settlement Information |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826025402/http://www.fmep.org/settlement_info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-gaza-strip-1 |archive-date=26 August 2013 }}</ref> Israeli Arabs (including the Arab population of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights) comprise 21.1% of the population or 1,995,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/en/mediarelease/Pages/2021/Population-of-Israel-on-the-Eve-of-2022.aspx |title=Population of Israel on the Eve of 2022 |publisher=Cbs.gov.il |date= |accessdate=2022-02-13}}</ref> In a 2017 telephone poll, 40% of Arab citizens of Israel identified as "Arab in Israel" or "Arab citizen of Israel", 15% identified as "Palestinian", 8.9% as "Palestinian in Israel" or "Palestinian citizen of Israel", and 8.7% as "Arab"; 60% of Israeli Arabs have a positive view of the state.<ref>[http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_51217-544-2-30.pdf?171228130254 Citizenship, Identity and Political Participation: Measuring the Attitudes of the Arab Citizens in Israel, December 2017: pages 22, 25 and 28; quote (p.28): "The positions of the participants in the focus groups reflect the strength of Palestinian-Arab identity among Arab citizens and the fact that they do not see a contradiction between Palestinian-Arab national identity and Israeli civic identity. The designation "Israeli-Arab" aroused great opposition in the focus groups, as did Israel's Independence Day. A comparison of views expressed in the focus groups with the general results of the survey points to differences between collective positions and memory and individual feelings and attitudes. The collective position presented in the focus group discussions finds expression in the public sphere and emphasizes the Palestinian national identity. Conversely, the responses of the survey participants reveal individual attitudes that assign a broader (albeit secondary, identity) dimension to the component of Israeli civic identity"; quote (p.25): "Amongst the participants there was consensus that Palestinian identity occupies a central place in their consciousness. The definition "Palestinian" has national and emotional importance, as it embodies the heritage of Arab citizens and their culture. This was expressed explicitly in the words of the participants: "We are Palestinian Arabs and we say this with pride;""We are Palestinian citizens of Israel. The emphasis is on the word 'Palestinians'"; "I am first and foremost a Palestinian and nothing more." The designation "Arab citizens of Israel" was acceptable to them on the basis of the understanding that it is impossible to live without citizenship, and as long as Israeli citizenship does not harm the national consciousness. Conversely, the participants spoke out against the designation "Arab-Israeli" and made statements such as "I am an Arab, I belong to a larger culture than the State of Israel"; "We are not the Arabs of Israel, I am an Arab who does not belong to the State of Israel. My roots and my Arabness existed before them." "&#91;Arab-Israeli&#93; is an inappropriate expression because our ancestors were here before ‘48."]</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Lynfield|first1=Ben|title=Survey: 60% of Arab Israelis have positive view of state|url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Survey-60-percent-of-Arab-Israelis-have-positive-view-of-state-506150|access-date=23 October 2017|work=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|date=27 September 2017}}</ref> According to [[Sammy Smooha]], "The identity of 83.0% of the Arabs in 2019 (up from 75.5% in 2017) has an Israeli component and 61.9% (unchanged from 60.3%) has a Palestinian component. However, when these two components were presented as competitors, 69.0% of the Arabs in 2019 chose exclusive or primary Palestinian identity, compared with 29.8% who chose exclusive or primary Israeli Arab identity."<ref>{{cite book|title = Still Playing by the Rules: Index of Arab-Jewish Relations in Israel 2019 |date =2020| publisher =University of Haifa|url = https://www.academia.edu/49106091|page=88|isbn =978-9-655-99346-2|last1 =Smooha|first1 =Sammy}}</ref> ===Major urban areas=== {{Main list|List of cities in Israel}} {{wide image|Tel Aviv Panorama.jpg|1000px|View over the [[Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area]]}} Israel has four major metropolitan areas: [[Gush Dan]] (Tel Aviv metropolitan area; population 3,854,000), [[Jerusalem metropolitan area]] (population 1,253,900), [[Haifa metropolitan area]] (population 924,400), and [[Beersheba metropolitan area]] (population 377,100).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_25&CYear=2017 |title=Localities, Population and Density per Sq. Km., by Metropolitan Area and Selected Localities |date=6 September 2017 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=19 September 2017}}</ref> Israel's largest municipality, in population and area, is [[Jerusalem]] with {{Israel populations|Jerusalem}} residents in an area of {{convert|125|km2|0|abbr=out}}.{{Israel populations|reference}} Israeli government statistics on Jerusalem include the population and area of [[East Jerusalem]], which is widely recognized as part of the [[Palestinian territories]] under [[Israeli-occupied territories|Israeli occupation]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Roberts|1990|p=60}} Although East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have been brought directly under Israeli law, by acts that amount to annexation, both of these areas continue to be viewed by the international community as occupied, and their status as regards the applicability of international rules is in most respects identical to that of the West Bank and Gaza.</ref> [[Tel Aviv]] and [[Haifa]] rank as Israel's next most populous cities, with populations of {{Israel populations|Tel Aviv - Yafo}} and {{Israel populations|Haifa}}, respectively.{{Israel populations|reference}} Israel has 16 [[List of cities in Israel|cities]] with populations over 100,000. In all, there are 77 Israeli localities granted [[City council (Israel)|"municipalities" (or "city") status]] by the Ministry of the Interior,<ref>[http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_22&CYear=2018 2.22 Localities and Population, by Municipal Status and District], 2018</ref> [[List of Israeli settlements with city status in the West Bank|four of which are in the West Bank]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.science.co.il/municipal/Cities.php | title=List of Cities in Israel}}</ref> Two more cities are planned: [[Kasif, Israel|Kasif]], a [[planned city]] to be built in the [[Negev]], and [[Harish, Israel|Harish]], originally a small town that is being built into a large city since 2015.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/as-harish-rises-some-wonder-if-it-can-break-suburban-mold/ |title=New town Harish harbors hopes of being more than another Pleasantville |work=The Times of Israel |access-date=2 July 2018 |date=25 August 2015 }}</ref> {{Largest cities of Israel}} ===Language=== {{Main|Languages of Israel}} [[File:שלט רחוב יהודה (3777232251).jpg|thumb|[[Road signs in Israel|Road sign]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and [[English language|English]]]] Israel has one official language, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. [[Arabic language in Israel|Arabic]] had been an official language of the State of Israel;<ref name=lang1/> in 2018 [[Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People|it was downgraded]] to having a 'special status in the state' with its use by state institutions to be set in law.<ref name=lang2/><ref name=lang3/><ref name=lang4/> Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken every day by the majority of the population. Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority, with Hebrew taught in Arab schools. As a country of [[aliyah|immigrants]], many languages can be heard on the streets. Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union and [[Aliyah from Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] (some 130,000 [[Ethiopian Jews in Israel|Ethiopian Jews live in Israel]]),<ref name="The Ethiopian Population In Israel">[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]]: [http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/newhodaot/hodaa_template.html?hodaa=201211307 The Ethiopian Community in Israel]</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-ethiopia-jews-sb-idUSTRE56F4ZY20090716 |title=Israel may admit 3,000 Ethiopia migrants if Jews |newspaper=Reuters |date=16 July 2009}}</ref> [[Russian language in Israel|Russian]] and [[Amharic]] are widely spoken.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's welcome for Ethiopian Jews wears thin |first=Bill |last=Meyer |url=http://www.cleveland.com/world/index.ssf/2008/08/israels_welcome_for_ethiopian.html |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |date=17 August 2008 |access-date=1 October 2012}}</ref> More than one million Russian-speaking immigrants [[1990s Post-Soviet aliyah|arrived]] in Israel from the post-Soviet states between 1990 and 2004.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/study-soviet-immigrants-outperform-israeli-students-1.238970 |title=Study: Soviet immigrants outperform Israeli students |newspaper=Haaretz |date=10 February 2008}}</ref> [[French language|French]] is spoken by around 700,000 Israelis,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4156781,00.html |title=French radio station RFI makes aliyah |newspaper=Ynetnews |date=5 December 2011}}</ref> mostly originating [[French Jews in Israel|from France]] and North Africa (see [[Maghrebi Jews]]). [[English language|English]] was an official language during the Mandate period; it lost this status after the establishment of Israel, but retains a role comparable to that of an official language,<ref>{{cite book|last=Spolsky|first=Bernard|title=Round Table on Language and Linguistics |url={{Google books|ljumbfV_7y0C|page=PA169|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1999|publisher=Georgetown University Press|location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87840-132-1 |pages=169–170 |quote=In 1948, the newly independent state of Israel took over the old British regulations that had set English, Arabic, and Hebrew as official languages for Mandatory Palestine but, as mentioned, dropped English from the list. In spite of this, official language use has maintained a de facto role for English, after Hebrew but before Arabic.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Hava |last=Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot|editor2-first=Hava|editor2-last=Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot |editor1-first=Dorit |editor1-last=Diskin Ravid|title=Perspectives on Language and Development: Essays in Honor of Ruth A. Berman |chapter-url={{Google books|xMzx6xFB0IgC|page=PA90|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |date=2004 |page=90 |chapter=Part I: Language and Discourse |isbn=978-1-4020-7911-5 |quote=English is not considered official but it plays a dominant role in the educational and public life of Israeli society. ... It is the language most widely used in commerce, business, formal papers, academia, and public interactions, public signs, road directions, names of buildings, etc. English behaves 'as if' it were the second and official language in Israel.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Elana|last=Shohamy|title=Language Policy: Hidden Agendas and New Approaches |url={{Google books|5mG09P64jzYC|page=PA72|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-32864-7 |pages=72–73 |quote=In terms of English, there is no connection between the declared policies and statements and de facto practices. While English is not declared anywhere as an official language, the reality is that it has a very high and unique status in Israel. It is the main language of the academy, commerce, business, and the public space.}}</ref> as may be seen in [[Road signs in Israel|road signs]] and official documents. Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programs are broadcast in English with [[subtitles]] and the language is taught from the early grades in elementary school. In addition, Israeli universities offer courses in the English language on various subjects.<ref>{{cite web|title=English programs at Israeli universities and colleges|url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/IsraelExperience/AboutIsrael/Education/Pages/English_programs_Israeli_universities_colleges.aspx|publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref> ===Religion=== {{Main|Religion in Israel|Abrahamic religions}} {{Religion in Israel chart}} Israel comprises a major part of the [[Holy Land]], a region of significant importance to all [[Abrahamic religions]]&nbsp;– [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Druze]] and [[Baháʼí Faith]]. The [[Jewish religious movements|religious affiliation]] of [[Israeli Jews]] varies widely: a social survey from 2016 made by [[Pew Research]] indicates that 49% self-identify as [[Hiloni]] (secular), 29% as [[Masortim|Masorti]] (traditional), 13% as [[Dati]] (religious) and 9% as [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] (ultra-Orthodox).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/08/in-israel-jews-are-united-by-homeland-but-divided-into-very-different-groups/ |title=In Israel, Jews are united by homeland but divided into very different groups |last1=Starr |first1=Kelsey Jo |last2=Masci |first2=David |date=8 March 2016 |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=14 January 2017}}</ref> Haredi Jews are expected to represent more than 20% of Israel's Jewish population by 2028.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/opinion/at-the-edge-of-the-abyss-1.3538 |title=At the edge of the abyss |newspaper=Haaretz |date=24 November 2009}}</ref> [[Islam in Israel|Muslims]] constitute Israel's largest religious minority, making up about 17.6% of the population. About 2% of the population is [[Christianity in Israel|Christian]] and 1.6% is [[Druze in Israel|Druze]].<ref name="cia"/> The Christian population is composed primarily of [[Arab Christians]] and [[Arameans in Israel|Aramean Christians]], but also includes post-Soviet immigrants, the foreign laborers of multinational origins, and followers of [[Messianic Judaism]], considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's Christian population numbers 148,000 as of Christmas Eve |first=Moti |last=Bassok |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/israel-s-christian-population-numbers-148-000-as-of-christmas-eve-1.208151 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=25 December 2006 |access-date=26 April 2012}}</ref> Members of many other religious groups, including [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] and [[Hinduism in Israel|Hindus]], maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton53/st_eng02.pdf |title=National Population Estimates |access-date=6 August 2007 |page=27 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807012547/http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton53/st_eng02.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Out of more than one million [[1990s Post-Soviet aliyah|immigrants]] from the former Soviet Union, about 300,000 are considered not Jewish by the [[Chief Rabbinate of Israel]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/15675691 |title=Israel's disputatious Avigdor Lieberman: Can the coalition hold together? |date=11 March 2010 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=12 August 2012}}</ref> [[File:Westernwall2.jpg|thumb|The [[Dome of the Rock]] and the [[Western Wall]], Jerusalem.|alt=A large open area with people bounded by old stone walls. To the left is a mosque with large golden dome.]] The city of [[Jerusalem]] is of [[Religious significance of Jerusalem|special importance]] to Jews, Muslims, and Christians, as it is the home of [[List of places in Jerusalem|sites]] that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]] that incorporates the [[Western Wall]] and the [[Temple Mount]], the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] and the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Jerusalem: its sanctity and centrality to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam |last=Levine |first=Lee I. |year=1999 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8264-1024-5 |page=516}}</ref> Other locations of religious importance in Israel are [[Nazareth]] (holy in Christianity as the site of the [[Annunciation]] of [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]]), [[Tiberias]] and [[Safed]] (two of the [[Four Holy Cities]] in Judaism), the [[White Mosque, Ramla|White Mosque]] in [[Ramla]] (holy in Islam as the shrine of the prophet [[Saleh]]), and the [[Church of Saint George, Lod|Church of Saint George]] in [[Lod]] (holy in Christianity and Islam as the tomb of [[Saint George]] or [[Al Khidr]]). A number of other religious landmarks are located in the [[West Bank]], among them [[Joseph's Tomb]] in [[Nablus]], the [[Church of the Nativity|birthplace of Jesus]] and [[Rachel's Tomb]] in [[Bethlehem]], and the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]]. The [[Arc (Baháʼí)|administrative center]] of the [[Baháʼí Faith]] and the [[Shrine of the Báb]] are located at the [[Baháʼí World Centre]] in [[Haifa]]; the leader of the faith is [[Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh|buried]] in [[Acre, Israel|Acre]].<ref>{{cite book | title = Hebrew Phrasebook | publisher = Lonely Planet Publications |year=1999 | page = 156 | isbn = 978-0-86442-528-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html |title=The Baháʼí World Centre: Focal Point for a Global Community |publisher=The Baháʼí International Community |access-date=2 July 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629171538/http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html |archive-date=29 June 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Baháʼí Library Online |title=Teaching the Faith in Israel |date=23 June 1995 |url=http://bahai-library.com/uhj_teaching_in_israel |access-date=6 August 2007 }}</ref> A few kilometres south of the Baháʼí World Centre is [[Mahmood Mosque, Haifa|Mahmood Mosque]] affiliated with the reformist [[Ahmadiyya in Israel|Ahmadiyya]] movement. [[Kababir]], Haifa's mixed neighbourhood of Jews and Ahmadi Arabs is one of a few of its kind in the country, others being [[Jaffa]], [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], other [[Haifa]] neighborhoods, [[Harish, Israel|Harish]] and [[Upper Nazareth]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.haifatrail.com/haifa-trail-segment14-eng.htm#./images/sect-14/Haifa-Trail-Sect14-P1610817.jpg | title=Kababir and Central Carmel – Multiculturalism on the Carmel | access-date=8 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.visit-haifa.org/eng/Kababir | title=Visit Haifa | access-date=8 January 2015}}</ref> ===Education=== {{Main|Education in Israel}} [[File:Brain research labs-Bar Ilan university.jpg|thumb|[[Bar-Ilan University#Leslie and Susan Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center|Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center]] at [[Bar-Ilan University]]]] Education is highly valued in the Israeli culture and was viewed as a [[History of education in ancient Israel and Judah|fundamental block of ancient Israelites]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://bibleresources.americanbible.org/resource/education-in-ancient-israel | title=Education in Ancient Israel | publisher=American Bible Society | access-date=3 July 2015}}</ref> Jewish communities in the Levant were the first to introduce [[compulsory education]] for which the organized community, not less than the parents was responsible.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moaz, Asher |title=Religious Education in Israel |journal=University of Detroit Mercy Law Review |volume=83 |number=5 |pages=679–728 |year=2006 |url=https://law.bepress.com/taulwps/art44/}}</ref> Many international business leaders such as Microsoft founder [[Bill Gates]] have praised Israel for its high quality of education in helping spur Israel's economic development and technological boom.<ref name="David Adler"/><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.israel21c.org/technology/bill-gates-israel-is-a-high-tech-superpower/ | title=Bill Gates – Israel is a high tech superpower | publisher=Israel21 | date=30 October 2005 | access-date=3 July 2015 | author=Karin Kloosterman}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2013/11/07/what-are-the-secrets-behind-israels-growing-innovative-edge/ | title=What Are The Secrets Behind Israel's Growing Innovative Edge? | magazine=Forbes | date=11 July 2013 | access-date=3 July 2015 | author=Gary Shapiro}}</ref> In 2015, the country [[List of countries by tertiary education attainment|ranked]] third among [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] members (after Canada and Japan) for the percentage of 25–64 year-olds that have attained [[tertiary education]] with 49% compared with the OECD average of 35%.<ref name=OECD_education /> In 2012, the country ranked third in the world in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population).<ref name="consulate">{{cite web |url=http://bombay.mfa.gov.il/mfm/web/main/Print.asp?DocumentID=111093 |title=Top Ten Reasons to Invest in Israel |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=12 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121218124244/http://bombay.mfa.gov.il/mfm/web/main/Print.asp?DocumentID=111093 |archive-date=18 December 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.american.edu/initeb/as5415a/Israel_ICT/itWork.html |title=Israel: IT Workforce |access-date=14 August 2007 |website=Information Technology Landscape in Nations Around the World |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060913013444/http://www.american.edu/initeb/as5415a/Israel_ICT/itWork.html |archive-date=13 September 2006 }}</ref> Israel has a [[school life expectancy]] of 16 years and a [[List of countries by literacy rate|literacy rate]] of 97.8%.<ref name="cia"/> The State Education Law, passed in 1953, established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils in Israel. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED250227&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED250227 |title=Israeli Schools: Religious and Secular Problems |publisher=Education Resources Information Center |date=10 October 1984 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> Education is compulsory in Israel for children between the ages of three and eighteen.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/knesset-raises-school-dropout-age-to-18-1.225752 |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=18 July 2007 |title=Knesset raises school dropout age to 18 |first1=Or |last1=Kashti |first2=Shahar |last2=Ilan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2003/1/Summary+of+the+principal+laws+relating+to+educatio.htm |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Summary of the Principal Laws Related to Education |date=26 January 2003 |access-date=4 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060218134833/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2003/1/Summary%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bprincipal%2Blaws%2Brelating%2Bto%2Beducatio.htm |archive-date=18 February 2006 }}</ref> Schooling is divided into three tiers&nbsp;– primary school (grades 1–6), [[middle school]] (grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12)&nbsp;– culminating with ''[[Bagrut]]'' matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, the [[Hebrew language]], Hebrew and general literature, the [[English language]], history, Biblical scripture and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.<ref name="moia">{{cite web |url=http://www.moia.gov.il/Publications/education_en.pdf |title=Education |last1=Shetreet |first1=Ida Ben |last2=Woolf |first2=Laura L. |year=2010 |website=Publications Department |publisher=Ministry of Immigrant Absorption |access-date=30 August 2012}}</ref> Israel's Jewish population maintains a relatively high level of educational attainment where just under half of all Israeli Jews (46%) hold post-secondary degrees. This figure has remained stable in their already high levels of educational attainment over recent generations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2016/12/13/religion-and-education-around-the-world/|title=Religion and Education Around the World|date=13 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2016/12/13/jewish-educational-attainment/|title=6. Jewish educational attainment|date=13 December 2016}}</ref> Israeli Jews (among those ages 25 and older) have average of 11.6 years of schooling making them one of the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2016/12/13/how-religious-groups-differ-in-educational-attainment/|title=How Religious Groups Differ in Educational Attainment|date=13 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/world/jews-top-class-first-ever-global-study-religion-and-education|title=Jews at top of class in first-ever global study of religion and education|date=13 December 2016}}</ref> In Arab, Christian and [[Druze]] schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bibl.u-szeged.hu/oseas/bagrut.html |publisher=United States-Israel Educational Foundation via the University of Szeged University Library |title=The Israeli Matriculation Certificate |access-date=5 August 2007 |date=January 1996 |archive-date=15 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915073741/http://www.bibl.u-szeged.hu/oseas/bagrut.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''[[Maariv (newspaper)|Maariv]]'' described the [[Christian Arabs]] sectors as "the most successful in education system",<ref name="המגזר הערבי נוצרי הכי מצליח במערכת החינוך">{{cite web|url=http://www.nrg.co.il/online/1/ART2/319/566.html|title=המגזר הערבי נוצרי הכי מצליח במערכת החינוך)|access-date=30 October 2014}}</ref> since Christians fared the best in terms of education in comparison to any other religion in Israel.<ref name="Christians in Israel: Strong in education">{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4323529,00.html|title=Christians in Israel: Strong in education|newspaper=Ynetnews|access-date=30 October 2014|date=23 December 2012|last1=Druckman|first1=Yaron}}</ref> Israeli children from Russian-speaking families have a higher bagrut pass rate at high-school level.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://brookdale.jdc.org.il/?CategoryID=192&ArticleID=351 |title=Patterns of Integration into Israeli Society among Immigrants from the Former Soviet Union over the Past Two Decades |last=Konstantinov |first=Viacheslav |date=2015 |publisher=Myers-JDC-Brookdale Institute |access-date=9 March 2017}}</ref> Amongst immigrant children born in the [[Former Soviet Union]], the bagrut pass rate is higher amongst those families from European FSU states at 62.6% and lower amongst those from Central Asian and Caucasian FSU states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.walla.co.il/item/1232268|title=עולים מחבר העמים מצליחים יותר בבגרויות|website=וואלה! חדשות|date=10 February 2008}}</ref> In 2014, 61.5% of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st08_26&CYear=2016 |title=Students in Grade 12 – Matriculation Examinees and Those Entitled to a Certificate |date=2016 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref> [[File:Hebrew University Jerusalem IL WV.JPG|thumb|[[Mount Scopus]] Campus of the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]]] Israel has a tradition of higher education where its quality university education has been largely responsible in spurring the nations modern economic development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kehilanews.com/2017/05/11/israels-educational-tradition-drives-economic-growth/ |title=Israel's educational tradition drives economic growth |last=Silver |first=Stefan |date=11 May 2017 |website=Kehlia News Israel}}</ref> Israel has [[List of Israeli universities and colleges|nine public universities that are subsidized by the state and 49 private colleges]].<ref name="moia"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://embassies.gov.il/delhi/Departments/Pages/Academic%20Affairs.aspx |title=Higher Education in Israel |access-date=19 March 2012 |publisher=Embassy of Israel In India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725031634/http://embassies.gov.il/delhi/Departments/Pages/Academic%20Affairs.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Paraszczuk|first=Joanna|title=Ariel gets university status, despite opposition|url=http://www.jpost.com/National-News/Ariel-gets-university-status-despite-opposition|access-date=21 December 2013|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=17 July 2012}}</ref> The [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], Israel's second-oldest university after the [[Technion]],<ref>{{cite web|title=About Technion|url=http://pard.technion.ac.il/about-technion/|publisher=[[Technion – Israel Institute of Technology|Technion]]|access-date=21 December 2013|archive-date=24 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101758/http://pard.technion.ac.il/about-technion/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Israel|url=http://monash.edu/study-abroad/outbound/exchange/partners/israel/|publisher=Monash University|access-date=21 December 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101745/http://monash.edu/study-abroad/outbound/exchange/partners/israel/|archive-date=24 December 2013}}</ref> houses the [[National Library of Israel]], the world's largest repository of Judaica and Hebraica.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/library/aboutus/past/Building/Pages/history.aspx |publisher=National Library of Israel |title=History of the Library |access-date=22 August 2014}}</ref> The Technion and the Hebrew University consistently ranked among world's 100 top universities by the prestigious [[Academic Ranking of World Universities|ARWU]] academic ranking.<ref name="ARWU">{{cite web |url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/World-University-Rankings-2016/Israel.html |title=Israel |date=2016 |publisher=Academic Ranking of World Universities |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-date=17 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817025723/http://www.shanghairanking.com/World-University-Rankings-2016/Israel.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other major universities in the country include the [[Weizmann Institute of Science]], [[Tel Aviv University]], [[Ben-Gurion University of the Negev]], [[Bar-Ilan University]], the [[University of Haifa]] and the [[Open University of Israel]]. [[Ariel University]], in the [[West Bank]], is the newest university institution, upgraded from college status, and the first in over thirty years. ==Government and politics== {{Main|Politics of Israel|Israeli system of government}} {{See also|Criticism of the Israeli government}} {{multiple image |total_width=260 |caption_align=center | image1 = Isaac Herzog.jpg | caption1 = [[President of Israel|President]]<br />[[Isaac Herzog]] | image2 = Naftali Bennett official portrait.jpg | caption2 = [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]]<br />[[Naftali Bennett]] }} [[File:PikiWiki Israel 7260 Knesset-Room.jpg|thumb|The [[Knesset]] chamber, home to the Israeli parliament]] Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with [[universal suffrage]]. A member of parliament supported by a parliamentary majority becomes the [[Prime Minister of Israel|prime minister]]—usually this is the chair of the largest party. The prime minister is the [[head of government]] and head of the [[Cabinet of Israel|cabinet]].<ref name="cia2"/><ref>In 1996, direct elections for the prime minister were inaugurated, but the system was declared unsatisfactory and the old one reinstated. See {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2683259.stm |work=BBC News |title=Israel's election process explained |access-date=31 March 2010 |date=23 January 2003}}</ref> Israel is governed by a 120-member parliament, known as the [[Knesset]]. Membership of the Knesset is based on [[proportional representation]] of [[List of political parties in Israel|political parties]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_beh.htm |publisher=The Knesset |access-date=8 August 2007 |title=The Electoral System in Israel }}</ref> with a 3.25% electoral threshold, which in practice has resulted in coalition governments. Residents of Israeli settlements in the West Bank are eligible to vote<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/jewish-settlers-can-vote-in-israeli-elections-though-west-bank-is-officially-not-israel Jewish settlers can vote in Israeli elections, though West Bank is officially not Israel], Fox News, February 2015: "When Israelis go to the polls next month, tens of thousands of Jewish settlers in the West Bank will also be casting votes, even though they do not live on what is sovereign Israeli territory. This exception in a country that doesn't allow absentee voting for citizens living abroad is a telling reflection of Israel's somewhat ambiguous and highly contentious claim to the territory, which has been under military occupation for almost a half century."</ref> and after the [[2015 Israeli legislative election|2015 election]], 10 of the 120 MKs ({{percent|10|120}}) were settlers.<ref>[https://en.idi.org.il/articles/5199 The Social Composition of the 20th Knesset], Israeli Democracy Institute, 30 March 2015</ref> Parliamentary [[Elections in Israel|elections]] are scheduled every four years, but unstable coalitions or a [[motion of no confidence|no-confidence vote]] by the Knesset can dissolve a government earlier. [[File:Israel's political system.svg|thumb|309x309px|Political system of state of Israel]] The [[Basic Laws of Israel]] function as an [[uncodified constitution]]. In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official [[Constitution of Israel|constitution]] based on these laws.<ref name="cia"/><ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Mazie|2006|p=34}}</ref> The [[president of Israel]] is [[head of state]], with limited and largely ceremonial duties.<ref name="cia2">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2077.html |work=The World Factbook |title=Field Listing&nbsp;— Executive Branch |access-date=20 July 2007 |date=19 June 2007 }}</ref> Israel has no official religion,<ref>{{cite book | title=Secularism on the Edge: Rethinking Church-State Relations in the United States, France, and Israel |last=Charbit |first=Denis | editor1-last=Berlinerblau | editor1-first=Jacques | editor2-last=Fainberg | editor2-first=Sarah | editor3-last=Nou | editor3-first=Aurora | chapter=Israel's Self-Restrained Secularism from the 1947 Status Quo Letter to the Present | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan | location=New York |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-137-38115-6 | pages=167–169 |chapter-url={{Google books|gThvBAAAQBAJ|page=PA167|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |quote=The compromise, therefore, was to choose constructive ambiguity: as surprising as it may seem, there is no law that declares Judaism the official religion of Israel. However, there is no other law that declares Israel's neutrality toward all confessions. Judaism is not recognized as the official religion of the state, and even though the Jewish, Muslim and Christian clergy receive their salaries from the state, this fact does not make Israel a neutral state. This apparent pluralism cannot dissimulate the fact that Israel displays a clear and undoubtedly hierarchical pluralism in religious matters.&nbsp;... It is important to note that from a multicultural point of view, this self-restrained secularism allows Muslim law to be practiced in Israel for personal matters of the Muslim community. As surprising as it seems, if not paradoxical for a state in war, Israel is the only Western democratic country in which Sharia enjoys such an official status.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=The Sage Handbook of the Sociology of Religion |last=Sharot |first=Stephen | editor1-last=Beckford | editor1-first=James A. | editor2-last=Demerath | editor2-first=Jay | chapter=Judaism in Israel: Public Religion, Neo-Traditionalism, Messianism, and Ethno-Religious Conflict | publisher=Sage Publications | location=London and Thousand Oaks, CA |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4129-1195-5 | pages=671–672 |chapter-url={{Google books|vA8edg7bv0kC|page=PA671|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |quote=It is true that Jewish Israelis, and secular Israelis in particular, conceive of religion as shaped by a state-sponsored religious establishment. There is no formal state religion in Israel, but the state gives its official recognition and financial support to particular religious communities, Jewish, Islamic and Christian, whose religious authorities and courts are empowered to deal with matters of personal status and family law, such as marriage, divorce, and alimony, that are binding on all members of the communities.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Women in Zones of Conflict: Power and Resistance in Israel |last=Jacoby |first=Tami Amanda | publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press | location=Montreal, Quebec and Kingston, Ontario |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7735-2993-9 | pages=53–54|url={{Google books|pr1LJNrlmuIC|page=PA53|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |quote=Although there is no official religion in Israel, there is also no clear separation between religion and state. In Israeli public life, tensions frequently arise among different streams of Judaism: Ultra-Orthodox, National-Religious, ''Mesorati'' (Conservative), Reconstructionist Progressive (Reform), and varying combinations of traditionalism and non-observance. Despite this variety in religious observances in society, Orthodox Judaism prevails institutionally over the other streams. This boundary is an historical consequence of the unique evolution of the relationship between Israel nationalism and state building.&nbsp;... Since the founding period, in order to defuse religious tensions, the State of Israel has adopted what is known as the 'status quo,' an unwritten agreement stipulating that no further changes would be made in the status of religion, and that conflict between the observant and non-observant sectors would be handled circumstantially. The 'status quo' has since pertained to the legal status of both religious and secular Jews in Israel. This situation was designed to appease the religious sector, and has been upheld indefinitely through the disproportionate power of religious political parties in all subsequent coalition governments.&nbsp;... On one hand, the Declaration of Independence adopted in 1948 explicitly guarantees freedom of religion. On the other, it simultaneously prevents the separation of religion and state in Israel.}}</ref> but the definition of the state as "[[Jewish and democratic state|Jewish and democratic]]" creates a strong connection with Judaism, as well as a conflict between state law and religious law. Interaction between the political parties keeps [[Status quo (Israel)|the balance]] between state and religion largely as it existed during the British Mandate.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Englard|first=Izhak|date=Winter 1987|title=Law and Religion in Israel|journal=The American Journal of Comparative Law|volume=35|issue=1|pages=185–208|doi=10.2307/840166|jstor=840166|quote=The great political and ideological importance of religion in the state of Israel manifests itself in the manifold legal provisions concerned with religions phenomenon.&nbsp;... It is not a system of separation between state and religion as practiced in the U.S.A and several other countries of the world. In Israel a number of religious bodies exercise official functions; the religious law is applied in limited areas}}</ref> On 19 July 2018, the [[Israeli Parliament]] passed a Basic Law that characterizes the State of Israel as principally a "[[Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People|Nation State of the Jewish People]]," and Hebrew as its official language. The bill ascribes "special status" to the Arabic language. The same bill gives Jews a unique right to national self-determination, and views the developing of Jewish settlement in the country as "a national interest," empowering the government to "take steps to encourage, advance and implement this interest."<ref>{{cite news |title=Jewish nation state: Israel approves controversial bill |publisher=BBC |date=19 July 2018 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-44881554 |access-date=20 July 2018 }}</ref> ===Legal system=== {{Main|Judiciary of Israel|Israeli law}} [[File:Israel Supreme Court.jpg|thumb|[[Supreme Court of Israel]], Givat Ram, Jerusalem]] Israel has a [[Israeli judicial system|three-tier court system]]. At the lowest level are [[magistrate]] courts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them are [[district court]]s, serving as both [[appeal|appellate]] courts and [[trial court|courts of first instance]]; they are situated in five of Israel's six [[Districts of Israel|districts]]. The third and highest tier is the [[Supreme Court of Israel|Supreme Court]], located in Jerusalem; it serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and the [[High Court of Justice (Israel)|High Court of Justice]]. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against the decisions of state authorities.<ref name="judiciary">{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Government/Branches%20of%20Government/Judicial/The%20Judiciary-%20The%20Court%20System |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=5 August 2007 |date=1 August 2005 |title=The Judiciary: The Court System }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's high court unique in region |url=http://bostonherald.com/news_opinion/opinion/editorials/2007/09/israel%E2%80%99s_high_court_unique_region |newspaper=Boston Herald |date=9 September 2007 |access-date=27 March 2013}}</ref> Although Israel supports the goals of the [[International Criminal Court]], it has not ratified the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|Rome Statute]], citing concerns about the ability of the court to remain free from political impartiality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2002/6/Israel%20and%20the%20International%20Criminal%20Court |title=Israel and the International Criminal Court |publisher=Office of the Legal Adviser to the [[Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] |date=30 June 2002 |access-date=20 July 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516021101/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2002/6/Israel%20and%20the%20International%20Criminal%20Court |archive-date=16 May 2007 }}</ref> Israel's legal system combines three legal traditions: [[English law|English]] [[common law]], [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]], and [[Halakha|Jewish law]].<ref name="cia"/> It is based on the principle of ''[[stare decisis]]'' (precedent) and is an [[adversarial system]], where the parties in the suit bring evidence before the court. Court cases are decided by professional judges with no role for juries.<ref name="judiciary"/> [[Marriage in Israel|Marriage]] and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts: [[Beth din|Jewish]], [[Sharia|Muslim]], Druze, and Christian. The election of judges is carried out by a [[Judicial Selection Committee (Israel)|committee]] of two Knesset members, three Supreme Court justices, two [[Israel Bar Association|Israeli Bar]] members and two ministers (one of which, Israel's [[Ministry of Justice (Israel)|justice minister]], is the committee's chairman). The committee's members of the Knesset are [[Secret ballot|secretly elected]] by the Knesset, and one of them is traditionally a member of the opposition, the committee's Supreme Court justices are chosen by tradition from all Supreme Court justices by seniority, the Israeli Bar members are elected by the bar, and the second minister is appointed by the Israeli cabinet. The current justice minister and committee's chairwoman is [[Ayelet Shaked]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts+About+Israel/State/THE+STATE-+Judiciary-+The+Court+System.htm |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=9 August 2007 |date=1 October 2006 |title=The State&nbsp;— Judiciary&nbsp;— The Court System }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idi.org.il/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%98/%D7%92%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F-72/%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9A-%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%99-%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%91%D7%93-%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%95!/|publisher=[[Israel Democracy Institute]]|title=הליך מינוי השופטים בישראל: עובד – אל תיגעו!|access-date=21 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Constitutional Law of Israel|author=Suzi Navot|publisher=Kluwer Law International|page=146|url={{Google books|YUNNHYUBA5oC|page=PA146|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-90-411-2651-1|year=2007}}</ref> Administration of Israel's courts (both the "General" courts and the [[Labor Courts of Israel|Labor Courts]]) is carried by the Administration of Courts, situated in Jerusalem. Both General and Labor courts are paperless courts: the storage of court files, as well as court decisions, are conducted electronically. Israel's [[Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty]] seeks to defend [[Human rights in Israel|human rights and liberties in Israel]]. As a result of "[[Enclave law]]", large portions of Israeli [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] are applied to Israeli settlements and Israeli residents in the occupied territories.<ref name="Ben-NaftaliSfard2018">{{cite book|author1=Orna Ben-Naftali|author2=Michael Sfard|author3=Hedi Viterbo|title=The ABC of the OPT: A Legal Lexicon of the Israeli Control over the Occupied Palestinian Territory|url={{Google books|Is5TDwAAQBAJ|page=PA52|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-15652-4|pages=52–}}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Districts of Israel}} {{Israel Labelled Map}} The State of Israel is divided into six main administrative [[Districts of Israel|districts]], known as ''mehozot'' ({{Lang-he|מחוזות|link=no}}; singular: ''mahoz'')&nbsp;– [[Central District (Israel)|Center]], [[Haifa District|Haifa]], [[Jerusalem District|Jerusalem]], [[Northern District (Israel)|North]], [[Southern District (Israel)|South]], and [[Tel Aviv District|Tel Aviv]] districts, as well as the [[Judea and Samaria Area]] in the [[West Bank]]. All of the Judea and Samaria Area and parts of the Jerusalem and Northern districts are not recognized internationally as part of Israel. Districts are further divided into fifteen sub-districts known as ''nafot'' ({{Lang-he|נפות|link=no}}; singular: ''nafa''), which are themselves partitioned into fifty natural regions.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics |title=Introduction to the Tables: Geophysical Characteristics |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton53/download/st_eng01.doc |format=doc |access-date=4 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221195435/http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton53/download/st_eng01.doc |archive-date=21 February 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center" |- ! rowspan="2"| District ! rowspan="2"| Capital ! rowspan="2"| Largest city ! colspan="4"| Population<ref name="districts_pop">{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_17&CYear=2017 |title=Localities and Population, by Population Group, District, Sub-District and Natural Region |date=6 September 2017 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=19 September 2017}}</ref> |- ! Jews ! Arabs ! Total ! class="unsortable"| note |- ! [[Jerusalem District|Jerusalem]] | colspan="2"| [[Jerusalem]] | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|721300|1083300}} | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|344500|1083300}} | style="text-align:right"| {{sort|1083300|1,083,300}} | {{ref|jerusalemdistrict|a}} |- ! [[Northern District (Israel)|North]] | [[Nof HaGalil]] | [[Nazareth]] | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|603400|1401300}} | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|752700|1401300}} | style="text-align:right"| {{sort|1401300|1,401,300}} | |- ! [[Haifa District|Haifa]] | colspan="2"| [[Haifa]] | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|679400|996300}} | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|255100|996300}} | style="text-align:right"| {{sort|0996300|996,300}} | |- ! [[Central District (Israel)|Center]] | [[Ramla]] | [[Rishon LeZion]] | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|1852400|2115800}} | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|172700|2115800}} | style="text-align:right"| {{sort|2115800|2,115,800}} | |- ! [[Tel Aviv District|Tel Aviv]] | colspan="2"| [[Tel Aviv]] | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|1289500|1388400}} | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|20900|1388400}} | style="text-align:right"| {{sort|1388400|1,388,400}} | |- ! [[Southern District (Israel)|South]] | [[Beersheba]] | [[Ashdod]] | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|909200|1244200}} | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|250800|1244200}} | style="text-align:right"| {{sort|1244200|1,244,200}} | |- ! [[Judea and Samaria District|Judea and Samaria Area]] | [[Ariel (city)|Ariel]] | [[Modi'in Illit]] | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|391000|399300}} | style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|600|399300}} | style="text-align:right"| {{sort|0399300|399,300}} | {{ref|judeaandsamaria|b}} |} :{{note|jerusalemdistrict|a}} Including over 200,000 Jews and 300,000 Arabs in [[East Jerusalem]].<ref name="jerusalem_pop">{{cite web |url=http://www.jerusaleminstitute.org.il/.upload/yearbook/2017/shnaton_C1017.pdf |title=Population of Jerusalem, by Age, Religion and Geographical Spreading, 2015 |publisher=Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies |access-date=19 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924044837/http://www.jerusaleminstitute.org.il/.upload/yearbook/2017/shnaton_C1017.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> :{{note|judeaandsamaria|b}} Israeli citizens only. ===Israeli-occupied territories=== {{Main|Israeli-occupied territories|Israeli occupation of the West Bank}} [[File:Map of Israel, neighbours and occupied territories.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Israel showing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights]] {{Israeli occupations navbox}} {{Administration in the Palestine region}} In 1967, as a result of the [[Six-Day War]], Israel captured and [[Israeli-occupied territories|occupied]] the [[West Bank]], including [[East Jerusalem]], the [[Gaza Strip]] and the [[Golan Heights]]. Israel also captured the [[Sinai Peninsula]], but returned it to Egypt as part of the 1979 [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Peace/peace_with_Egypt.html |title=Israel Makes Peace With Egypt |last=Bard |first=Mitchell |website=Jewish Virtual Library |publisher=American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> Between 1982 and 2000, Israel occupied part of [[southern Lebanon]], in what was known as the [[South Lebanon Security Belt|Security Belt]]. Since Israel's capture of these territories, [[Israeli settlement]]s and military installations have been built within each of them, except Lebanon. The [[Golan Heights Law|Golan Heights]] and [[Jerusalem Law|East Jerusalem]] have been fully incorporated into Israel under Israeli law, but not under international law. Israel has applied civilian law to both areas and granted their inhabitants permanent residency status and the ability to [[Israeli nationality law|apply for citizenship]]. The UN Security Council has declared the annexation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem to be "null and void" and continues to view the territories as occupied.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/73D6B4C70D1A92B7852560DF0064F101 |title=Resolution 497 (1981) |year=1981 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612120152/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/73D6B4C70D1A92B7852560DF0064F101 |archive-date=12 June 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/dde590c6ff232007852560df0065fddb?OpenDocument |title=East Jerusalem: UNSC Res. 478 |year=1980 |publisher=UN |access-date=10 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231090053/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/dde590c6ff232007852560df0065fddb?OpenDocument |archive-date=31 December 2010 }}</ref> The [[Positions on Jerusalem|status]] of East Jerusalem in any future peace settlement has at times been a difficult issue in [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|negotiations]] between Israeli governments and representatives of the Palestinians, as Israel views it as its sovereign territory, as well as part of its capital. [[File:West_Bank_Fence_South_Hebron.JPG|thumb|[[Israeli West Bank barrier]] separating Israel and the West Bank]] The West Bank excluding East Jerusalem is known in Israeli law as the [[Judea and Samaria Area]]; the almost 400,000 Israeli settlers residing in the area are considered part of Israel's population, have Knesset representation, a [[Enclave law|large part of Israel's civil and criminal laws]] applied to them, and their output is considered part of Israel's economy.<ref name=Sher>Gilead Sher, [http://www.inss.org.il/publication/the-application-of-israeli-law-to-the-west-bank-de-facto-annexation/ The Application of Israeli Law to the West Bank: De Facto Annexation?], INSS Insight No. 638, 4 December 2014</ref><ref name=oecd group=fn/> The land itself is not considered part of Israel under Israeli law, as Israel has consciously refrained from annexing the territory, without ever relinquishing its legal claim to the land or defining a border with the area.<ref name=Sher/> There is no border between Israel-proper and the West Bank for Israeli vehicles. Israeli political opposition to annexation is primarily due to the perceived "demographic threat" of incorporating the West Bank's Palestinian population into Israel.<ref name=Sher/> Outside of the Israeli settlements, the West Bank remains under direct Israeli military rule, and Palestinians in the area cannot become Israeli citizens. The international community maintains that Israel does not have sovereignty in the West Bank, and considers Israel's control of the area to be the longest military occupation is modern history.<ref name="occhist">See for example:<br />* {{cite book|title=Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza|last=Hajjar|first=Lisa|publisher=University of California Press|date=2005|isbn=978-0-520-24194-7 |page=96|url={{Google books|mcjoHq2wqdUC|page=PA96|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|quote=The Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza is the longest military occupation in modern times.}}<br />* {{cite journal|first=Perry|last=Anderson|author-link=Perry Anderson|title=Editorial: Scurrying Towards Bethlehem|date=July–August 2001|journal=New Left Review|volume=10|url=https://newleftreview.org/article/download_pdf?id=2330|quote=longest official military occupation of modern history—currently entering its thirty-fifth year}}<br />* {{cite book|first=Saree|last=Makdisi|author-link=Saree Makdisi|url={{Google books|2dBM3Ago2BAC|page=PA299|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|quote=longest-lasting military occupation of the modern age|title=Palestine Inside Out: An Everyday Occupation|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|date=2010|isbn=978-0-393-33844-7}}<br />* {{cite journal|volume=94|issue=885|date=Spring 2012|journal=International Review of the Red Cross|title=The law of belligerent occupation in the Supreme Court of Israel|first=David|last=Kretzmer|author-link= David Kretzmer|doi=10.1017/S1816383112000446|url=https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/review/2012/irrc-885-kretzmer.pdf|quote=This is probably the longest occupation in modern international relations, and it holds a central place in all literature on the law of belligerent occupation since the early 1970s|pages=207–236}}<br />* {{citation|title=The Justice of Occupation|quote=Israel is the only modern state that has held territories under military occupation for over four decades|first=Ra'anan|last=Alexandrowicz|date=24 January 2012|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/25/opinion/the-justice-of-occupation.html}}<br />* {{cite book|title=The Role of National Courts in Applying International Humanitarian Law|first=Sharon|last=Weill|url={{Google books|bDnnAgAAQBAJ|page=PA22|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|page=22|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-968542-4|quote=Although the basic philosophy behind the law of military occupation is that it is a temporary situation modem occupations have well demonstrated that ''rien ne dure comme le provisoire'' A significant number of post-1945 occupations have lasted more than two decades such as the occupations of Namibia by South Africa and of East Timor by Indonesia as well as the ongoing occupations of Northern Cyprus by Turkey and of Western Sahara by Morocco. The Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories, {{underline|which is the longest in all occupation's history}} has already entered its fifth decade.}}<br />* Azarova, Valentina. 2017, [http://www.ecfr.eu/publications/summary/israels_unlawfully_prolonged_occupation_7294 Israel's Unlawfully Prolonged Occupation: Consequences under an Integrated Legal Framework], European Council on Foreign Affairs Policy Brief: "June 2017 marks 50 years of Israel's belligerent occupation of Palestinian territory, making it the longest occupation in modern history."</ref> The West Bank [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|was occupied and annexed]] by Jordan in 1950, following the Arab rejection of the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|UN decision]] to create two states in Palestine. Only Britain recognized this annexation and Jordan has since [[Jordanian disengagement from the West Bank|ceded]] its claim to the territory to the PLO. The [[Demographics of the Palestinian territories|population]] are mainly [[Palestinian people|Palestinians]], including [[Palestinian refugee|refugees]] of the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]].<ref>{{cite web |title=UNRWA in Figures: Figures as of 30 June 2009 |publisher=United Nations |date=June 2009 |url=http://www.unrwa.org/userfiles/uif-june09.pdf |access-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref> From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were under [[Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories|Israeli military administration]]. Since the [[Israel–Palestine Liberation Organization letters of recognition|Israel–PLO letters of recognition]], most of the Palestinian population and [[List of cities administered by the State of Palestine|cities]] have been under the internal jurisdiction of the [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian Authority]], and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has on several occasions redeployed its [[Israel Defense Forces|troops]] and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. In response to increasing attacks during the [[Second Intifada]], the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.securityfence.mod.gov.il/Pages/ENG/questions.htm |title=Questions and Answers |access-date=17 April 2007 |date=22 February 2004 |website=Israel's Security Fence |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003072906/http://www.securityfence.mod.gov.il/Pages/ENG/questions.htm |archive-date=3 October 2013 }}</ref> When completed, approximately 13% of the barrier will be constructed on the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]] or in Israel with 87% inside the West Bank.<ref>{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4875de625.html |title=Refworld &#124; West Bank Barrier Route Projections, July 2008 |publisher=Unhcr.org |access-date=11 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.btselem.org/publications/summaries/200512_under_the_guise_of_security |title=Under the Guise of Security: Routing the Separation Barrier to Enable Israeli Settlement Expansion in the West Bank |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=December 2005 |website=Publications |publisher=B'Tselem}}</ref> [[File:Restricted space in the West Bank, Area C.png|thumb|180px|left|[[Area C (West Bank)|Area C]] of the West Bank, controlled by Israel [[West Bank Areas in the Oslo II Accord|under Oslo Accords]], in blue and red, in December 2011]] The Gaza Strip is considered to be a "foreign territory" under Israeli law; however, since Israel operates a land, air, and sea [[blockade of the Gaza Strip]], together with Egypt, the international community considers Israel to be the occupying power. The Gaza Strip was [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|occupied by Egypt]] from 1948 to 1967 and then by Israel after 1967. In 2005, as part of [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan]], Israel removed all of its settlers and forces from the territory, however, it continues to maintain [[Blockade of the Gaza Strip|control]] of its airspace and waters. The international community, including numerous international humanitarian organizations and various bodies of the UN, consider Gaza to remain occupied.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/F0B7D1A3A8E7CF1985257552004F640E |title=Situation Report on the Humanitarian Situation in the Gaza Strip |publisher=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs |date=23 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612121839/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/F0B7D1A3A8E7CF1985257552004F640E |archive-date=12 June 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/report/palestine-report-131207.htm |title=The occupied Palestinian territories: Dignity Denied |publisher=International Committee of the Red Cross |date=13 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/country-chapters/israel-palestine |title=Israel/Palestine |chapter=World Report 2013: Israel/Palestine |year=2013 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=13 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/pdfs/AHRC1248.pdf|title=Human Rights in Palestine and Other Occupied Arab Territories: Report of the United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict |publisher=United Nations Human Rights Council |date=15 September 2009 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde15/093/2006/en/ |title=Israel/Occupied Territories: Road to nowhere |publisher=Amnesty International |date=1 December 2006 }}</ref> Following the [[Battle of Gaza (2007)|2007 Battle of Gaza]], when [[Governance of the Gaza Strip|Hamas assumed power in the Gaza Strip]],<ref name=gaza/> Israel tightened its control of the Gaza crossings along [[Israel–Gaza barrier|its border]], as well as by sea and air, and prevented persons from entering and exiting the area except for isolated cases it deemed humanitarian.<ref name=gaza>{{cite web |url=http://www.btselem.org/gaza_strip/gaza_status |title=The scope of Israeli control in the Gaza Strip |publisher=B'Tselem |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> Gaza has a [[Gaza–Egypt border|border with Egypt]], and an agreement between Israel, the European Union, and the PA governed how border crossing would take place (it was monitored by European observers).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/peace/mfadocuments/pages/agreed%20documents%20on%20movement%20and%20access%20from%20and%20to%20gaza%2015-nov-2005.aspx |title=Agreed documents on movement and access from and to Gaza |date=15 November 2005 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=13 June 2013}}</ref> The application of democracy to its Palestinian citizens, and the selective application of Israeli democracy in the Israeli-controlled Palestinian territories, has been criticized.<ref name="Slater2020">{{cite book|author=Jerome Slater|title=Mythologies Without End: The US, Israel, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1917–2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yVAAEAAAQBAJ|date=1 October 2020|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-045909-3|page=15|quote=It is now clear that Israel is a true democracy in its broadest sense only for its Jewish citizens. The Arab-Israeli (or, as some prefer, the Palestinian-Israeli) peoples, roughly 20 percent of the total population of Israel its pre-1967 boundaries, are citizens and have voting rights, but they face political, economic, and social discrimination. And, of course, Israeli democracy is inapplicable to the nearly 4 million Palestinian Arabs in the West Bank and Gaza, conquered by Israel in June 1967, who are occupied, repressed, and in many ways, directly and indirectly, effectively ruled by Israel.}}</ref><ref name="White2012">{{cite book|author=Ben White|title=Palestinians in Israel: Segregation, Discrimination and Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp1PXwAACAAJ|date=15 January 2012|publisher=Pluto Press|isbn=978-0-7453-3228-4}}</ref> The [[International Court of Justice]], principal judicial organ of the UN, asserted, in its [[International law and the Arab–Israeli conflict#Ruling of the ICJ|2004 advisory opinion]] on the legality of the construction of the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]], that the lands captured by Israel in the Six-Day War, including East Jerusalem, are occupied territory.<ref>{{cite news |title=Arabs will ask U.N. to seek razing of Israeli wall |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/5400559/ |newspaper=NBCNews.com |date=9 July 2004 |access-date=9 February 2013}}</ref> Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis of [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 242|UN Security Council Resolution 242]], which emphasises "the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war", and calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for normalization of relations with Arab states, a principle known as "[[Land for peace]]".<ref>{{cite news |title=Olmert: Willing to trade land for peace |work=Ynetnews |date =16 December 2006 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3340641,00.html |access-date=26 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Syria ready to discuss land for peace |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=12 June 2007 |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=64667 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt: Israel must accept the land-for-peace formula |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=15 March 2007 |url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=54876 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> According to some observers,{{Weasel inline|date=April 2017}} Israel has engaged in systematic and widespread violations of [[Human rights in the Israeli-occupied territories|human rights in the occupied territories]], including the occupation itself<ref>{{cite web|title=A/RES/36/147. Report of the Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Population of the Occupied Territories|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/36/a36r147.htm|access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref> and [[war crime]]s against civilians.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Avalon Project : United Nations Security Council Resolution 605|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/un605.asp|website=avalon.law.yale.edu|access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=UN condemns Israel's West Bank settlement plans|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-38740712|work=BBC News|access-date=12 February 2017|date=25 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=tny1>{{cite news|last1=Rudoren|first1=Jodi|last2=Sengupta|first2=Somini|title=U.N. Report on Gaza Finds Evidence of War Crimes by Israel and by Palestinian Militants|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/23/world/middleeast/israel-gaza-report.html|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=12 February 2017|date=22 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Human Rights Council establishes Independent, International Commission of Inquiry for the Occupied Palestinian Territory|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=14897&|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref> The allegations include violations of international humanitarian law<ref>{{cite web|title=Faced with Israeli denial of access to Occupied Palestinian Territory, UN expert resigns|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=52935|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205095623/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=52935|archive-date=5 December 2016|date=4 January 2016}}</ref> by the [[United Nations Human Rights Council|UN Human Rights Council]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Rights Council adopts six resolutions and closes its thirty-first regular session|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=18535&LangID=E|access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref> with local residents having "limited ability to hold governing authorities accountable for such abuses" by the [[U.S. State Department]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Israel and The Occupied Territories – The Occupied Territories|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2015/nea/252929.htm|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=1 February 2017}}</ref> mass arbitrary arrests, torture, unlawful killings, systemic abuses and impunity by [[Amnesty International]] and others<ref>{{cite news|last1=Heyer|first1=Julia Amalia|title=Kids Behind Bars: Israel's Arbitrary Arrests of Palestinian Minors|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/israeli-military-arrest-large-numbers-of-palestinian-children-a-995758.html|newspaper=SPIEGEL ONLINE|access-date=23 April 2017|date=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Israel and Occupied Palestinian Territories 2016/2017|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/middle-east-and-north-africa/israel-and-occupied-palestinian-territories/report-israel-and-occupied-palestinian-territories/|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=23 April 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Eight hundred dead Palestinians. But Israel has impunity|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/eight-hundred-dead-palestinians-but-israel-has-impunity-9629726.html|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=23 April 2017|date=26 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Isfahan|first1=Ali|title=Why Israel's Impunity Goes Unpunished by International Authorities|url=https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2014/08/11/why-israels-impunity-goes-unpunished-by-international-authorities/|publisher=Foreign Policy Journal|access-date=23 April 2017|date=11 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=How impunity defines Israel and victimises Palestinians|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/03/impunity-defines-israel-victimises-palestinians-160327085608275.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=23 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Barghouti|first1=Marwan|title=Why We Are on Hunger Strike in Israel's Prisons|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/16/opinion/palestinian-hunger-strike-prisoners-call-for-justice.html|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=23 April 2017|date=16 April 2017}}</ref> and a denial of the right to [[Palestinian self-determination]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dorfman|first1=Zach|title=George Mitchell wrote 'A Path to Peace' about Israel and Palestine. Is there one?|url=http://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-mitchell-peace-20170127-story.html|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|access-date=1 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Outrage over Maimane's visit to Israel|url=http://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/outrage-over-maimanes-visit-to-israel-7397147|access-date=1 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The subordination of Palestinian rights must stop|url=http://www.thenational.ae/opinion/comment/the-subordination-of-palestinian-rights-must-stop|access-date=1 February 2017|publisher=The National}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Palestine-Israel Journal: Settlements and the Palestinian Right to Self-Determination|url=http://www.pij.org/details.php?id=478|website=www.pij.org|access-date=1 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Hammond|first1=Jeremy R.|title=The Rejection of Palestinian Self Determination|url=http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Hammond-Rejection-Palestinian-Self-Determination.pdf|access-date=1 February 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203161044/http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Hammond-Rejection-Palestinian-Self-Determination.pdf|archive-date=3 February 2017}}</ref> In response to such allegations, Prime Minister Netanyahu has defended the country's security forces for protecting the innocent from terrorists<ref>{{cite web|title=Top US senator clashes with Netanyahu over Israeli rights record|url=http://www.politico.eu/article/patrick-leahy-clashes-with-netanyahu-over-israeli-rights-record-human-rights-violations/|work=POLITICO|access-date=12 February 2017|date=31 March 2016}}</ref> and expressed contempt for what he describes as a lack of concern about the human rights violations committed by "criminal killers".<ref>{{cite news|title=Allegations of Israeli Human Rights Violations Closely Scrutinized, Says U.S. State Department|url=http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/1.718320|newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=12 February 2017|language=en|date=6 May 2017}}</ref> Some observers, such as Israeli officials, scholars,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gilboa|first=Eytan|date=1 October 2006|title=Public Diplomacy: The Missing Component in Israel's Foreign Policy|journal=Israel Affairs|volume=12|issue=4|pages=715–747|doi=10.1080/13533310600890067|s2cid=143245560|issn=1353-7121}}</ref> United States Ambassador to the UN [[Nikki Haley]]<ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/nikki-haley-urges-un-to-shift-its-criticism-from-israel-to-iran/ Nikki Haley urges UN to shift its criticism from Israel to Iran], 20 April 2017, Times of Israel</ref><ref>[http://www.nationalreview.com/corner/446205/nikki-haley-un-israel-bashing-declines-when-america-leads U.N. Ambassador Nikki Haley: ‘The Days of Israel-Bashing Are Over’], 28 March 2017, National Review</ref> and UN secretary-generals [[Ban Ki-moon]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Ban Ki-moon recognizes bias against Israel in last Security Council speech|url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/UN-chief-urges-Israeli-lawmakers-to-reconsider-settlement-bill-475617|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|access-date=23 April 2017}}</ref> and [[Kofi Annan]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3339288,00.html|title=Annan: Solution for refugees in Palestinian state|work=Ynetnews|access-date=27 April 2017}}</ref> also assert that the UN is disproportionately concerned with Israeli misconduct.{{overly detailed inline|date=April 2017}} The [[international community]] widely regards Israeli settlements in the occupied territories [[international law and Israeli settlements|illegal under international law]].<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Israel: The security barrier—between international law, constitutional law, and domestic judicial review | last = Barak-Erez | first = Daphne | journal = International Journal of Constitutional Law | date = 1 July 2006 | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | page = 548| doi = 10.1093/icon/mol021 | doi-access = free|quote=The real controversy hovering over all the litigation on the security barrier concerns the fate of the Israeli settlements in the occupied territories. Since 1967, Israel has allowed and even encouraged its citizens to live in the new settlements established in the territories, motivated by religious and national sentiments attached to the history of the Jewish nation in the land of Israel. This policy has also been justified in terms of security interests, taking into consideration the dangerous geographic circumstances of Israel before 1967 (where Israeli areas on the Mediterranean coast were potentially threatened by Jordanian control of the West Bank ridge). The international community, for its part, has viewed this policy as patently illegal, based on the provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention that prohibit moving populations to or from territories under occupation.}}</ref> [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334]], passed on 23 December 2016 in a 14–0 vote by members of the [[United Nations Security Council|U.N. Security Council]] (UNSC) with the United States abstaining. The resolution states that Israel's settlement activity constitutes a "flagrant violation" of [[international law]], has "no legal validity" and demands that Israel stop such activity and fulfill its obligations as an [[Military occupation#The occupying power|occupying power]] under the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]].<ref name=toi>{{cite news|title=Choosing not to veto, Obama lets anti-settlement resolution pass at UN Security Council|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/choosing-not-to-veto-obama-lets-anti-settlement-resolution-pass-at-un-security-council/|access-date=23 December 2016|work=The Times of Israel}}</ref> Israel's treatment of the Palestinians within the occupied territories has drawn [[Israel and the apartheid analogy|accusations that it is guilty of]] the [[crime of apartheid]] by human rights groups such as [[B'tselem]], [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]], with the criticism extending to its treatment of [[Palestinian citizens of Israel|Palestinians within Israel]] as well.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rosenfeld|first=Arno|date=2021-04-27|title=Israel is committing 'crime of apartheid,' Human Rights Watch says|url=https://forward.com/news/468473/israel-apartheid-human-rights-watch/|access-date=2022-02-15|website=The Forward|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Berger|first=Miriam|date=2022-02-01|title=Amnesty International, joining other human rights groups, says Israel is 'committing the crime of apartheid'|language=en-US|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/02/01/amnesty-international-joining-other-human-rights-groups-says-israel-is-committing-crime-apartheid/|access-date=2022-02-15|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Amnesty's report was rejected by Israel and several other countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, and Germany, while it was welcomed by Palestinians and other states and organizations such as the [[Arab League]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=U.S. State Department Rejects Amnesty's Apartheid Claim Against Israel|language=en|work=Haaretz|url=https://www.haaretz.com/us-news/u-s-state-department-rejects-amnesty-s-apartheid-claims-against-israel-1.10583830|access-date=2022-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2022-02-02|title=Germany rejects use of word 'apartheid' in connection with Israel|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/germany-rejects-use-word-apartheid-connection-with-israel-2022-02-02/|access-date=2022-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Israel not apartheid state, but must uphold int'l law, UK says|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-695546|access-date=2022-02-16|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arab.news/mggnn|title=Arab League, OIC welcome Amnesty's report on Israel's 'apartheid' against Palestinians|date=3 February 2022|website=Arab News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2022-02-01|title=Israeli policies against Palestinians amount to apartheid - Amnesty|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-60197918|access-date=2022-02-15}}</ref> ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Israel|International recognition of Israel|Israeli foreign aid}} [[File:Foreign relations of Israel Map July 2011.PNG|thumb|upright=1.35|{{legend|#0000ff|Diplomatic relations}} {{legend|#80ffff|Diplomatic relations suspended}} {{legend|#00ff00|Former diplomatic relations}} {{legend|#ff00ff|No diplomatic relations, but former trade relations}} {{legend|#ff8040|No diplomatic relations}}]] Israel maintains diplomatic relations {{Numrec|Israel|with|[[United Nations member states|member states]] of the United Nations|link=N}}, as well as with the [[Holy See]], [[Kosovo]], the [[Cook Islands]] and [[Niue]]. It has 107 [[List of diplomatic missions of Israel|diplomatic missions]] around the world;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutTheMinistry/Pages/Israel-s%20Diplomatic%20Missions%20Abroad.aspx |title=Israel's Diplomatic Missions Abroad: Status of relations |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=25 April 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420071334/http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutTheMinistry/Pages/Israel-s%20Diplomatic%20Missions%20Abroad.aspx |archive-date=20 April 2016 }}</ref> countries with whom they have no diplomatic relations include most Muslim countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-Ed-Contributors/Why-doesnt-the-Muslim-world-recognize-Israel#article=0QUFFOUZBN0YxODM3RDE5NDM4OUEyRkE5MjY1OEJCRDI=|title=Why Doesn't the Muslim World Recognize Israel?|author=Mohammed Mostafa Kamal|newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|date=21 July 2012|access-date=30 November 2015}}</ref> Only a few nations in the [[Arab League]] have normalized relations with Israel. [[Egypt–Israel relations|Egypt]] and [[Israel–Jordan relations|Jordan]] signed peace treaties in [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty|1979]] and [[Israel–Jordan Treaty of Peace|1994]], respectively. In late 2020, Israel normalised relations with four more Arab countries: the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain in September (known as the [[Abraham Accords]]),<ref>{{Cite news|last=Liebermann|first=Oren|date=September 16, 2020|title=Two Gulf nations recognized Israel at the White House. Here's what's in it for all sides|work=[[CNN]]|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/15/politics/israel-uae-bahrain-white-house-analysis-intl/index.html}}</ref> [[Israel–Sudan normalization agreement|Sudan in October]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Hansler|first=Jennifer|date=October 23, 2020|title=Trump announces that Israel and Sudan have agreed to normalize relations|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/23/politics/trump-sudan-israel/index.html|access-date=2020-12-15|website=CNN}}</ref> and [[Israel–Morocco normalization agreement|Morocco in December]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 11, 2020|title=Morocco latest country to normalise ties with Israel in US-brokered deal|work=[[BBC]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55266089|access-date=December 15, 2020}}</ref> Despite the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, Israel is still widely considered an enemy country among Egyptians.<ref>"Massive Israel protests hit universities" (Egyptian Mail, 16 March 2010) "According to most Egyptians, almost 31 years after a peace treaty was signed between Egypt and Israel, having normal ties between the two countries is still a potent accusation and Israel is largely considered to be an enemy country"</ref> Iran [[Iran–Israel relations|had diplomatic relations]] with Israel under the [[Pahlavi dynasty]]<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Abadi|2004|pp=37–39, 47}}</ref> but withdrew its recognition of Israel during the [[Islamic Revolution]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Abadi|2004|pp=47–49}}</ref> Israeli citizens may not visit Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen (countries Israel fought in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War that Israel does not have a peace treaty with) without permission from the [[Ministry of Interior (Israel)|Ministry of the Interior]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFAHeb/MFAArchive/2004/horaot+din+israeli0304.htm |publisher=Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs |script-title=he:הוראות הדין הישראלי |year=2004 |language=he |access-date=9 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701072212/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFAHeb/MFAArchive/2004/horaot%2Bdin%2Bisraeli0304.htm |archive-date=1 July 2007 }}</ref> As a result of the [[Gaza War (2008–09)|2008–09 Gaza War]], Mauritania, Qatar, Bolivia, and Venezuela suspended political and economic ties with Israel,<ref name="al-jaz-eng">{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2009/01/2009116151135307776.html |newspaper=Al Jazeera English |title=Qatar, Mauritania cut Israel ties |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=17 January 2009}}</ref> though Bolivia renewed ties in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Flores |first1=Paola |title=Bolivia to renew Israel ties after rupture under Morales |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/bolivia-renew-israel-ties-rupture-morales-67374746 |access-date=15 December 2020 |agency=[[ABC News]] |date=29 November 2019}}</ref> [[China–Israel relations|China]] maintains good ties with both Israel and the Arab world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/07/israel-china-relations-innovation-infrastructure-investment/ |title=Israel-China Relations: Innovation, Infrastructure, Investment |last= Kuo |first= Mercy A. |date=17 July 2018 |website=The Diplomat}}</ref> The [[Israel–United States relations|United States]] and the [[Israel–Russia relations|Soviet Union]] were the first two countries to recognize the State of Israel, having declared recognition roughly simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=2193961|title=The Recognition of Israel|journal=The American Journal of International Law|volume=42|issue=3|pages=620–627|last1=Brown|first1=Philip Marshall|doi=10.2307/2193961|year=1948}}</ref> Diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were broken in 1967, following the [[Six-Day War]], and renewed in October 1991.<ref>{{cite news|last=Yaakov |first=Saar |title= There Were Times (Hayu Zemanim) |page= 30 |language= he |publisher= Israel Hayom |date= 18 October 2017 }}</ref> The United States regards Israel as its "most reliable partner in the Middle East,"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3581.htm|title=U.S. Relations With Israel Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs Fact Sheet March 10, 2014|website=U.S. Department of State|access-date=30 October 2014}}</ref> based on "common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA470003&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf|title=Israel: Background and Relations with the United States Updated|publisher=Defense Technical Information Center|access-date=19 October 2009|archive-date=5 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205011800/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA470003&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The United States has provided $68&nbsp;billion in [[Israel–United States military relations|military assistance]] and $32&nbsp;billion in grants to Israel since 1967, under the [[Foreign Assistance Act]] (period beginning 1962),<ref name=PNADR900>{{cite web|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADT555.pdf|title=U.S. Overseas Loans and Grants}}</ref> more than any other country for that period until 2003.<ref name=PNADR900/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s1297.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020131918/http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s1297.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 October 2011 |title=U.S. Government Foreign Grants and Credits by Type and Country: 2000 to 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/foreign_commerce_aid/foreign_aid.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225192852/http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/foreign_commerce_aid/foreign_aid.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 December 2007 |title=Foreign Aid}}</ref> The United Kingdom is seen as having a "natural" [[Israel–United Kingdom relations|relationship]] with Israel on account of the Mandate for Palestine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ukinisrael.fco.gov.uk/en/about-us/working-with-israel/uk-israel-relations/bilateral-relations |publisher=Foreign and Commonwealth Office |title=The bilateral relationship |website=UK in Israel |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> Relations between the two countries were also made stronger by former prime minister [[Tony Blair]]'s efforts for a two state resolution. {{As of|2007|alt=By 2007}}, [[Germany–Israel relations|Germany]] had paid 25&nbsp;billion euros in [[Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany|reparations]] to the Israeli state and individual Israeli Holocaust survivors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33808.pdf |title=Congressional Research Service: Germany's Relations with Israel: Background and Implications for German Middle East Policy, Jan 19, 2007. (p. CRS-2) |access-date=29 September 2010}}</ref> Israel is included in the European Union's [[European Neighbourhood Policy]] (ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://euobserver.com/foreign/127874|title=EU to Revise Relations with Turbulent Neighbourhood|author=Eric Maurice|publisher=[[EUobserver]]|date=5 March 2015|access-date=1 December 2015}}</ref> [[File:Bill Clinton, Yitzhak Rabin, Yasser Arafat at the White House 1993-09-13.jpg|thumb|left|Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat at the signing ceremony of the [[Oslo Accords]] with then US President [[Bill Clinton]]]] Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991,<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Abadi|2004|p=3}}. "However, it was not until 1991 that the two countries established full diplomatic relations."</ref> Turkey has [[Israel–Turkey relations|cooperated]] with the Jewish state since its recognition of Israel in 1949. Turkey's ties to other Muslim-majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab and Muslim states to temper its relationship with Israel.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Abadi|2004|pp=4–6}}</ref> Relations between Turkey and Israel took a downturn after the 2008–09 Gaza War and Israel's [[Gaza flotilla raid|raid of the Gaza flotilla]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Uzer |first=Umut |date=26 March 2013 |title=Turkish-Israeli Relations: Their Rise and Fall |url=http://www.mepc.org/journal/middle-east-policy-archives/turkish-israeli-relations-their-rise-and-fall |journal=Middle East Policy |volume=XX |issue=1 |pages=97–110 |doi=10.1111/mepo.12007 |access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref> [[Greece–Israel relations|Relations between Greece and Israel]] have improved since 1995 due to the decline of Israeli–Turkish relations.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11556442 |title=Israel woos Greece after rift with Turkey |newspaper=BBC News |date=16 October 2010}}</ref> The two countries have a defense cooperation agreement and in 2010, the [[Israeli Air Force]] hosted Greece's [[Hellenic Air Force]] in a joint exercise at the [[Ovda Airport|Uvda base]]. The joint Cyprus-Israel oil and gas explorations centered on the [[Leviathan gas field]] are an important factor for Greece, given its [[Cyprus–Greece relations|strong links]] with Cyprus.<ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey, Greece discuss exploration off Cyprus |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/turkey-greece-discuss-exploration-off-cyprus-1.386864 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=26 September 2011 |access-date=1 January 2012}}</ref> Cooperation in the world's longest [[Submarine power cable|subsea electric power cable]], the [[EuroAsia Interconnector]], has strengthened [[Cyprus–Israel relations|relations between Cyprus and Israel]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Benari |first=Elad |date=5 March 2012 |title=Israel, Cyprus Sign Deal for Underwater Electricity Cable |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/153437 |website=Arutz Sheva |access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref> [[Azerbaijan]] is one of the few majority Muslim countries to develop bilateral strategic and economic [[Azerbaijan–Israel relations|relations]] with Israel. Azerbaijan supplies Israel with a substantial amount of its oil needs, and Israel has helped modernize the [[Azerbaijani Armed Forces]]. India established full [[India–Israel relations|diplomatic ties]] with Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military, technological and cultural partnership with the country since then.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pakistanyouthmovement.com/Research-Reports/India%20Israel%20Ties.pdf |publisher=Jerusalem Institute for Western Defense |last=Kumar |first=Dinesh |title=India and Israel: Dawn of a New Era |access-date=19 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512233225/http://pakistanyouthmovement.com/Research-Reports/India%20Israel%20Ties.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2012 }}</ref> According to an international opinion survey conducted in 2009 on behalf of the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel)|Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs]], India is the most pro-Israel country in the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3696887,00.html |title=From India with love |newspaper=Ynetnews |last=Eichner |first=Itamar |date=4 March 2009 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Nitin Gadkari to visit Israel tomorrow |url=http://news.worldsnap.com/city/delhi/nitin-gadkari-to-visit-israel-tomorrow-97059.html |newspaper=World Snap |date=13 December 2010 |access-date=1 October 2012}}</ref> India is the largest customer of the [[Israeli military equipment]] and Israel is the second-largest military partner of India after Russia.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-01-19/india/28119010_1_largest-ever-defence-deal-second-largest-defence-supplier-sensitive-technology-control-requirements |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707084501/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-01-19/india/28119010_1_largest-ever-defence-deal-second-largest-defence-supplier-sensitive-technology-control-requirements |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 July 2012 |title=India to hold wide-ranging strategic talks with US, Israel |date=19 January 2010 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> [[Ethiopia–Israel relations|Ethiopia]] is Israel's main ally in Africa due to common political, religious and security interests.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/15453225 |title=Iran and Israel in Africa: A search for allies in a hostile world |newspaper=The Economist |date=4 February 2010 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> Israel provides expertise to Ethiopia on irrigation projects and thousands of [[Ethiopian Jews in Israel|Ethiopian Jews live in Israel]]. Israel has a history of providing emergency aid and humanitarian response teams to disasters across the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-1.653988|last=Pfeffer|first=Anshel|newspaper=Haaretz|title=The Downsides of Israel's Missions of Mercy Abroad|date=28 April 2015|access-date=22 November 2015|quote=And even when no Israelis are involved, few countries are as fast as Israel in mobilizing entire delegations to rush to the other side of the world. It has been proved time and again in recent years, after the earthquake in Haiti, the typhoon in the Philippines and the quake/tsunami/nuclear disaster in Japan. For a country of Israel's size and resources, without conveniently located aircraft carriers and overseas bases, it is quite an impressive achievement.}}</ref> In 1955 Israel began its foreign aid program in Burma. The program's focus subsequently shifted to Africa.<ref name="Geldenhuys">{{cite book |url = https://archive.org/details/isolatedstatesco0000geld |url-access = registration |quote = israel international aid africa 1970. | title = Isolated States: A Comparative Analysis | author = Deon Geldenhuys | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1990 | page = [https://archive.org/details/isolatedstatesco0000geld/page/428 428] | isbn = 978-0-521-40268-2 }}</ref> Israel's humanitarian efforts officially began in 1957, with the establishment of [[Mashav]], the Israel's Agency for International Development Cooperation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/mashav/AboutMASHAV/Pages/Background.aspx |title=About MASHAV |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=20 January 2017}}</ref> In this early period, whilst Israel's aid represented only a small percentage of total aid to Africa, its program was effective in creating goodwill throughout the continent; however, following the 1967 war relations soured.<ref name="Ismael">{{cite book |url = https://archive.org/details/internationalrel0000isma |url-access = registration |quote = Israel foreign aid 1958 burundi. | title = International Relations of the Contemporary Middle East: A Study in World Politics | author = Tareq Y. Ismael | publisher = Syracuse University Press| year = 1986 | page = [https://archive.org/details/internationalrel0000isma/page/249 249] | isbn = 978-0-8156-2382-3 }}</ref> Israel's foreign aid program subsequently shifted its focus to Latin America.<ref name="Geldenhuys"/> Since the late 1970s Israel's foreign aid has gradually decreased, although in recent years Israel has tried to reestablish its aid to Africa.<ref name="Yacobi">{{cite book | title = Israel and Africa: A Genealogy of Moral Geography | author = Haim Yacobi | publisher = Routledge | year = 2016 | pages = 111–112 }}</ref> There are additional Israeli humanitarian and emergency response groups that work with the Israel government, including [[IsraAid]], a joint programme run by 14 Israeli organizations and North American Jewish groups,<ref>Haim Yacobi, [https://books.google.com/books?id=lgQXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113 ''Israel and Africa: A Genealogy of Moral Geography,''] Routledge, 2015 p. 113.</ref> [[ZAKA]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2016-12-01/secretary-generals-remarks-reception-honour-zaka-international |title=Secretary-General's remarks at reception in honour of ZAKA International Rescue Unit [as prepared for delivery] |last=Ki-moon |first=Ban |date=1 December 2016 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=20 January 2017}}</ref> The Fast Israeli Rescue and Search Team (FIRST),<ref>Ueriel Hellman,[http://www.jta.org/2010/01/19/news-opinion/israel-middle-east/israeli-aid-effort-helps-haitians-and-israels-image "Israeli aid effort helps Haitians – and Israel's image"], [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] 19 January 2010</ref> Israeli Flying Aid (IFA),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israel21c.org/israels-superwoman-takes-flight-to-help-others/|title=Israel's 'superwoman' takes flight to help others – ISRAEL21c|website=Israel21c|date=12 March 2006}}</ref> [[Save a Child's Heart]] (SACH)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Wolfson-cardiac-surgeons-save-lives-of-more-Gazan-children-374391|title=Wolfson cardiac surgeons save lives of more Gazan children|website=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref> and [[Latet]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/haiti/earthquake-haiti-latet-organization-deploys-immediate-relief-victims|title=Earthquake in Haiti – Latet Organization deploys for immediate relief to victims|website=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Between 1985 and 2015, Israel sent 24 delegations of IDF search and rescue unit, the [[Home Front Command]], to 22 countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/26634/Default.aspx |date=20 May 2015|access-date=24 November 2015|newspaper=Israel Today|title=When catastrophe strikes the IDF is there to help}}</ref> Currently Israeli foreign aid [[List of development aid country donors|ranks]] low among [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] nations, spending less than 0.1% of its [[Gross national income|GNI]] on development assistance.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}} The UN has set a target of 0.7%. In 2015 six nations reached the UN target.<ref name="Quinn">{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/jan/04/uk-among-six-countries-hit-un-aid-spending-target-oecd | title = UK among six countries to hit 0.7% UN aid spending target | author = Ben Quinn | publisher = theguardian | year = 2017 }}</ref> The country ranked 38th in the 2018 [[World Giving Index]].<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-publications/caf_wgi2018_report_webnopw_2379a_261018.pdf|title=World Giving Index|date=October 2018|publisher=Charities Aid Foundation|access-date=February 22, 2022}}</ref> ===Military=== {{Main|Israel Defense Forces|Israeli security forces}} {{Further|List of wars involving Israel|List of the Israel Defense Forces operations|Israel and weapons of mass destruction}} The [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) is the sole military wing of the [[Israeli security forces]], and is headed by its [[Chief of General Staff (Israel)|Chief of General Staff]], the ''Ramatkal'', subordinate to the [[Cabinet of Israel|Cabinet]]. The IDF consists of the [[GOC Army Headquarters|army]], [[Israeli Air Force|air force]] and [[Israeli Navy|navy]]. It was founded during the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] by consolidating paramilitary organizations—chiefly the [[Haganah]]—that preceded the establishment of the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dover.idf.il/IDF/English/about/History/40s/1948/default.htm |publisher=Israel Defense Forces |access-date=31 July 2007 |title=History: 1948 |year=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412082705/http://dover.idf.il/IDF/English/about/History/40s/1948/default.htm |archive-date=12 April 2008 }}</ref> The IDF also draws upon the resources of the [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Israel)|Military Intelligence Directorate]] (''Aman''), which works with [[Mossad]] and [[Shin Bet|Shabak]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets |Henderson |2003 |p=97}}</ref> The Israel Defense Forces have been involved in several [[List of wars involving Israel|major wars]] and border conflicts in its short history, making it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts+About+Israel/State/THE+STATE-+Israel+Defense+Forces+-IDF-.htm |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=The State: Israel Defense Forces (IDF) |access-date=9 August 2007 |date=13 March 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/israel/idf.htm |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org |title=Israel Defense Forces |access-date=16 September 2007}}</ref> [[File:Flickr - Israel Defense Forces - Class Commanders Exercise at Elyakim (1).jpg|thumb|Squad commanders exercise at [[Eliakim]] training base in 2012]] Most Israelis are [[Conscription in Israel|drafted into the military]] at the age of 18. Men serve two years and eight months and [[Women in the Israel Defense Forces|women]] two years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts%20About%20Israel/State/The%20Israel%20Defense%20Forces |title=The Israel Defense Forces |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=21 October 2006}}</ref> Following mandatory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and usually do up to several weeks of [[Reserve duty (Israel)|reserve duty]] every year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty. [[Arab citizens of Israel]] (except the [[Druze in Israel|Druze]]) and those engaged in full-time religious studies are [[Exemption from military service in Israel|exempt from military service]], although the [[Tal committee|exemption of yeshiva students]] has been a source of contention in Israeli society for many years.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Stendel|1997|pp=191–192}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/cool-law-for-wrong-population-1.220687 |date=16 May 2007 |access-date=19 March 2012 |title=Cool law, for wrong population |last=Shtrasler |first=Nehemia |newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref> An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds is ''[[Sherut Leumi]]'', or national service, which involves a program of service in hospitals, schools and other social welfare frameworks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nbn.org.il/aliyahpedia/army/585-sherut-leumi-national-service.html |publisher=Nefesh B'Nefesh |access-date=20 March 2012 |title=Sherut Leumi (National Service)}}</ref> As a result of its conscription program, the IDF maintains approximately 176,500 active troops and an additional 465,000 reservists, giving Israel one of the world's highest [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|percentage of citizens with military training]].<ref name=IISS_military /> [[File:Flickr - Israel Defense Forces - Iron Dome Intercepts Rockets from the Gaza Strip.jpg|thumb|[[Iron Dome]] is the world's first operational anti-[[Rocket artillery|artillery rocket]] defense system.]] The nation's military relies heavily on high-tech [[Military equipment of Israel|weapons]] systems [[Defense industry of Israel|designed and manufactured in Israel]] as well as some foreign imports. The [[Arrow (Israeli missile)|Arrow]] missile is one of the world's few operational [[anti-ballistic missile]] systems.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=56544 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |title=Arrow can fully protect against Iran |last=Katz |first=Yaakov |date=30 March 2007 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> The [[Python (missile)|Python]] air-to-air missile series is often considered one of the most crucial weapons in its military history.<ref>''Israeli Mirage III and Nesher Aces'', By Shlomo Aloni, (Osprey 2004), p. 60</ref> Israel's [[Spike (missile)|Spike]] missile is one of the most widely exported [[anti-tank guided missile]]s (ATGMs) in the world.<ref>[http://www.army-technology.com/projects/gill Spike Anti-Tank Missile, Israel] army-technology.com</ref> Israel's [[Iron Dome]] anti-missile air defense system gained worldwide acclaim after intercepting hundreds of [[Qassam rocket|Qassam]], [[BM-21 Grad|122 mm Grad]] and [[Fajr-5]] artillery [[Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel|rockets fire by Palestinian militants]] from the Gaza Strip.<ref name=Johnson>{{cite news|title=How Israel Developed Such A Shockingly Effective Rocket Defense System|author=Robert Johnson|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/how-israel-developed-the-iron-dome-2012-11?op=1#ixzz2Cme6aQn5|work=Business Insider|date=19 November 2012|access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref><ref name=Tory>{{cite news|title=A Missile-Defense System That Actually Works?|author=Sarah Tory|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2012/11/israel_iron_dome_defense_how_has_missile_defense_changed_battle_in_gaza.html|work=Slate|date=19 November 2012|access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> Since the [[Yom Kippur War]], Israel has developed a network of [[reconnaissance satellites]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a04p.htm |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |title=Israel's Quest for Satellite Intelligence |last=Zorn |first=E.L. |date=8 May 2007 |access-date=19 March 2012}}</ref> The success of the ''[[Ofeq]]'' program has made Israel [[Timeline of first orbital launches by country|one of seven countries]] capable of launching such satellites.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=64499 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |title=Analysis: Eyes in the sky |last=Katz |first=Yaakov |date=11 June 2007 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> Israel is widely believed to [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|possess nuclear weapons]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/transcripts/2004/alahram27072004.html |title=Transcript of the Director General's Interview with Al-Ahram News |first=Mohamed |last=ElBaradei |author-link=Mohamed ElBaradei |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |date=27 July 2004 |access-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418221656/http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/transcripts/2004/alahram27072004.html |archive-date=18 April 2012 }}</ref> and per a 1993 report, chemical and biological [[Israel and weapons of mass destruction|weapons of mass destruction]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vaccines.mil/documents/library/proliferation.pdf |title=Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks |publisher=Office of Technology Assessment |date=August 1993 |access-date=29 March 2012 |pages=65, 84 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528155012/http://www.vaccines.mil/documents/library/proliferation.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2012 }}</ref>{{update after|2021|11}} Israel has not signed the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/conf/npt/2005/background.html |title=Background Information |date=27 May 2005 |website=2005 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) |publisher=United Nations |access-date=9 April 2012}}</ref> and maintains a [[policy of deliberate ambiguity]] toward its nuclear capabilities.<ref>Ziv, Guy, "To Disclose or Not to Disclose: The Impact of Nuclear Ambiguity on Israeli Security," Israel Studies Forum, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Winter 2007): 76–94</ref> The Israeli Navy's [[Dolphin-class submarine|Dolphin submarines]] are believed to be armed with nuclear [[Popeye Turbo]] missiles, offering [[second strike|second-strike]] capability.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/missile/popeye-t.htm |title=Popeye Turbo |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |access-date=19 February 2011}}</ref> Since the [[Gulf War]] in 1991, when Israel was attacked by [[Al Hussein (missile)|Iraqi Scud missiles]], all homes in Israel are required to have a reinforced security room, [[Merkhav Mugan]], impermeable to chemical and biological substances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://israelhomeowner.brinkster.net/Glossary.asp |title=Glossary |publisher=Israel Homeowner |access-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517224030/http://israelhomeowner.brinkster.net/Glossary.asp |archive-date=17 May 2012 }}</ref> Since Israel's establishment, military expenditure constituted a significant portion of the country's [[gross domestic product]], with peak of 30.3% of GDP spent on defense in 1975.<ref>{{cite report |date=29 May 2017 |title=Defence Expenditure in Israel, 1950–2015 |url=http://cbs.gov.il/publications17/1680/pdf/t04.pdf |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=22 June 2017}}</ref> In 2016, Israel ranked 6th in the world by [[List of countries by military expenditure share of GDP|defense spending as a percentage of GDP]], with 5.7%,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?year_high_desc=true |title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) |website=World Development Indicators |publisher=World Bank |access-date=29 September 2017}}</ref> and 15th [[List of countries by military expenditures|by total military expenditure]], with $18 billion.<ref>{{cite report |date=24 April 2017 |title=Trends in world military expenditure, 2016 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/Trends-world-military-expenditure-2016.pdf |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |access-date=29 September 2017}}</ref> Since 1974, the United States has been a particularly notable contributor of [[Israel–United States military relations#Military aid and procurement|military aid to Israel]].<ref>{{cite report |last=Sharp |first=Jeremy M. |date=22 December 2016 |title=U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33222.pdf |publisher=Congressional Research Service |page=36 |access-date=22 June 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150731092044/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33222.pdf |archive-date=31 July 2015 }}</ref> Under a [[memorandum of understanding]] signed in 2016, the U.S. is expected to provide the country with $3.8&nbsp;billion per year, or around 20% of Israel's defense budget, from 2018 to 2028.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lake |first=Eli |date=15 September 2016 |title=The U.S.-Israel Memorandum of Misunderstanding |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2016-09-15/the-u-s-israel-memorandum-of-misunderstanding |publisher=Bloomberg |access-date=17 March 2017}}</ref> Israel ranked 5th globally for [[Arms industry|arms exports]] in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/toplist.php |title=Top List TIV Tables |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |access-date=21 January 2017}}</ref> The majority of Israel's arms exports are unreported for security reasons.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/.premium-1.567693 Israel reveals more than $7 billion in arms sales, but few names] By Gili Cohen | 9 January 2014, Haaretz</ref> Israel is consistently rated low in the [[Global Peace Index]], ranking 144th out of 163 nations for peacefulness in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://visionofhumanity.org/indexes/global-peace-index/ |title=Global Peace Index 2017 |date=2017 |publisher=Institute for Economics and Peace |access-date=22 June 2017}}</ref> ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Israel}} [[File:GPD per capita development of Israel.jpg|thumb|right|Change in per capita GDP of Israel since 1950. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.]] [[File:View of Diamond Exchange Center from Azrieli Center.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Diamond Exchange District]] in [[Ramat Gan]]]] Israel is considered the most advanced country in [[Western Asia]] and the [[Middle East]] in economic and industrial development.<ref name="Chua 2003 219–220">{{Cite book|title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first=Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-385-72186-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/219 219–220] |url=https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/219 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url={{Google books|Up_7Bh8SbDcC|page=|keywords=%22israel+is+the+most+industrialized%22|text=%22israel+is+the+most+industrialized%22|plainurl=yes}}|title=Northern and Western Asia|isbn=978-0-8225-2915-6|last1=Bramwell|first1=Martyn|year=2000}}</ref> Israel's quality [[List of universities and colleges in Israel|university education]] and the establishment of a highly motivated and educated populace is largely responsible for spurring the country's high technology boom and rapid economic development.<ref name="David Adler">{{cite web | url=http://monitor.icef.com/2014/03/ambitious-israeli-students-look-to-top-institutions-abroad/ | title=Ambitious Israeli students look to top institutions abroad | publisher=ICEF | date=10 March 2014 | access-date=20 January 2015 | author=David Adler}}</ref> In 2010, it joined the [[OECD]].<ref name="OECD"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/general/listofoecdmembercountries-ratificationoftheconventionontheoecd.htm |title=List of OECD Member countries&nbsp;— Ratification of the Convention on the OECD |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=12 August 2012}}</ref> The country is ranked 20th in the [[World Economic Forum]]'s ''[[Global Competitiveness Report]]''<ref name="rank 2019">{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf|title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2019 |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref> and 35th on the [[World Bank]]'s [[Ease of doing business index|''Ease of Doing Business'' index]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/en/rankings|title=Rankings|website=World Bank|language=en|access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref> Israel was also ranked 5th in the world by share of people in high-skilled employment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://reports.weforum.org/global-human-capital-report-2017/dataexplorer/#economy=ISR |title=Global Human Capital Report 2017 |date=13 September 2017 |publisher=World Economic Forum |access-date=23 April 2018}}</ref> Israeli economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.{{sfn|OECD|2011}} [[File:BursaTelAviv-1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Tel Aviv Stock Exchange]]. Its building is optimized for computer trading, with systems located in an underground bunker to keep the exchange active during emergencies.<ref>[http://www.jpost.com/Business/Business-News/Tel-Aviv-Stock-Exchange-inaugurates-trading-in-new-building-374766 Tel Aviv Stock Exchange inaugurates trading in new building], By GLOBES, NIV ELIS, 9 August 2014</ref>]] Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the [[Agriculture in Israel|agricultural]] and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Imports to Israel, totaling $96.5&nbsp;billion in 2020, include raw materials, military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, fuels, grain, and consumer goods.<ref name="cia"/> Leading exports include machinery and equipment, software, [[Diamond industry in Israel|cut diamonds]], agricultural products, chemicals, and textiles and apparel; in 2020, Israeli exports reached $114&nbsp;billion.<ref name="cia"/> The [[Bank of Israel]] holds $173 billion of [[foreign-exchange reserves]].<ref name="cia"/> Since the 1970s, Israel has received [[Israel–United States military relations|military aid]] from the United States, as well as economic assistance in the form of [[loan guarantee]]s, which now account for roughly half of Israel's [[external debt]]. Israel has [[List of countries by external debt|one of the lowest]] external debts in the developed world, and is a lender in terms of net external debt ([[Net international investment position|assets vs. liabilities abroad]]), which {{as of|2015|alt=in 2015}} stood at a surplus of $69&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite press release |date=20 September 2015 |title=Israel's International Investment Position (IIP), June 2015 |url=http://www.boi.org.il/en/NewsAndPublications/PressReleases/Pages/20-09-2015-IIP-Q2.aspx |publisher=Bank of Israel |access-date=29 January 2017}}</ref> Israel has the second-largest number of [[startup company|startup companies]] in the world after the United States,<ref>{{cite book |title=Intellectual Capital for Communities: Nations, Regions, and Cities |last=Bounfour |first=Ahmed |author2=Edvinsson, Leif |year=2005 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=978-0-7506-7773-8 |page=47 (368 pages)}}</ref> and the third-largest number of [[List of Israeli companies quoted on the Nasdaq|NASDAQ-listed companies]] after the U.S. and China.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/richardbehar/2016/05/11/inside-israels-secret-startup-machine/ | title=Inside Israel's Secret Startup Machine | magazine=Forbes | date=11 May 2016 | access-date=30 October 2016 | author=Richard Behar}}</ref> [[Intel]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Business/BusinessNews/Article.aspx?id=52876 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=27 February 2007 |access-date=20 March 2012 |title=Intel to expand Jerusalem R&D |last=Krawitz |first=Avi}}</ref> and [[Microsoft]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microsoftrnd.co.il/about/leadership |publisher=Microsoft |access-date=19 March 2012 |title=Microsoft Israel R&D center: Leadership |quote=Avi returned to Israel in 1991, and established the first Microsoft R&D Center outside the US&nbsp;... |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313223906/http://www.microsoftrnd.co.il/about/leadership |archive-date=13 March 2012 }}</ref> built their first overseas [[research and development]] facilities in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as [[IBM]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Cisco Systems]], [[Facebook]] and [[Motorola]] have opened [[List of multinational companies with research and development centres in Israel|research and development centres in the country]]. In 2007, American investor [[Warren Buffett]]'s holding company [[Berkshire Hathaway]] bought an Israeli company, [[Iscar]], its first [[List of assets owned by Berkshire Hathaway|acquisition]] outside the United States, for $4&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite news |title=Berkshire Announces Acquisition |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=6 May 2006 |access-date=15 May 2010 |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C02E7DB1F3FF935A35756C0A9609C8B63 }}</ref> Days of working time in Israel are Sunday through Thursday (for a five-day [[workweek]]), or Friday (for a six-day workweek). In observance of ''[[Shabbat]]'', in places where Friday is a work day and the majority of population is Jewish, Friday is a "short day", usually lasting until 14:00 in the winter, or 16:00 in the summer. Several proposals have been raised to adjust the work week with the majority of the world, and make Sunday a non-working day, while extending working time of other days or replacing Friday with Sunday as a work day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.themarker.com/career/1.1739743 |newspaper=The Marker |title=Instead of 4 work days: 6 optional days to be considered half day-outs |last=Koren |first=Orah |date=26 June 2012 |access-date=26 June 2012}} (in Hebrew)</ref> ===Science and technology=== {{Main|Science and technology in Israel|List of Israeli inventions and discoveries}} [[File:Matam hi-tech park (Haifa).jpg|thumb|[[Matam, Haifa|Matam]] high-tech park in Haifa]] Israel's development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have [[Silicon Wadi|evoked comparisons]] with [[Silicon Valley]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Israel keen on IT tie-ups |date=10 January 2001 |newspaper=Business Line |url=http://www.hindu.com/businessline/2001/01/11/stories/151139ue.htm |access-date=19 March 2012 |location=Chennai, India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116074212/http://www.hindu.com/businessline/2001/01/11/stories/151139ue.htm |archive-date=16 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's technology industry: Punching above its weight |date=10 November 2005 |newspaper=The Economist |url=http://www.economist.com/node/5149411 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> Israel is first in the world in [[List of countries by research and development spending|expenditure on research and development]] as a percentage of GDP.<ref name="OECD_R&D" /> It is ranked 15th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2021, down from 10th in 2019 and 5th in the 2019 [[Bloomberg Innovation Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=2022-03-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation?|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|work=World Intellectual Property Organization|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|work=World Intellectual Property Organization|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en}}</ref><ref name=Bloomberg_innovation /> Israel has 140 scientists, technicians, and engineers per 10,000 employees, the highest number in the world, for comparison the U.S has 85 per 100,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sun.inc.hse.ru/sites/default/files/Shteinbuk.pdf |title=R&D and Innovation as a Growth Engine |last=Shteinbuk |first=Eduard |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=National Research University – Higher School of Economics |access-date=11 May 2013 |archive-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808102137/http://sun.inc.hse.ru/sites/default/files/Shteinbuk.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.investinisrael.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/61BD95A0-898B-4F48-A795-5886B1C4F08C/0/israelcompleteweb.pdf|title=InvestinIsrael}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyjtimes.com/Heritage/News/2003/Aug/InvestinginIsrael.htm|title=Investing in Israel|publisher=New York Jewish Times|access-date=29 October 2016|archive-date=9 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509230619/http://www.nyjtimes.com/Heritage/News/2003/Aug/InvestinginIsrael.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Israel has produced six [[List of Israeli Nobel laureates|Nobel Prize-winning]] scientists since 2004<ref name="nobel">{{cite news |author=Haviv Rettig Gur |date=9 October 2013 |title=Tiny Israel a Nobel heavyweight, especially in chemistry |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/tiny-israel-a-nobel-heavyweight-especially-in-chemistry/ |website=The Times of Israel |access-date=30 January 2017}}</ref> and has been frequently ranked as one of the countries with the highest ratios of [[scientific papers]] per capita in the world.<ref>{{cite news |last=Heylin |first=Michael |date=27 November 2006 |title=Globalization of Science Rolls On |work=Chemical & Engineering News |pages=29–31 |url=http://www.achem.univ.kiev.ua/news/pdf/globalization_of_science_rolls_on.pdf |access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-EdContributors/Article.aspx?id=32635 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |last=Gordon |first=Evelyn |title=Kicking the global oil habit |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=24 August 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's scientific fall from grace: Study shows drastic decline in publications per capita |author=Yarden Skop |newspaper=Haaretz |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/.premium-1.544767|date=2 September 2013 }}</ref> Israel has led the world in [[stem cell|stem-cell]] research papers per capita since 2000.<ref name="scell">{{cite news |title=Stem cell density highest in Israel |first=Ned |last=Stafford |url=http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/23830 |newspaper=The Scientist |date=21 March 2006 |access-date=18 October 2012}}</ref> [[List of Israeli universities and colleges|Israeli universities]] are ranked among the top 50 world universities in computer science ([[Technion]] and [[Tel Aviv University]]), mathematics ([[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]) and chemistry ([[Weizmann Institute of Science]]).<ref name="ARWU"/> In 2012, Israel was ranked ninth in the world by the Futron's [[Space Competitiveness Index]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Futron Releases 2012 Space Competitiveness Index|url=http://spaceref.biz/2012/08/futron-releases-2012-space-competitiveness-index.html|access-date=21 December 2013}}</ref> The [[Israel Space Agency]] coordinates all Israeli space research programs with scientific and commercial goals, and have indigenously designed and built at least 13 commercial, research and spy satellites.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's domestic satellite industry saved |first=Arieh |last=O'Sullivan |url=http://www.jpost.com/Features/InThespotlight/Article.aspx?id=276757 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=9 July 2012 |access-date=9 December 2012 |quote=The Amos 6 will be IAI's 14th satellite}}</ref> Some of Israel's satellites are ranked among the world's most advanced space systems.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/21/iran.marktran |title=Israel launches new satellite to spy on Iran |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=21 January 2008 |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |first=Mark |last=Tran}}</ref> [[Shavit 2|Shavit]] is a space [[launch vehicle]] produced by Israel to launch small [[satellite]]s into [[low Earth orbit]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Space launch systems – Shavit|url=http://www.deagel.com/Space-Launch-Systems/Shavit_a001901001.aspx|publisher=Deagel|access-date=19 November 2013}}</ref> It was first launched in 1988, making Israel the [[Timeline of first orbital launches by country|eighth nation]] to have a space launch capability. In 2003, [[Ilan Ramon]] became Israel's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of [[STS-107]], the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|fatal mission]] of the [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://m.jpost.com/PromoContent/Learning-Hebrew-Online-Colonel-Ilan-Ramon#article=0OTBDN0ZDNEMyQTAzMDUyNTZCQTAxQzhERUM4OTczMkQ= |title=Learning Hebrew Online – Colonel Ilan Ramon |author=e-Teacher |newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=9 February 2010 |access-date=1 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208124754/http://m.jpost.com/PromoContent/Learning-Hebrew-Online-Colonel-Ilan-Ramon |archive-date=8 December 2015 }}</ref> The ongoing shortage of [[Water supply and sanitation in Israel|water in the country]] has spurred innovation in [[water conservation]] techniques, and a substantial [[Agricultural research in Israel|agricultural modernization]], [[drip irrigation]], was [[List of Israeli inventions and discoveries|invented in Israel]]. Israel is also at the technological forefront of [[desalination]] and [[water recycling]]. The [[Sorek desalination plant]] is the largest seawater [[reverse osmosis]] (SWRO) [[Desalination facilities|desalination facility]] in the world.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/534996/megascale-desalination/ |title=Megascale Desalination |last=Talbot |first=David |date=2015 |magazine=MIT Technology Review |access-date=13 February 2017}}</ref> By 2014, Israel's desalination programs provided roughly 35% of Israel's drinking water and it is expected to supply 40% by 2015 and 70% by 2050.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/israel-solves-water-woes-desalination-053359192.html |title=Israel solves water woes with desalination |author=Federman, Josef |agency=Associated Press |date=30 May 2014 |access-date=30 May 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140602041312/http://news.yahoo.com/israel-solves-water-woes-desalination-053359192.html |archive-date=2 June 2014 }}</ref> {{as of|2015}}, more than 50 percent of the water for Israeli households, agriculture and industry is artificially produced.<ref name="Kershner">{{Cite news|title = Aided by the Sea, Israel Overcomes an Old Foe: Drought|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/30/world/middleeast/water-revolution-in-israel-overcomes-any-threat-of-drought.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 29 May 2015|access-date = 31 May 2015|issn = 0362-4331|first = Isabel|last = Kershner}}</ref> The country hosts an annual Water Technology and Environmental Control Exhibition & Conference (WATEC) that attracts thousands of people from across the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=What You Israelis Have Done With Water Tech is Simply Amazing |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/149829 |publisher=Arutz Sheva |access-date=16 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ashkelon, Israel |url=http://www.water-technology.net/projects/israel/ |publisher=water-technology.net}}</ref> In 2011, Israel's [[Water industry|water technology industry]] was worth around $2 billion a year with annual exports of products and services in the tens of millions of dollars. As a result of innovations in reverse osmosis technology, Israel is set to become a net [[Water export|exporter of water]] in the coming years.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-desalination-idUSTRE7B50V520111206 |title=Desalination plant could make Israel water exporter |newspaper=Reuters |location=Jerusalem |date=6 December 2011 |first=Ari |last=Rabinovitch}}</ref> [[File:Solar dish at Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center in Israel.jpg|thumb|alt=A horizontal parabolic dish, with a triangular structure on its top.|The world's largest [[Parabolic reflector|solar parabolic dish]] at the [[Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center]].<ref name=Register>{{cite news |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/01/25/faiman_negev_solar_plan/ |title=Giant solar plants in Negev could power Israel's future |first=John |last=Lettice |newspaper=The Register |date=25 January 2008}}</ref>]] Israel has embraced [[Solar power in Israel|solar energy]]; its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology<ref name=NPR>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15503716 |title=Israel Pushes Solar Energy Technology |newspaper=NPR |first=Linda |last=Gradstein |author-link=Linda Gradstein |date=22 October 2007}}</ref> and its solar companies work on projects around the world.<ref name=CBC>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/reportsfromabroad/parry/20070815.html |title=Looking to the sun |first=Tom |last=Parry |date=15 August 2007 |newspaper=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924093635/http://www.cbc.ca/news/reportsfromabroad/parry/20070815.html |archive-date=24 September 2008 }}</ref><ref name=BW>{{cite news |title=At the Zenith of Solar Energy |first=Neal |last=Sandler |url=http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008-03-26/at-the-zenith-of-solar-energybusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |newspaper=Bloomberg Businessweek |date=26 March 2008 |access-date=12 August 2012}}</ref> Over 90% of Israeli homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita in the world.<ref name="Solar energy">{{cite web |url=http://www.neaman.org.il/Neaman2011/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DBID=1&TMID=581&LNGID=1&FID=646&IID=7974 |title=Solar energy for the production of heat Summary and recommendations of the 4th assembly of the energy forum at SNI |last1=Grossman |first1=Gershon |last2=Ayalon |first2=Ofira |last3=Baron |first3=Yifaat |last4=Kauffman |first4=Debby |publisher=Samuel Neaman Institute for Advanced Studies in Science and Technology |access-date=12 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083312/http://www.neaman.org.il/Neaman2011/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DBID=1&TMID=581&LNGID=1&FID=646&IID=7974 |archive-date=16 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Environment California SWH">{{cite web |last1=Del Chiaro |first1=Bernadette |last2=Telleen-Lawton |first2=Timothy |title=Solar Water Heating: How California Can Reduce Its Dependence on Natural Gas |publisher=Environment California |url=http://www.environmentcalifornia.org/reports/cae/solar-water-heating-how-california-can-reduce-its-dependence-natural-gas |access-date=20 March 2012 |format=PDF}}</ref> According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://roma.mfa.gov.il/mfm/Data/156237.pdf |title=Solar, what else?! |last=Berner |first=Joachim |date=January 2008 |website=Sun & Wind Energy |publisher=Israel Special |page=88 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721141348/http://roma.mfa.gov.il/mfm/Data/156237.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 |access-date=15 May 2010}}</ref> The high annual incident [[irradiance|solar irradiance]] at its geographic [[latitude]] creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the [[Negev Desert]].<ref name=NPR/><ref name=CBC/><ref name=BW/> Israel had a modern [[Electric vehicle network|electric car infrastructure]] involving a countrywide network of [[charging station]]s to facilitate the charging and exchange of car batteries. It was thought that this would have lowered Israel's oil dependency and lowered the fuel costs of hundreds of Israel's motorists that use cars powered only by electric batteries.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2066975,00.html |title=Will Israel's Electric Cars Change the World? |magazine=Time |access-date=11 April 2012 |date=26 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415081103/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0%2C8599%2C2066975%2C00.html |archive-date=15 April 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/c0ef35cc-c06a-11df-8a81-00144feab49a.html | title=Electric cars are all the rage in Israel |newspaper=Financial Times | date=17 September 2010 | access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.haaretz.com/business/israel-to-keep-electric-car-recharging-fees-low-1.418128 | title=Israel to keep electric car recharging fees low | newspaper=Haaretz | access-date=11 April 2012| date=13 March 2012 }}</ref> The Israeli model was being studied by several countries and being implemented in Denmark and Australia.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.jpost.com/JerusalemReport/Science/Article.aspx?ID=258744&R=R1 | title=Baby you can drive my electric car | publisher=Jpost | access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref> However, Israel's trailblazing electric car company [[Better Place (company)|Better Place]] shut down in 2013.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.businessinsider.com/better-place-folds-2013-5 |title=Electric Car Company Folds After Taking $850 Million From GE And Others |work=Business Insider |date=26 May 2013}}</ref> ===Transportation=== {{Main|Transport in Israel}} [[File:4X-ECC LLBG 09-05-2014b.jpg|thumb|[[Ben Gurion International Airport]]]] Israel has {{convert|19224|km|mi}} of paved [[Roads in Israel|roads]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st24_10&CYear=2016 |title=Roads, by Length and Area |date=1 September 2016 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=15 February 2017}}</ref> and 3&nbsp;million motor vehicles.<ref name="vehicles">{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/newhodaot/hodaa_template.html?hodaa=201627085 |title=3.09&nbsp;Million Motor Vehicles in Israel in 2015 |date=30 March 2016 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=15 February 2017}}</ref> The [[List of countries by vehicles per capita|number of motor vehicles per 1,000 persons]] is 365, relatively low with respect to developed countries.<ref name="vehicles"/> Israel has 5,715 buses on scheduled routes,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton60/st24_04.pdf |title=Bus Services on Scheduled Routes |year=2009 |publisher=Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=5 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610053142/http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton60/st24_04.pdf |archive-date=10 June 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> operated by several carriers, the largest and oldest of which is [[Egged (company)|Egged]], serving most of the country.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stub|first=Zev|title=Egged's monopoly ends, Superbus taking over Jerusalem lines in late 2021|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/eggeds-monopoly-ending-superbus-to-take-over-j-m-bus-lines-in-late-2021-657673|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-01|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Rail transport in Israel|Railways]] stretch across {{convert|1277|km|mi}} and are operated solely by government-owned [[Israel Railways]].<ref name="cbs_rails">{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st24_03&CYear=2016 |title=Railway Services |date=1 September 2016 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=15 February 2017}}</ref> Following major investments beginning in the early to mid-1990s, the number of train passengers per year has grown from 2.5&nbsp;million in 1990, to 53&nbsp;million in 2015; railways are also transporting 7.5&nbsp;million tons of cargo, per year.<ref name="cbs_rails"/> Israel is served by two international [[List of airports in Israel|airports]], [[Ben Gurion Airport]], the country's main hub for international air travel near Tel Aviv, and [[Ramon Airport]], which serves the southernmost port city of Eilat. There are several small domestic airports as well.<ref name="Transportation in Israel">{{Cite book|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Economy/transport.html |title=Transportation in Israel |year=2001 |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=5 February 2010 |isbn=978-0-08-043448-3 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706184733/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Economy/transport.html |archive-date=6 July 2008 }}</ref> Ben Gurion, Israel's largest airport, handled over 15&nbsp;million passengers in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iaa.gov.il/en-US/airports/bengurion/Pages/Statistics.aspx |title=Statistics |publisher=Israel Airports Authority |access-date=15 February 2017}}</ref> On the [[Mediterranean]] coast, the [[Port of Haifa]] is the country's oldest and largest port, while [[Port of Ashdod|Ashdod Port]] is one of the few deep water ports in the world built on the open sea.<ref name="Transportation in Israel"/> In addition to these, the smaller [[Port of Eilat]] is situated on the [[Red Sea]], and is used mainly for trading with Far East countries.<ref name="Transportation in Israel"/> ===Tourism=== {{Main|Tourism in Israel}} {{see also|List of archaeological sites in Israel and Palestine}} [[File:Ein Bokek - Dead Sea2.jpg|thumb|[[Ein Bokek]] resort on the shore of the [[Dead Sea]]]] Tourism, especially [[religious tourism]], is an important industry in Israel, with the country's temperate climate, [[List of beaches in Israel|beaches]], [[Archaeology of Israel|archaeological]], other [[List of World Heritage Sites in Israel|historical]] and [[List of biblical places|biblical]] sites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. Israel's security problems have taken their toll on the industry, but the number of incoming tourists is on the rebound.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/LandedPages/PrintArticle.aspx?id=71992 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |title=Tourist visits above pre-war level |last=Burstein |first=Nathan |date=14 August 2007 |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> In 2017, a record of 3.6 million tourists visited Israel, yielding a 25 percent growth since 2016 and contributed NIS 20 billion to the Israeli economy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-01/03/c_136867704.htm |title=Israel sees record 3.6 mln inbound tourists in 2017 |last=Yan |date=3 January 2018 |website=Xinhua}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.israel21c.org/israel-sets-new-record-with-3-6-million-tourists-in-2017/ |title=Israel sets new record with 3.6 million tourists in 2017 |last= Amir |first= Rebecca Stadlen |date=3 January 2018 |website=Israel21}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.globes.co.il/en/article-record-36m-tourists-visit-israel-in-2017-1001217309 |title=Record 3.6m tourists visit Israel in 2017 |last= Raz-Chaimovich |first=Michal |date=27 December 2017 |newspaper=Globes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atlantajewishtimes.timesofisrael.com/israel-sees-record-3-6-million-tourists-in-2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111022050/http://atlantajewishtimes.timesofisrael.com/israel-sees-record-3-6-million-tourists-in-2017/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 January 2018 |title=Israel Sees Record 3.6 Million Tourists in 2017 |date=4 January 2018 |website=Atlanta Jewish Times }}</ref> ===Energy=== {{Main|Energy in Israel}} Israel began producing natural gas from its own offshore gas fields in 2004. Between 2005 and 2012, Israel had imported gas from Egypt via the al-[[Arish–Ashkelon pipeline]], which was terminated due to [[Egyptian crisis (2011–14)|Egyptian Crisis of 2011–14]]. In 2009, a [[Natural gas in Israel|natural gas]] reserve, [[Tamar gas field|Tamar]], was found near the coast of Israel. A second natural gas reserve, [[Leviathan gas field|Leviathan]], was discovered in 2010.<ref>{{cite news|title=Israel Billionaire Tshuva Strikes Gas, Fueling Expansion in Energy, Hotels |first1=David |last1=Wainer |first2=Calev |last2=Ben-David |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-04-21/israel-billionaire-tshuva-strikes-gas-fueling-expansion-in-energy-hotels.html |newspaper=Bloomberg |date=22 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112194937/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-04-21/israel-billionaire-tshuva-strikes-gas-fueling-expansion-in-energy-hotels.html |archive-date=12 January 2011 }}</ref> The natural gas reserves in these two fields (Leviathan has around 19 trillion cubic feet) could make Israel energy secure for more than 50 years. In 2013, Israel began commercial production of natural gas from the Tamar field. {{as of|2014}}, Israel produced over 7.5 billion cubic meters (bcm) of [[natural gas]] a year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2249rank.html|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=11 May 2018|archive-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315051210/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2249rank.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Israel had 199 billion cubic meters (bcm) of proven reserves of natural gas as of the start of 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2253rank.html#is|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov}}</ref> [[Ketura Sun]] is Israel's first commercial solar field. Built in early 2011 by the [[Arava Power Company]] on [[Ketura, Israel|Kibbutz Ketura]], Ketura Sun covers twenty acres and is expected to produce green energy amounting to 4.95 [[megawatts]] (MW). The field consists of 18,500 [[Photovoltaics|photovoltaic]] panels made by [[Suntech Power|Suntech]], which will produce about 9 [[gigawatt-hour]]s (GWh) of electricity per year.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.aravapower.com/Technical%20Figures |title= Ketura Sun Technical Figures |access-date= 26 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120309003501/http://www.aravapower.com/Technical%20Figures |archive-date= 9 March 2012 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> In the next twenty years, the field will spare the production of some 125,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.aravapower.com/Environmental%20Figures|title= Ketura Sun Environmental Figures|access-date= 26 June 2011}}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=Triggerhippie4 |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The field was inaugurated on 15 June 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.aravapower.com/ |title= Arava Power Company|access-date=27 June 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110707154923/http://www.aravapower.com/| archive-date= 7 July 2011 | url-status=live}}</ref> On 22 May 2012 [[Arava Power Company]] announced that it had reached financial close on an additional 58.5 MW for 8 projects to be built in the Arava and the Negev valued at 780 million NIS or approximately $204 million.<ref>{{Citation| last = Roca| first = Marc| title = Arava Closes Funding For $204 Million Israeli Solar Plants| newspaper = Bloomberg| date = 22 May 2012| url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-05-22/arava-closes-funding-for-204-million-israeli-solar-plants-1-.html| access-date = 3 June 2012}}</ref> ===Real estate=== Housing prices in Israel are listed in the top third,<ref>{{cite web |title=Housing prices |url=https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm |website=OECD |language=en}}</ref> with an average of 150 salaries required to buy an apartment.<ref>{{cite web |title=Average salary in Israel |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2022/002/26_22_002b.pdf |website=Central Bureau of Statistics of Israel |access-date=4 January 2022}}</ref> As of 2022, there are about 2.7 million properties in Israel, with an annual increase of more than 50,000.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dwellings and Buildings in Israel |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2021/030/04_21_030b.pdf |website=Central Bureau of Statistics of Israel |access-date=26 January 2022}}</ref> However, the demand for housing exceeds supply, with a shortage of about 200,000 apartments as of 2021,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tsion |first1=Hila |title=Housing crisis: about 200,000 apartments are missing |url=https://www.ynet.co.il/economy/article/S1KYZ9kh00 |work=Ynet |date=23 June 2021 |language=he}}</ref> and thus rising house prices. As a result, by 2021 housing prices rose by 5.6%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Israeli housing prices show largest increase in the world|url=https://www.israel21c.org/israeli-housing-prices-show-largest-increase-in-the-world/|website=israel21c.org|date=15 September 2021|access-date=28 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> High prices do not stop Israelis from buying properties. In 2021, Israelis took a record of NIS 116.1 billion in mortgages, an increase of 50% from 2020.<ref>{{cite web |title=Report on housing loans |url=https://www.boi.org.il/he/BankingSupervision/Data/Pages/HousingLoan.aspx |website=Bank of Israel |access-date=26 January 2022}}</ref> ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Israel}} Israel's diverse culture stems from the diversity of its population. Jews from diaspora communities around the world brought their cultural and religious traditions back with them, creating a melting pot of Jewish customs and beliefs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hse.ru/en/news/28331917.html |publisher=National Research University Higher School of Economics |title=Asian Studies: Israel as a 'Melting Pot' |access-date=18 April 2012}}</ref> Arab influences are present in many cultural spheres,<ref name="MendelRanta2016p137">{{cite book|last1=Mendel|first1=Yonatan|last2=Ranta|first2=Ronald|title=From the Arab Other to the Israeli Self: Palestinian Culture in the Making of Israeli National Identity|url={{Google books|dD_7CwAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2016|publisher=Routled|isbn=978-1-317-13171-7|page=137|quote= early settlers found it useful and suitable to imitate, adopt, adapt and later appropriate local customs, traditions, symbols and words. This was the principal process that we have unearthed in the book, and which changed in style, volume and recognition with time and with the shifting political environment in Palestine/Israel, yet was kept in the DNA of what Jewish-Israelis perceive as 'Israeliness'. It was an ongoing love-hate tango with the Arab-Palestinian 'other', which on the one hand represented the opposite of the 'self', and on the other hand, its presence was a mandatory ingredient in the creation of many of the customs, traditions and practices considered as local and as Israeli [...] the line of thinking according to which the Arab-Palestinian influence on Hebrew culture has been dramatically reduced following the creation of Israel as an independent state in 1948, is simply inaccurate and does not reflect the reality of Jewish-Arab-Palestinian relations. Not only were the early relations between settlers and Arab-Palestinians important – we would say essential – to our understanding of modern life in Israel and to Jewish-Israeli identity and culture, but the fascination leading to adaptation of Arab and Arab-Palestinian cultures did not end in 1948, it is in fact an ongoing process [...] many of the customs and traditions, which Jewish-Israelis define as belonging to the Israeli way of life and that represent 'Israeliness', are based on those early relations and cultural appropriations.}}</ref><ref name="MendelRanta2016p140">{{cite book|last1=Mendel|first1=Yonatan|last2=Ranta|first2=Ronald|title=From the Arab Other to the Israeli Self: Palestinian Culture in the Making of Israeli National Identity|url={{Google books|dD_7CwAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|pages=140–141|isbn=978-1-317-13171-7|quote= Jewish-Israeli identity and culture [...] have had a wide range of influences, among these were also Arab and Arab-Palestinian elements. When we looked at them in greater detail through Israeli food, Israeli dance, Israeli music, or Israeli symbols, we found – somewhere in their very root – also an Arab component. This is a unique influence not only because the Arab-Palestinian influence is common in different cultural fields, but because it seems that these influences are the least noted [...] Arab and Arab-Palestinian influence is much more important in understanding Jewish-Israeli identity and culture than given credit or recognised, and that it had an effect – at times basic and at times more profound – on the deferent cultural fields that constitute what Jewish-Israelis perceive as 'Israeliness' and the Israeli way of life. We believe that due to political reasons, the Arab influence on Israeli culture has been underestimated and overlooked [...] presentation of the Jewish and Arab identity and culture as two binaries is misleading. The two identities should be viewed more accurately as a scale with overlapping points, while acknowledging that – despite the conflict and at times because of the conflict – it is hard to admit that at the end of many Hebrew sentences sits an Arab smoking a 'nargilah' and that the Arab-Palestinian 'Other' is actually at the very heart of the Jewish-Israeli 'Self'... Jewish-Israelis and Arab-Palestinians share a number of similarities and points of contact that allow for easier diffusion of culture and symbols. These include, for example the presence of large communities of Jews who have originated in Arab countries and the increasing visibility and involvement of Arab-Palestinians in Israeli politics, economy and society. It is therefore expected that this proximity will result in constant cultural diffusion.}}</ref> such as [[Architecture of Israel|architecture]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFA+Publications/Photo+exhibits/Encounters-+The+Vernacular+Paradox+of+Israeli+Arch-+Intro.htm |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Encounters: The Vernacular Paradox of Israeli Architecture |last=Ran |first=Ami |access-date=6 September 2007 |date=25 August 1998 }}</ref> [[Music of Israel|music]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.israel21c.org/culture/israeli-palestinian-and-jordanian-djs-create-bridge-for-peace |title=Israeli, Palestinian and Jordanian DJs create bridge for peace |last=Brinn |first=David |date=23 October 2005 |access-date=20 March 2012 |newspaper=ISRAEL21c}}</ref> and [[Israeli cuisine|cuisine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20International%20Israeli%20Table |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=The International Israeli Table |access-date=26 June 2009 }}</ref> Israel is the only country in the world where life revolves around the [[Hebrew calendar]]. [[Public holidays in Israel|Work and school holidays]] are determined by the [[Jewish holiday]]s, and the official day of rest is Saturday, the [[Shabbat|Jewish Sabbath]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts%20About%20Israel/People/Jewish%20Festivals%20in%20Israel |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Jewish Festivals and Days of Remembrance in Israel |access-date=16 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814055003/http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/people/jewish%20festivals%20in%20israel |archive-date=14 August 2007 }}</ref> ===Literature=== {{Main|Israeli literature}} [[File:Agnon.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Shmuel Yosef Agnon]], laureate of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]]] [[Israeli literature]] is primarily [[Modern Hebrew poetry|poetry]] and prose written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], as part of the [[Revival of the Hebrew language|renaissance]] of Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages, such as English. By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the [[National Library of Israel]] at the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jnul.huji.ac.il/eng/lgd.html |publisher=Jewish National and University Library |title=Depositing Books to The Jewish National & University Library |access-date=21 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529153016/http://jnul.huji.ac.il/eng/lgd.html |archive-date=29 May 2012 }}</ref> In 2016, 89&nbsp;percent of the 7,300 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/library/depositing/statistics/Pages/lgd-statistics-2016.aspx |title=The Annual Israeli Book Week Report 2016 |publisher=National Library of Israel |access-date=26 April 2018}}</ref> In 1966, [[Shmuel Yosef Agnon]] shared the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] with German Jewish author [[Nelly Sachs]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1966/index.html |publisher=Nobel Foundation |title=The Nobel Prize in Literature 1966 |access-date=12 August 2007 }}</ref> Leading Israeli poets have been [[Yehuda Amichai]], [[Nathan Alterman]], [[Leah Goldberg]], and [[Rachel Bluwstein]]. Internationally famous contemporary Israeli novelists include [[Amos Oz]], [[Etgar Keret]] and [[David Grossman]]. The Israeli-Arab satirist [[Sayed Kashua]] (who writes in Hebrew) is also internationally known.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}} Israel has also been the home of [[Emile Habibi]], whose novel ''[[The Secret Life of Saeed: The Pessoptimist]]'', and other writings, won him the Israel prize for Arabic literature.<ref>{{cite web|title=Emile Habibi, Encyclopædia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/250792/Emile-Habibi|access-date=21 June 2014}}</ref><ref name=prize>{{cite web| title = Israel Prize Official Site – Recipients in 1992 (in Hebrew)| url = http://cms.education.gov.il/EducationCMS/Units/PrasIsrael/Tashmag/Tashnab_Tashmag_Rikuz.htm?DictionaryKey=Tashnab}}</ref> ===Music and dance=== {{Main|Music of Israel|Dance in Israel}} [[File:Israel Philharmonic Orchestra.jpg|thumb|[[Israel Philharmonic Orchestra]] conducted by [[Zubin Mehta]]|alt=Several dozen musicians in formal dress, holding their instruments, behind a conductor]] [[Music of Israel|Israeli music]] contains musical influences from all over the world; [[Mizrahi music|Mizrahi]] and [[Sephardic music]], [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] melodies, [[Greek music in Israel|Greek music]], [[jazz]], and [[pop rock]] are all part of the music scene.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets |Broughton |Ellingham |Trillo |1999 |pp=365–369}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/country/content.country/israel_36 |publisher=National Geographic Society |title=Israel |website=World Music |access-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210070052/http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/country/content.country/israel_36 |archive-date=10 February 2012 }}</ref> Among Israel's world-renowned<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Ben-Sasson|1985|p=1095}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Whose Master's Voice?: The Development of Popular Music in Thirteen Cultures |last=Ewbank |first=Alison J. |author2=Papageorgiou, Fouli T. |year=1997 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-27772-6 |page=117}}</ref> orchestras is the [[Israel Philharmonic Orchestra]], which has been in operation for over seventy years and today performs more than two hundred concerts each year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Israel+beyond+politics/Israel+Philharmonic+Orchestra+celebrates+70th+anniversary+5-Feb-2007.htm |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs (from Israel21c) |title=Israel Philharmonic Orchestra celebrates 70th anniversary |date=5 February 2007 |access-date=13 August 2007 |last=Davis |first=Barry |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206190159/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Israel%2Bbeyond%2Bpolitics/Israel%2BPhilharmonic%2BOrchestra%2Bcelebrates%2B70th%2Banniversary%2B5-Feb-2007.htm |archive-date=6 February 2007 }}</ref> [[Itzhak Perlman]], [[Pinchas Zukerman]] and [[Ofra Haza]] are among the internationally acclaimed musicians born in Israel. [[Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest|Israel has participated]] in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] nearly every year since 1973, winning the competition four times and hosting it twice.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurovision.tv/page/history/by-country/country?country=18 |title=Israel |website=Eurovision Song Contest |publisher=European Broadcasting Union |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurovision.tv/page/history/year |title=History |website=Eurovision Song Contest |publisher=European Broadcasting Union |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> [[Eilat]] has hosted its own international music festival, the [[Red Sea Jazz Festival]], every summer since 1987.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redseajazzeilat.com/en/about/ |publisher=Red Sea Jazz Festival |title=About the Red Sea Jazz Festival |access-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312202659/http://www.redseajazzeilat.com/en/about/ |archive-date=12 March 2012 }}</ref> The nation's canonical [[folk music|folk songs]], known as "Songs of the Land of Israel," deal with the experiences of the pioneers in building the Jewish homeland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/genre/content.genre/israeli_folk_735/en_US |publisher=National Geographic Society |title=Israeli Folk Music |access-date=20 March 2012 |website=World Music |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103145812/http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/genre/content.genre/israeli_folk_735/en_US |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref> ===Cinema and theatre=== {{Main|Cinema of Israel}} Ten Israeli films [[List of Israeli submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|have been final nominees]] for [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]] at the [[Academy Awards]] since the establishment of Israel. The 2009 movie ''[[Ajami (film)|Ajami]]'' was the third consecutive nomination of an Israeli film.<ref>{{cite news |title='Ajami' nominated for Oscar |first=Hannah |last=Brown |newspaper=Jerusalem Post |date=2 February 2010 |url=http://www.jpost.com/ArtsAndCulture/Entertainment/Article.aspx?id=167582}}</ref> Palestinian Israeli filmmakers have made a number of films dealing with the Arab-Israeli conflict and the status of Palestinians within Israel, such as [[Mohammed Bakri]]'s 2002 film ''[[Jenin, Jenin]]'' and ''[[The Syrian Bride]]''.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}} Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of the [[Yiddish theatre]] in Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918, [[Habima Theatre]] in Tel Aviv is Israel's oldest [[repertory theater]] company and national theater.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.habima.co.il/ |script-title=he:התיאטרון הלאומי הבימה |publisher=Habima National Theatre |access-date=13 August 2007 |language=he }}</ref> ===Media=== {{Main|Media of Israel}} The 2017 ''[[Freedom of the Press (report)|Freedom of the Press]]'' annual report by [[Freedom House]] ranked Israel as the [[MENA|Middle East and North Africa]]'s most free country, and 64th globally.<ref>{{cite report |date=April 2017 |title=Freedom of the Press 2017 |url=https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FOTP_2017_booklet_FINAL_April28.pdf |publisher=Freedom House |page=26 |access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref> In the 2017 [[Press Freedom Index]] by [[Reporters Without Borders]], Israel (including "Israel extraterritorial" since 2013 ranking)<ref>{{cite news |last=Diab |first=Khaled |date=11 February 2013 |title=Preaching – and Practicing – Media Freedom in the Middle East |url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/preaching-8211-and-practicing-8211-media-freedom-in-the-middle-east.premium-1.502769 |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=9 January 2017}}</ref> was placed 91st of 180 countries, first in the Middle East and North Africa region.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rsf.org/en/ranking |title=2017 World Press Freedom Index |date=2017 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref> ===Museums=== {{Main list|List of Israeli museums}} [[File:Billy Rose Art Garden (14755133799).jpg|thumb|[[Shrine of the Book]], repository of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] in Jerusalem]] The [[Israel Museum]] in Jerusalem is one of Israel's most important cultural institutions<ref name="imj">{{cite web |url=http://www.english.imjnet.org.il/page_1465?c0=14896&bsp=14393 |publisher=The Israel Museum, Jerusalem |title=About the Museum |access-date=13 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302154234/http://www.english.imjnet.org.il/page_1465?c0=14896&bsp=14393 |archive-date=2 March 2013 }}</ref> and houses the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imj.org.il/eng/shrine/index.html |publisher=The Israel Museum, Jerusalem |title=Shrine of the Book |access-date=13 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709044752/https://www.imj.org.il/eng/shrine/index.html |archive-date=9 July 2007 }}</ref> along with an extensive collection of [[Judaica]] and [[European art]].<ref name="imj"/> Israel's national [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] museum, [[Yad Vashem]], is the world central archive of Holocaust-related information.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/about/index.asp |publisher=Yad Vashem |title=About Yad Vashem |access-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314132026/http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/about/index.asp |archive-date=14 March 2012 }}</ref> [[Beit Hatfutsot]] ("The Diaspora House"), on the campus of [[Tel Aviv University]], is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bh.org.il/about-us.aspx |publisher=Beth Hatefutsoth |title=Museum Information |access-date=13 August 2007 }}</ref> Apart from the major museums in large cities, there are high-quality art spaces in many towns and [[kibbutz]]im. Mishkan LeOmanut in kibbutz [[Ein Harod (Meuhad)|Ein Harod Meuhad]] is the largest art museum in the north of the country.<ref>{{cite news |date=25 March 2008 |title=Mishkan LeOmanut |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/travel/mishkan-leomanut-1.242533 |work=Haaretz |access-date=4 November 2017}}</ref> Israel has the highest number of museums per capita in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://travel.cnn.com/best-israel-museums-361281/ |title=10 of Israel's best museums |last=Ahituv |first=Netta |date=29 January 2013 |publisher=CNN |access-date=9 January 2017}}</ref> Several Israeli museums are devoted to Islamic culture, including the [[Rockefeller Museum]] and the [[L. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art]], both in Jerusalem. The Rockefeller specializes in archaeological remains from the Ottoman and other periods of Middle East history. It is also the home of the first [[hominid]] fossil skull found in Western Asia, called [[Galilee Man]].<ref>{{cite book|url={{Google books|4Z0YrPfeHa8C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=Through the Ages in Palestinian Archaeology: An Introductory Handbook|page=50|first=Walter E.|last=Rast|year=1992|isbn=978-1-56338-055-6|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group}} "Galilee man" (lowercase "m") in this source is a typo&nbsp;– ref. [[Solo Man]], [[Peking Man]] and so forth.</ref> A cast of the skull is on display at the Israel Museum.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Israel Museum Permanent Exhibitions: Archaeology Wing&nbsp;– The Dawn of Civilization |id=Skull (cast) Zuttiyeh Cave Lower Palaeolithic |url=http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewItemE.asp?case=1&itemNum=359979|publisher=The Ridgefield Foundation |location=New York |year=1995 |access-date=13 March 2013}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{Main|Israeli cuisine}} [[File:Food in Israel.jpg|thumb|A meal including [[falafel]], [[hummus]], [[French fries]] and [[Israeli salad]]]] [[Israeli cuisine]] includes local dishes as well as [[Jewish cuisine]] brought to the country by immigrants from the [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]]. Since the establishment of the state in 1948, and particularly since the late 1970s, an Israeli [[fusion cuisine]] has developed.<ref name=raviv/> Israeli cuisine has adopted, and continues to adapt, elements of the [[Cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]], [[Cuisine of the Sephardic Jews|Sephardi]], and [[Ashkenazi cuisine|Ashkenazi]] styles of cooking. It incorporates many foods traditionally eaten in the [[Levantine cuisine|Levantine]], [[Arab cuisine|Arab]], [[Middle Eastern cuisine|Middle Eastern]] and [[Mediterranean cuisine|Mediterranean]] cuisines, such as [[falafel]], [[hummus]], [[shakshouka]], [[couscous]], and [[za'atar]]. [[Schnitzel]], [[pizza]], [[hamburger]]s, [[French fries]], [[rice]] and [[salad]] are also common in Israel.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}} Roughly half of the Israeli-Jewish population attests to keeping [[kosher]] at home.<ref>Uzi Rebhun, Lilakh Lev Ari, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CG-WQZDJdo8C&pg=PA113 ''American Israelis: Migration, Transnationalism, and Diasporic Identity,''] Brill, 2010 pp. 112–113.</ref><ref name="Bernstein" >Julia Bernstein, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FYXlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA227 ''Food for Thought: Transnational Contested Identities and Food Practices of Russian-Speaking Jewish Migrants in Israel and Germany,''] Campus Verlag, 2010 pp. 227, 233–234.</ref> [[Kosher restaurant]]s, though rare in the 1960s, make up around a quarter of the total {{As of|2015|lc=y}}, perhaps reflecting the largely secular values of those who dine out.<ref name=raviv>Yael Raviv, [https://books.google.com/books?id=KjuYCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT119 ''Falafel Nation,''] University of Nebraska Press, 2015</ref> Hotel restaurants are much more likely to serve kosher food.<ref name=raviv/> The non-kosher retail market was traditionally sparse, but grew rapidly and considerably following [[1990s Post-Soviet aliyah|the influx of immigrants from the post-Soviet states]] during the 1990s.<ref name=bernstein/> Together with non-kosher fish, rabbits and ostriches, [[pork]]—often called "white meat" in Israel<ref name=bernstein>Bernstein, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FYXlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA233 pp. 231–233].</ref>—is produced and consumed, though [[Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork|it is forbidden]] by both Judaism and Islam.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/faithbased/2012/08/israel_s_pork_problem_and_what_it_means_for_the_country_s_christian_arabs_.single.html|title=Israel's Pork Problem|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|location=New York|date=8 August 2012|access-date=28 December 2015}}</ref> ===Sports=== {{Main|Sport in Israel}} [[File:Teddy Stadium, Jerusalem (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Teddy Stadium]] of Jerusalem]] The most popular spectator sports in Israel are [[association football]] and [[basketball]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Torstrick|2004|p=141}}</ref> The [[Israeli Premier League]] is the country's premier football league, and the [[Israeli Basketball Premier League]] is the premier basketball league.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.basket.co.il/Data.asp?id=1&lang=en |publisher=Winner Basketball Super League |title=Basketball Super League Profile |access-date=13 August 2007 }}</ref> [[Maccabi Haifa F.C.|Maccabi Haifa]], [[Maccabi Tel Aviv F.C.|Maccabi Tel Aviv]], [[Hapoel Tel Aviv F.C.|Hapoel Tel Aviv]] and [[Beitar Jerusalem F.C.|Beitar Jerusalem]] are the largest [[List of football clubs in Israel|football clubs]]. Maccabi Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa and Hapoel Tel Aviv have competed in the [[UEFA Champions League]] and Hapoel Tel Aviv reached the [[UEFA Cup]] quarter-finals. Israel hosted and won the [[1964 AFC Asian Cup]]; in 1970 the [[Israel national football team]] qualified for the [[1970 FIFA World Cup|FIFA World Cup]], the only time it participated in the World Cup. The [[1974 Asian Games]], held in Tehran, were the last Asian Games in which Israel [[Israel at the Asian Games|participated]], plagued by the Arab countries that [[Boycotts of Israel in sports|refused]] to compete with Israel. Israel was excluded from the [[1978 Asian Games]] and since then has not competed in Asian sport events.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1976/07/26/archive/israel-barred-from-asian-games |title=Israel Barred from Asian Games |publisher=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |date=26 July 1976 |access-date=11 April 2014}}</ref> In 1994, [[UEFA]] agreed to admit Israel, and its football teams now compete in Europe.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}} [[Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C.]] has won the [[FIBA European Champions Cup and EuroLeague records and statistics|European championship]] in basketball six times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euroleague.net/final-four/milan-2014/maccabi-electra-tel-aviv |title=Maccabi Electra Tel Aviv – Welcome to EUROLEAGUE BASKETBALL |access-date=30 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625083458/http://www.euroleague.net/final-four/milan-2014/maccabi-electra-tel-aviv |archive-date=25 June 2014 }}</ref> In 2016, the country was chosen as a host for the [[EuroBasket 2017]]. Israel has won [[Israel at the Olympics|nine Olympic medals]] since its first win [[1992 Summer Olympics|in 1992]], including a gold medal in [[Sailing at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Men's Mistral One Design|windsurfing]] at the [[2004 Summer Olympics]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.olympic.org/israel |publisher=International Olympic Committee |title=Israel |access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> Israel has won [[Israel at the Paralympics|over 100]] gold medals in the [[Paralympic Games]] and is ranked 20th in the [[All-time Paralympic Games medal table|all-time medal count]]. The [[1968 Summer Paralympics]] were hosted by Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paralympic.org/paralympic-games/tel-aviv-1968 |title=Tel Aviv 1968 |publisher=International Paralympic Committee |access-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320024849/http://www.paralympic.org/paralympic-games/tel-aviv-1968 |archive-date=20 March 2012 }}</ref> The [[Maccabiah Games]], an Olympic-style event for [[List of Jews in sports|Jewish]] and Israeli athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since then. Israeli tennis champion [[Shahar Pe'er]] ranked 11th in the world on 31 January 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.itftennis.com/procircuit/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=100012630 |title=Shahar PEER |publisher=International Tennis Federation |access-date=19 February 2017}}</ref> [[Krav Maga]], a martial art developed by Jewish ghetto defenders during the struggle against [[fascism]] in Europe, is used by the Israeli security forces and police. Its effectiveness and practical approach to self-defense, have won it widespread admiration and adherence around the world.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988284,00.html|url-access=subscription|title=Choke! Gouge! Smash!|last=Ellis|first=Judy|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=4 May 1998|access-date=1 January 2017}}</ref> ====Chess==== [[File:BorisGelfandSicilianDefence.jpg|thumb|[[Boris Gelfand]], chess [[Grandmaster (chess)|Grandmaster]]]] [[Chess]] is a leading sport in Israel and is enjoyed by people of all ages. There are many Israeli grandmasters and [[List of Israeli chess players|Israeli chess players]] have won a number of youth world championships.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/pawn-stars-shine-in-new-national-sport-1.317002 | title=Pawn stars shine in new 'national sport' | newspaper=Haaretz | access-date=21 May 2012| date=4 October 2010 }}</ref> Israel stages an annual international [[Israeli Chess Championship|championship]] and hosted the [[World Team Chess Championship]] in 2005. The Ministry of Education and the [[FIDE|World Chess Federation]] agreed upon a project of teaching chess within Israeli schools, and it has been introduced into the curriculum of some schools.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cis.fide.com/en/reports/186-chess-in-schools-in-israel-progress-report |title=Chess in Schools in Israel: Progress report |date=28 May 2012 |publisher=FIDE |access-date=7 January 2017}}</ref> The city of [[Beersheba]] has become a national chess center, with the game being taught in the city's kindergartens. Owing partly to Soviet immigration, it is home to the largest number of [[Grandmaster (chess)|chess grandmasters]] of any city in the world.<ref>{{cite news |title=Chess masters set to blitz Rishon Letzion |first=Eitan |last=Bekerman |newspaper=Haaretz |date=4 September 2006 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/chess-masters-set-to-blitz-rishon-letzion-1.196475}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fide.com/component/content/article/9-other/2182-673-world-team-championship-in-beer-sheva-israel|title=World Team Championship in Beer Sheva, Israel |publisher=World Chess Federation |access-date=13 March 2009 |date=1 November 2005 }}</ref> The Israeli chess team won the silver medal at the [[38th Chess Olympiad|2008 Chess Olympiad]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel takes silver medal in Chess Olympiad |first=Uri |last=Tzahor |newspaper=Ynetnews |date=26 November 2008 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3628765,00.html}}</ref> and the bronze, coming in third among 148 teams, at the [[39th Chess Olympiad|2010 Olympiad]]. Israeli grandmaster [[Boris Gelfand]] won the [[Chess World Cup 2009]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Israeli grand master Boris Gelfand wins Chess World Cup |first=Eli |last=Shvidler |newspaper=Haaretz |date=15 December 2009 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/israeli-grand-master-boris-gelfand-wins-chess-world-cup-1.2120}}</ref> and the [[World Chess Championship 2012#Candidates tournament|2011 Candidates Tournament]] for the right to challenge the world champion. He lost the [[World Chess Championship 2012]] to reigning world champion [[Viswanathan Anand|Anand]] after a speed-chess tie breaker. ==See also== * [[Index of Israel-related articles]] * [[Outline of Israel]] ==Footnotes== {{Reflist|group=fn}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |title=Israel's Quest for Recognition and Acceptance in Asia: Garrison State Diplomacy|last=Abadi|first=Jacob|isbn=978-0-7146-5576-5|publisher=Routledge|year=2004}} * {{cite book|title=The Original Story: God, Israel and the World|last1=Barton|first1=John|last2=Bowden|first2=Julie |author-link=John Barton (theologian)|isbn=978-0-8028-2900-9|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|year=2004}} * {{cite book |title=A History of the Jewish People |last=Ben-Sasson |first=Hayim |year=1985 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6}} * {{cite book|title=A History of Israel|last=Bregman|first=Ahron|isbn=978-0-333-67631-8|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2002|author-link=Ahron Bregman |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofisrael0000breg}} * {{cite book|title=World Music: The Rough Guide|last1=Broughton|first1=Simon|last2=Ellingham|first2=Mark|last3=Trillo|first3=Richard|isbn=978-1-85828-635-8|publisher=Rough Guides|year=1999 |url=https://archive.org/details/roughguidetoworl00simo}} * {{cite book|title=Holocaust City: The Making of a Jewish Ghetto|last=Cole|first=Tim|isbn=978-0-415-92968-4|year=2003|publisher=Routledge}} * {{cite book|last=Fraser|first=T.G.|title=The Arab-Israeli Conflict|url={{Google books|IBJrQgAACAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=12 May 2013|year=2004|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan Limited|isbn=978-1-4039-1338-8}} * {{cite book|title=The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War|last=Gelvin|first=James L.|author-link=James L. 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J. Rummel|isbn=978-0-7658-0523-2}} * {{cite book|title=Understanding Jewish History|last=Scharfstein|first=Sol|isbn=978-0-88125-545-4|year=1996|publisher=KTAV Publishing House}} * {{cite book|title=1967: Israel, the War, and the Year that Transformed the Middle East|last=Segev|first=Tom|isbn=978-0-8050-7057-6|year=2007|publisher=Henry Holt and Company}} * {{cite book|title=The Land Beyond Promise: Israel, Likud and the Zionist Dream|last=Shindler|first=Colin |isbn=978-1-86064-774-1|year=2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris Publishers}} * {{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Judaica|last=Skolnik|first=Fred|isbn=978-0-02-865928-2|publisher=Macmillan|year=2007|volume=9|edition=2nd}} * {{cite book|title=Deterring America: Rogue States and the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction|isbn=978-0-521-86465-7|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|last=Smith|first=Derek |url=https://archive.org/details/deterringamerica0000smit}} * {{cite book|title=The Hope Fulfilled: The Rise of Modern Israel|last=Stein|first=Leslie|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-275-97141-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/hopefulfilledris00lesl}} * {{cite book|title=The Arabs in Israel|last=Stendel|first=Ori|isbn=978-1-898723-23-3|year=1997|publisher=Sussex Academic Press |url=https://archive.org/details/arabsinisrael00sten}} * {{cite book|title=Critical Essays on Israeli Social Issues and Scholarship|last1=Stone|first1=Russell A.|last2=Zenner|first2=Walter P.|isbn=978-0-7914-1959-5|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1994}} * {{cite book|title=Culture and Customs of Israel|last=Torstrick|first=Rebecca L.|isbn=978-0-313-32091-0|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Press}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links |s=Portal:Israel |b=Wikijunior:Countries_A-Z/Israel |voy=Israel |d=Q801 |m=Category:Israel}} ; Government * [https://www.gov.il/en Government services and information website] * [http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Pages/default.aspx About Israel] at the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel)|Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] * [http://www.pmo.gov.il/English/Pages/default.aspx Official website] of the [[Prime Minister's Office (Israel)|Israel Prime Minister's Office]] * [http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/cw_usr_view_Folder?ID=141 Official website] of the [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] * [https://new.goisrael.com/ GoIsrael.com] by the [[Ministry of Tourism (Israel)|Israel Ministry of Tourism]] ; General information * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel/ Israel]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/israel Israel] at the [[Jewish Virtual Library]] * [https://www.oecd.org/israel/ Israel] at the [[OECD]] * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=IL Key Development Forecasts for Israel] from [[International Futures]] * {{Curlie|Regional/Middle_East/Israel}} *{{GovPubs|Israel}} ; Maps * {{Wikiatlas}} * {{OSM relation|1473946}} {{Israel topics}} {{navboxes |list= {{Middle East}} {{Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea}} {{Countries of Asia}} {{Member states of the OECD}} {{States with limited recognition}} {{Zionism and the Land of Israel}} }} {{Authority control}}{{Portal bar|Israel|Judaism|Middle East|Asia}} [[Category:Israel| ]] [[Category:1948 establishments in Asia]] [[Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Countries in Asia]] [[Category:Eastern Mediterranean]] [[Category:Jewish polities]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1948]] [[Category:Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Middle Eastern countries]] [[Category:Levant]] [[Category:Western Asian countries]] [[Category:Near Eastern countries]] [[Category:Palestine (region)|*]] [[Category:Political entities in the Land of Israel]] [[Category:Republics]]'