Examine individual changes
This page allows you to examine the variables generated by the Edit Filter for an individual change.
Variables generated for this change
| Variable | Value |
|---|---|
Edit count of the user (user_editcount) | null |
Name of the user account (user_name) | '105.108.204.27' |
Age of the user account (user_age) | 0 |
Groups (including implicit) the user is in (user_groups) | [
0 => '*'
] |
Rights that the user has (user_rights) | [
0 => 'createaccount',
1 => 'read',
2 => 'edit',
3 => 'createtalk',
4 => 'writeapi',
5 => 'viewmywatchlist',
6 => 'editmywatchlist',
7 => 'viewmyprivateinfo',
8 => 'editmyprivateinfo',
9 => 'editmyoptions',
10 => 'abusefilter-log-detail',
11 => 'urlshortener-create-url',
12 => 'centralauth-merge',
13 => 'abusefilter-view',
14 => 'abusefilter-log',
15 => 'vipsscaler-test'
] |
Whether the user is blocked (user_blocked) | false |
Whether the user is editing from mobile app (user_app) | false |
Whether or not a user is editing through the mobile interface (user_mobile) | true |
Page ID (page_id) | 292341 |
Page namespace (page_namespace) | 0 |
Page title without namespace (page_title) | 'French Algeria' |
Full page title (page_prefixedtitle) | 'French Algeria' |
Edit protection level of the page (page_restrictions_edit) | [] |
Last ten users to contribute to the page (page_recent_contributors) | [
0 => 'SirInfinity0000',
1 => 'AnomieBOT',
2 => 'M.Bitton',
3 => '45.228.234.217',
4 => 'InternetArchiveBot',
5 => 'Killarnee',
6 => '192.42.199.2',
7 => 'Citation bot',
8 => 'BrownHairedGirl',
9 => 'Dsp13'
] |
Page age in seconds (page_age) | 603535732 |
Action (action) | 'edit' |
Edit summary/reason (summary) | '' |
Old content model (old_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
New content model (new_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|French colony in Northern Africa from 1830 to 1962}}
{{About|Algeria||Algeria (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|French in Algeria|usage of the French language|French language in Algeria}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = <span style="font-weight: normal">{{native name|fr|Algérie française|italics=no}}<br />{{native name|ar|الجزائر المستعمرة|italics=no}}</span><!-- Unenboldened per [[MOS:BADITALICS]] -->
| conventional_long_name = French Algeria
| common_name = Algeria
| image_flag = Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1958).svg
| flag_type =
| image_coat =
| symbol =
| symbol_type =
| symbol_width =
| other_symbol = [[File:Official Arabic seal of the Governor General of Algeria.png|150px]]
| other_symbol_type = Official Arabic seal of the Governor General of Algeria
| image_map = French Algeria evolution 1830-1962 map-fr.svg
| image_map_caption = Chronological map of French Algeria's evolution
| status = '''1830–1848:'''<br />[[Colony]]<br />'''1848–1962''':<br />''De jure'': [[Departments of France#Departments of Algeria (Départements d'Algérie)|Départements]] of Metropolitan France<br />''De facto'': [[French colonial empire|Colony]]
| empire = French Algeria
| government_type = [[Departments of France#Departments of Algeria (Départements d'Algérie)|French Department]]
| title_representative = [[List of French governors of Algeria|Governor General]]
| representative1 = [[Louis-Auguste-Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont|Louis-Auguste-Victor Bourmont]]
| year_representative1 = 1830 (first)
| representative2 = [[Christian Fouchet]]
| year_representative2 = 1962 (last)
| official_languages = [[French language|French]]
| area_km2 = 2381741
| area_sq_mi = 919595
| year_start = 1830
| year_end = 1962
| date_start = 5 July
| date_end = 5 July
| event_start = [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|Surrender of Algiers]]
| event_end = [[Algerian War|Algerian Independence]]
| p1 = Ottoman Algeria
| flag_p1 = Flag of_Ottoman Algiers.gif
| p2 = Emirate of Abdelkader
| flag_p2 = Flag of the Emirate of Mascara.svg
| p3 = Kingdom of Ait Abbas
| flag_p3 = Beni Abbas Kingdom2.svg
| p4 = Kel Ahaggar
| flag_p4 = Flag of Kel Ahaggar.svg
| s1 = Algeria{{!}}People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
| flag_s1 = Flag of Algeria.svg
| national_anthem = [[La Parisienne (song)|La Parisienne]] (1830–1848)<br />[[Le Chant des Girondins]] (1848–1852)<br />[[Partant pour la Syrie]] (1852–1870)<br />[[La Marseillaise]] (1870–1962)
| capital = [[Algiers]]
| largest_city = capital
| currency = [[Algerian budju|Budju]] (1830–1848)<br />[[Algerian franc|(Algerian) Franc]] (1848–1962)
| time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset = +1
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy
| drives_on = right
| today = [[Algeria]]
| demonym =
| area_rank =
| GDP_PPP =
| GDP_PPP_year =
| HDI =
| HDI_year =
| legislature = {{illm|Algerian Assembly|fr|Assemblée algérienne}} (1948–1956)
| languages = {{hlist|[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]|[[Berber languages|Berber]]|}}
| languages_type = Other languages
}}
'''French Algeria''' ({{lang-fr|Alger}} to 1839, then {{lang|fr|Algérie}} afterwards;<ref>Scheiner, Virgile (14 October 1839) {{lang|fr|Le pays occupé par les Français dans le nord de l'Afrique sera, à l'avenir, désigné sous le nom d'Algérie.}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> unofficially {{lang|fr|Algérie française}},<ref>Non exhaustive list of ancient and modern books named "{{lang|fr|Algérie française}}": {{in lang|fr}} [https://archive.org/details/histoiredelalgr00claugoog 1848]; [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FTJ1p231EuoC 1856]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=KPS2TOIwk_kC 1864]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=G5HtnmIji7IC 2007]; [https://www.google.fr/search?q=%22Alg%C3%A9rie+fran%C3%A7aise%22&hl=en&tbm=bks&start=10&ei=WhJaVr_2B4T4aoP1n5gF and so on]</ref><ref>{{cite book |publisher=Royal Institute for international affairs |title=African Boundaries |year=1979 |page=89 |isbn=9780903983877 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8Du4k0udx4C&pg=PA89}}</ref> {{lang-ar|الجزائر المستعمرة}}), also known as '''Colonial Algeria''', was the period of French colonisation of [[Algeria]]. French rule in the region began in 1830 with the [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|invasion of Algiers]] and lasted until the end of the [[Algerian War|Algerian War of Independence]] in 1962. While the administration of Algeria changed significantly over the 132 years of French rule, the Mediterranean coastal region of Algeria, housing the vast majority of its population, was ruled as an [[Departments of France#Departments of Algeria (Départements d'Algérie)|integral part of France]] from 1848 until its independence.
As one of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants known as [[colonist|''colons'']], and later as {{lang|fr|[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]}}. However, the indigenous [[Muslim]] population remained the majority of the territory's population throughout its history. Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population due to their lack of political and economic freedom fueled calls for greater [[Political freedom|political autonomy]], and eventually independence from France.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Surkis, Judith|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1089839922|title=Sex, law, and sovereignty in French Algeria, 1830–1930|date=15 December 2019|isbn=978-1-5017-3952-1|location=Ithaca|oclc=1089839922}}</ref> Tensions between the two groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events began of what was later called the [[Algerian War]], characterised by [[guerrilla warfare]] and [[Torture during the Algerian War of Independence|crimes against humanity]] used by the French in order to stop the revolt. The war ended in 1962, when Algeria gained independence following the [[Evian agreements]] in March 1962 and the [[1962 Algerian self-determination referendum|self-determination referendum]] in July 1962.
During its last years of being a French colony, Algeria was an integral part of France, a founding member of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] and the [[European Economic Community]].<ref name="GrothSousa-Poza2012">{{cite book|author1=Hans Groth|author2=Alfonso Sousa-Poza|title=Population Dynamics in Muslim Countries: Assembling the Jigsaw|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bpq9Mg-l5jMC&pg=PA227|date=26 March 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-27881-5|page=227}}</ref>
==History==
===Initial conflicts===
[[File:Purchase of Christian captives from the Barbary States.jpg|thumb|right|Purchase of Christian slaves by French monks in [[Algiers]] in 1662]]
{{See also|Barbary slave trade|European enclaves in North Africa before 1830}}
Since the [[Capture of Algiers (1516)|1516 capture of Algiers]] by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] admirals, the brothers [[Oruç Reis|Ours]] and [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]], Algeria had been a base for conflict and piracy in the Mediterranean. In 1681, [[Louis XIV]] asked Admiral [[Abraham Duquesne]] to fight the [[Barbary corsairs|Berber pirates]] and also ordered a large-scale attack on [[Algiers]] between 1682 and 1683 on the pretext of assisting and rescuing Christian slaves.<ref>{{cite book |last=Martin |first=Henri |title=Martin's history of France: the age of Louis XIV |year=1865 |publisher=Walker, Wise and co. |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ/page/n545 522] |access-date=9 June 2012}}</ref> Again, [[Jean II d'Estrées]] bombarded [[Tripoli]] and Algiers from 1685 to 1688. An ambassador from Algiers visited the Court in Versailles, and a treaty was signed in 1690 that provided peace throughout the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Matar |first=Nabil I. |title=Europe Through Arab Eyes, 1578–1727 |year=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231141949 |page=313 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWjpowTH4b4C&pg=PA105}}</ref>
During the [[French Directory|Directory]] regime of the [[First French Republic]] (1795–99), the Bacri and the Busnach, Jewish merchants of Algiers, provided large quantities of grain for [[Grande Armée|Napoleon's soldiers]] who participated in the [[French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1796|Italian campaign]] of 1796. However, Bonaparte refused to pay the bill, claiming it was excessive. In 1820, [[Louis XVIII]] paid back half of the Directory's debts. The [[dey]], who had loaned to the Bacri 250,000 [[French franc|francs]], requested the rest of the money from France.
{{History of Algeria}}
The [[Dey of Algiers]] himself was weak politically, economically, and militarily. Algeria was then part of the [[Barbary States]], along with today's Tunisia – which depended on the [[Ottoman Empire]], then led by [[Mahmud II]] — but enjoyed relative independence. The [[Barbary Coast]] was the stronghold of Berber pirates, who carried out raids against European and American ships. Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent [[United States|United States of America]] culminated in the [[First Barbary War|First]] (1801–05) and [[Second Barbary War|Second]] (1815) Barbary Wars. An Anglo-Dutch force, led by [[Admiral (Royal Navy)|Admiral]] [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]], carried out a [[punitive expedition]], the August 1816 [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|bombardment of Algiers]]. The Dey was forced to sign the [[Barbary treaties]], while the [[gunpowder warfare|technological advantage]] of U.S., British, and French forces overwhelmed the Algerians' expertise at [[naval warfare]].{{Citation needed|date = July 2012}}
Following the conquest under the [[July monarchy]], the Algerian territories, disputed with the Ottoman Empire, were first named "French possessions in North Africa" before being called "Algeria" by [[Marshal General of France|Marshal General]] [[Jean-de-Dieu Soult]], Duke of Dalmatia, in 1839.<ref>{{cite book|title=La Guerre d'Algérie|publisher={{lang|fr|Collection: Librio-Documents [[Le Monde]]}}|year=2003|isbn=978-2-2903-3569-7}}</ref>
===French conquest of Algeria===
{{Main|French conquest of Algeria}}
[[File:Empire colonial français (1920).png|thumb|The French colonial empire in 1920]]
The conquest of Algeria was initiated in the last days of the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]] by [[Charles X of France|Charles X]], as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the French people, particularly in Paris, where many veterans of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] lived. His intention was to bolster patriotic sentiment, and distract attention from ineptly handled domestic policies by "skirmishing against the dey".<ref name="EncBrit">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Algeria, Colonial Rule |access-date=2007-12-19 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |page=39 |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-220553/Algeria#487751.hook}}</ref>
====Fly Whisk Incident (April 1827)====
In the 1790s, France had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two merchants in Algiers, Messrs. Bacri and Boushnak, and was in arrears paying them. Bacri and Boushnak owed money to the dey and claimed they could not pay it until France paid its debts to them. The dey had unsuccessfully negotiated with [[Pierre Deval (diplomat)|Pierre Deval]], the French consul, to rectify this situation, and he suspected Deval of collaborating with the merchants against him, especially when the French government made no provisions to pay the merchants in 1820. Deval's nephew Alexandre, the consul in [[Bône]], further angered the dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and [[El Kala|La Calle]], contrary to the terms of prior agreements.<ref>Abun-Nasr, Jamil. ''A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period'', p. 249</ref>
After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide satisfactory answers on 29 April 1827, the dey struck Deval with his [[fly whisk]]. Charles X used this slight against his diplomatic representative to first demand an apology from the dey, and then to initiate a blockade against the port of Algiers. France demanded that the dey send an ambassador to France to resolve the incident. When the dey responded with cannon fire directed toward one of the blockading ships, the French determined that more forceful action was required.<ref>Abun-Nasr, p. 250</ref>
====Invasion of Algiers (June 1830)====
{{Main|Invasion of Algiers in 1830}}
[[File:Bombardementd alger-1830.jpg|thumb|The attack of [[Guy-Victor Duperré|Admiral Duperré]] during the take-over of Algiers in 1830]]
[[File:Fighting at the gates of Algiers 1830.jpg|thumb|Fighting at the gates of Algiers in 1830]]
[[File:Ottoman cannon end of 16th century length 385cm cal 178mm weight 2910 stone projectile founded 8 October 1581 Alger seized 1830.jpg|thumb|Ornate [[Ottoman weapons|Ottoman cannon]], length: 385cm, cal:178mm, weight: 2910, stone projectile, founded 8 October 1581 in Algiers, seized by France at Algiers in 1830. [[Musée de l'Armée]], Paris]]
[[Pierre Deval (diplomat)|Pierre Deval]] and other French residents of Algiers left for France, while the [[Minister of War (France)|Minister of War]], [[Aimé Marie Gaspard de Clermont-Tonnerre|Clermont-Tonnerre]], proposed a military expedition. However, the [[Count of Villèle]], an [[ultra-royalist]], President of the council and the monarch's heir, opposed any military action. The Bourbon Restoration government finally decided to blockade Algiers for three years. Meanwhile, the Berber pirates were able to exploit the geography of the coast with ease. Before the failure of the blockade, the Restoration decided on 31 January 1830 to engage a military expedition against Algiers.
[[Guy-Victor Duperré|Admiral Duperré]] commanded an armada of 600 ships that originated from [[Toulon]], leading it to Algiers. Using [[Napoleon]]'s 1808 contingency plan for the invasion of Algeria, [[General de Bourmont]] then landed {{convert|27|km|mi}} west of Algiers, at [[Sidi Ferruch]] on 14 June 1830, with 34,000 soldiers. In response to the French, the Algerian dey ordered an opposition consisting of 7,000 [[janissary|janissaries]], 19,000 troops from the beys of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] and [[Oran]], and about 17,000 [[Kabyles]]. The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. The French troops took the advantage on 19 June during the battle of [[Staouéli]], and entered Algiers on 5 July after a three-week campaign. The dey agreed to surrender in exchange for his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he exiled himself with his family, departing on a French ship for the [[Italian peninsula]]. 2,500 janissaries also quit the Algerian territories, heading for Asia,{{Clarify|date=August 2009|reason=Asia is a big place}} on 11 July.
The French army then recruited the first {{lang|fr|[[zouaves]]}} (a title given to certain [[light infantry]] regiments) in October, followed by the {{lang|ota-Latn|[[spahis]]|nocat=y}} regiments, while France expropriated all the land properties belonging to the Turkish settlers, known as {{lang|tr|Beliks|nocat=y}}. In the western region of [[Oran]], [[Abderrahmane of Morocco|Sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco]], the [[Amir al-Mu'minin|Commander of the Faithful]], could not remain indifferent to the massacres committed by the French Christian troops and to belligerent calls for [[jihad]] from the [[marabout]]s. Despite the diplomatic rupture between Morocco and the [[Two Sicilies]] in 1830, and the naval warfare engaged against the [[Austrian Empire]] as well as with [[Mid-nineteenth century Spain|Spain]], then headed by [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]], Sultan Abderrahmane lent his support to the Algerian insurgency of [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd El-Kader]]. The latter fought for years against the French. Directing an army of 12,000 men, Abd El-Kader first organized the blockade of Oran.
Algerian refugees were welcomed by the Moroccan population, while the Sultan recommended that the authorities of [[Tetuan]] assist them, by providing jobs in the administration or the military forces. The inhabitants of [[Tlemcen]], near the Moroccan border, asked that they be placed under the Sultan's authority in order to escape the invaders. Abderrahmane named his nephew Prince [[Moulay Ali]] [[Caliph]] of Tlemcen, charged with the protection of the city. In retaliation France executed two Moroccans: Mohamed Beliano and Benkirane, as spies, while their goods were seized by the military governor of Oran, [[Pierre François Xavier Boyer]].
Hardly had the news of the capture of Algiers reached Paris than Charles X was deposed during the [[Three Glorious Days]] of July 1830, and his cousin [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis-Philippe]], the "citizen king", was named to preside over a [[July Monarchy|constitutional monarchy]]. The new government, composed of [[French liberalism|liberal opponents]] of the Algiers expedition, was reluctant to pursue the conquest begun by the old regime, but withdrawing from Algeria proved more difficult than conquering it.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
====Characterization as genocide====
Some governments and scholars have called France's conquest of [[Algeria]] a [[genocide]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2011-12-23|title=Turkey accuses France of genocide in colonial Algeria|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16314373|access-date=2021-03-05}}</ref>
For example, [[Ben Kiernan]], an Australian expert on [[Cambodian genocide]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/disowning-morris |title=Disowning Morris |first=Stephen J. |last=Morris |date=30 June 1995 |access-date=26 September 2019 |newspaper=[[Phnom Penh Post]]}}</ref> wrote in ''[[Blood and Soil (book)|Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur]]'' on the French conquest of [[Algeria]]:<ref>{{cite book |last=Kiernan |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Kiernan |title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur |page=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/374 374] |url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326 |url-access=registration |quote=374. |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=9780300100983}}</ref>
<blockquote>
''By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking a French author to protest in 1882 that in Algeria, "we hear it repeated every day that we must expel the native and, if necessary, destroy him." As a French statistical journal urged five years late, "the system of extermination must give way to a policy of penetration."''
<br />
—Ben Kiernan, ''Blood and Soil''
</blockquote>
When France recognized the [[Armenian genocide]], Turkey accused France of having committed [[genocide]] against 15% of Algeria's population.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chrisafis |first=Angelique |title=Turkey accuses France of genocide in Algeria |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/23/turkey-accuses-france-genocide-algeria |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=23 December 2011 |access-date=26 September 2019 |publisher=[[Guardian News & Media Limited]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey accuses France of genocide in colonial Algeria |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16314373 |work=[[BBC News Online]] |publisher=[[BBC News]] |agency=[[BBC]] |date=23 December 2011 |access-date=26 September 2019}}</ref>
==Popular revolts against the French occupation==
===Conquest of the Algerian territories under the July Monarchy (1830–1848)===
[[File:Sylvain Charles Valée.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sylvain Charles Valée]]]]
On 1 December 1830, [[Louis-Philippe of France|King Louis-Philippe]] named the [[Anne Jean Marie René Savary|Duc de Rovigo]] as head of military staff in Algeria. De Rovigo took control of [[Bône]] and initiated colonisation of the land. He was recalled in 1833 due to the overtly violent nature of the repression. Wishing to avoid a conflict with Morocco, Louis-Philippe sent an extraordinary mission to the sultan, mixed with displays of military might, sending war ships to the [[Bay of Tangier]]. An ambassador was sent to Sultan [[Moulay Abderrahmane]] in February 1832, headed by the Count [[Charles-Edgar de Mornay]] and including the painter [[Eugène Delacroix]]. However the sultan refused French demands that he evacuate Tlemcen.
In 1834, France annexed as a [[colony]] the occupied areas of Algeria, which had an estimated Muslim population of about two million. [[History of colonialism|Colonial administration]] in the occupied areas — the so-called {{lang|fr|régime du sabre}} (government of the sword) — was placed under a [[Colonial heads of Algeria|governor-general]], a high-ranking army officer invested with civil and military jurisdiction, who was responsible to the minister of war. [[Marshal Bugeaud]], who became the first governor-general, headed the conquest.
Soon after the conquest of Algiers, the soldier-politician [[Bertrand Clauzel]] and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and, despite official discouragement, to subsidize its settlement by European farmers, triggering a [[land run|land rush]]. Clauzel recognized the farming potential of the [[Mitidja Plain]] and envisioned the large-scale production there of [[cotton]]. As governor-general (1835–36), he used his office to make private investments in land and encouraged army officers and bureaucrats in his administration to do the same. This development created a vested interest among government officials in greater French involvement in Algeria. Commercial interests with influence in the government also began to recognize the prospects for profitable land speculation in expanding the French zone of occupation. They created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and hired local labor.
Among others testimonies, Lieutenant-colonel Lucien de Montagnac wrote on 15 March 1843, in a letter to a friend:
<blockquote>All populations who do not accept our conditions must be despoiled. Everything must be seized, devastated, without age or sex distinction: grass must not grow any more where the French army has set foot. Who wants the end wants the means, whatever may say our philanthropists. I personally warn all good soldiers whom I have the honour to lead that if they happen to bring me a living Arab, they will receive a beating with the flat of the saber.... This is how, my dear friend, we must make war against Arabs: kill all men over the age of fifteen, take all their women and children, load them onto naval vessels, send them to the [[Marquesas Islands]] or elsewhere. In one word, annihilate everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs.<ref>Lieutenant-colonel de Montagnac, Lettres d'un soldat, [[Plon (publisher)|Plon]], Paris, 1885, republished by Christian Destremeau, 1998, p. 153; [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k104391p Book accessible on] [[Gallica]]'s website. French: {{lang|fr|Toutes les populations qui n'acceptent pas nos conditions doivent être rasées. Tout doit être pris, saccagé, sans distinction d'âge ni de sexe : l'herbe ne doit plus pousser où l'armée française a mis le pied. Qui veut la fin veut les moyens, quoiqu'en disent nos philanthropes. Tous les bons militaires que j'ai l'honneur de commander sont prévenus par moi-même que s'il leur arrive de m'amener un Arabe vivant, ils recevront une volée de coups de plat de sabre. ... Voilà, mon brave ami, comment il faut faire la guerre aux Arabes : tuer tous les hommes jusqu'à l'âge de quinze ans, prendre toutes les femmes et les enfants, en charger les bâtiments, les envoyer aux îles Marquises ou ailleurs. En un mot, anéantir tout ce qui ne rampera pas à nos pieds comme des chiens.}}</ref></blockquote>
Whatever initial misgivings Louis Philippe's government may have had about occupying Algeria, the geopolitical realities of the situation created by the 1830 intervention argued strongly for reinforcing French presence there. France had reason for concern that [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], which was pledged to maintain the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, would move to fill the vacuum left by a French withdrawal. The French devised elaborate plans for settling the hinterland left by [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] provincial authorities in 1830, but their efforts at state-building were unsuccessful on account of lengthy armed resistance.
[[File:La prise de Constantine 1837 par Horace Vernet.jpg|thumb|The capture of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] by French troops, 13 October 1837 by [[Horace Vernet]]]]
The most successful local opposition immediately after the fall of Algiers was led by [[Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif|Ahmad ibn Muhammad]], {{lang|tr|bey|nocat=y}} of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]]. He initiated a radical overhaul of the Ottoman administration in his {{lang|tr|beylik|nocat=y}} by replacing [[Turkey|Turkish]] officials with local leaders, making [[Arabic language|Arabic]] the official language, and attempting to reform finances according to the precepts of [[Islam]]. After the French failed in several attempts to gain some of the {{lang|tr|bey|nocat=y}}'s territories through negotiation, an ill-fated invasion force, led by [[Bertrand Clauzel]], had to retreat from [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] in 1836 in humiliation and defeat. However, the French captured Constantine under [[Sylvain Charles Valée]] the following year, on 13 October 1837.
Historians generally set the indigenous population of Algeria at 3 million in 1830.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Etemad|first=Bouda|title=L'héritage ambigu de la colonisation|publisher=|year=2012|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Although the [[Demographics of Algeria|Algerian population]] decreased at some point under French rule, most certainly between 1866 and 1872,<ref>{{Cite book|title=La Démographie figurée de l'Algérie : étude statistique des populations européennes qui habitent l'Algérie|last=Ricoux, Dr|first=René|publisher=Librairie de l'Académie de Médecine|year=1880|location=Paris|pages=260}}</ref> the French military was not fully responsible for the extent of this decrease, as some of these deaths could be explained by the [[locust]] plagues of 1866 and 1868, as well as by a rigorous winter in 1867–68, which caused a [[famine]] followed by an epidemic of [[cholera]].<ref>Daniel Lefeuvre, {{lang|fr|Pour en finir avec la repentance coloniale}}, Editions [[Groupe Flammarion|Flammarion]] (2006), {{ISBN|2-08-210440-0}}</ref> <!-- shamefully, the [[:fr:Histoire de l'Algérie]] does not say which estimates Lefeuvre finally find... just a moral excuse? -->
===Resistance of Lalla Fadhma N'Soumer===
{{Main|Lalla Fatma N'Soumer}}
[[Image:Portrait-Fatma N'Soumer.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A print showing Fadhma N'Soumer during combat]]
The French began their occupation of Algiers in 1830, starting with a landing in [[Algiers]]. As occupation turned into colonization, [[Kabylia]] remained the only region independent of the French government. Pressure on the region increased, and the will of her people to resist and defend Kabylia increased as well.
In about 1849, a mysterious man arrived in Kabiliya. He presented himself as Mohamed ben Abdallah (the name of the [[Prophets of Islam|Prophet]]), but is more commonly known as [[Sherif Boubaghla]]. He was probably a former lieutenant in the army of Emir [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abdelkader]], defeated for the last time by the French in 1847. Boubaghla refused to surrender at that battle, and retreated to Kabylia. From there he began a war against the French armies and their allies, often employing [[guerrilla]] tactics. Boubaghla was a relentless fighter, and very eloquent in Arabic. He was very religious, and some legends tell of his [[thaumaturgy|thaumaturgic]] skills.
Boubaghla went often to Soumer to talk with high-ranking members of the religious community, and Lalla Fadhma was soon attracted by his strong personality. At the same time, the relentless combatant was attracted by a woman so resolutely willing to contribute, by any means possible, to the war against the French. With her inspiring speeches, she convinced many men to fight as {{lang|kab|imseblen}} (volunteers ready to die as martyrs) and she herself, together with other women, participated in combat by providing cooking, medicines, and comfort to the fighting forces.
Traditional sources tell that a strong bond was formed between Lalla Fadhma and Boubaghla. She saw this as a wedding of peers, rather than the traditional submission as a slave to a husband. In fact, at that time Boubaghla left his first wife (Fatima Bent Sidi Aissa) and sent back to her owner a slave he had as a concubine (Halima Bent Messaoud). But on her side, Lalla Fadhma wasn't free: even if she was recognized as {{lang|kab|tamnafeqt}} ("woman who left her husband to get back to his family", a Kabylia institution), the matrimonial tie with her husband was still in place, and only her husband's will could free her. However he did not agree to this, even when offered large bribes. The love between Fadhma and Bou remained platonic, but there were public expressions of this feeling between the two.
Fadhma was personally present at many fights in which Boubaghla was involved, particularly the battle of Tachekkirt won by Boubaghla forces (18–19 July 1854), where the French general [[Jacques Louis César Randon]] was caught but managed to escape later. On 26 December 1854, Boubaghla was killed; some sources claim it was due to treason of some of his allies. The resistance was left without a charismatic leader and a commander able to guide it efficiently. For this reason, during the first months of 1855, on a sanctuary built on top of the Azru Nethor peak, not far from the village where Fadhma was born, there was a great council among combatants and important figures of the tribes in Kabylie. They decided to grant Lalla Fadhma, assisted by her brothers, the command of combat.
===Resistance of Emir Abd al Qadir===
[[Image:EmirAbdelKader.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd el-Kader]]]]
The French faced other opposition as well in the area. The superior of a religious brotherhood, [[Muhyi ad Din]], who had spent time in Ottoman jails for opposing the bey's rule, launched attacks against the French and their makhzen allies at [[Oran]] in 1832. In the same year, [[jihad]] was declared<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Tucker|editor1-first=Spencer C.|title=Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern ...|date=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO.|page=1|chapter=Abd al-Qadir}}</ref> and to lead it tribal elders chose Muhyi ad Din's son, twenty-five-year-old [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd al Qadir]]. Abd al Qadir, who was recognized as [[Amir al-Muminin]] (commander of the faithful), quickly gained the support of tribes throughout Algeria. A devout and austere marabout, he was also a cunning political leader and a resourceful warrior. From his capital in [[Tlemcen]], Abd al Qadir set about building a territorial Muslim state based on the communities of the interior but drawing its strength from the tribes and religious brotherhoods. By 1839, he controlled more than two-thirds of Algeria. His government maintained an army and a bureaucracy, collected taxes, supported education, undertook public works, and established agricultural and manufacturing cooperatives to stimulate economic activity.
The French in Algiers viewed with concern the success of a Muslim government and the rapid growth of a viable territorial state that barred the extension of European settlement. Abd al Qadir fought running battles across Algeria with French forces, which included units of the Foreign Legion, organized in 1831 for Algerian service. Although his forces were defeated by the French under General [[Thomas Bugeaud]] in 1836, Abd al Qadir negotiated a favorable peace treaty the next year. The [[treaty of Tafna]] gained conditional recognition for Abd al Qadir's regime by defining the territory under its control and salvaged his prestige among the tribes just as the shaykhs were about to desert him. To provoke new hostilities, the French deliberately broke the treaty in 1839 by occupying [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]]. Abd al Qadir took up the holy war again, destroyed the French settlements on the Mitidja Plain, and at one point advanced to the outskirts of Algiers itself. He struck where the French were weakest and retreated when they advanced against him in greater strength. The government moved from camp to camp with the amir and his army. Gradually, however, superior French resources and manpower and the defection of tribal chieftains took their toll. Reinforcements poured into Algeria after 1840 until Bugeaud had at his disposal 108,000 men, one-third of the [[French army]].
[[File:Prise de la smalah d Abd-El-Kader a Taguin 16 mai 1843 Horace Vernet.jpg|thumb|center|800px|The [[Battle of Smala]], 16 May 1843. {{lang|fr|Prise de la smalah d Abd-El-Kader à Taguin. 16 mai 1843}}, by [[Horace Vernet]]]]
One by one, the amir's strongholds fell to the French, and many of his ablest commanders were killed or captured so that by 1843 the Muslim state had collapsed.
[[Image:FrenchTroopsMogador.JPG|thumb|French troops disembarking on the island of [[Mogador]], in [[Essaouira]] bay in 1844]]
Abd al Qadir took refuge in 1841 with his ally, the sultan of [[Morocco]], [[Abderrahmane of Morocco|Abd ar Rahman II]], and launched raids into Algeria. This alliance led the [[French Navy]] to bombard and briefly occupy [[Essaouira]] ([[Mogador]]) under the [[Prince de Joinville]] on August 16, 1844. A French force was destroyed at the [[Battle of Sidi-Brahim]] in 1845. However, Abd al Qadir was obliged to surrender to the commander of [[Oran]] Province, General [[Louis de Lamoricière]], at the end of 1847.
Abd al Qadir was promised safe conduct to [[Egypt]] or [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] if his followers laid down their arms and kept the peace. He accepted these conditions, but the minister of war — who years earlier as general in Algeria had been badly defeated by Abd al Qadir — had him consigned in France in the [[Château d'Amboise]].
==French rule==
===Demography===
{{historical populations
|title = Algeria's population under the French<br /> <small> → [[Demographics of Algeria#Population|after 1962]]</small>
|percentages = pagr
|width = 13.5em
|cols = 3
|align = left
|1830 |3,000,000|1851 |2554100
|1856 |2496100
|1862 |2999100
|1866 |2921200
|1872 |2894500
|1877 |2867600
|1882 |3310400
|1886 |3867000
|1892 |4174700
|1896 |4479000
|1900 |4675000
|1901 |4739300
|1906 |5231900
|1911 |5563800
|1921 |5804300
|1930<sup>e</sup> |6453000
|1940<sup>e</sup> |7614000
|1947 |8302000
|1948 |8681800
|1949 |8602000
|1950 |8753000
|1951 |8927000
|1952 |9126000
|1953 |9370000
|1954 |9529700
|1955 |9678000
|1956 |9903000
|1958 |10127000
|1959 |10575000
|1960 |10853000
|1962 |10920000
|source = <ref>{{cite web |title=ALgeria [Djazaïria] historical demographic data of the whole country |url=http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm |work=Population statistics |access-date=9 June 2012 |last=Lahmeyer |first=Jan |date=11 October 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718104037/http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm |archive-date=18 July 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Timeline: Algeria |url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/northafrica/tlalgiers.html |work=World History at KMLA |access-date=9 June 2012 |date=31 May 2005}}</ref>
|footnote= <big>'''<sup>e</sup>'''</big> – Indicates that this is an estimated figure.
}}
{{Graph:Chart
|type=stackedrect
|width=150
|height=150
|x=Algeria (1877)
|y1=64512
|y2=130260
|y3=4020
|y4=33506
|y5=158367
|y6=962146
|legend=Legend (Source: L'Algérie by Henry Lemonnier, 1881)
|y1Title=French citizen born in Algeria
|y2Title=French citizen born in France
|y3Title=French naturalized aliens
|y4Title=French naturalized Jews
|y5Title=Foreigners living in Algeria
|y6Title=Muslim indigènes (estimated)
|xGrid=1
|yGrid=1
}}
{{Graph:Chart
|type=stackedrect
|width=240
|height=135
|x=Civil territory, Military territory
|y1=139826,7055
|y2=114411,2388
|y3=32639,448
|y4=763216,1408474
|legend=Legend 1875 (
|xAxisTitle=Source: La démographie figurée de l'Algérie : étude statistique des populations européennes qui habitent l'Algérie by Dr René Ricoux
|y1Title=French European
|y2Title=Foreign Europeans
|y3Title=Jews Indigènes
|y4Title=Muslim Indigènes
|xGrid=1
|yGrid=1
}}
{{Graph:Chart
|type=rect
|width=320
|height=180
|x=Children, Singles, Monogams, Polygams, Divorced unmarried, Veuf
|y1=282016,147438,268938,19404,2763,14936
|y2=201426,51699,257221,46027,3167,57794
|legend=Legend 1875/1876
|xAxisTitle=Source: La démographie figurée de l'Algérie : étude statistique des populations européennes qui habitent l'Algérie by Dr René Ricoux
|y1Title=Males
|y2Title=Females
|xGrid=1
|yGrid=1
|xAxisAngle=-25
}}
{{clear}}
=== French atrocities against the Algerian indigenous population ===
[[File:Takin of Laghouat 1852.jpg|thumb|The [[siege of Laghouat]] (1852) during the [[Pacification of Algeria]].]]
According to [[Ben Kiernan]], Colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. Within the first three decades (1830–1860) of French conquest, between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, out of a total of 3 million, were killed due to war, massacres, disease and famine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jalata|first=Asafa|title=Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama bin Laden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|date=2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|isbn=978-1-137-55234-1|pages=92–3|quote=Within the first three decades, the French military massacred between half a million to one million from approximately three million Algerian people.}}</ref><ref name="Kiernan2007">{{cite book|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|author-link=Ben Kiernan|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-10098-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/364 364]–ff|quote=In Algeria, colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. From 1830 to 1847, its European settler population quadrupled to 104,000. Of the native Algerian population of approximately 3 million in 1830, about 500,000 to 1 million perished in the first three decades of French conquest.}}</ref> Atrocities committed by the French during the [[Algerian War]] during the 1950s against Algerians include deliberate bombing and killing of unarmed civilians, rape, [[Torture during the Algerian War|torture]], executions through "[[death flights]]" or [[burial alive]], thefts and pillaging.<ref name=Fawole>{{cite book|title= The Illusion of the Post-Colonial State: Governance and Security Challenges in Africa |author=W. Alade Fawole |date=June 2018 |publisher=Lexington Books|page=158|isbn=9781498564618 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WoNaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Eloquence of Silence: Algerian Women in Question |author1= Marnia Lazreg |date= 23 April 2014 |page=42 |isbn= 9781134713301 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0iVpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42}}</ref><ref name="Huma00">{{cite news|url=http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-06-24/2000-06-24-227522 |title=Prise de tête Marcel Bigeard, un soldat propre ?|newspaper= [[L'Humanité]]|date= 24 June 2000|language= fr|access-date= 15 February 2007}}</ref> Up to 2 million Algerian civilians were also deported in internment camps.<ref>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |page=127 |language=fr}}</ref>
During the [[Pacification of Algeria]] (1835-1903) French forces engaged in a [[scorched earth]] policy against the Algerian population. Colonel [[Lucien de Montagnac]] stated that the purpose of the pacification was to "destroy everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs"<ref name=scoear>Quoted in Marc Ferro, "The conquest of Algeria", in The black book of colonialism, Robert Laffont, p. 657.</ref> The scorched earth policy, decided by Governor General [[Thomas Robert Bugeaud]], had devastating effects on the socio-economic and food balances of the country: "we fire little gunshot, we burn all douars, all villages, all huts; the enemy flees across taking his flock."<ref name=scoear/> According to [[Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison]], the colonisation of Algeria lead to the extermination of a third of the population from multiple causes (massacres, deportations, famines or epidemics) that were all interrelated.<ref name=thirki>Colonize Exterminate. On War and the Colonial State, Paris, Fayard, 2005. See also the book by the American historian Benjamin Claude Brower, A Desert named Peace. The Violence of France's Empire in the Algerian Sahara, 1844–1902, New York, Columbia University Press.</ref> Returning from an investigation trip to Algeria, Tocqueville wrote that "we make war much more barbaric than the Arabs themselves [...] it is for their part that civilization is situated."<ref>Alexis de Tocqueville, De colony in Algeria. 1847, Complexe Editions, 1988.</ref>
French forces deported and banished entire Algerian tribes. The Moorish families of Tlemcen were exiled to the Orient, and others were emigrated elsewhere. The tribes that were considered too troublesome were banned, and some took refuge in Tunisia, Morocco and Syria or were deported to New Caledonia or Guyana. Also, French forces also engaged in wholesale massacres of entire tribes. All 500 men, women and children of the El Oufia tribe were killed in one night,<ref name=tribekil>Blood and Soil: Ben Kiernan, page 365, 2008</ref> while all 500 to 700 members of the Ouled Rhia tribe were killed by suffocation in a cave.<ref name=tribekil/> The [[Siege of Laghouat]] is referred by Algerians as the year of the "Khalya", Arabic for emptiness, which is commonly known to the inhabitants of Laghouat as the year that the city was emptied of its population.<ref>{{cite web|title=La conquête coloniale de l'Algérie par les Français - Rebellyon.info|url=https://rebellyon.info/La-conquete-coloniale-de-l-Algerie|website=rebellyon.info|access-date=24 November 2017|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Lettres familières sur l'Algérie : un petit royaume arabe|last=Pein |first=Théodore|publisher=C. Tanera |location=Paris|year=1871|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5789413p|pages=363–370}}</ref> It is also commonly known as the year of Hessian sacks, referring to the way the captured surviving men and boys were put alive in the hessian sacks and thrown into dug-up trenches.<ref name=":0a">{{Citation|last=Dzland Mourad|title=Documentaire :Le Génocide De Laghouat 1852 Mourad AGGOUNE|date=2013-11-30|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV-ot5-eo-s |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/PV-ot5-eo-s| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-11-23}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Al Jazeera Documentary الجزيرة الوثائقية|title=أوجاع الذاكرة – الجزائر|date=2017-11-05|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMWSTPV0O48&t=127s |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/LMWSTPV0O48| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-11-23}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
From 8 May to June 26, 1945, the French carried out the [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]], in which between 6,000 and 80,000 Algerian Muslims were killed. Its initial outbreak occurred during a parade of about 5,000 people of the Muslim Algerian population of Sétif to celebrate the surrender of Nazi Germany in World War II; it ended in clashes between the marchers and the local French gendarmerie, when the latter tried to seize banners attacking colonial rule.<ref name="TedMorgan">{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Morgan (writer) |title=My Battle of Algiers |page=[https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26 26] |isbn=978-0-06-085224-5 |date=2006-01-31 |url=https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26}}</ref> After five days, the French colonial military and police suppressed the rebellion, and then carried out a series of reprisals against Muslim civilians.<ref>General R. Hure, page 449 "L' Armee d' Afrique 1830–1962", Charles-Lavauzelle, Paris-Limoges 1977</ref> The army carried out [[summary execution]]s of Muslim rural communities. Less accessible villages were bombed by French aircraft, and cruiser [[French cruiser Duguay-Trouin (1923)|Duguay-Trouin]], standing off the coast in the Gulf of Bougie, shelled Kherrata.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/le-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945|title=Le cas de Sétif-Kherrata-Guelma (Mai 1945) {{!}} Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche|website=www.sciencespo.fr|language=fr|access-date=2019-08-03}}</ref> Vigilantes lynched prisoners taken from local jails or randomly shot Muslims not wearing white arm bands (as instructed by the army) out of hand.<ref name="TedMorgan"/> It is certain that the great majority of the Muslim victims had not been implicated in the original outbreak.<ref name="Horne27">Horne, p. 27.</ref> The dead bodies in Guelma were buried in mass graves, but they were later dug up and burned in [[Héliopolis, Algeria|Héliopolis]].<ref name="JeanPierre">{{Cite book|title=Guelma, 1945 : une subversion française dans l'Algérie coloniale|last=Peyroulou|first=Jean-Pierre|date=2009|publisher=Éditions La Découverte|isbn=9782707154644|location=Paris|chapter=8. La légitimation et l'essor de la subversion 13-19 mai 1945|oclc=436981240}}</ref>
During the [[Algerian War]] (1954-1962), the French used deliberate [[Torture during the Algerian War|illegal methods]] against the Algerians, including (as described by [[Henri Alleg]], who himself had been tortured, and historians such as Raphaëlle Branche) beatings, torture by electroshock, [[waterboarding]], burns, and rape.<ref name="Huma00"/><ref name=Horne>{{cite book |last = Horne |first = Alistair |publication-date = 2006 |year = 1977 |title = A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 |publisher = New York Review |isbn = 978-1-59017-218-6 |pages=198–200}}</ref><ref name="Rey">Text published in ''Vérité Liberté'' n°9 May 1961.</ref> Prisoners were also locked up [[Starvation|without food]] in small cells, [[buried alive]], and [[Death flights|thrown from helicopters]] to their death or into the sea with concrete on their feet.<ref name="Huma00"/><ref>[http://ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&num_notice=8&total_notices=8&mc=Favre,%20Bernard Film testimony] by [[Paul Teitgen]], [[Jacques Duquesne (journalist)|Jacques Duquesne]] and [[Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc]] on the [[Institut national de l'audiovisuel|INA]] archive website {{dead link|date=September 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.elwatan.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=7095 Henri Pouillot, mon combat contre la torture], ''[[El Watan]]'', 1 November 2004.</ref><ref>[http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778 Des guerres d’Indochine et d’Algérie aux dictatures d’Amérique latine], interview with [[Marie-Monique Robin]] by the [[Ligue des droits de l'homme]] (LDH, Human Rights League), 10 January 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930181518/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778 |date=30 September 2007 }}</ref> [[Claude Bourdet]] had denounced these acts on 6 December 1951, in the magazine ''L'Observateur'', rhetorically asking, "Is there a [[Gestapo]] in Algeria?".<ref>[[Mohamed Harbi]], ''La guerre d'Algérie''</ref><ref name=":3">[[Benjamin Stora]], ''La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie''</ref><ref>[[Raphaëlle Branche]], ''La torture et l'armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie, 1954–1962'', Paris, Gallimard, 2001 See also [http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm The French Army and Torture During the Algerian War (1954–1962)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020184243/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm |date=2007-10-20}}, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de [[Rennes]], 18 November 2004 {{in lang|en}}</ref>
D. Huf, in his seminal work on the subject, argued that the use of torture was one of the major factors in developing French opposition to the war.<ref>[[David Huf]], ''Between a Rock and a Hard Place: France and Algeria, 1954–1962''</ref> Huf argued, "Such tactics sat uncomfortably with France's revolutionary history, and brought unbearable comparisons with [[Nazi Germany]]. The French national psyche would not tolerate any parallels between their experiences of occupation and their colonial mastery of Algeria." General [[Paul Aussaresses]] admitted in 2000 that systematic torture techniques were used during the war and justified it. He also recognized the assassination of lawyer [[Ali Boumendjel]] and the head of the FLN in Algiers, [[Larbi Ben M'Hidi]], which had been disguised as suicides.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=702899|title=L'accablante confession du général Aussaresses sur la torture en Algérie|newspaper=Le Monde|date=3 May 2001}}</ref> [[Marcel Bigeard|Bigeard]], who called FLN activists "savages", claimed torture was a "necessary evil".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041813/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 February 2010 |title=Guerre d'Algérie: le général Bigeard et la pratique de la torture|newspaper=Le Monde|date=4 July 2000}}</ref><ref>[http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797 Torture Bigeard: " La presse en parle trop "] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050624162750/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797 |date=June 24, 2005}}, ''[[L'Humanité]]'', May 12, 2000 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> To the contrary, General Jacques Massu denounced it, following Aussaresses's revelations and, before his death, pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of the use of torture during the war.<ref>[http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie / 1954 – 1962 40 ans après, l'exigence de vérité] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209225257/http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html |date=2007-02-09}}, AIDH</ref>
In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in [[Sidi Ferruch]], a torture center where Algerians were murdered. Bigeard qualified [[Louisette Ighilahriz]]'s revelations, published in the ''Le Monde'' newspaper on June 20, 2000, as "lies." An ALN activist, Louisette Ighilahriz had been tortured by General Massu.<ref>[http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827 "Le témoignage de cette femme est un tissu de mensonges. Tout est faux, c'est une manoeuvre"], ''[[Le Monde]]'', June 22, 2000 {{in lang|fr}} {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041927/http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827 |date=February 19, 2010}}</ref> However, since General Massu's revelations, Bigeard has admitted the use of torture, although he denies having personally used it, and has declared, "You are striking the heart of an 84-year-old man." Bigeard also recognized that Larbi Ben M'Hidi was assassinated and that his death was disguised as a suicide.
In 2018 France officially admitted that torture was systematic and routine.<ref>{{cite news|title=France admits systematic torture during Algeria war for first time|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/13/france-state-responsible-for-1957-death-of-dissident-maurice-audin-in-algeria-says-macron|newspaper=The Guardian|date=13 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/|title=FRANCE RESETS AFRICAN RELATIONS: A POTENTIAL LESSON FOR PRESIDENT TRUMP|last=Genin|first=Aaron|date=2019-04-30|website=The California Review|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/ |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=France may have apologised for atrocities in Algeria, but the war still casts a long shadow|last=Samuel|first=Henry|date=2018-09-15|work=The Telegraph|access-date=2019-05-01|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
===Hegemony of the {{lang|fr|colons|nocat=y}}===
====Political organization====
A commission of inquiry established by the [[French Senate]] in 1892 and headed by former Premier [[Jules Ferry]], an advocate of colonial expansion, recommended that the government abandon a policy that assumed French law, without major modifications, could fit the needs of an area inhabited by close to two million Europeans and four million Muslims. Muslims had no representation in the [[French National Assembly]] before 1945 and were grossly under-represented on local councils. Because of the many restrictions imposed by the authorities, by 1915 only 50,000 Muslims were eligible to vote in elections in the civil communes. Attempts to implement even the most modest reforms were blocked or delayed by the local administration in Algeria, dominated by {{lang|fr|colons}}, and by the 27 {{lang|fr|colon}} representatives in the National Assembly (six deputies and three senators from each department).{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}
Once elected to the National Assembly, {{lang|fr|colons}} became permanent fixtures. Because of their [[seniority]], they exercised disproportionate influence, and their support was important to any government's survival.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beckett|first=I. F. W.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46401992|title=Modern insurgencies and counter-insurgencies : guerrillas and their opponents since 1750|date=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-23933-8|location=London|pages=160–161|oclc=46401992}}</ref> The leader of the {{lang|fr|colon}} delegation, [[Auguste Warnier]] (1810–1875), succeeded during the 1870s in modifying or introducing legislation to facilitate the private transfer of land to settlers and continue the Algerian state's appropriation of land from the local population and distribution to settlers. Consistent proponents of reform, like [[Georges Clemenceau]] and socialist [[Jean Jaurès]], were rare in the National Assembly.
====Economic organization====
[[File:Moorish women making Arab carpets, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697844.jpg|thumb|Moorish women making Arab carpets, Algiers, 1899]]
The bulk of Algeria's wealth in [[manufacturing]], [[mining]], [[agriculture]], and [[trade]] was controlled by the {{lang|fr|grands colons}}. The modern European-owned and -managed sector of the economy centered on small industry and a highly developed export trade, designed to provide food and raw materials to France in return for capital and consumer goods. Europeans held about 30% of the total arable land, including the bulk of the most fertile land and most of the areas under irrigation.<ref>Alistair Horne, page 62 "A Savage War of Peace", {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref> By 1900, Europeans produced more than two-thirds of the value of output in agriculture and practically all agricultural exports. The modern, or European, sector was run on a commercial basis and meshed with the French market system that it supplied with wine, citrus, olives, and [[vegetable]]s. Nearly half of the value of European-owned real property was in vineyards by 1914. By contrast, subsistence [[cereal]] production—supplemented by olive, fig, and date growing and stock raising—formed the basis of the traditional sector, but the land available for cropping was submarginal even for cereals under prevailing traditional cultivation practices.
In 1953, sixty per cent of the Muslim rural population were officially classed as being destitute. The European community, numbering at the time about one million out of a total population of nine million, owned about 66% of farmable land and produced all of the 1.3 million tons of wine that provided the base of the Algerian economy. Exports of Algerian wine and wheat to France were balanced in trading terms by a flow of manufactured goods.<ref>[[John Gunther]], pages 122–123 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd London 1955</ref>
The colonial regime imposed more and higher taxes on Muslims than on Europeans.<ref>Alistair Horne, page 63 "A Savage War of Peace", {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref> The Muslims, in addition to paying traditional taxes dating from before the French conquest, also paid new taxes, from which the {{lang|fr|colons}} were normally exempted. In 1909, for instance, Muslims, who made up almost 90% of the population but produced 20% of Algeria's income, paid 70% of direct taxes and 45% of the total taxes collected. And {{lang|fr|colons}} controlled how these revenues would be spent. As a result, {{lang|fr|colon}} towns had handsome municipal buildings, paved streets lined with trees, fountains and statues, while Algerian villages and rural areas benefited little if at all from tax revenues.
In financial terms Algeria was a drain on the French tax-payer. In the early 1950s the total Algerian budget of seventy-two billion francs included a direct subsidy of twenty-eight billion contributed from the metropolitan budget. Described at the time as being a French luxury, continued rule from Paris was justified on a variety of grounds including historic sentiment, strategic value and the political influence of the European settler population.<ref>John Gunther, page 123 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd. London 1955</ref>
====Schools====
[[File:Arab school of embroidery, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697839.jpg|thumb|right|Arab school of embroidery, Algiers, 1899]]
The colonial regime proved severely detrimental to overall education for Algerian Muslims, who had previously relied on religious schools to learn reading and writing and engage in religious studies. Not only did the state appropriate the habus lands (the religious foundations that constituted the main source of income for religious institutions, including schools) in 1843, but {{lang|fr|colon}} officials refused to allocate enough money to maintain schools and mosques properly and to provide for enough teachers and religious leaders for the growing population. In 1892, more than five times as much was spent for the education of Europeans as for Muslims, who had five times as many children of school age. Because few Muslim teachers were trained, Muslim schools were largely staffed by French teachers. Even a state-operated ''[[madrasah]]'' (school) often had French faculty members. Attempts to institute bilingual, bicultural schools, intended to bring Muslim and European children together in the classroom, were a conspicuous failure, rejected by both communities and phased out after 1870. According to one estimate, fewer than 5% of Algerian children attended any kind of school in 1870. As late as 1954 only one Muslim boy in five and one girl in sixteen was receiving formal schooling.<ref>Alistair Horne, pages 60–61 "A Savage War of Peace", {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref> The level of literacy amongst the total Muslim population was estimated at only 2% in urban areas and half of that figure in the rural hinterland.<ref>John Gunther, page 125 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd. London 1955</ref>
Efforts were begun by 1890 to educate a small number of Muslims along with European students in the French school system as part of France's "[[civilizing mission]]" in Algeria. The curriculum was entirely French and allowed no place for Arabic studies, which were deliberately downgraded even in Muslim schools. Within a generation, a class of well-educated, gallicized Muslims — the {{lang|fr|évolués}} (literally, the evolved ones)—had been created. Almost all of the handful of Muslims who accepted French citizenship were {{lang|fr|évolués}}; ironically, this privileged group of Muslims, strongly influenced by French culture and political attitudes, developed a new Algerian self-consciousness.
====Relationships between the colons, Indigènes and France====
Reporting to the French Senate in 1894, Governor General [[Jules Cambon]] wrote that Algeria had "only a dust of people left her." He referred to the destruction of the traditional ruling class that had left Muslims without leaders and had deprived France of {{lang|fr|interlocuteurs valables}} (literally, valid go-betweens), through whom to reach the masses of the people. He lamented that no genuine communication was possible between the two communities.<ref>Alistair Horne, page 36 "A Savage War of Peace", {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref>
The {{lang|fr|colons}} who ran Algeria maintained a dialog only with the {{lang|fr|[[beni-oui-ouis]]}}. Later they thwarted contact between the {{lang|fr|[[évolué]]s}} and Muslim traditionalists on the one hand and between {{lang|fr|évolués}} and official circles in France on the other. They feared and mistrusted the Francophone {{lang|fr|évolués}}, who were classified either as assimilationist, insisting on being accepted as Frenchmen but on their own terms, or as integrationists, eager to work as members of a distinct Muslim elite on equal terms with the French.
===Separate personal status===
{{See also|Indigénat}}
[[File:Negroes playing chess, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697845.jpg|thumb|Algerians playing chess, Algiers, 1899]]
[[File:Moorish coffee house, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697835.jpg|thumb|right|Moorish coffee house, Algiers, 1899]]
[[File:Group of Arabs, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697831.jpg|thumb|right|Group of Arabs, Algiers, 1899]]
Two communities existed: the French national and the people living with their own traditions.
Following its conquest of [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]]-controlled [[Algeria]] in 1830, for well over a century, France maintained what was effectively [[French colonial empires|colonial rule]] in the territory, though the [[French Constitution of 1848]] made Algeria part of France, and Algeria was usually understood as such by French people, even on the Left.<ref>David Scott Bell. ''Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France'', Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36.</ref>
Algeria became the prototype for a pattern of French colonial rule.
With nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians "dominated" by one million settlers, Algeria had similarities with South Africa, that has later been described as "quasi-[[apartheid]]"<ref name=Bell>"Algeria ... was a society of nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians who were dominated by the
million settlers of diverse origins (but fiercely French) who maintained a quasi-apartheid regime." David Scott Bell. ''Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France'', Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36.</ref> while the concept of apartheid was formalized in 1948.
This personal status lasted the entire time Algeria was French, from 1830 till 1962, with various changes in the meantime.
When French rule began, France had no well-established systems for intensive colonial governance, the main existing legal provision being the 1685 ''[[Code Noir]]'' which was related to slave-trading and owning and incompatible with the legal context of Algeria.
Indeed, France was committed in respecting the local law.
====Status before 1865====
On 5 July 1830, [[Hussein Dey]], regent of Algiers, signed the act of capitulation to the [[Régence]], which committed [[Louis Auguste Victor de Ghaisne de Bourmont|General de Bourmont]] and France "not to infringe on the freedom of people of all classes and their religion".<ref name="Weil-2005-96">{{Harvsp|Weil|2005|p=96}}.</ref>
Muslims still remain submitted to the Muslim Customary law and Jews to the Law of Moses; all of them remained linked to the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Blévis-2012-213">{{Harvsp|Blévis|2012|id=Blévis, 2012a|p=213}}.</ref>
That same year and the same month, the [[July Revolution]] ended the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]] and began the [[July Monarchy]] in which [[Louis Philippe I]] was King of the French.
The royal ''"Ordonnance du 22 juillet 1834"'' organized general government and administration of the French territories in North Africa and is usually considered as an effective [[annexation]] of Algeria by France;<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746">{{Harvsp|Sahia-Cherchari|2004|id=Sahia-Cherchari-2004|pp=745–746}}.</ref> the annexation made all people legally linked to France and broke the legal link between people and the Ottoman Empire,<ref name="Blévis-2012-213" /> because [[International law]] made annexation systematically induce a [[:fr:régnicole|régnicole]]s.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746" /> This made people living in Algeria "French subjects",<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747">{{Harvsp|Sahia-Cherchari|2004|id=Sahia-Cherchari-2004|p=747}}.</ref> without providing them any way to become French nationals.<ref name="Weil-2005-97">{{Harvsp|Weil|2005|p=97}}.</ref> However, since it was not [[positive law]], this text did not introduce legal certainty on this topic.<ref name="Blévis-2012-213" /><ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747" />
This was confirmed by the [[French Constitution of 1848]]
As French rule in Algeria expanded, particularly under [[Thomas-Robert Bugeaud]] (1841–48), discriminatory governance became increasingly formalised. In 1844, Bugeaud formalised a system of European settlements along the coast, under civil government, with Arab/Berber areas in the interior under military governance.<ref name="Murray Steele 2005 pp. 50-52">Murray Steele, 'Algeria: Government and Administration, 1830–1914', ''Encyclopedia of African History'', ed. by Kevin Shillington, 3 vols (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005), I pp. 50–52 (at p. 51).</ref> An important feature of French rule was ''cantonnement'', whereby tribal land that was supposedly unused was seized by the state, which enabled French colonists to expand their landholdings, and pushed indigenous people onto more marginal land and made them more vulnerable to drought;<ref name="Allan Christelow 2005 pp. 52-53">Allan Christelow, 'Algeria: Muslim Population, 1871–1954', ''Encyclopedia of African History'', ed. by Kevin Shillington, 3 vols (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005), I pp. 52–53 (p. 52).</ref> this was extended under the governance of Bugeaud's successor, [[Jacques Louis Randon]].<ref name="Murray Steele 2005 pp. 50-52"/>
A case in 1861 questioned the legal status of people in Algeria. On 28 November 1861, the ''conseil de l'ordre des avocats du barreau d'Alger'' (Bar association of Algiers) declined to recognise [[Élie Énos]] (or Aïnos), a Jew from Algiers, since only French citizens could become lawyers.<ref name="Blévis-2012-213" /> On 24 February 1862 (''appeal'') and on 15 February 1864 ''(cassation)'', judges reconsidered this, deciding that people could display the qualities of being French (without having access to the full rights of a French citizen).<ref name="Blévis2012-213-214">{{Harvsp|Blévis|2012|id=Blévis, 2012a|pp=213–214}}.</ref>
====Status since 1865====
{{Rough translation|French|Français|section|date=August 2022}}
[[Napoleon III]] was the first elected president of the [[French Second Republic]] before becoming [[Emperor of the French]] by the [[1852 French Second Empire referendum]] after the [[French coup d'état of 1851]]. In the 1860s, influenced by [[Ismael Urbain]], he introduced what were intended as liberalizing reforms in Algeria, promoting the French colonial model of [[Assimilation (French colonialism)|assimilation]], whereby colonised peoples would eventually [[Évolué|become French]]. His reforms were resisted by colonists in Algeria, and his attempts to allow Muslims to be elected to a putative new assembly in Paris failed.
However, he oversaw an 1865 decree (''sénatus-consulte du 14 juillet 1865 sur l'état des personnes et la naturalisation en Algérie'') that "stipulated that all the colonised indigenous were under French jurisdiction, i.e., French nationals subjected to French laws", and allowed Arab, Jewish, and Berber Algerians to request French citizenship—but only if they "renounced their Muslim religion and culture".<ref>Debra Kelly. ''Autobiography and Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French'', Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43.</ref>
This was the first time ''indigènes'' (natives) were allowed to access French citizenship,<ref name="Weil-2002-227">{{Harvsp|Weil|2002|p=227}}.</ref> but such citizenship was incompatible with the ''statut personnel'',<ref name="Blévis-2003-28">{{Harvsp|Blévis|2003|p=28}}.</ref> which allowed them to live within the Muslim traditions.
* Flandin argued that French citizenship was not compatible with Muslim status, since it had opposing laws on marriage, repudiation, divorce, and children's legal status.
* [[Claude Alphonse Delangle]], senator, also argued that Muslim and Jewish religions allowed polygamy, repudiation, and divorce.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Surkis |first1=Judith |title=Propriété, polygamie et statut personnel en Algérie coloniale, 1830–1873 |journal=Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle |date=15 December 2010 |issue=41 |pages=27–48 |doi=10.4000/rh19.4041 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/rh19/4041 |language=fr|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Later, Azzedine Haddour argued that this decree established "the formal structures of a political apartheid".<ref name="Debra Kelly 2005, p. 43">Debra Kelly, ''Autobiography and Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French'', Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43.</ref> Since few people were willing to abandon their religious values (which was seen as [[apostasy]]), rather than promoting assimilation, the legislation had the opposite effect: by 1913, only 1,557 Muslims had been granted French citizenship.<ref name="Murray Steele 2005 pp. 50-52"/>
Special penalties were managed by the ''cadis'' or tribe head but because this system was unfair it was decided by a [[Circulaire]] on 12 February 1844 to take control of those specific fines. Those fines were defined by various prefectural decrees, and were later known as the ''Code de l'indigénat.'' Lack of [[codification (law)|codification]] means that there is no complete text summary of these fines available.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5657089r/f233.image | title=Répertoire du droit administratif. Tome 1 / Par Léon Béquet,... ; avec le concours de M. Paul Dupré }}</ref>
On 28 July 1881, a new law (''loi qui confère aux Administrateurs des communes mixtes en territoire civil la répression, par voie disciplinaire, des infractions spéciales à l'indigénat'') known as the ''[[Code de l'indigénat]]'' was formally introduced for seven years to help administration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6127976d|title=Recueil général des lois et des arrêts : en matière civile, criminelle, commerciale et de droit public... / par J.-B. Sirey|date=February 28, 1882|website=Gallica}}</ref> It enabled district officials to issue summary [[fine (penalty)|fines]] to Muslims without due legal process, and to extract special taxes.
This temporary law was renewed by other temporary laws: the laws of 27 June 1888 for two years, 25 June 1890, 25 June 1897, 21 December 1904, 24 December 1907, 5 July 1914, 4 August 1920, 11 July 1922 and 30 December 1922.<ref name="Collot-1987-291">{{Harvsp|Collot|1987|p=291}}.</ref> By 1897, fines could be changed into
forced labor.<ref name="Thénault-2012-205">{{Harvsp|Thénault|2012|p=205}}.</ref>
Periodic attempts at partial reform failed:
* In 1881, [[Paul Leroy-Beaulieu]] created the ''Société française pour la protection des Indigènes des colonies (French society for the protection of natives)'' to give ''indigènes'' the right of vote.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761">{{Harvsp|id=Sahia-Cherchari-2004|Sahia-Cherchari|2004|p=761}}.</ref><ref name="Weil-2002-230">{{Harvsp|Weil|2002|p=230}}.</ref>
* In 1887, [[Henri Michelin]] and [[Alfred Nicolas Gaulier|Alfred Gaulier]] proposed the naturalisation of the ''indigènes'', keeping the personal status from the local law but removing the personal status of common right from the Civil Code.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761" /><ref name="Weil-2002-230-231">{{Harvsp|Weil|2002|pp=230–231}}.</ref>
* In 1890, [[Alfred Albert Martineau|Alfred Martineau]] proposed a progressive French naturalisation of all Muslim ''indigènes'' living in Algeria.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761" /><ref name="Weil-2002-231">{{Harvsp|Weil|2002|p=231}}</ref>
* In 1911, ''La revue indigène'' published several articles signed by law professors ([[André Weiss (jurist)|André Weiss]], Arthur Giraud, Charles de Boeck and [[Eugène Audinet]]) advocating naturalization of the ''indigènes'' with their status.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761" />
* In 1912, the [[Mouvement national algérien#Jeunes Algériens|Jeunes Algériens]] movement claimed in its ''Manifeste'' that the naturalization with their status and with conditions of the Algerian ''indigènes''.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761" />
In 1909, 70% of all direct taxes in Algeria were paid by Muslims, despite their general poverty.<ref name="Murray Steele 2005 pp. 50-52"/>
Opportunities for Muslims improved slightly from the 1890s, particularly for urban elites, which helped ensure acquiescence to the introduction of military conscription for Muslims in 1911.<ref name="Allan Christelow 2005 pp. 52-53"/>
[[Napoléon III]] received a petition signed by more than 10,000 local Jews asking for collective access to French citizenship.<ref name="Weil-2005-98">{{Harvsp|Weil|2005|p=98}}.</ref> This was also the desire, between 1865 and 1869, of the ''Conseils généraux des départements algériens''.<ref name="Weil-2005-98" /> The Jews were the main part of the population that desired French citizenship.<ref name="Gallissot-2009-7">{{Harvsp|Gallissot|2009|p=7}}.</ref>
Under the [[French Third Republic]], on 24 October 1870, based on a project from the [[Second French Empire]],<ref name="Blévis-2012-215-216">{{Harvsp|Blévis|2012|id=Blévis, 2012a|pp=215–216}}.</ref> [[Adolphe Crémieux]], founder and president of the [[Alliance israélite universelle]] and minister of Justice of the [[Government of National Defense]] defined with [[Patrice de Mac Mahon|Mac Mahon]]'s agreement a series of seven decrees related to Algeria, the most notable being number 136 known as the ''[[Crémieux Decree]]'' which granted French citizenship to [[History of the Jews in Algeria|Algerian indigenous Jews]].<ref name="Weil-2005-98" /> A different decree, numbered 137, related to Muslims and foreigners and required 21 years of age to ask for French citizenship.
In 1870, the French government granted [[History of the Jews in Algeria|Algerian Jews]] French citizenship under the ''[[Crémieux Decree]]'', but not Muslims.<ref name="Weil" >Patrick Weil, [https://archive.org/details/howtobefrenchnat0000weil/page/128 ''How to Be French: Nationality in the Making since 1789,''] Duke University Press 2008 p.253.</ref> This meant that most Algerians were still 'French subjects', treated as the objects of French law, but were still not citizens, could still not vote, and were effectively without the right to citizenship.<ref name="Debra Kelly 2005, p. 43"/>
In 1919, after the involvement of 172,019 Algerians in the First World War, the [[Jonnart Law]] eased access to French citizenship for those who met one of several criteria, such as working for the French army, a son in a war, knowing how to read and write in the French language, having a public position, being married to or born of an indigène who became a French citizen.{{sfn|Renucci|2004|loc={{§|26}}}} Half a million Algerians were exempted from the ''indigénat'' status, and this status became void in 1927 in the mixed towns but remained applicable in other towns until its abrogation in 1944.<ref name="Thénault-2012-205" />
Later, Jewish people's citizenship was revoked by the [[Vichy government]] in the early 1940s, but was restored in 1943.
====Muslim French====
Despite periodic attempts at partial reform, the situation of the ''Code de l'indigénat'' persisted until the [[French Fourth Republic]], which formally began in 1946.
On 7 March 1944 ''ordonnance'' ended the ''Code de l'indigénat'' and created a second electoral college for 1,210,000 non-citizen Muslims and made 60,000 Muslims French citizen and with a vote in the first electoral college. <br />
The 17 August 1945 ''ordonnance'' gave each of the two colleges 15 MPs and 7 senators.<br />
On 7 May 1946, the ''Loi Lamine Guèye'' gave French citizenship to every overseas national, including Algerians, giving them a right to vote at 21 years old.<br />
The [[:fr:Constitution française du 27 octobre 1946|French Constitution]] of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] conceptualized the dissociation of citizenship and personal status (but no legal text implements this dissociation).
Although Muslim Algerians were accorded the rights of citizenship, the system of discrimination was maintained in more informal ways. Frederick Cooper writes that Muslim Algerians "were still marginalized in their own territory, notably the separate voter roles of "French" civil status and of "Muslim" civil status, to keep their hands on power."<ref>{{cite book |first=Frederick |last=Cooper |chapter=Alternatives to Nationalism in French West Africa, 1945–60 |pages=110–37 |editor-first=Marc |editor-last=Frey |editor2-first=Jost |editor2-last=Dülferr |title=Elites and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century |location=Houndmills |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-230-24369-9}}</ref>
In the specific context following the second war, in 1947 is introduced the [[:fr:Statut de 1947|1947 statute]] which granted a local status citizenship to the ''indigènes'' who became "Muslim French" (''Français musulmans''), while other French were ''Français non-musulmans'' remain civil status citizens<ref name="Gallissot-2009-10">{{Harvsp|Gallissot|2009|p=10}}.</ref>{{,}}.<ref name="Baussant-2004-109">{{Harvsp|Baussant|2004|p=109}}.</ref> The rights differences are no longer implied by a status difference, but by the difference between the two territories, Algerian and French.<ref name="Shepard-2008-60-61">{{Harvsp| Shepard|2008|pp=60–61}}.</ref>
This system is rejected by some European for introducing Muslims into the European college, and rejected by some Algerian nationalists for not giving full sovereignty to the Algerian nation.<!-- reference was never defined, full citation is needed <ref name="Droz794"/>.-->{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}
This "internal system of apartheid" met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the [[Algerian War|1954 insurrection]].<ref name=Wall>{{cite book |quote=As a settler colony with an internal system of apartheid, administered under the fiction that it was part of metropolitan France, and endowed with a powerful colonial lobby that virtually determined the course of French politics with respect to its internal affairs, it experienced insurrection in 1954 on the part of its Muslim population. |last=Wall |first=Irwin M. |title=France, the United States, and the Algerian War |publisher=University of California Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-520-22534-1 |page=262}}</ref>
====Algerian citizens====
On 18 March 1962, the [[Évian Accords]] guaranteed of protection, non-discrimination and property rights for all Algerian citizens and the right of self-determination to Algeria.<ref name="evian">{{Cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20507/v507.pdf|title=Exchange of letters and declarations adopted on 19 March 1962 at the close of the Evian talks, constituting an agreement. Paris and Rocher Noir, 3 July 1962 known as Évian Accords}}</ref> In France it was approved by the [[1962 French Évian Accords referendum]].
The agreement address various statuses:
* Algerian civil rights
* Rights and freedoms of Algerian citizens of ordinary civil status
* French nationals residing in Algeria as aliens.<ref name="evian" />
The Évian Accords offered French nationals Algerian civil rights for three years, but required them to apply for Algerian nationality.<ref name="evian" /> During the three years period, the agreement offer:
{{Blockquote|They will receive guarantees appropriate to their cultural, linguistic and religious characteristics. They will retain their personal status, which will be respected and enforced by Algerian courts composed of judges of the same status. They will use the French language within the assemblies and in their relations with the constituted authorities.|Évian Accords.<ref name="evian" />}}
The European French community (the ''colon'' population), the ''[[pieds-noirs]]'' and [[History of the Jews in Algeria|indigenous Sephardi Jews]] in Algeria were guaranteed religious freedom and property rights as well as French citizenship with the option to choose between French and Algerian citizenship after three years. Algerians were permitted to continue freely circulating between their country and France for work, although they would not have political rights equal to French citizens.
The [[Organisation armée secrète|OAS]] right-wing movement opposed this agreement.
==Government and administration==
===Initial settling of Algeria (1830–48)===
In November 1830, French colonial officials attempted to limit the arrivals at Algerian ports by requiring the presentation of passports and residence permits.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=By Sword and Plow: France and the Conquest of Algeria |last=Sessions |first=Jennifer |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2011|isbn=978-0801449758}}</ref> The regulations created by the French government in May 1831 required permission from the Interior Ministry to enter Algeria and other French controlled territories.
This May circular allowed merchants with trading interests easy access to passports because they were not permanent settlers?, and wealthy persons who planned to found agricultural enterprises in Algeria were also freely given access to move. The circular forbade passage to indigents and needy unskilled workers.<ref name=":0" /> During the 1840s, the French government assisted certain emigrants to Algeria, who were mostly urban workers from the Paris basin and France's eastern frontier and were not the agricultural workers that the colonial officials wanted to be sent from France. Single men received 68 percent of the free passages and only 14 percent of the emigrants were women because of varying policies about the emigration of families that all favored unaccompanied males who were seen as more flexible and useful for laborious tasks. Initially in November 1840, families were eligible only if they had no small children and two-thirds of the family was able to work.
Later, in September 1841, only unaccompanied males could travel to Algeria for free and a complicated system for families was developed that made subsidized travel almost unavailable. These emigrants were offered many different forms of government assistance including free passage (both to the ports of France and by ship to Algeria), wine rations and food, land concessions, and were promised high wages. Between 1841 and 1845, about 20,000 individuals were offered this assisted emigration by the French government, though it is unknown exactly how many actually went to Algeria.<ref name=":0" /> These measures were funded and supported by the French government (both local and national) because they saw the move to Algeria as a solution to overpopulation and unemployment; those who applied for assisted emigration emphasized their work ethic, undeserved employment in France, a presumption of government obligation to the less fortunate. By 1848, Algeria was populated by 109,400 Europeans, only 42,274 of whom were French.<ref name=":0" />
===Colonisation and military control===
{{More citations needed|section|date=December 2018}}
[[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in Algiers in 1857]]
A royal ordinance in 1845 called for three types of administration in Algeria. In areas where Europeans were a substantial part of the population, {{lang|fr|colons}} elected mayors and councils for self-governing "full exercise" communes ({{lang|fr|communes de plein exercice}}). In the "mixed" communes, where Muslims were a large majority, government was in the hands of appointed and some elected officials, including representatives of the {{lang|fr|grands chefs}} (great chieftains) and a French administrator. The indigenous communes ({{lang|fr|communes indigènes}}), remote areas not adequately pacified, remained under the {{lang|fr|régime du sabre}} (rule of the sword).
By 1848 nearly all of northern Algeria was under French control. Important tools of the colonial administration, from this time until their elimination in the 1870s, were the {{lang|fr|[[bureaux arabes]]}} (Arab Bureaus), staffed by Arabists whose function was to collect information on the indigenous people and to carry out administrative functions, nominally in cooperation with the army. The {{lang|fr|bureaux arabes}} on occasion acted with sympathy to the local population and formed a buffer between Muslims and {{lang|fr|colons}}.
Under the {{lang|fr|régime du sabre}}, the {{lang|fr|colons}} had been permitted limited self-government in areas where European settlement was most intense, but there was constant friction between them and the army. The {{lang|fr|colons}} charged that the {{lang|fr|bureaux arabes}} hindered the progress of [[colonization]]. They agitated against [[military dictatorship|military rule]], complaining that their legal rights were denied under the arbitrary controls imposed on the colony and insisting on a civil administration for Algeria fully integrated with metropolitan France. The army warned that the introduction of civilian government would invite Muslim retaliation and threaten the security of Algeria. The French government vacillated in its policy, yielding small concessions to the ''colon'' demands on the one hand while maintaining the ''régime du sabre'' to control the Muslim majority on the other.
===Under the French Second Republic and Second Empire (1848–70)===
{{More citations needed|section|date=December 2018}}
[[File:French Algeria Naval Ensign 1848-1910.svg|thumb|Merchant ensign 1848–1910<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://d-o-i-f.blogspot.com/p/afrique.html|title=Drapeaux d'Origine & d'Inspiration Françaises (DO&IF): Afrique}}</ref>]]
[[File:Prise de la Zaatcha (1849).png|thumb|Capture of the Zaatcha (1849)]]
[[File:Algérie fr.jpg|thumb|1877 map of the three French departments of Alger, Oran and Constantine]]
Shortly after Louis Philippe's constitutional monarchy was overthrown in the revolution of 1848, the new government of the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] ended Algeria's status as a colony and declared in the 1848 Constitution the occupied lands an integral part of France. Three civil territories — [[Alger (department)|Alger]], [[Oran (department)|Oran]], and [[Constantine (departement)|Constantine]] — were organized as [[Departments of France]] (local administrative units) under a civilian government. This made them a part of France proper as opposed to a colony. For the first time, French citizens in the civil territories elected their own councils and mayors; Muslims had to be appointed, could not hold more than one-third of council seats, and could not serve as mayors or assistant [[mayor]]s. The administration of territories outside the zones settled by colons remained under the French Army. Local Muslim administration was allowed to continue under the supervision of French Army commanders, charged with maintaining order in newly pacified regions, and the {{lang|fr|bureaux arabes}}. Theoretically, these areas were closed to European colonization.
===Land and colonisers===
[[File:Famine in Algeria 1869.jpg|thumb|The famine of Algeria in 1869<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taithe|first=Bertrand|date=2010-12-15|others=Hélène Blais, Claire Fredj, Saada Emmanuelle|title=La famine de 1866–1868 : anatomie d'une catastrophe et construction médiatique d'un événement|url=https://rh19.revues.org/4051|journal=Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle. Société d'histoire de la révolution de 1848 et des révolutions du XIXe siècle|language=fr|issue=41|pages=113–127|doi=10.4000/rh19.4051|issn=1265-1354}}</ref>]]
Even before the decision was made to annex Algeria, major changes had taken place. In a bargain-hunting frenzy to take over or buy at low prices all manner of property—homes, shops, farms and factories—Europeans poured into Algiers after it fell. French authorities took possession of the {{lang|tr|beylik}} lands, from which Ottoman officials had derived income. Over time, as pressures increased to obtain more land for settlement by Europeans, the state seized more categories of land, particularly that used by tribes, religious foundations, and villages{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}.
Called either {{lang|fr|colons}} (settlers), Algerians, or later, especially following the 1962 independence of Algeria, {{lang|fr|[[pied-noir|pieds noirs]]}} (literally, black feet), the European settlers were largely of peasant farmer or working-class origin from the poor southern areas of Italy, Spain,<ref>Between [http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29265&ext=.pdf 1882] and [http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29453&ext=.pdf 1911], over 100,000 Spaniards moved to Algeria in search of a better life. During 1882 to 1887, it was the country that received a greater number of Spanish migrants [http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29265&ext=.pdf]. However, a short-term migration also took place during harvesting seasons [http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29267&ext=.pdf]. By 1915, while the total number of Spaniards in Algeria was still high, other countries in the New World had overtaken Algeria as the preferred destination.[http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29453&ext=.pdf]</ref> and France. Others were criminal and political deportees from France, transported under sentence in large numbers to Algeria. In the 1840s and 1850s, to encourage settlement in rural areas, official policy was to offer grants of land for a fee and a promise that improvements would be made. A distinction soon developed between the {{lang|fr|grands colons}} (great settlers) at one end of the scale, often self-made men who had accumulated large estates or built successful businesses, and smallholders and workers at the other end, whose lot was often not much better than that of their Muslim counterparts. According to historian [[John Ruedy]], although by 1848 only 15,000 of the 109,000 European settlers were in rural areas, "by systematically expropriating both pastoralists and farmers, rural colonization was the most important single factor in the destructuring of traditional society."<ref>John Ruedy, ''Modern Algeria'' (2nd ed.), pp. 70–71, {{ISBN|0-253-21782-2}}</ref>
European migration, encouraged during the Second Republic, stimulated the civilian administration to open new land for settlement against the advice of the army. With the advent of the Second Empire in 1852, [[Napoleon III]] returned Algeria to military control. In 1858 a separate [[Ministry of Algerian Affairs]] was created to supervise administration of the country through a military [[governor general]] assisted by a civil minister.
Napoleon III visited Algeria twice in the early 1860s. He was profoundly impressed with the nobility and virtue of the tribal chieftains, who appealed to the emperor's romantic nature, and was shocked by the self-serving attitude of the {{lang|fr|colon}} leaders. He decided to halt the expansion of European settlement beyond the coastal zone and to restrict contact between Muslims and the {{lang|fr|colons}}, whom he considered to have a corrupting influence on the indigenous population. He envisioned a grand design for preserving most of Algeria for the Muslims by founding a {{lang|fr|royaume arabe}} (Arab kingdom) with himself as the {{lang|fr|roi des Arabes}} (king of the Arabs). He instituted the so-called politics of the {{lang|fr|grands chefs}} to deal with the Muslims directly through their traditional leaders.<ref>Alistair Horne, page 31 "A Savage War of Peace, {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref>
To further his plans for the {{lang|fr|royaume arabe}}, Napoleon III issued two decrees affecting tribal structure, land tenure, and the legal status of Muslims in French Algeria. The first, promulgated in 1863, was intended to renounce the state's claims to tribal lands and eventually provide private plots to individuals in the tribes, thus dismantling "feudal" structures and protecting the lands from the {{lang|fr|colons}}. Tribal areas were to be identified, delimited into {{lang|fr|douars}} (administrative units), and given over to councils. Arable land was to be divided among members of the {{lang|fr|douar}} over a period of one to three generations, after which it could be bought and sold by the individual owners. Unfortunately for the tribes, however, the plans of Napoleon III quickly unraveled. French officials sympathetic to the colons took much of the tribal land they surveyed into the public domain. In addition, some tribal leaders immediately sold communal lands for quick gains. The process of converting arable land to individual ownership was accelerated to only a few years when laws were enacted in the 1870s stipulating that no sale of land by an individual Muslim could be invalidated by the claim that it was collectively owned. The cudah and other tribal officials, appointed by the French on the basis of their loyalty to France rather than the allegiance owed them by the tribe, lost their credibility as they were drawn into the European orbit, becoming known derisively as {{lang|fr|[[béni-oui-oui]]}}.<ref>Alistair Horne, page 35, ''A Savage War of Peace'', {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref>
Napoleon III visualized three distinct Algerias: a French colony, an Arab country, and a military camp, each with a distinct form of local government. The second decree, issued in 1865, was designed to recognize the differences in cultural background of the French and the Muslims. As French nationals, Muslims could serve on equal terms in the [[French armed forces]] and civil service and could migrate to France proper. They were also granted the protection of French law while retaining the right to adhere to Islamic law in litigation concerning their personal status. But if Muslims wished to become full citizens, they had to accept the full jurisdiction of the French legal code, including laws affecting marriage and inheritance, and reject the authority of the religious courts. In effect, this meant that a Muslim had to renounce some of the mores of his religion in order to become a French citizen. This condition was bitterly resented by Muslims, for whom the only road to political equality was perceived to be [[apostasy]]. Over the next century, fewer than 3,000 Muslims chose to cross the barrier and become French citizens. A similar status applied to the [[Jew]]ish natives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brett |first=Michael |title=Legislating for Inequality in Algeria |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=440–461, see 456–457 |year=1988 |doi=10.1017/s0041977x00116453|s2cid=159891511 }}</ref>
===Under the Third Republic (1870–1940)===
[[File:Place de la republique, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697812.jpg|thumb|Place de la republique, Algiers, 1899]]
[[File:Départements français d'Algérie 1934-1955 map-fr.svg|thumb|Administrative organisation between 1905 and 1955. Three {{lang|fr|départements}} Oran, Alger and Constantine in the north (in pink colour), and four territories Aïn-Sefra, Ghardaïa, Oasis and Touggourt in the south (in yellow). The external boundaries of the land are those between 1934 and 1962.]]
When the [[Prussia]]ns captured Napoleon III at the [[Battle of Sedan]] (1870), ending the Second Empire, demonstrations in Algiers by the {{lang|fr|colons}} led to the departure of the just-arrived new governor general and the replacement of the military administration by settler committees.<ref>Page 164, Vol. 13, Encyclopædia Britannica, Macropaedia, 15th Edition</ref> Meanwhile, in France the government of the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] directed one of its ministers, [[Adolphe Crémieux]], "to destroy the military regime ... [and] to completely assimilate Algeria into France." In October 1870, {{lang|fr|Crémieux}}, whose concern with Algerian affairs dated from the time of the Second Republic, issued a series of decrees providing for representation of the Algerian départements in the [[National Assembly of France]] and confirming {{lang|fr|colon}} control over local administration. A civilian governor general was made responsible to the [[Ministry of Interior]]. The Crémieux Decrees also granted full French citizenship to Algerian Jews,<ref>Benjamin, Roger. (2003) ''Renoir and Algeria''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003, p. 25.</ref> who then numbered about 40,000. This act set them apart from Muslims, in whose eyes they were identified thereafter with the ''colons''. The measure had to be enforced, however, over the objections of the ''colons'', who made little distinction between Muslims and Jews. (Automatic citizenship was subsequently extended in 1889 to children of non-French Europeans born in Algeria unless they specifically rejected it.)
The loss of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] to Prussia in 1871 after the [[Franco-Prussian War]], led to pressure on the French government to make new land available in Algeria for about 5,000 [[Alsace|Alsatian]] and [[Lorraine (province)|Lorrainer]] refugees who were resettled there. During the 1870s, both the amount of European-owned land and the number of settlers were doubled, and tens of thousands of unskilled Muslims, who had been uprooted from their land, wandered into the cities or to colon farming areas in search of work.
====Comte and colonialism in the Third Republic====
{{expand section|date = April 2016}}
====Kabylie insurrection====
{{main|Mokrani Revolt}}
The most serious native insurrection since the time of [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd al Qadir]] broke out in 1871 in [[Kabylia]] and spread through much of Algeria. The revolt was triggered by Crémieux's extension of civil (that is, {{lang|fr|colon}}) authority to previously self-governing tribal reserves and the abrogation of commitments made by the military government, but it had its basis in more long-standing grievances. Since the [[Crimean War]] (1854–56), the demand for grain had pushed the price of Algerian wheat up to European levels. [[Storage silo]]s were emptied when the world market's impact was felt in Algeria, and Muslim farmers sold their grain reserves — including seed grain — to speculators. But the community-owned silos were the fundamental adaptation of a subsistence economy to an unpredictable climate, and a good year's surplus was stored away against a bad year's dearth. When serious drought struck Algeria and grain crops failed in 1866 and for several years following, Muslim areas faced starvation, and with famine came pestilence. It was estimated that 20% of the Muslim population of Constantine died over a three-year period. In 1871 the civil authorities repudiated guarantees made to tribal chieftains by the previous military government for loans to replenish their seed supply. This act alienated even pro-French Muslim leaders, while it undercut their ability to control their people. It was against this background that the stricken [[Kabyles]] rose in revolt, following immediately on the mutiny in January 1871 of a squadron of Muslim [[spahi]]s in the French Army who had been ordered to embark for France.<ref>R. Hure, page 155, {{lang|fr|L'Armee d'Afrique 1830–1962}}, Charles-Lavauzelle 1977</ref> The withdrawal of a large proportion of the army stationed in Algeria to serve in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] had weakened France's control of the territory, while reports of defeats undermined French prestige amongst the indigenous population.
In the aftermath of the 1871 uprising, French authorities imposed stern measures to punish and control the entire Muslim population. France confiscated more than {{cvt|5,000|sqkm}} of tribal land and placed Kabylia under a {{lang|fr|[[régime d'exception]]}} (extraordinary rule), which denied [[due process]] guaranteed French nationals. A special {{lang|fr|[[indigénat]]}} (native code) listed as offenses acts such as insolence and unauthorized assembly not punishable by French law, and the normal jurisdiction of the ''[[cudah]]'' was sharply restricted. The governor general was empowered to jail suspects for up to five years without trial. The argument was made in defense of these exceptional measures that the French penal code as applied to Frenchmen was too permissive to control Muslims. Some were deported to [[New Caledonia]], see [[Algerians of the Pacific]].
====Conquest of the southwestern territories====
[[File:Algeria, Morocco and Tunis (XIX century).jpg|thumb|The Maghreb in the second half of the 19th century]]
In the 1890s, the French administration and military called for the annexation of the [[Touat]], the [[Gourara]] and the [[Tidikelt]],<ref>{{Citation |author=Frank E. Trout |jstor=216479 |title=Morocco's Boundary in the Guir-Zousfana River Basin |journal=African Historical Studies |volume=3 |issue=1 |year=1970 |pages=37–56 |publisher=Boston University African Studies Center|doi=10.2307/216479}}</ref> a complex that during the period prior to 1890, was part of what was known as the [[Bled es-Siba]] (land of dissidence)<ref name="GellnerMicaud1972">{{cite book|last1=Gellner|first1=Ernest|author2=Charles Antoine Micaud|title=Arabs and Berbers: from tribe to nation in North Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I64tAQAAIAAJ|year=1972|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-669-83865-7|page=27}}</ref>), regions that were nominally Moroccan but which were not submitted to the authority of the central government.<ref>{{cite book |author=Frank E. Trout |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IO69HppDTDgC |title=Morocco's Saharan Frontiers |publisher=Droz |year=1969 |page=24|isbn=978-2-6000-4495-0}}</ref>
An armed conflict opposed [[19th Army Corps (France)|French 19th Corps]]' Oran and Algiers divisions to the [[Aït Khabbash]], a faction of the Aït Ounbgui ''khams'' of the [[Aït Atta]] confederation. The conflict ended by the annexation of the Touat-Gourara-Tidikelt complex by France in 1901.<ref>Claude Lefébure, [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/remmm_0035-1474_1986_num_41_1_2114 {{lang|fr|Ayt Khebbach, impasse sud-est. L'involution d'une tribu marocaine exclue du Sahara}}], in: {{lang|fr|Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, N°41–42, 1986. Désert et montagne au Maghreb.}} pp. 136–157: "{{lang|fr|les Divisions d'Oran et d'Alger du 19e Corps d'armée n'ont pu conquérir le Touat et le Gourara qu'au prix de durs combats menés contre les semi-nomades d'obédience marocaine qui, depuis plus d'un siècle, imposaient leur protection aux oasiens.}}"</ref>
In the 1930s, the [[Saoura]] valley and the region of [[Tindouf]] were in turn annexed to French Algeria at the expense of Morocco, then under French protectorate since 1912.
====Conquest of the Sahara====
{{See also|Kaocen revolt}}
The French military expedition led by Lieutenant-Colonel [[Paul Flatters]], was annihilated by [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] attack in 1881.
The French took advantage of long-standing animosity between Tuareg and [[Chaamba]] Arabs. The newly raised ''[[Méhariste|Compagnies Méharistes]]'' were originally recruited mainly from the Chaamba nomadic tribe. The ''Méhariste'' [[Méhariste|camel corps]] provided an effective means of policing the desert.
In 1902, Lieutenant {{ILL|Gaston-Ernest Cottenest|fr}} penetrated [[Hoggar Mountains]] and defeated [[Kel Ahaggar|Ahaggar Tuareg]] in the battle of [[Tit, Tamanrasset|Tit]].
===During World War II (1940–45)===
{{See also|Operation Torch}}
[[File:The Royal Navy during the Second World War- Operation Torch, North Africa, November 1942 A12662.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Arzew]] inhabitants meet [[United States Army Rangers|U.S. Army Rangers]] in November 1942 during Allied [[Operation Torch]]]]
Colonial troops of French Algeria were sent to fight in metropolitan France during the [[Battle of France]] in 1940. After the Fall of France, the Third French Republic collapsed and was replaced by the [[Philippe Pétain]]'s [[Vichy France|French State]], better known as Vichy France.
===Under the Fourth Republic (1946–58)===
{{Quote box
| quote = [The French] had been for over a hundred years in Algeria and were determined that it was part of France, and they damn well were going to stay there. Of course, there was a very strong school of thought in the rest of Africa that they damn well weren't.
| author = US [[Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs]], [[Joseph C. Satterthwaite]]
| source = <ref>{{Cite web|last=Moss|first=William W.|date=March 2, 1971|title=Joseph C. Satterthwaite, recorded interview|url=https://www.jfklibrary.org/sites/default/files/archives/JFKOH/Satterthwaite,%20Joseph%20C/JFKOH-JCS-01/JFKOH-JCS-01-TR.pdf|access-date=2020-06-27|website=www.jfklibrary.org|publisher=John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program}}</ref>
| align = right
| width = 25%
}}{{See also|Algerian War}}
[[File:Semaine des barricades Alger 1960 Haute Qualité.jpg|thumb|250px|Supporters of General [[Jacques Massu]] set barricades in Algiers in January 1960]]
Many Algerians had fought as French soldiers during the Second World War. Thus Algerian Muslims felt that it was even more unjust that their votes were not equal to those of the other Algerians, especially after 1947 when the Algerian Assembly was created. This assembly was composed of 120 members. Algerian Muslims, representing about 6.85 million people, could designate 50% of the Assembly members, while 1,150,000 non-Muslim Algerians could designate the other half. Moreover, a massacre occurred in [[Sétif massacre|Sétif]] on 8 May 1945. It opposed Algerians who were demonstrating for their national claim to the French Army. After skirmishes with police, Algerians killed about 100 French. The French army retaliated harshly, resulting in the deaths of approximately 6,000 Algerians.<ref>Horne, Alistair, ''A Savage War of Peace'', p. 27</ref> This triggered a radicalization of Algerian nationalists and could be considered the beginning of the [[Algerian War]].
In 1956, about 512,000 French soldiers were in Algeria. No resolution was imaginable in the short term. An overwhelming majority of French politicians were opposed to the idea of independence while independence was gaining ground in Muslim Algerians' minds.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} France was deadlocked and the Fourth Republic collapsed over this dispute.
===Under the Fifth Republic (1958–62)===
In 1958, [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s return to power in response to a [[May 1958 crisis|military coup in Algiers in May]] was supposed to keep Algeria's status quo as [[departments of France]] as hinted by his speeches delivered in Oran and Mostaganem on 6 June 1958, in which he exclaimed {{lang|fr|"Vive l'Algérie française!"}} (lit. "Long live French Algeria!").<ref>{{cite web |title=Discours de Mostaganem, 6 juin 1958 |author=Charles de Gaulle |publisher=Fondation Charles de Gaulle |url=http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/accueil/discours/le-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969/discours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php |date=1958-06-06 |access-date=2010-01-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114102144/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/accueil/discours/le-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969/discours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php |archive-date=2009-11-14}}</ref> De Gaulle's republican constitution project was approved through the [[1958 French constitutional referendum|September 1958 referendum]] and the Fifth Republic was established the following month with de Gaulle as its president.
The latter consented to independence in 1962 after a [[French referendum on Algerian self-determination, 1961|referendum on Algerian self-determination]] in January 1961 and despite a subsequent [[Algiers putsch of 1961|aborted military coup in Algiers]] led by four French generals in April 1961.
==Post-colonial relations==
{{Main|Foreign relations of France}}
Relations between post-colonial Algeria and France have remained close throughout the years, although sometimes difficult. In 1962, the [[Evian Accords]] peace treaty provided land in the Sahara for the French Army, which it had used under [[Charles de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] to carry out its first nuclear tests (''[[Gerboise bleue]]''). Many European settlers ({{lang|fr|[[pieds-noirs]]}}) living in Algeria and [[Algerian Jews]], who contrary to Algerian Muslims had been granted French citizenship by the [[Crémieux decrees]] at the end of the 19th century, were expelled to France where they formed a new community. On the other hand, the issue of the {{lang|fr|[[harki]]s}}, the Muslims who had fought on the French side during the war, still remained unresolved. Large numbers of {{lang|fr|harkis}} were killed in 1962, during the immediate aftermath of the Algerian War, while those who escaped with their families to France have tended to remain an unassimilated refugee community. The present Algerian government continues to refuse to allow {{lang|fr|harkis}} and their descendants to return to Algeria.
On 23 February 2005, the [[French law on colonialism]] was an act passed by the [[Union for a Popular Movement]] (UMP) [[conservatism|conservative]] majority, which imposed on high-school (lycée) teachers to teach the "positive values" of [[colonialism]] to their students, in particular in North Africa (article 4). The law created a public uproar and opposition from the whole of the [[left-wing]], and was finally repealed by [[President of the French Republic|President]] [[Jacques Chirac]] (UMP) at the beginning of 2006, after accusations of [[historical revisionism (negationism)|historical revisionism]] from various teachers and historians.
Algerians feared that the French law on colonialism would hinder the task of the French in confronting the dark side of their colonial rule in Algeria because article four of the law decreed among other things that "School programmes are to recognise in particular the positive role of the French presence overseas, especially in North Africa."<ref name="HS-050516">{{cite news |title=Colonial abuses haunt France |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4552473.stm |access-date=9 June 2012 |work=[[BBC News Online]] |date=16 May 2005 |last=Schofield |first=Hugh}}</ref> [[Benjamin Stora]], a leading specialist on French Algerian history of colonialism and a pied-noir himself, said "France has never taken on its colonial history. It is a big difference with the Anglo-Saxon countries, where post-colonial studies are now in all the universities. We are phenomenally behind the times."<ref name="HS-050516"/> In his opinion, although the historical facts were known to academics, they were not well known by the French public, and this led to a lack of honesty in France over French colonial treatment of the Algerian people.<ref name="HS-050516"/>
In 2017, President [[Emmanuel Macron]] described France's colonization of Algeria as a "[[crimes against humanity|crime against humanity]]".<ref name=loseslead>{{cite news | access-date = 25 April 2017 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/18/macron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/18/macron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark/ |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | title= Emmanuel Macron loses lead in French election polls after remarks on colonial Algeria and gay marriage spark outrage | work =[[The Daily Telegraph]] | date = 18 February 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="frarel">{{Cite web|url=https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/|title=FRANCE RESETS AFRICAN RELATIONS: A POTENTIAL LESSON FOR PRESIDENT TRUMP|last=Genin|first=Aaron|date=30 April 2019|website=The California Review|language=en-US|access-date=1 May 2019}}</ref> He also said: "It's truly barbarous and it's part of a past that we need to confront by apologizing to those against whom we committed these acts."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20170216-france-presidential-hopeful-macron-describes-colonisation-algeria-crime-against-humanity |title= French presidential hopeful Macron calls colonization a 'crime against humanity | publisher= France 24 |date=16 February 2017 | access-date=26 April 2017}}</ref> Polls following his remarks reflected a decrease in his support.<ref name=loseslead/>
In July 2020, the remains of 24 Algerian resistance fighters and leaders, who were decapitated by the French colonial forces in the 19th century and whose skulls were taken to Paris as war trophies and held in the [[Musee de l'Homme]] in Paris, were repatriated to Algeria and buried in the Martyrs' Square at [[El Alia Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200705-algeria-buries-repatriated-skulls-of-resistance-fighters-as-it-marks-independence-from-france |title=Algeria buries repatriated skulls of resistance fighters as it marks independence from France |website=France 24 |date=5 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="APS 5 July 2020">{{cite web | title=Skulls of Algerian resistance fighters to French occupation return to homeland | website=Algérie Presse Service | date=7 Jun 2020 | url=http://www.aps.dz/en/algeria/34792-aircraft-carrying-skulls-of-algerian-resistance-fighters-to-french-occupation-lands-at-algiers-airport | access-date=7 Jul 2020}}</ref><ref name="APS 03 July 2020">{{cite web | title=Algerian fighters' skulls buried in Martyrs' Square at El-Alia Cemetery | website=Algérie Presse Service | date=7 Jun 2020 | url=http://www.aps.dz/en/algeria/34813-algerian-fighters-s-skulls-buried-in-martyrs-square-at-el-alia-cemetery | access-date=7 Jul 2020}}</ref>
In January 2021, Macron stated there would be "no repentance nor apologies" for the French colonization of Algeria, colonial abuses or French involvement during the Algerian independence war.<ref name="macreap"/><ref name="macofab"/><ref name="macapocol"/> Instead efforts would be devoted toward reconciliation.<ref name="macreap">{{cite news|title='No repentance nor apologies' for colonial abuses in Algeria, says Macron|url=https://www.france24.com/en/france/20210120-no-repentance-nor-apologies-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-says-macron|agency=France 24|date=20 January 2021|access-date=30 January 2021|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="macofab">{{cite news|title=Macron rules out official apology for colonial abuses in Algeria|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/20/macron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria|agency=Al Jazeera|date=20 January 2021|access-date=30 January 2021|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="macapocol">{{cite news|title=Macron Rules Out Apology For Colonial Abuses In Algeria|url=https://www.barrons.com/news/macron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-01611140710?tesla=y|agency=Barron's|date=20 January 2021|access-date=30 January 2021|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
=={{lang|fr|Algérie française|nocat=y}}==
{{lang|fr|Algérie française}} was a slogan used about 1960 by those French people who wanted to keep [[Algeria]] ruled by France. Literally "French Algeria," it means that the three {{lang|fr|[[departments of France|départements]]}} of Algeria were to be considered integral parts of France. By integral parts, it is meant that they have their deputies (representatives) in the [[French National Assembly]], and so on. Further, the people of Algeria who were to be permitted to vote for the deputies would be those who universally accepted French law, rather than [[sharia]] (which was used in personal cases among Algerian Muslims under laws dating back to [[Napoleon III]]), and such people were predominantly of French origin or Jewish origin. Many who used this slogan were returnees.<ref>Mouloud Feraoun (1962) ''Journal, 1955–1962'', {{lang|fr|[[Éditions du Seuil]]}}, Paris</ref>
In [[Paris]], during the perennial traffic jams, adherence to the slogan was indicated by sounding a car horn in the form of four [[morse code|telegraphic]] dots followed by a [[dash]], as "{{lang|fr|al-gé-rie-fran-'''çaise'''}}". Whole choruses of such horn soundings were heard. This was intended to be reminiscent of the [[Second World War]] slogan, "V for Victory," which had been three dots followed by a dash. The intention was that the opponents of {{lang|fr|Algérie française}} were to be considered as traitorous as the [[collaboration with Nazis|collaborators]] with Germany during the [[German occupation of France during World War II|Occupation of France]].
==See also==
* {{lang|fr|[[Le Chant des Africains]]}}
* [[Boufarik colonization monument]]
* [[List of French possessions and colonies]]
* [[Nationalism and resistance in Algeria]]
* [[Scramble for Africa]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* Original text: '' [https://web.archive.org/web/20130115052428/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html Library of Congress Country Study] of Algeria''
* Aussaresses, Paul. ''The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957''. (New York: Enigma Books, 2010) {{ISBN|978-1-929631-30-8}}.
* Bennoune, Mahfoud. ''The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830–1987'' (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
* Gallois, William. ''A History of Violence in the Early Algerian Colony'' (2013), On French violence 1830–47 [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/african_studies_review/v057/57.1.kuby.html online review]
* Horne, Alistair. ''A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962'', (Viking Adult, 1978)
* Roberts, Sophie B. ''Sophie B. Roberts. Citizenship and Antisemitism in French Colonial Algeria, 1870–1962.'' (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2017) {{ISBN|978-1-107-18815-0}}.
* Roberts, Stephen H. ''History Of French Colonial Policy 1870–1925'' (2 vol 1929) vol 2 pp 175–268 [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.89866 online]
*{{cite book|author=Sessions, Jennifer E.|title=By Sword and Plow: France and the Conquest of Algeria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtBqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1|year=2015|isbn=9780801454462|publisher=Cornell University Press}}; Cultural History
* Stora, Benjamin, Jane Marie Todd, and William B. Quandt. ''Algeria, 1830–2000: A short history'' (Cornell University Press, 2004)
* Vandervort, Bruce. "French conquest of Algeria (1830–1847)." in ''The Encyclopedia of War'' (2012).
===In French===
* {{in lang|fr}} [[Patrick Weil]], {{lang|fr|[https://web.archive.org/web/20051224193731/http://www.iue.it/PUB/HEC03-03.pdf Le statut des musulmans en Algérie coloniale, Une nationalité française dénaturée]}}, [[European University Institute]], [[Florence]] (on the legal statuses of Muslim populations in Algeria)
* {{in lang|fr}} {{lang|fr|[[Olivier LeCour Grandmaison]], Coloniser, Exterminer – Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, [[Fayard]]}}, 2005, {{ISBN|2-213-62316-3}} ( [http://www.ldh-toulon.net/article.php3?id_article=508#table Table of contents])
* {{in lang|fr}} Charles-Robert Ageron, {{lang|fr|Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine, 1871–1954}}, 1979 (a ground-breaking work on the historiography of French colonialism)
* {{in lang|fr}} {{lang|fr|Nicolas Schaub, Représenter l'Algérie. Images et conquête au XIXe siècle, CTHS-INHA}}, 2015, "L'Art & l'Essai" (vol. 15)
* {{cite book|last1=Cointet|first1=Michèle|title=De Gaulle et l'Algérie française, 1958–1962|date=1995|publisher=Perrin|location=Paris|isbn=9782262000776|oclc=34406158}}
* {{Anchor|CITEREFBlévis2003}} {{in lang|fr}} Laure Blévis, {{lang|fr|La citoyenneté française au miroir de la colonisation : étude des demandes de naturalisation des « sujets français » en Algérie coloniale}}, Genèses, volume=4, numéro=53, year 2003, pages 25–47, [http://www.cairn.info/revue-geneses-2003-4-page-25.htm ]
* {{Anchor|CITEREFBlévis2012}} {{in lang|fr}} Laure Blévis, {{lang|fr| L'invention de l'« indigène »}}, Français non citoyen, auteurs:Abderrahmane Bouchène, Jean-Pierre Peyroulou, Ouanassa Siari Tengour et Sylvie Thénault, Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale, 1830–1962, Éditions La Découverte et Éditions Barzakh, year 2012, chapter=200, passage=212–218, {{ISBN|9782707173263}}, id=Blévis, 2012a
* {{Anchor|CITEREFWeil2002}} {{in lang|fr}} Patrick Weil, Qu'est-ce qu'un Français, Histoire de la nationalité française depuis la Révolution, Paris, Grasset, year 2002, 403 pages, {{isbn|2-246-60571-7}}, bnf=38818954d
* {{Anchor|CITEREFWeil2005}} {{in lang|fr}} Patrick Weil, La justice en Algérie, Le statut des musulmans en Algérie coloniale. Une nationalité française dénaturée, 1830–1962, Histoire de la justice, La Documentation française, year 2005, chapter 95, passage 95–109, {{isbn|2-11-005693-2}} http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101093147/http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf |date=2013-11-01 }}
* {{Anchor|CITEREFSahia-Cherchari2004}} {{in lang|fr}} Mohamed Sahia Cherchari, Indigènes et citoyens ou l'impossible universalisation du suffrage, Revue française de droit constitutionnel, volume=4, numéro=60, year 2004 |pages 741–770, [http://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-droit-constitutionnel-2004-4-page-741.htm ]
* {{Anchor|CITEREFGallissot2009}} {{in lang|fr}} René Gallissot, Les effets paradoxaux de la catégorie « d'origine indigène », 25–26 octobre 2009, [http://www.univ-skikda.dz/revolution/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27:-les-effets-paradoxaux-de-la-categorie-qdorigine-indigeneq&catid=30 ], 4e colloque international sur la Révolution algérienne : « Évolution historique de l'Image de l'Algérien dans le discours colonial » — Université du 20 août 1955 de Skikda
* {{Anchor|CITEREFCollot1987}} {{in lang|fr}} Claude Collot, Les institutions de l'Algérie durant la période coloniale (1830–1962), Éditions du CNRS et Office des publications universitaires, year 1987, passage 291,{{ISBN|2222039576}}
* {{Anchor|CITEREFThénault2012}} {{in lang|fr}} Sylvie Thénault, Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale, 1830–1962, Le "code de l'indigénat", Abderrahmane Bouchène, Jean-Pierre Peyroulou, Ouanassa Siari Tengour et Sylvie Thénault, Éditions La Découverte et Éditions Barzakh, year 2012, chapter page 200, pages 200–206,{{ISBN|9782707173263}},
{{Refend}}
==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
* [http://www.ina.fr/recherche/recherche?vue=Video&startVideo=0&triVideo=date-diff&dirVideo=asc 1940~1962 Newsreel archives about French Algeria] <small>(from French National Audiovisiual Institute INA)</small>
* [http://www.humaniteinenglish.com/spip.php?article259 Benjamin Stora on French Colonialism and Algeria Today!] <small>(from French Communist Party's newspaper {{lang|fr|L'Humanité}})</small>
{{Former French colonies}}
{{Algeria topics}}
{{France topics}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:French Algeria| ]]
[[Category:Former colonies in Africa]]
[[Category:Former French colonies|Algeria]]
[[Category:French colonisation in Africa|Algeria]]
[[Category:19th century in Algeria]]
[[Category:20th century in Algeria]]
[[Category:Contemporary French history]]
[[Category:French Union|Algeria]]
[[Category:1830 establishments in Algeria]]
[[Category:1962 disestablishments in Algeria]]
[[Category:1830 establishments in the French colonial empire|Algeria]]
[[Category:1962 disestablishments in the French colonial empire|Algeria]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1830]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1962]]
[[Category:Former countries of the Cold War]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '. Nik la France
==History==
===Initial conflicts===
[[File:Purchase of Christian captives from the Barbary States.jpg|thumb|right|Purchase of Christian slaves by French monks in [[Algiers]] in 1662]]
{{See also|Barbary slave trade|European enclaves in North Africa before 1830}}
Since the [[Capture of Algiers (1516)|1516 capture of Algiers]] by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] admirals, the brothers [[Oruç Reis|Ours]] and [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]], Algeria had been a base for conflict and piracy in the Mediterranean. In 1681, [[Louis XIV]] asked Admiral [[Abraham Duquesne]] to fight the [[Barbary corsairs|Berber pirates]] and also ordered a large-scale attack on [[Algiers]] between 1682 and 1683 on the pretext of assisting and rescuing Christian slaves.<ref>{{cite book |last=Martin |first=Henri |title=Martin's history of France: the age of Louis XIV |year=1865 |publisher=Walker, Wise and co. |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ/page/n545 522] |access-date=9 June 2012}}</ref> Again, [[Jean II d'Estrées]] bombarded [[Tripoli]] and Algiers from 1685 to 1688. An ambassador from Algiers visited the Court in Versailles, and a treaty was signed in 1690 that provided peace throughout the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Matar |first=Nabil I. |title=Europe Through Arab Eyes, 1578–1727 |year=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231141949 |page=313 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWjpowTH4b4C&pg=PA105}}</ref>
During the [[French Directory|Directory]] regime of the [[First French Republic]] (1795–99), the Bacri and the Busnach, Jewish merchants of Algiers, provided large quantities of grain for [[Grande Armée|Napoleon's soldiers]] who participated in the [[French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1796|Italian campaign]] of 1796. However, Bonaparte refused to pay the bill, claiming it was excessive. In 1820, [[Louis XVIII]] paid back half of the Directory's debts. The [[dey]], who had loaned to the Bacri 250,000 [[French franc|francs]], requested the rest of the money from France.
{{History of Algeria}}
The [[Dey of Algiers]] himself was weak politically, economically, and militarily. Algeria was then part of the [[Barbary States]], along with today's Tunisia – which depended on the [[Ottoman Empire]], then led by [[Mahmud II]] — but enjoyed relative independence. The [[Barbary Coast]] was the stronghold of Berber pirates, who carried out raids against European and American ships. Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent [[United States|United States of America]] culminated in the [[First Barbary War|First]] (1801–05) and [[Second Barbary War|Second]] (1815) Barbary Wars. An Anglo-Dutch force, led by [[Admiral (Royal Navy)|Admiral]] [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]], carried out a [[punitive expedition]], the August 1816 [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|bombardment of Algiers]]. The Dey was forced to sign the [[Barbary treaties]], while the [[gunpowder warfare|technological advantage]] of U.S., British, and French forces overwhelmed the Algerians' expertise at [[naval warfare]].{{Citation needed|date = July 2012}}
Following the conquest under the [[July monarchy]], the Algerian territories, disputed with the Ottoman Empire, were first named "French possessions in North Africa" before being called "Algeria" by [[Marshal General of France|Marshal General]] [[Jean-de-Dieu Soult]], Duke of Dalmatia, in 1839.<ref>{{cite book|title=La Guerre d'Algérie|publisher={{lang|fr|Collection: Librio-Documents [[Le Monde]]}}|year=2003|isbn=978-2-2903-3569-7}}</ref>
===French conquest of Algeria===
{{Main|French conquest of Algeria}}
[[File:Empire colonial français (1920).png|thumb|The French colonial empire in 1920]]
The conquest of Algeria was initiated in the last days of the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]] by [[Charles X of France|Charles X]], as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the French people, particularly in Paris, where many veterans of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] lived. His intention was to bolster patriotic sentiment, and distract attention from ineptly handled domestic policies by "skirmishing against the dey".<ref name="EncBrit">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Algeria, Colonial Rule |access-date=2007-12-19 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |page=39 |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-220553/Algeria#487751.hook}}</ref>
====Fly Whisk Incident (April 1827)====
In the 1790s, France had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two merchants in Algiers, Messrs. Bacri and Boushnak, and was in arrears paying them. Bacri and Boushnak owed money to the dey and claimed they could not pay it until France paid its debts to them. The dey had unsuccessfully negotiated with [[Pierre Deval (diplomat)|Pierre Deval]], the French consul, to rectify this situation, and he suspected Deval of collaborating with the merchants against him, especially when the French government made no provisions to pay the merchants in 1820. Deval's nephew Alexandre, the consul in [[Bône]], further angered the dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and [[El Kala|La Calle]], contrary to the terms of prior agreements.<ref>Abun-Nasr, Jamil. ''A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period'', p. 249</ref>
After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide satisfactory answers on 29 April 1827, the dey struck Deval with his [[fly whisk]]. Charles X used this slight against his diplomatic representative to first demand an apology from the dey, and then to initiate a blockade against the port of Algiers. France demanded that the dey send an ambassador to France to resolve the incident. When the dey responded with cannon fire directed toward one of the blockading ships, the French determined that more forceful action was required.<ref>Abun-Nasr, p. 250</ref>
====Invasion of Algiers (June 1830)====
{{Main|Invasion of Algiers in 1830}}
[[File:Bombardementd alger-1830.jpg|thumb|The attack of [[Guy-Victor Duperré|Admiral Duperré]] during the take-over of Algiers in 1830]]
[[File:Fighting at the gates of Algiers 1830.jpg|thumb|Fighting at the gates of Algiers in 1830]]
[[File:Ottoman cannon end of 16th century length 385cm cal 178mm weight 2910 stone projectile founded 8 October 1581 Alger seized 1830.jpg|thumb|Ornate [[Ottoman weapons|Ottoman cannon]], length: 385cm, cal:178mm, weight: 2910, stone projectile, founded 8 October 1581 in Algiers, seized by France at Algiers in 1830. [[Musée de l'Armée]], Paris]]
[[Pierre Deval (diplomat)|Pierre Deval]] and other French residents of Algiers left for France, while the [[Minister of War (France)|Minister of War]], [[Aimé Marie Gaspard de Clermont-Tonnerre|Clermont-Tonnerre]], proposed a military expedition. However, the [[Count of Villèle]], an [[ultra-royalist]], President of the council and the monarch's heir, opposed any military action. The Bourbon Restoration government finally decided to blockade Algiers for three years. Meanwhile, the Berber pirates were able to exploit the geography of the coast with ease. Before the failure of the blockade, the Restoration decided on 31 January 1830 to engage a military expedition against Algiers.
[[Guy-Victor Duperré|Admiral Duperré]] commanded an armada of 600 ships that originated from [[Toulon]], leading it to Algiers. Using [[Napoleon]]'s 1808 contingency plan for the invasion of Algeria, [[General de Bourmont]] then landed {{convert|27|km|mi}} west of Algiers, at [[Sidi Ferruch]] on 14 June 1830, with 34,000 soldiers. In response to the French, the Algerian dey ordered an opposition consisting of 7,000 [[janissary|janissaries]], 19,000 troops from the beys of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] and [[Oran]], and about 17,000 [[Kabyles]]. The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. The French troops took the advantage on 19 June during the battle of [[Staouéli]], and entered Algiers on 5 July after a three-week campaign. The dey agreed to surrender in exchange for his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he exiled himself with his family, departing on a French ship for the [[Italian peninsula]]. 2,500 janissaries also quit the Algerian territories, heading for Asia,{{Clarify|date=August 2009|reason=Asia is a big place}} on 11 July.
The French army then recruited the first {{lang|fr|[[zouaves]]}} (a title given to certain [[light infantry]] regiments) in October, followed by the {{lang|ota-Latn|[[spahis]]|nocat=y}} regiments, while France expropriated all the land properties belonging to the Turkish settlers, known as {{lang|tr|Beliks|nocat=y}}. In the western region of [[Oran]], [[Abderrahmane of Morocco|Sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco]], the [[Amir al-Mu'minin|Commander of the Faithful]], could not remain indifferent to the massacres committed by the French Christian troops and to belligerent calls for [[jihad]] from the [[marabout]]s. Despite the diplomatic rupture between Morocco and the [[Two Sicilies]] in 1830, and the naval warfare engaged against the [[Austrian Empire]] as well as with [[Mid-nineteenth century Spain|Spain]], then headed by [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]], Sultan Abderrahmane lent his support to the Algerian insurgency of [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd El-Kader]]. The latter fought for years against the French. Directing an army of 12,000 men, Abd El-Kader first organized the blockade of Oran.
Algerian refugees were welcomed by the Moroccan population, while the Sultan recommended that the authorities of [[Tetuan]] assist them, by providing jobs in the administration or the military forces. The inhabitants of [[Tlemcen]], near the Moroccan border, asked that they be placed under the Sultan's authority in order to escape the invaders. Abderrahmane named his nephew Prince [[Moulay Ali]] [[Caliph]] of Tlemcen, charged with the protection of the city. In retaliation France executed two Moroccans: Mohamed Beliano and Benkirane, as spies, while their goods were seized by the military governor of Oran, [[Pierre François Xavier Boyer]].
Hardly had the news of the capture of Algiers reached Paris than Charles X was deposed during the [[Three Glorious Days]] of July 1830, and his cousin [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis-Philippe]], the "citizen king", was named to preside over a [[July Monarchy|constitutional monarchy]]. The new government, composed of [[French liberalism|liberal opponents]] of the Algiers expedition, was reluctant to pursue the conquest begun by the old regime, but withdrawing from Algeria proved more difficult than conquering it.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
====Characterization as genocide====
Some governments and scholars have called France's conquest of [[Algeria]] a [[genocide]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2011-12-23|title=Turkey accuses France of genocide in colonial Algeria|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16314373|access-date=2021-03-05}}</ref>
For example, [[Ben Kiernan]], an Australian expert on [[Cambodian genocide]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/disowning-morris |title=Disowning Morris |first=Stephen J. |last=Morris |date=30 June 1995 |access-date=26 September 2019 |newspaper=[[Phnom Penh Post]]}}</ref> wrote in ''[[Blood and Soil (book)|Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur]]'' on the French conquest of [[Algeria]]:<ref>{{cite book |last=Kiernan |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Kiernan |title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur |page=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/374 374] |url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326 |url-access=registration |quote=374. |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=9780300100983}}</ref>
<blockquote>
''By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking a French author to protest in 1882 that in Algeria, "we hear it repeated every day that we must expel the native and, if necessary, destroy him." As a French statistical journal urged five years late, "the system of extermination must give way to a policy of penetration."''
<br />
—Ben Kiernan, ''Blood and Soil''
</blockquote>
When France recognized the [[Armenian genocide]], Turkey accused France of having committed [[genocide]] against 15% of Algeria's population.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chrisafis |first=Angelique |title=Turkey accuses France of genocide in Algeria |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/23/turkey-accuses-france-genocide-algeria |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=23 December 2011 |access-date=26 September 2019 |publisher=[[Guardian News & Media Limited]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey accuses France of genocide in colonial Algeria |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16314373 |work=[[BBC News Online]] |publisher=[[BBC News]] |agency=[[BBC]] |date=23 December 2011 |access-date=26 September 2019}}</ref>
==Popular revolts against the French occupation==
===Conquest of the Algerian territories under the July Monarchy (1830–1848)===
[[File:Sylvain Charles Valée.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sylvain Charles Valée]]]]
On 1 December 1830, [[Louis-Philippe of France|King Louis-Philippe]] named the [[Anne Jean Marie René Savary|Duc de Rovigo]] as head of military staff in Algeria. De Rovigo took control of [[Bône]] and initiated colonisation of the land. He was recalled in 1833 due to the overtly violent nature of the repression. Wishing to avoid a conflict with Morocco, Louis-Philippe sent an extraordinary mission to the sultan, mixed with displays of military might, sending war ships to the [[Bay of Tangier]]. An ambassador was sent to Sultan [[Moulay Abderrahmane]] in February 1832, headed by the Count [[Charles-Edgar de Mornay]] and including the painter [[Eugène Delacroix]]. However the sultan refused French demands that he evacuate Tlemcen.
In 1834, France annexed as a [[colony]] the occupied areas of Algeria, which had an estimated Muslim population of about two million. [[History of colonialism|Colonial administration]] in the occupied areas — the so-called {{lang|fr|régime du sabre}} (government of the sword) — was placed under a [[Colonial heads of Algeria|governor-general]], a high-ranking army officer invested with civil and military jurisdiction, who was responsible to the minister of war. [[Marshal Bugeaud]], who became the first governor-general, headed the conquest.
Soon after the conquest of Algiers, the soldier-politician [[Bertrand Clauzel]] and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and, despite official discouragement, to subsidize its settlement by European farmers, triggering a [[land run|land rush]]. Clauzel recognized the farming potential of the [[Mitidja Plain]] and envisioned the large-scale production there of [[cotton]]. As governor-general (1835–36), he used his office to make private investments in land and encouraged army officers and bureaucrats in his administration to do the same. This development created a vested interest among government officials in greater French involvement in Algeria. Commercial interests with influence in the government also began to recognize the prospects for profitable land speculation in expanding the French zone of occupation. They created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and hired local labor.
Among others testimonies, Lieutenant-colonel Lucien de Montagnac wrote on 15 March 1843, in a letter to a friend:
<blockquote>All populations who do not accept our conditions must be despoiled. Everything must be seized, devastated, without age or sex distinction: grass must not grow any more where the French army has set foot. Who wants the end wants the means, whatever may say our philanthropists. I personally warn all good soldiers whom I have the honour to lead that if they happen to bring me a living Arab, they will receive a beating with the flat of the saber.... This is how, my dear friend, we must make war against Arabs: kill all men over the age of fifteen, take all their women and children, load them onto naval vessels, send them to the [[Marquesas Islands]] or elsewhere. In one word, annihilate everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs.<ref>Lieutenant-colonel de Montagnac, Lettres d'un soldat, [[Plon (publisher)|Plon]], Paris, 1885, republished by Christian Destremeau, 1998, p. 153; [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k104391p Book accessible on] [[Gallica]]'s website. French: {{lang|fr|Toutes les populations qui n'acceptent pas nos conditions doivent être rasées. Tout doit être pris, saccagé, sans distinction d'âge ni de sexe : l'herbe ne doit plus pousser où l'armée française a mis le pied. Qui veut la fin veut les moyens, quoiqu'en disent nos philanthropes. Tous les bons militaires que j'ai l'honneur de commander sont prévenus par moi-même que s'il leur arrive de m'amener un Arabe vivant, ils recevront une volée de coups de plat de sabre. ... Voilà, mon brave ami, comment il faut faire la guerre aux Arabes : tuer tous les hommes jusqu'à l'âge de quinze ans, prendre toutes les femmes et les enfants, en charger les bâtiments, les envoyer aux îles Marquises ou ailleurs. En un mot, anéantir tout ce qui ne rampera pas à nos pieds comme des chiens.}}</ref></blockquote>
Whatever initial misgivings Louis Philippe's government may have had about occupying Algeria, the geopolitical realities of the situation created by the 1830 intervention argued strongly for reinforcing French presence there. France had reason for concern that [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], which was pledged to maintain the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, would move to fill the vacuum left by a French withdrawal. The French devised elaborate plans for settling the hinterland left by [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] provincial authorities in 1830, but their efforts at state-building were unsuccessful on account of lengthy armed resistance.
[[File:La prise de Constantine 1837 par Horace Vernet.jpg|thumb|The capture of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] by French troops, 13 October 1837 by [[Horace Vernet]]]]
The most successful local opposition immediately after the fall of Algiers was led by [[Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif|Ahmad ibn Muhammad]], {{lang|tr|bey|nocat=y}} of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]]. He initiated a radical overhaul of the Ottoman administration in his {{lang|tr|beylik|nocat=y}} by replacing [[Turkey|Turkish]] officials with local leaders, making [[Arabic language|Arabic]] the official language, and attempting to reform finances according to the precepts of [[Islam]]. After the French failed in several attempts to gain some of the {{lang|tr|bey|nocat=y}}'s territories through negotiation, an ill-fated invasion force, led by [[Bertrand Clauzel]], had to retreat from [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] in 1836 in humiliation and defeat. However, the French captured Constantine under [[Sylvain Charles Valée]] the following year, on 13 October 1837.
Historians generally set the indigenous population of Algeria at 3 million in 1830.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Etemad|first=Bouda|title=L'héritage ambigu de la colonisation|publisher=|year=2012|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Although the [[Demographics of Algeria|Algerian population]] decreased at some point under French rule, most certainly between 1866 and 1872,<ref>{{Cite book|title=La Démographie figurée de l'Algérie : étude statistique des populations européennes qui habitent l'Algérie|last=Ricoux, Dr|first=René|publisher=Librairie de l'Académie de Médecine|year=1880|location=Paris|pages=260}}</ref> the French military was not fully responsible for the extent of this decrease, as some of these deaths could be explained by the [[locust]] plagues of 1866 and 1868, as well as by a rigorous winter in 1867–68, which caused a [[famine]] followed by an epidemic of [[cholera]].<ref>Daniel Lefeuvre, {{lang|fr|Pour en finir avec la repentance coloniale}}, Editions [[Groupe Flammarion|Flammarion]] (2006), {{ISBN|2-08-210440-0}}</ref> <!-- shamefully, the [[:fr:Histoire de l'Algérie]] does not say which estimates Lefeuvre finally find... just a moral excuse? -->
===Resistance of Lalla Fadhma N'Soumer===
{{Main|Lalla Fatma N'Soumer}}
[[Image:Portrait-Fatma N'Soumer.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A print showing Fadhma N'Soumer during combat]]
The French began their occupation of Algiers in 1830, starting with a landing in [[Algiers]]. As occupation turned into colonization, [[Kabylia]] remained the only region independent of the French government. Pressure on the region increased, and the will of her people to resist and defend Kabylia increased as well.
In about 1849, a mysterious man arrived in Kabiliya. He presented himself as Mohamed ben Abdallah (the name of the [[Prophets of Islam|Prophet]]), but is more commonly known as [[Sherif Boubaghla]]. He was probably a former lieutenant in the army of Emir [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abdelkader]], defeated for the last time by the French in 1847. Boubaghla refused to surrender at that battle, and retreated to Kabylia. From there he began a war against the French armies and their allies, often employing [[guerrilla]] tactics. Boubaghla was a relentless fighter, and very eloquent in Arabic. He was very religious, and some legends tell of his [[thaumaturgy|thaumaturgic]] skills.
Boubaghla went often to Soumer to talk with high-ranking members of the religious community, and Lalla Fadhma was soon attracted by his strong personality. At the same time, the relentless combatant was attracted by a woman so resolutely willing to contribute, by any means possible, to the war against the French. With her inspiring speeches, she convinced many men to fight as {{lang|kab|imseblen}} (volunteers ready to die as martyrs) and she herself, together with other women, participated in combat by providing cooking, medicines, and comfort to the fighting forces.
Traditional sources tell that a strong bond was formed between Lalla Fadhma and Boubaghla. She saw this as a wedding of peers, rather than the traditional submission as a slave to a husband. In fact, at that time Boubaghla left his first wife (Fatima Bent Sidi Aissa) and sent back to her owner a slave he had as a concubine (Halima Bent Messaoud). But on her side, Lalla Fadhma wasn't free: even if she was recognized as {{lang|kab|tamnafeqt}} ("woman who left her husband to get back to his family", a Kabylia institution), the matrimonial tie with her husband was still in place, and only her husband's will could free her. However he did not agree to this, even when offered large bribes. The love between Fadhma and Bou remained platonic, but there were public expressions of this feeling between the two.
Fadhma was personally present at many fights in which Boubaghla was involved, particularly the battle of Tachekkirt won by Boubaghla forces (18–19 July 1854), where the French general [[Jacques Louis César Randon]] was caught but managed to escape later. On 26 December 1854, Boubaghla was killed; some sources claim it was due to treason of some of his allies. The resistance was left without a charismatic leader and a commander able to guide it efficiently. For this reason, during the first months of 1855, on a sanctuary built on top of the Azru Nethor peak, not far from the village where Fadhma was born, there was a great council among combatants and important figures of the tribes in Kabylie. They decided to grant Lalla Fadhma, assisted by her brothers, the command of combat.
===Resistance of Emir Abd al Qadir===
[[Image:EmirAbdelKader.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd el-Kader]]]]
The French faced other opposition as well in the area. The superior of a religious brotherhood, [[Muhyi ad Din]], who had spent time in Ottoman jails for opposing the bey's rule, launched attacks against the French and their makhzen allies at [[Oran]] in 1832. In the same year, [[jihad]] was declared<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Tucker|editor1-first=Spencer C.|title=Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern ...|date=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO.|page=1|chapter=Abd al-Qadir}}</ref> and to lead it tribal elders chose Muhyi ad Din's son, twenty-five-year-old [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd al Qadir]]. Abd al Qadir, who was recognized as [[Amir al-Muminin]] (commander of the faithful), quickly gained the support of tribes throughout Algeria. A devout and austere marabout, he was also a cunning political leader and a resourceful warrior. From his capital in [[Tlemcen]], Abd al Qadir set about building a territorial Muslim state based on the communities of the interior but drawing its strength from the tribes and religious brotherhoods. By 1839, he controlled more than two-thirds of Algeria. His government maintained an army and a bureaucracy, collected taxes, supported education, undertook public works, and established agricultural and manufacturing cooperatives to stimulate economic activity.
The French in Algiers viewed with concern the success of a Muslim government and the rapid growth of a viable territorial state that barred the extension of European settlement. Abd al Qadir fought running battles across Algeria with French forces, which included units of the Foreign Legion, organized in 1831 for Algerian service. Although his forces were defeated by the French under General [[Thomas Bugeaud]] in 1836, Abd al Qadir negotiated a favorable peace treaty the next year. The [[treaty of Tafna]] gained conditional recognition for Abd al Qadir's regime by defining the territory under its control and salvaged his prestige among the tribes just as the shaykhs were about to desert him. To provoke new hostilities, the French deliberately broke the treaty in 1839 by occupying [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]]. Abd al Qadir took up the holy war again, destroyed the French settlements on the Mitidja Plain, and at one point advanced to the outskirts of Algiers itself. He struck where the French were weakest and retreated when they advanced against him in greater strength. The government moved from camp to camp with the amir and his army. Gradually, however, superior French resources and manpower and the defection of tribal chieftains took their toll. Reinforcements poured into Algeria after 1840 until Bugeaud had at his disposal 108,000 men, one-third of the [[French army]].
[[File:Prise de la smalah d Abd-El-Kader a Taguin 16 mai 1843 Horace Vernet.jpg|thumb|center|800px|The [[Battle of Smala]], 16 May 1843. {{lang|fr|Prise de la smalah d Abd-El-Kader à Taguin. 16 mai 1843}}, by [[Horace Vernet]]]]
One by one, the amir's strongholds fell to the French, and many of his ablest commanders were killed or captured so that by 1843 the Muslim state had collapsed.
[[Image:FrenchTroopsMogador.JPG|thumb|French troops disembarking on the island of [[Mogador]], in [[Essaouira]] bay in 1844]]
Abd al Qadir took refuge in 1841 with his ally, the sultan of [[Morocco]], [[Abderrahmane of Morocco|Abd ar Rahman II]], and launched raids into Algeria. This alliance led the [[French Navy]] to bombard and briefly occupy [[Essaouira]] ([[Mogador]]) under the [[Prince de Joinville]] on August 16, 1844. A French force was destroyed at the [[Battle of Sidi-Brahim]] in 1845. However, Abd al Qadir was obliged to surrender to the commander of [[Oran]] Province, General [[Louis de Lamoricière]], at the end of 1847.
Abd al Qadir was promised safe conduct to [[Egypt]] or [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] if his followers laid down their arms and kept the peace. He accepted these conditions, but the minister of war — who years earlier as general in Algeria had been badly defeated by Abd al Qadir — had him consigned in France in the [[Château d'Amboise]].
==French rule==
===Demography===
{{historical populations
|title = Algeria's population under the French<br /> <small> → [[Demographics of Algeria#Population|after 1962]]</small>
|percentages = pagr
|width = 13.5em
|cols = 3
|align = left
|1830 |3,000,000|1851 |2554100
|1856 |2496100
|1862 |2999100
|1866 |2921200
|1872 |2894500
|1877 |2867600
|1882 |3310400
|1886 |3867000
|1892 |4174700
|1896 |4479000
|1900 |4675000
|1901 |4739300
|1906 |5231900
|1911 |5563800
|1921 |5804300
|1930<sup>e</sup> |6453000
|1940<sup>e</sup> |7614000
|1947 |8302000
|1948 |8681800
|1949 |8602000
|1950 |8753000
|1951 |8927000
|1952 |9126000
|1953 |9370000
|1954 |9529700
|1955 |9678000
|1956 |9903000
|1958 |10127000
|1959 |10575000
|1960 |10853000
|1962 |10920000
|source = <ref>{{cite web |title=ALgeria [Djazaïria] historical demographic data of the whole country |url=http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm |work=Population statistics |access-date=9 June 2012 |last=Lahmeyer |first=Jan |date=11 October 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718104037/http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm |archive-date=18 July 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Timeline: Algeria |url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/northafrica/tlalgiers.html |work=World History at KMLA |access-date=9 June 2012 |date=31 May 2005}}</ref>
|footnote= <big>'''<sup>e</sup>'''</big> – Indicates that this is an estimated figure.
}}
{{Graph:Chart
|type=stackedrect
|width=150
|height=150
|x=Algeria (1877)
|y1=64512
|y2=130260
|y3=4020
|y4=33506
|y5=158367
|y6=962146
|legend=Legend (Source: L'Algérie by Henry Lemonnier, 1881)
|y1Title=French citizen born in Algeria
|y2Title=French citizen born in France
|y3Title=French naturalized aliens
|y4Title=French naturalized Jews
|y5Title=Foreigners living in Algeria
|y6Title=Muslim indigènes (estimated)
|xGrid=1
|yGrid=1
}}
{{Graph:Chart
|type=stackedrect
|width=240
|height=135
|x=Civil territory, Military territory
|y1=139826,7055
|y2=114411,2388
|y3=32639,448
|y4=763216,1408474
|legend=Legend 1875 (
|xAxisTitle=Source: La démographie figurée de l'Algérie : étude statistique des populations européennes qui habitent l'Algérie by Dr René Ricoux
|y1Title=French European
|y2Title=Foreign Europeans
|y3Title=Jews Indigènes
|y4Title=Muslim Indigènes
|xGrid=1
|yGrid=1
}}
{{Graph:Chart
|type=rect
|width=320
|height=180
|x=Children, Singles, Monogams, Polygams, Divorced unmarried, Veuf
|y1=282016,147438,268938,19404,2763,14936
|y2=201426,51699,257221,46027,3167,57794
|legend=Legend 1875/1876
|xAxisTitle=Source: La démographie figurée de l'Algérie : étude statistique des populations européennes qui habitent l'Algérie by Dr René Ricoux
|y1Title=Males
|y2Title=Females
|xGrid=1
|yGrid=1
|xAxisAngle=-25
}}
{{clear}}
=== French atrocities against the Algerian indigenous population ===
[[File:Takin of Laghouat 1852.jpg|thumb|The [[siege of Laghouat]] (1852) during the [[Pacification of Algeria]].]]
According to [[Ben Kiernan]], Colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. Within the first three decades (1830–1860) of French conquest, between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, out of a total of 3 million, were killed due to war, massacres, disease and famine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jalata|first=Asafa|title=Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama bin Laden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|date=2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|isbn=978-1-137-55234-1|pages=92–3|quote=Within the first three decades, the French military massacred between half a million to one million from approximately three million Algerian people.}}</ref><ref name="Kiernan2007">{{cite book|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|author-link=Ben Kiernan|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-10098-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/364 364]–ff|quote=In Algeria, colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. From 1830 to 1847, its European settler population quadrupled to 104,000. Of the native Algerian population of approximately 3 million in 1830, about 500,000 to 1 million perished in the first three decades of French conquest.}}</ref> Atrocities committed by the French during the [[Algerian War]] during the 1950s against Algerians include deliberate bombing and killing of unarmed civilians, rape, [[Torture during the Algerian War|torture]], executions through "[[death flights]]" or [[burial alive]], thefts and pillaging.<ref name=Fawole>{{cite book|title= The Illusion of the Post-Colonial State: Governance and Security Challenges in Africa |author=W. Alade Fawole |date=June 2018 |publisher=Lexington Books|page=158|isbn=9781498564618 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WoNaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Eloquence of Silence: Algerian Women in Question |author1= Marnia Lazreg |date= 23 April 2014 |page=42 |isbn= 9781134713301 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0iVpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42}}</ref><ref name="Huma00">{{cite news|url=http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-06-24/2000-06-24-227522 |title=Prise de tête Marcel Bigeard, un soldat propre ?|newspaper= [[L'Humanité]]|date= 24 June 2000|language= fr|access-date= 15 February 2007}}</ref> Up to 2 million Algerian civilians were also deported in internment camps.<ref>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |page=127 |language=fr}}</ref>
During the [[Pacification of Algeria]] (1835-1903) French forces engaged in a [[scorched earth]] policy against the Algerian population. Colonel [[Lucien de Montagnac]] stated that the purpose of the pacification was to "destroy everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs"<ref name=scoear>Quoted in Marc Ferro, "The conquest of Algeria", in The black book of colonialism, Robert Laffont, p. 657.</ref> The scorched earth policy, decided by Governor General [[Thomas Robert Bugeaud]], had devastating effects on the socio-economic and food balances of the country: "we fire little gunshot, we burn all douars, all villages, all huts; the enemy flees across taking his flock."<ref name=scoear/> According to [[Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison]], the colonisation of Algeria lead to the extermination of a third of the population from multiple causes (massacres, deportations, famines or epidemics) that were all interrelated.<ref name=thirki>Colonize Exterminate. On War and the Colonial State, Paris, Fayard, 2005. See also the book by the American historian Benjamin Claude Brower, A Desert named Peace. The Violence of France's Empire in the Algerian Sahara, 1844–1902, New York, Columbia University Press.</ref> Returning from an investigation trip to Algeria, Tocqueville wrote that "we make war much more barbaric than the Arabs themselves [...] it is for their part that civilization is situated."<ref>Alexis de Tocqueville, De colony in Algeria. 1847, Complexe Editions, 1988.</ref>
French forces deported and banished entire Algerian tribes. The Moorish families of Tlemcen were exiled to the Orient, and others were emigrated elsewhere. The tribes that were considered too troublesome were banned, and some took refuge in Tunisia, Morocco and Syria or were deported to New Caledonia or Guyana. Also, French forces also engaged in wholesale massacres of entire tribes. All 500 men, women and children of the El Oufia tribe were killed in one night,<ref name=tribekil>Blood and Soil: Ben Kiernan, page 365, 2008</ref> while all 500 to 700 members of the Ouled Rhia tribe were killed by suffocation in a cave.<ref name=tribekil/> The [[Siege of Laghouat]] is referred by Algerians as the year of the "Khalya", Arabic for emptiness, which is commonly known to the inhabitants of Laghouat as the year that the city was emptied of its population.<ref>{{cite web|title=La conquête coloniale de l'Algérie par les Français - Rebellyon.info|url=https://rebellyon.info/La-conquete-coloniale-de-l-Algerie|website=rebellyon.info|access-date=24 November 2017|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Lettres familières sur l'Algérie : un petit royaume arabe|last=Pein |first=Théodore|publisher=C. Tanera |location=Paris|year=1871|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5789413p|pages=363–370}}</ref> It is also commonly known as the year of Hessian sacks, referring to the way the captured surviving men and boys were put alive in the hessian sacks and thrown into dug-up trenches.<ref name=":0a">{{Citation|last=Dzland Mourad|title=Documentaire :Le Génocide De Laghouat 1852 Mourad AGGOUNE|date=2013-11-30|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV-ot5-eo-s |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/PV-ot5-eo-s| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-11-23}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Al Jazeera Documentary الجزيرة الوثائقية|title=أوجاع الذاكرة – الجزائر|date=2017-11-05|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMWSTPV0O48&t=127s |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/LMWSTPV0O48| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-11-23}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
From 8 May to June 26, 1945, the French carried out the [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]], in which between 6,000 and 80,000 Algerian Muslims were killed. Its initial outbreak occurred during a parade of about 5,000 people of the Muslim Algerian population of Sétif to celebrate the surrender of Nazi Germany in World War II; it ended in clashes between the marchers and the local French gendarmerie, when the latter tried to seize banners attacking colonial rule.<ref name="TedMorgan">{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Morgan (writer) |title=My Battle of Algiers |page=[https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26 26] |isbn=978-0-06-085224-5 |date=2006-01-31 |url=https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26}}</ref> After five days, the French colonial military and police suppressed the rebellion, and then carried out a series of reprisals against Muslim civilians.<ref>General R. Hure, page 449 "L' Armee d' Afrique 1830–1962", Charles-Lavauzelle, Paris-Limoges 1977</ref> The army carried out [[summary execution]]s of Muslim rural communities. Less accessible villages were bombed by French aircraft, and cruiser [[French cruiser Duguay-Trouin (1923)|Duguay-Trouin]], standing off the coast in the Gulf of Bougie, shelled Kherrata.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/le-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945|title=Le cas de Sétif-Kherrata-Guelma (Mai 1945) {{!}} Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche|website=www.sciencespo.fr|language=fr|access-date=2019-08-03}}</ref> Vigilantes lynched prisoners taken from local jails or randomly shot Muslims not wearing white arm bands (as instructed by the army) out of hand.<ref name="TedMorgan"/> It is certain that the great majority of the Muslim victims had not been implicated in the original outbreak.<ref name="Horne27">Horne, p. 27.</ref> The dead bodies in Guelma were buried in mass graves, but they were later dug up and burned in [[Héliopolis, Algeria|Héliopolis]].<ref name="JeanPierre">{{Cite book|title=Guelma, 1945 : une subversion française dans l'Algérie coloniale|last=Peyroulou|first=Jean-Pierre|date=2009|publisher=Éditions La Découverte|isbn=9782707154644|location=Paris|chapter=8. La légitimation et l'essor de la subversion 13-19 mai 1945|oclc=436981240}}</ref>
During the [[Algerian War]] (1954-1962), the French used deliberate [[Torture during the Algerian War|illegal methods]] against the Algerians, including (as described by [[Henri Alleg]], who himself had been tortured, and historians such as Raphaëlle Branche) beatings, torture by electroshock, [[waterboarding]], burns, and rape.<ref name="Huma00"/><ref name=Horne>{{cite book |last = Horne |first = Alistair |publication-date = 2006 |year = 1977 |title = A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 |publisher = New York Review |isbn = 978-1-59017-218-6 |pages=198–200}}</ref><ref name="Rey">Text published in ''Vérité Liberté'' n°9 May 1961.</ref> Prisoners were also locked up [[Starvation|without food]] in small cells, [[buried alive]], and [[Death flights|thrown from helicopters]] to their death or into the sea with concrete on their feet.<ref name="Huma00"/><ref>[http://ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&num_notice=8&total_notices=8&mc=Favre,%20Bernard Film testimony] by [[Paul Teitgen]], [[Jacques Duquesne (journalist)|Jacques Duquesne]] and [[Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc]] on the [[Institut national de l'audiovisuel|INA]] archive website {{dead link|date=September 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.elwatan.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=7095 Henri Pouillot, mon combat contre la torture], ''[[El Watan]]'', 1 November 2004.</ref><ref>[http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778 Des guerres d’Indochine et d’Algérie aux dictatures d’Amérique latine], interview with [[Marie-Monique Robin]] by the [[Ligue des droits de l'homme]] (LDH, Human Rights League), 10 January 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930181518/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778 |date=30 September 2007 }}</ref> [[Claude Bourdet]] had denounced these acts on 6 December 1951, in the magazine ''L'Observateur'', rhetorically asking, "Is there a [[Gestapo]] in Algeria?".<ref>[[Mohamed Harbi]], ''La guerre d'Algérie''</ref><ref name=":3">[[Benjamin Stora]], ''La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie''</ref><ref>[[Raphaëlle Branche]], ''La torture et l'armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie, 1954–1962'', Paris, Gallimard, 2001 See also [http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm The French Army and Torture During the Algerian War (1954–1962)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020184243/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm |date=2007-10-20}}, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de [[Rennes]], 18 November 2004 {{in lang|en}}</ref>
D. Huf, in his seminal work on the subject, argued that the use of torture was one of the major factors in developing French opposition to the war.<ref>[[David Huf]], ''Between a Rock and a Hard Place: France and Algeria, 1954–1962''</ref> Huf argued, "Such tactics sat uncomfortably with France's revolutionary history, and brought unbearable comparisons with [[Nazi Germany]]. The French national psyche would not tolerate any parallels between their experiences of occupation and their colonial mastery of Algeria." General [[Paul Aussaresses]] admitted in 2000 that systematic torture techniques were used during the war and justified it. He also recognized the assassination of lawyer [[Ali Boumendjel]] and the head of the FLN in Algiers, [[Larbi Ben M'Hidi]], which had been disguised as suicides.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=702899|title=L'accablante confession du général Aussaresses sur la torture en Algérie|newspaper=Le Monde|date=3 May 2001}}</ref> [[Marcel Bigeard|Bigeard]], who called FLN activists "savages", claimed torture was a "necessary evil".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041813/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 February 2010 |title=Guerre d'Algérie: le général Bigeard et la pratique de la torture|newspaper=Le Monde|date=4 July 2000}}</ref><ref>[http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797 Torture Bigeard: " La presse en parle trop "] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050624162750/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797 |date=June 24, 2005}}, ''[[L'Humanité]]'', May 12, 2000 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> To the contrary, General Jacques Massu denounced it, following Aussaresses's revelations and, before his death, pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of the use of torture during the war.<ref>[http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie / 1954 – 1962 40 ans après, l'exigence de vérité] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209225257/http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html |date=2007-02-09}}, AIDH</ref>
In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in [[Sidi Ferruch]], a torture center where Algerians were murdered. Bigeard qualified [[Louisette Ighilahriz]]'s revelations, published in the ''Le Monde'' newspaper on June 20, 2000, as "lies." An ALN activist, Louisette Ighilahriz had been tortured by General Massu.<ref>[http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827 "Le témoignage de cette femme est un tissu de mensonges. Tout est faux, c'est une manoeuvre"], ''[[Le Monde]]'', June 22, 2000 {{in lang|fr}} {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041927/http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827 |date=February 19, 2010}}</ref> However, since General Massu's revelations, Bigeard has admitted the use of torture, although he denies having personally used it, and has declared, "You are striking the heart of an 84-year-old man." Bigeard also recognized that Larbi Ben M'Hidi was assassinated and that his death was disguised as a suicide.
In 2018 France officially admitted that torture was systematic and routine.<ref>{{cite news|title=France admits systematic torture during Algeria war for first time|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/13/france-state-responsible-for-1957-death-of-dissident-maurice-audin-in-algeria-says-macron|newspaper=The Guardian|date=13 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/|title=FRANCE RESETS AFRICAN RELATIONS: A POTENTIAL LESSON FOR PRESIDENT TRUMP|last=Genin|first=Aaron|date=2019-04-30|website=The California Review|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/ |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=France may have apologised for atrocities in Algeria, but the war still casts a long shadow|last=Samuel|first=Henry|date=2018-09-15|work=The Telegraph|access-date=2019-05-01|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
===Hegemony of the {{lang|fr|colons|nocat=y}}===
====Political organization====
A commission of inquiry established by the [[French Senate]] in 1892 and headed by former Premier [[Jules Ferry]], an advocate of colonial expansion, recommended that the government abandon a policy that assumed French law, without major modifications, could fit the needs of an area inhabited by close to two million Europeans and four million Muslims. Muslims had no representation in the [[French National Assembly]] before 1945 and were grossly under-represented on local councils. Because of the many restrictions imposed by the authorities, by 1915 only 50,000 Muslims were eligible to vote in elections in the civil communes. Attempts to implement even the most modest reforms were blocked or delayed by the local administration in Algeria, dominated by {{lang|fr|colons}}, and by the 27 {{lang|fr|colon}} representatives in the National Assembly (six deputies and three senators from each department).{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}
Once elected to the National Assembly, {{lang|fr|colons}} became permanent fixtures. Because of their [[seniority]], they exercised disproportionate influence, and their support was important to any government's survival.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beckett|first=I. F. W.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46401992|title=Modern insurgencies and counter-insurgencies : guerrillas and their opponents since 1750|date=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-23933-8|location=London|pages=160–161|oclc=46401992}}</ref> The leader of the {{lang|fr|colon}} delegation, [[Auguste Warnier]] (1810–1875), succeeded during the 1870s in modifying or introducing legislation to facilitate the private transfer of land to settlers and continue the Algerian state's appropriation of land from the local population and distribution to settlers. Consistent proponents of reform, like [[Georges Clemenceau]] and socialist [[Jean Jaurès]], were rare in the National Assembly.
====Economic organization====
[[File:Moorish women making Arab carpets, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697844.jpg|thumb|Moorish women making Arab carpets, Algiers, 1899]]
The bulk of Algeria's wealth in [[manufacturing]], [[mining]], [[agriculture]], and [[trade]] was controlled by the {{lang|fr|grands colons}}. The modern European-owned and -managed sector of the economy centered on small industry and a highly developed export trade, designed to provide food and raw materials to France in return for capital and consumer goods. Europeans held about 30% of the total arable land, including the bulk of the most fertile land and most of the areas under irrigation.<ref>Alistair Horne, page 62 "A Savage War of Peace", {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref> By 1900, Europeans produced more than two-thirds of the value of output in agriculture and practically all agricultural exports. The modern, or European, sector was run on a commercial basis and meshed with the French market system that it supplied with wine, citrus, olives, and [[vegetable]]s. Nearly half of the value of European-owned real property was in vineyards by 1914. By contrast, subsistence [[cereal]] production—supplemented by olive, fig, and date growing and stock raising—formed the basis of the traditional sector, but the land available for cropping was submarginal even for cereals under prevailing traditional cultivation practices.
In 1953, sixty per cent of the Muslim rural population were officially classed as being destitute. The European community, numbering at the time about one million out of a total population of nine million, owned about 66% of farmable land and produced all of the 1.3 million tons of wine that provided the base of the Algerian economy. Exports of Algerian wine and wheat to France were balanced in trading terms by a flow of manufactured goods.<ref>[[John Gunther]], pages 122–123 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd London 1955</ref>
The colonial regime imposed more and higher taxes on Muslims than on Europeans.<ref>Alistair Horne, page 63 "A Savage War of Peace", {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref> The Muslims, in addition to paying traditional taxes dating from before the French conquest, also paid new taxes, from which the {{lang|fr|colons}} were normally exempted. In 1909, for instance, Muslims, who made up almost 90% of the population but produced 20% of Algeria's income, paid 70% of direct taxes and 45% of the total taxes collected. And {{lang|fr|colons}} controlled how these revenues would be spent. As a result, {{lang|fr|colon}} towns had handsome municipal buildings, paved streets lined with trees, fountains and statues, while Algerian villages and rural areas benefited little if at all from tax revenues.
In financial terms Algeria was a drain on the French tax-payer. In the early 1950s the total Algerian budget of seventy-two billion francs included a direct subsidy of twenty-eight billion contributed from the metropolitan budget. Described at the time as being a French luxury, continued rule from Paris was justified on a variety of grounds including historic sentiment, strategic value and the political influence of the European settler population.<ref>John Gunther, page 123 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd. London 1955</ref>
====Schools====
[[File:Arab school of embroidery, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697839.jpg|thumb|right|Arab school of embroidery, Algiers, 1899]]
The colonial regime proved severely detrimental to overall education for Algerian Muslims, who had previously relied on religious schools to learn reading and writing and engage in religious studies. Not only did the state appropriate the habus lands (the religious foundations that constituted the main source of income for religious institutions, including schools) in 1843, but {{lang|fr|colon}} officials refused to allocate enough money to maintain schools and mosques properly and to provide for enough teachers and religious leaders for the growing population. In 1892, more than five times as much was spent for the education of Europeans as for Muslims, who had five times as many children of school age. Because few Muslim teachers were trained, Muslim schools were largely staffed by French teachers. Even a state-operated ''[[madrasah]]'' (school) often had French faculty members. Attempts to institute bilingual, bicultural schools, intended to bring Muslim and European children together in the classroom, were a conspicuous failure, rejected by both communities and phased out after 1870. According to one estimate, fewer than 5% of Algerian children attended any kind of school in 1870. As late as 1954 only one Muslim boy in five and one girl in sixteen was receiving formal schooling.<ref>Alistair Horne, pages 60–61 "A Savage War of Peace", {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref> The level of literacy amongst the total Muslim population was estimated at only 2% in urban areas and half of that figure in the rural hinterland.<ref>John Gunther, page 125 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd. London 1955</ref>
Efforts were begun by 1890 to educate a small number of Muslims along with European students in the French school system as part of France's "[[civilizing mission]]" in Algeria. The curriculum was entirely French and allowed no place for Arabic studies, which were deliberately downgraded even in Muslim schools. Within a generation, a class of well-educated, gallicized Muslims — the {{lang|fr|évolués}} (literally, the evolved ones)—had been created. Almost all of the handful of Muslims who accepted French citizenship were {{lang|fr|évolués}}; ironically, this privileged group of Muslims, strongly influenced by French culture and political attitudes, developed a new Algerian self-consciousness.
====Relationships between the colons, Indigènes and France====
Reporting to the French Senate in 1894, Governor General [[Jules Cambon]] wrote that Algeria had "only a dust of people left her." He referred to the destruction of the traditional ruling class that had left Muslims without leaders and had deprived France of {{lang|fr|interlocuteurs valables}} (literally, valid go-betweens), through whom to reach the masses of the people. He lamented that no genuine communication was possible between the two communities.<ref>Alistair Horne, page 36 "A Savage War of Peace", {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref>
The {{lang|fr|colons}} who ran Algeria maintained a dialog only with the {{lang|fr|[[beni-oui-ouis]]}}. Later they thwarted contact between the {{lang|fr|[[évolué]]s}} and Muslim traditionalists on the one hand and between {{lang|fr|évolués}} and official circles in France on the other. They feared and mistrusted the Francophone {{lang|fr|évolués}}, who were classified either as assimilationist, insisting on being accepted as Frenchmen but on their own terms, or as integrationists, eager to work as members of a distinct Muslim elite on equal terms with the French.
===Separate personal status===
{{See also|Indigénat}}
[[File:Negroes playing chess, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697845.jpg|thumb|Algerians playing chess, Algiers, 1899]]
[[File:Moorish coffee house, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697835.jpg|thumb|right|Moorish coffee house, Algiers, 1899]]
[[File:Group of Arabs, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697831.jpg|thumb|right|Group of Arabs, Algiers, 1899]]
Two communities existed: the French national and the people living with their own traditions.
Following its conquest of [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]]-controlled [[Algeria]] in 1830, for well over a century, France maintained what was effectively [[French colonial empires|colonial rule]] in the territory, though the [[French Constitution of 1848]] made Algeria part of France, and Algeria was usually understood as such by French people, even on the Left.<ref>David Scott Bell. ''Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France'', Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36.</ref>
Algeria became the prototype for a pattern of French colonial rule.
With nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians "dominated" by one million settlers, Algeria had similarities with South Africa, that has later been described as "quasi-[[apartheid]]"<ref name=Bell>"Algeria ... was a society of nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians who were dominated by the
million settlers of diverse origins (but fiercely French) who maintained a quasi-apartheid regime." David Scott Bell. ''Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France'', Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36.</ref> while the concept of apartheid was formalized in 1948.
This personal status lasted the entire time Algeria was French, from 1830 till 1962, with various changes in the meantime.
When French rule began, France had no well-established systems for intensive colonial governance, the main existing legal provision being the 1685 ''[[Code Noir]]'' which was related to slave-trading and owning and incompatible with the legal context of Algeria.
Indeed, France was committed in respecting the local law.
====Status before 1865====
On 5 July 1830, [[Hussein Dey]], regent of Algiers, signed the act of capitulation to the [[Régence]], which committed [[Louis Auguste Victor de Ghaisne de Bourmont|General de Bourmont]] and France "not to infringe on the freedom of people of all classes and their religion".<ref name="Weil-2005-96">{{Harvsp|Weil|2005|p=96}}.</ref>
Muslims still remain submitted to the Muslim Customary law and Jews to the Law of Moses; all of them remained linked to the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Blévis-2012-213">{{Harvsp|Blévis|2012|id=Blévis, 2012a|p=213}}.</ref>
That same year and the same month, the [[July Revolution]] ended the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]] and began the [[July Monarchy]] in which [[Louis Philippe I]] was King of the French.
The royal ''"Ordonnance du 22 juillet 1834"'' organized general government and administration of the French territories in North Africa and is usually considered as an effective [[annexation]] of Algeria by France;<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746">{{Harvsp|Sahia-Cherchari|2004|id=Sahia-Cherchari-2004|pp=745–746}}.</ref> the annexation made all people legally linked to France and broke the legal link between people and the Ottoman Empire,<ref name="Blévis-2012-213" /> because [[International law]] made annexation systematically induce a [[:fr:régnicole|régnicole]]s.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746" /> This made people living in Algeria "French subjects",<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747">{{Harvsp|Sahia-Cherchari|2004|id=Sahia-Cherchari-2004|p=747}}.</ref> without providing them any way to become French nationals.<ref name="Weil-2005-97">{{Harvsp|Weil|2005|p=97}}.</ref> However, since it was not [[positive law]], this text did not introduce legal certainty on this topic.<ref name="Blévis-2012-213" /><ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747" />
This was confirmed by the [[French Constitution of 1848]]
As French rule in Algeria expanded, particularly under [[Thomas-Robert Bugeaud]] (1841–48), discriminatory governance became increasingly formalised. In 1844, Bugeaud formalised a system of European settlements along the coast, under civil government, with Arab/Berber areas in the interior under military governance.<ref name="Murray Steele 2005 pp. 50-52">Murray Steele, 'Algeria: Government and Administration, 1830–1914', ''Encyclopedia of African History'', ed. by Kevin Shillington, 3 vols (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005), I pp. 50–52 (at p. 51).</ref> An important feature of French rule was ''cantonnement'', whereby tribal land that was supposedly unused was seized by the state, which enabled French colonists to expand their landholdings, and pushed indigenous people onto more marginal land and made them more vulnerable to drought;<ref name="Allan Christelow 2005 pp. 52-53">Allan Christelow, 'Algeria: Muslim Population, 1871–1954', ''Encyclopedia of African History'', ed. by Kevin Shillington, 3 vols (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005), I pp. 52–53 (p. 52).</ref> this was extended under the governance of Bugeaud's successor, [[Jacques Louis Randon]].<ref name="Murray Steele 2005 pp. 50-52"/>
A case in 1861 questioned the legal status of people in Algeria. On 28 November 1861, the ''conseil de l'ordre des avocats du barreau d'Alger'' (Bar association of Algiers) declined to recognise [[Élie Énos]] (or Aïnos), a Jew from Algiers, since only French citizens could become lawyers.<ref name="Blévis-2012-213" /> On 24 February 1862 (''appeal'') and on 15 February 1864 ''(cassation)'', judges reconsidered this, deciding that people could display the qualities of being French (without having access to the full rights of a French citizen).<ref name="Blévis2012-213-214">{{Harvsp|Blévis|2012|id=Blévis, 2012a|pp=213–214}}.</ref>
====Status since 1865====
{{Rough translation|French|Français|section|date=August 2022}}
[[Napoleon III]] was the first elected president of the [[French Second Republic]] before becoming [[Emperor of the French]] by the [[1852 French Second Empire referendum]] after the [[French coup d'état of 1851]]. In the 1860s, influenced by [[Ismael Urbain]], he introduced what were intended as liberalizing reforms in Algeria, promoting the French colonial model of [[Assimilation (French colonialism)|assimilation]], whereby colonised peoples would eventually [[Évolué|become French]]. His reforms were resisted by colonists in Algeria, and his attempts to allow Muslims to be elected to a putative new assembly in Paris failed.
However, he oversaw an 1865 decree (''sénatus-consulte du 14 juillet 1865 sur l'état des personnes et la naturalisation en Algérie'') that "stipulated that all the colonised indigenous were under French jurisdiction, i.e., French nationals subjected to French laws", and allowed Arab, Jewish, and Berber Algerians to request French citizenship—but only if they "renounced their Muslim religion and culture".<ref>Debra Kelly. ''Autobiography and Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French'', Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43.</ref>
This was the first time ''indigènes'' (natives) were allowed to access French citizenship,<ref name="Weil-2002-227">{{Harvsp|Weil|2002|p=227}}.</ref> but such citizenship was incompatible with the ''statut personnel'',<ref name="Blévis-2003-28">{{Harvsp|Blévis|2003|p=28}}.</ref> which allowed them to live within the Muslim traditions.
* Flandin argued that French citizenship was not compatible with Muslim status, since it had opposing laws on marriage, repudiation, divorce, and children's legal status.
* [[Claude Alphonse Delangle]], senator, also argued that Muslim and Jewish religions allowed polygamy, repudiation, and divorce.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Surkis |first1=Judith |title=Propriété, polygamie et statut personnel en Algérie coloniale, 1830–1873 |journal=Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle |date=15 December 2010 |issue=41 |pages=27–48 |doi=10.4000/rh19.4041 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/rh19/4041 |language=fr|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Later, Azzedine Haddour argued that this decree established "the formal structures of a political apartheid".<ref name="Debra Kelly 2005, p. 43">Debra Kelly, ''Autobiography and Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French'', Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43.</ref> Since few people were willing to abandon their religious values (which was seen as [[apostasy]]), rather than promoting assimilation, the legislation had the opposite effect: by 1913, only 1,557 Muslims had been granted French citizenship.<ref name="Murray Steele 2005 pp. 50-52"/>
Special penalties were managed by the ''cadis'' or tribe head but because this system was unfair it was decided by a [[Circulaire]] on 12 February 1844 to take control of those specific fines. Those fines were defined by various prefectural decrees, and were later known as the ''Code de l'indigénat.'' Lack of [[codification (law)|codification]] means that there is no complete text summary of these fines available.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5657089r/f233.image | title=Répertoire du droit administratif. Tome 1 / Par Léon Béquet,... ; avec le concours de M. Paul Dupré }}</ref>
On 28 July 1881, a new law (''loi qui confère aux Administrateurs des communes mixtes en territoire civil la répression, par voie disciplinaire, des infractions spéciales à l'indigénat'') known as the ''[[Code de l'indigénat]]'' was formally introduced for seven years to help administration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6127976d|title=Recueil général des lois et des arrêts : en matière civile, criminelle, commerciale et de droit public... / par J.-B. Sirey|date=February 28, 1882|website=Gallica}}</ref> It enabled district officials to issue summary [[fine (penalty)|fines]] to Muslims without due legal process, and to extract special taxes.
This temporary law was renewed by other temporary laws: the laws of 27 June 1888 for two years, 25 June 1890, 25 June 1897, 21 December 1904, 24 December 1907, 5 July 1914, 4 August 1920, 11 July 1922 and 30 December 1922.<ref name="Collot-1987-291">{{Harvsp|Collot|1987|p=291}}.</ref> By 1897, fines could be changed into
forced labor.<ref name="Thénault-2012-205">{{Harvsp|Thénault|2012|p=205}}.</ref>
Periodic attempts at partial reform failed:
* In 1881, [[Paul Leroy-Beaulieu]] created the ''Société française pour la protection des Indigènes des colonies (French society for the protection of natives)'' to give ''indigènes'' the right of vote.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761">{{Harvsp|id=Sahia-Cherchari-2004|Sahia-Cherchari|2004|p=761}}.</ref><ref name="Weil-2002-230">{{Harvsp|Weil|2002|p=230}}.</ref>
* In 1887, [[Henri Michelin]] and [[Alfred Nicolas Gaulier|Alfred Gaulier]] proposed the naturalisation of the ''indigènes'', keeping the personal status from the local law but removing the personal status of common right from the Civil Code.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761" /><ref name="Weil-2002-230-231">{{Harvsp|Weil|2002|pp=230–231}}.</ref>
* In 1890, [[Alfred Albert Martineau|Alfred Martineau]] proposed a progressive French naturalisation of all Muslim ''indigènes'' living in Algeria.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761" /><ref name="Weil-2002-231">{{Harvsp|Weil|2002|p=231}}</ref>
* In 1911, ''La revue indigène'' published several articles signed by law professors ([[André Weiss (jurist)|André Weiss]], Arthur Giraud, Charles de Boeck and [[Eugène Audinet]]) advocating naturalization of the ''indigènes'' with their status.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761" />
* In 1912, the [[Mouvement national algérien#Jeunes Algériens|Jeunes Algériens]] movement claimed in its ''Manifeste'' that the naturalization with their status and with conditions of the Algerian ''indigènes''.<ref name="Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761" />
In 1909, 70% of all direct taxes in Algeria were paid by Muslims, despite their general poverty.<ref name="Murray Steele 2005 pp. 50-52"/>
Opportunities for Muslims improved slightly from the 1890s, particularly for urban elites, which helped ensure acquiescence to the introduction of military conscription for Muslims in 1911.<ref name="Allan Christelow 2005 pp. 52-53"/>
[[Napoléon III]] received a petition signed by more than 10,000 local Jews asking for collective access to French citizenship.<ref name="Weil-2005-98">{{Harvsp|Weil|2005|p=98}}.</ref> This was also the desire, between 1865 and 1869, of the ''Conseils généraux des départements algériens''.<ref name="Weil-2005-98" /> The Jews were the main part of the population that desired French citizenship.<ref name="Gallissot-2009-7">{{Harvsp|Gallissot|2009|p=7}}.</ref>
Under the [[French Third Republic]], on 24 October 1870, based on a project from the [[Second French Empire]],<ref name="Blévis-2012-215-216">{{Harvsp|Blévis|2012|id=Blévis, 2012a|pp=215–216}}.</ref> [[Adolphe Crémieux]], founder and president of the [[Alliance israélite universelle]] and minister of Justice of the [[Government of National Defense]] defined with [[Patrice de Mac Mahon|Mac Mahon]]'s agreement a series of seven decrees related to Algeria, the most notable being number 136 known as the ''[[Crémieux Decree]]'' which granted French citizenship to [[History of the Jews in Algeria|Algerian indigenous Jews]].<ref name="Weil-2005-98" /> A different decree, numbered 137, related to Muslims and foreigners and required 21 years of age to ask for French citizenship.
In 1870, the French government granted [[History of the Jews in Algeria|Algerian Jews]] French citizenship under the ''[[Crémieux Decree]]'', but not Muslims.<ref name="Weil" >Patrick Weil, [https://archive.org/details/howtobefrenchnat0000weil/page/128 ''How to Be French: Nationality in the Making since 1789,''] Duke University Press 2008 p.253.</ref> This meant that most Algerians were still 'French subjects', treated as the objects of French law, but were still not citizens, could still not vote, and were effectively without the right to citizenship.<ref name="Debra Kelly 2005, p. 43"/>
In 1919, after the involvement of 172,019 Algerians in the First World War, the [[Jonnart Law]] eased access to French citizenship for those who met one of several criteria, such as working for the French army, a son in a war, knowing how to read and write in the French language, having a public position, being married to or born of an indigène who became a French citizen.{{sfn|Renucci|2004|loc={{§|26}}}} Half a million Algerians were exempted from the ''indigénat'' status, and this status became void in 1927 in the mixed towns but remained applicable in other towns until its abrogation in 1944.<ref name="Thénault-2012-205" />
Later, Jewish people's citizenship was revoked by the [[Vichy government]] in the early 1940s, but was restored in 1943.
====Muslim French====
Despite periodic attempts at partial reform, the situation of the ''Code de l'indigénat'' persisted until the [[French Fourth Republic]], which formally began in 1946.
On 7 March 1944 ''ordonnance'' ended the ''Code de l'indigénat'' and created a second electoral college for 1,210,000 non-citizen Muslims and made 60,000 Muslims French citizen and with a vote in the first electoral college. <br />
The 17 August 1945 ''ordonnance'' gave each of the two colleges 15 MPs and 7 senators.<br />
On 7 May 1946, the ''Loi Lamine Guèye'' gave French citizenship to every overseas national, including Algerians, giving them a right to vote at 21 years old.<br />
The [[:fr:Constitution française du 27 octobre 1946|French Constitution]] of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] conceptualized the dissociation of citizenship and personal status (but no legal text implements this dissociation).
Although Muslim Algerians were accorded the rights of citizenship, the system of discrimination was maintained in more informal ways. Frederick Cooper writes that Muslim Algerians "were still marginalized in their own territory, notably the separate voter roles of "French" civil status and of "Muslim" civil status, to keep their hands on power."<ref>{{cite book |first=Frederick |last=Cooper |chapter=Alternatives to Nationalism in French West Africa, 1945–60 |pages=110–37 |editor-first=Marc |editor-last=Frey |editor2-first=Jost |editor2-last=Dülferr |title=Elites and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century |location=Houndmills |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-230-24369-9}}</ref>
In the specific context following the second war, in 1947 is introduced the [[:fr:Statut de 1947|1947 statute]] which granted a local status citizenship to the ''indigènes'' who became "Muslim French" (''Français musulmans''), while other French were ''Français non-musulmans'' remain civil status citizens<ref name="Gallissot-2009-10">{{Harvsp|Gallissot|2009|p=10}}.</ref>{{,}}.<ref name="Baussant-2004-109">{{Harvsp|Baussant|2004|p=109}}.</ref> The rights differences are no longer implied by a status difference, but by the difference between the two territories, Algerian and French.<ref name="Shepard-2008-60-61">{{Harvsp| Shepard|2008|pp=60–61}}.</ref>
This system is rejected by some European for introducing Muslims into the European college, and rejected by some Algerian nationalists for not giving full sovereignty to the Algerian nation.<!-- reference was never defined, full citation is needed <ref name="Droz794"/>.-->{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}
This "internal system of apartheid" met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the [[Algerian War|1954 insurrection]].<ref name=Wall>{{cite book |quote=As a settler colony with an internal system of apartheid, administered under the fiction that it was part of metropolitan France, and endowed with a powerful colonial lobby that virtually determined the course of French politics with respect to its internal affairs, it experienced insurrection in 1954 on the part of its Muslim population. |last=Wall |first=Irwin M. |title=France, the United States, and the Algerian War |publisher=University of California Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-520-22534-1 |page=262}}</ref>
====Algerian citizens====
On 18 March 1962, the [[Évian Accords]] guaranteed of protection, non-discrimination and property rights for all Algerian citizens and the right of self-determination to Algeria.<ref name="evian">{{Cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20507/v507.pdf|title=Exchange of letters and declarations adopted on 19 March 1962 at the close of the Evian talks, constituting an agreement. Paris and Rocher Noir, 3 July 1962 known as Évian Accords}}</ref> In France it was approved by the [[1962 French Évian Accords referendum]].
The agreement address various statuses:
* Algerian civil rights
* Rights and freedoms of Algerian citizens of ordinary civil status
* French nationals residing in Algeria as aliens.<ref name="evian" />
The Évian Accords offered French nationals Algerian civil rights for three years, but required them to apply for Algerian nationality.<ref name="evian" /> During the three years period, the agreement offer:
{{Blockquote|They will receive guarantees appropriate to their cultural, linguistic and religious characteristics. They will retain their personal status, which will be respected and enforced by Algerian courts composed of judges of the same status. They will use the French language within the assemblies and in their relations with the constituted authorities.|Évian Accords.<ref name="evian" />}}
The European French community (the ''colon'' population), the ''[[pieds-noirs]]'' and [[History of the Jews in Algeria|indigenous Sephardi Jews]] in Algeria were guaranteed religious freedom and property rights as well as French citizenship with the option to choose between French and Algerian citizenship after three years. Algerians were permitted to continue freely circulating between their country and France for work, although they would not have political rights equal to French citizens.
The [[Organisation armée secrète|OAS]] right-wing movement opposed this agreement.
==Government and administration==
===Initial settling of Algeria (1830–48)===
In November 1830, French colonial officials attempted to limit the arrivals at Algerian ports by requiring the presentation of passports and residence permits.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=By Sword and Plow: France and the Conquest of Algeria |last=Sessions |first=Jennifer |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2011|isbn=978-0801449758}}</ref> The regulations created by the French government in May 1831 required permission from the Interior Ministry to enter Algeria and other French controlled territories.
This May circular allowed merchants with trading interests easy access to passports because they were not permanent settlers?, and wealthy persons who planned to found agricultural enterprises in Algeria were also freely given access to move. The circular forbade passage to indigents and needy unskilled workers.<ref name=":0" /> During the 1840s, the French government assisted certain emigrants to Algeria, who were mostly urban workers from the Paris basin and France's eastern frontier and were not the agricultural workers that the colonial officials wanted to be sent from France. Single men received 68 percent of the free passages and only 14 percent of the emigrants were women because of varying policies about the emigration of families that all favored unaccompanied males who were seen as more flexible and useful for laborious tasks. Initially in November 1840, families were eligible only if they had no small children and two-thirds of the family was able to work.
Later, in September 1841, only unaccompanied males could travel to Algeria for free and a complicated system for families was developed that made subsidized travel almost unavailable. These emigrants were offered many different forms of government assistance including free passage (both to the ports of France and by ship to Algeria), wine rations and food, land concessions, and were promised high wages. Between 1841 and 1845, about 20,000 individuals were offered this assisted emigration by the French government, though it is unknown exactly how many actually went to Algeria.<ref name=":0" /> These measures were funded and supported by the French government (both local and national) because they saw the move to Algeria as a solution to overpopulation and unemployment; those who applied for assisted emigration emphasized their work ethic, undeserved employment in France, a presumption of government obligation to the less fortunate. By 1848, Algeria was populated by 109,400 Europeans, only 42,274 of whom were French.<ref name=":0" />
===Colonisation and military control===
{{More citations needed|section|date=December 2018}}
[[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in Algiers in 1857]]
A royal ordinance in 1845 called for three types of administration in Algeria. In areas where Europeans were a substantial part of the population, {{lang|fr|colons}} elected mayors and councils for self-governing "full exercise" communes ({{lang|fr|communes de plein exercice}}). In the "mixed" communes, where Muslims were a large majority, government was in the hands of appointed and some elected officials, including representatives of the {{lang|fr|grands chefs}} (great chieftains) and a French administrator. The indigenous communes ({{lang|fr|communes indigènes}}), remote areas not adequately pacified, remained under the {{lang|fr|régime du sabre}} (rule of the sword).
By 1848 nearly all of northern Algeria was under French control. Important tools of the colonial administration, from this time until their elimination in the 1870s, were the {{lang|fr|[[bureaux arabes]]}} (Arab Bureaus), staffed by Arabists whose function was to collect information on the indigenous people and to carry out administrative functions, nominally in cooperation with the army. The {{lang|fr|bureaux arabes}} on occasion acted with sympathy to the local population and formed a buffer between Muslims and {{lang|fr|colons}}.
Under the {{lang|fr|régime du sabre}}, the {{lang|fr|colons}} had been permitted limited self-government in areas where European settlement was most intense, but there was constant friction between them and the army. The {{lang|fr|colons}} charged that the {{lang|fr|bureaux arabes}} hindered the progress of [[colonization]]. They agitated against [[military dictatorship|military rule]], complaining that their legal rights were denied under the arbitrary controls imposed on the colony and insisting on a civil administration for Algeria fully integrated with metropolitan France. The army warned that the introduction of civilian government would invite Muslim retaliation and threaten the security of Algeria. The French government vacillated in its policy, yielding small concessions to the ''colon'' demands on the one hand while maintaining the ''régime du sabre'' to control the Muslim majority on the other.
===Under the French Second Republic and Second Empire (1848–70)===
{{More citations needed|section|date=December 2018}}
[[File:French Algeria Naval Ensign 1848-1910.svg|thumb|Merchant ensign 1848–1910<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://d-o-i-f.blogspot.com/p/afrique.html|title=Drapeaux d'Origine & d'Inspiration Françaises (DO&IF): Afrique}}</ref>]]
[[File:Prise de la Zaatcha (1849).png|thumb|Capture of the Zaatcha (1849)]]
[[File:Algérie fr.jpg|thumb|1877 map of the three French departments of Alger, Oran and Constantine]]
Shortly after Louis Philippe's constitutional monarchy was overthrown in the revolution of 1848, the new government of the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] ended Algeria's status as a colony and declared in the 1848 Constitution the occupied lands an integral part of France. Three civil territories — [[Alger (department)|Alger]], [[Oran (department)|Oran]], and [[Constantine (departement)|Constantine]] — were organized as [[Departments of France]] (local administrative units) under a civilian government. This made them a part of France proper as opposed to a colony. For the first time, French citizens in the civil territories elected their own councils and mayors; Muslims had to be appointed, could not hold more than one-third of council seats, and could not serve as mayors or assistant [[mayor]]s. The administration of territories outside the zones settled by colons remained under the French Army. Local Muslim administration was allowed to continue under the supervision of French Army commanders, charged with maintaining order in newly pacified regions, and the {{lang|fr|bureaux arabes}}. Theoretically, these areas were closed to European colonization.
===Land and colonisers===
[[File:Famine in Algeria 1869.jpg|thumb|The famine of Algeria in 1869<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taithe|first=Bertrand|date=2010-12-15|others=Hélène Blais, Claire Fredj, Saada Emmanuelle|title=La famine de 1866–1868 : anatomie d'une catastrophe et construction médiatique d'un événement|url=https://rh19.revues.org/4051|journal=Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle. Société d'histoire de la révolution de 1848 et des révolutions du XIXe siècle|language=fr|issue=41|pages=113–127|doi=10.4000/rh19.4051|issn=1265-1354}}</ref>]]
Even before the decision was made to annex Algeria, major changes had taken place. In a bargain-hunting frenzy to take over or buy at low prices all manner of property—homes, shops, farms and factories—Europeans poured into Algiers after it fell. French authorities took possession of the {{lang|tr|beylik}} lands, from which Ottoman officials had derived income. Over time, as pressures increased to obtain more land for settlement by Europeans, the state seized more categories of land, particularly that used by tribes, religious foundations, and villages{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}.
Called either {{lang|fr|colons}} (settlers), Algerians, or later, especially following the 1962 independence of Algeria, {{lang|fr|[[pied-noir|pieds noirs]]}} (literally, black feet), the European settlers were largely of peasant farmer or working-class origin from the poor southern areas of Italy, Spain,<ref>Between [http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29265&ext=.pdf 1882] and [http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29453&ext=.pdf 1911], over 100,000 Spaniards moved to Algeria in search of a better life. During 1882 to 1887, it was the country that received a greater number of Spanish migrants [http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29265&ext=.pdf]. However, a short-term migration also took place during harvesting seasons [http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29267&ext=.pdf]. By 1915, while the total number of Spaniards in Algeria was still high, other countries in the New World had overtaken Algeria as the preferred destination.[http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29453&ext=.pdf]</ref> and France. Others were criminal and political deportees from France, transported under sentence in large numbers to Algeria. In the 1840s and 1850s, to encourage settlement in rural areas, official policy was to offer grants of land for a fee and a promise that improvements would be made. A distinction soon developed between the {{lang|fr|grands colons}} (great settlers) at one end of the scale, often self-made men who had accumulated large estates or built successful businesses, and smallholders and workers at the other end, whose lot was often not much better than that of their Muslim counterparts. According to historian [[John Ruedy]], although by 1848 only 15,000 of the 109,000 European settlers were in rural areas, "by systematically expropriating both pastoralists and farmers, rural colonization was the most important single factor in the destructuring of traditional society."<ref>John Ruedy, ''Modern Algeria'' (2nd ed.), pp. 70–71, {{ISBN|0-253-21782-2}}</ref>
European migration, encouraged during the Second Republic, stimulated the civilian administration to open new land for settlement against the advice of the army. With the advent of the Second Empire in 1852, [[Napoleon III]] returned Algeria to military control. In 1858 a separate [[Ministry of Algerian Affairs]] was created to supervise administration of the country through a military [[governor general]] assisted by a civil minister.
Napoleon III visited Algeria twice in the early 1860s. He was profoundly impressed with the nobility and virtue of the tribal chieftains, who appealed to the emperor's romantic nature, and was shocked by the self-serving attitude of the {{lang|fr|colon}} leaders. He decided to halt the expansion of European settlement beyond the coastal zone and to restrict contact between Muslims and the {{lang|fr|colons}}, whom he considered to have a corrupting influence on the indigenous population. He envisioned a grand design for preserving most of Algeria for the Muslims by founding a {{lang|fr|royaume arabe}} (Arab kingdom) with himself as the {{lang|fr|roi des Arabes}} (king of the Arabs). He instituted the so-called politics of the {{lang|fr|grands chefs}} to deal with the Muslims directly through their traditional leaders.<ref>Alistair Horne, page 31 "A Savage War of Peace, {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref>
To further his plans for the {{lang|fr|royaume arabe}}, Napoleon III issued two decrees affecting tribal structure, land tenure, and the legal status of Muslims in French Algeria. The first, promulgated in 1863, was intended to renounce the state's claims to tribal lands and eventually provide private plots to individuals in the tribes, thus dismantling "feudal" structures and protecting the lands from the {{lang|fr|colons}}. Tribal areas were to be identified, delimited into {{lang|fr|douars}} (administrative units), and given over to councils. Arable land was to be divided among members of the {{lang|fr|douar}} over a period of one to three generations, after which it could be bought and sold by the individual owners. Unfortunately for the tribes, however, the plans of Napoleon III quickly unraveled. French officials sympathetic to the colons took much of the tribal land they surveyed into the public domain. In addition, some tribal leaders immediately sold communal lands for quick gains. The process of converting arable land to individual ownership was accelerated to only a few years when laws were enacted in the 1870s stipulating that no sale of land by an individual Muslim could be invalidated by the claim that it was collectively owned. The cudah and other tribal officials, appointed by the French on the basis of their loyalty to France rather than the allegiance owed them by the tribe, lost their credibility as they were drawn into the European orbit, becoming known derisively as {{lang|fr|[[béni-oui-oui]]}}.<ref>Alistair Horne, page 35, ''A Savage War of Peace'', {{ISBN|0-670-61964-7}}</ref>
Napoleon III visualized three distinct Algerias: a French colony, an Arab country, and a military camp, each with a distinct form of local government. The second decree, issued in 1865, was designed to recognize the differences in cultural background of the French and the Muslims. As French nationals, Muslims could serve on equal terms in the [[French armed forces]] and civil service and could migrate to France proper. They were also granted the protection of French law while retaining the right to adhere to Islamic law in litigation concerning their personal status. But if Muslims wished to become full citizens, they had to accept the full jurisdiction of the French legal code, including laws affecting marriage and inheritance, and reject the authority of the religious courts. In effect, this meant that a Muslim had to renounce some of the mores of his religion in order to become a French citizen. This condition was bitterly resented by Muslims, for whom the only road to political equality was perceived to be [[apostasy]]. Over the next century, fewer than 3,000 Muslims chose to cross the barrier and become French citizens. A similar status applied to the [[Jew]]ish natives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brett |first=Michael |title=Legislating for Inequality in Algeria |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=440–461, see 456–457 |year=1988 |doi=10.1017/s0041977x00116453|s2cid=159891511 }}</ref>
===Under the Third Republic (1870–1940)===
[[File:Place de la republique, Algiers, Algeria-LCCN2001697812.jpg|thumb|Place de la republique, Algiers, 1899]]
[[File:Départements français d'Algérie 1934-1955 map-fr.svg|thumb|Administrative organisation between 1905 and 1955. Three {{lang|fr|départements}} Oran, Alger and Constantine in the north (in pink colour), and four territories Aïn-Sefra, Ghardaïa, Oasis and Touggourt in the south (in yellow). The external boundaries of the land are those between 1934 and 1962.]]
When the [[Prussia]]ns captured Napoleon III at the [[Battle of Sedan]] (1870), ending the Second Empire, demonstrations in Algiers by the {{lang|fr|colons}} led to the departure of the just-arrived new governor general and the replacement of the military administration by settler committees.<ref>Page 164, Vol. 13, Encyclopædia Britannica, Macropaedia, 15th Edition</ref> Meanwhile, in France the government of the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] directed one of its ministers, [[Adolphe Crémieux]], "to destroy the military regime ... [and] to completely assimilate Algeria into France." In October 1870, {{lang|fr|Crémieux}}, whose concern with Algerian affairs dated from the time of the Second Republic, issued a series of decrees providing for representation of the Algerian départements in the [[National Assembly of France]] and confirming {{lang|fr|colon}} control over local administration. A civilian governor general was made responsible to the [[Ministry of Interior]]. The Crémieux Decrees also granted full French citizenship to Algerian Jews,<ref>Benjamin, Roger. (2003) ''Renoir and Algeria''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003, p. 25.</ref> who then numbered about 40,000. This act set them apart from Muslims, in whose eyes they were identified thereafter with the ''colons''. The measure had to be enforced, however, over the objections of the ''colons'', who made little distinction between Muslims and Jews. (Automatic citizenship was subsequently extended in 1889 to children of non-French Europeans born in Algeria unless they specifically rejected it.)
The loss of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] to Prussia in 1871 after the [[Franco-Prussian War]], led to pressure on the French government to make new land available in Algeria for about 5,000 [[Alsace|Alsatian]] and [[Lorraine (province)|Lorrainer]] refugees who were resettled there. During the 1870s, both the amount of European-owned land and the number of settlers were doubled, and tens of thousands of unskilled Muslims, who had been uprooted from their land, wandered into the cities or to colon farming areas in search of work.
====Comte and colonialism in the Third Republic====
{{expand section|date = April 2016}}
====Kabylie insurrection====
{{main|Mokrani Revolt}}
The most serious native insurrection since the time of [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd al Qadir]] broke out in 1871 in [[Kabylia]] and spread through much of Algeria. The revolt was triggered by Crémieux's extension of civil (that is, {{lang|fr|colon}}) authority to previously self-governing tribal reserves and the abrogation of commitments made by the military government, but it had its basis in more long-standing grievances. Since the [[Crimean War]] (1854–56), the demand for grain had pushed the price of Algerian wheat up to European levels. [[Storage silo]]s were emptied when the world market's impact was felt in Algeria, and Muslim farmers sold their grain reserves — including seed grain — to speculators. But the community-owned silos were the fundamental adaptation of a subsistence economy to an unpredictable climate, and a good year's surplus was stored away against a bad year's dearth. When serious drought struck Algeria and grain crops failed in 1866 and for several years following, Muslim areas faced starvation, and with famine came pestilence. It was estimated that 20% of the Muslim population of Constantine died over a three-year period. In 1871 the civil authorities repudiated guarantees made to tribal chieftains by the previous military government for loans to replenish their seed supply. This act alienated even pro-French Muslim leaders, while it undercut their ability to control their people. It was against this background that the stricken [[Kabyles]] rose in revolt, following immediately on the mutiny in January 1871 of a squadron of Muslim [[spahi]]s in the French Army who had been ordered to embark for France.<ref>R. Hure, page 155, {{lang|fr|L'Armee d'Afrique 1830–1962}}, Charles-Lavauzelle 1977</ref> The withdrawal of a large proportion of the army stationed in Algeria to serve in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] had weakened France's control of the territory, while reports of defeats undermined French prestige amongst the indigenous population.
In the aftermath of the 1871 uprising, French authorities imposed stern measures to punish and control the entire Muslim population. France confiscated more than {{cvt|5,000|sqkm}} of tribal land and placed Kabylia under a {{lang|fr|[[régime d'exception]]}} (extraordinary rule), which denied [[due process]] guaranteed French nationals. A special {{lang|fr|[[indigénat]]}} (native code) listed as offenses acts such as insolence and unauthorized assembly not punishable by French law, and the normal jurisdiction of the ''[[cudah]]'' was sharply restricted. The governor general was empowered to jail suspects for up to five years without trial. The argument was made in defense of these exceptional measures that the French penal code as applied to Frenchmen was too permissive to control Muslims. Some were deported to [[New Caledonia]], see [[Algerians of the Pacific]].
====Conquest of the southwestern territories====
[[File:Algeria, Morocco and Tunis (XIX century).jpg|thumb|The Maghreb in the second half of the 19th century]]
In the 1890s, the French administration and military called for the annexation of the [[Touat]], the [[Gourara]] and the [[Tidikelt]],<ref>{{Citation |author=Frank E. Trout |jstor=216479 |title=Morocco's Boundary in the Guir-Zousfana River Basin |journal=African Historical Studies |volume=3 |issue=1 |year=1970 |pages=37–56 |publisher=Boston University African Studies Center|doi=10.2307/216479}}</ref> a complex that during the period prior to 1890, was part of what was known as the [[Bled es-Siba]] (land of dissidence)<ref name="GellnerMicaud1972">{{cite book|last1=Gellner|first1=Ernest|author2=Charles Antoine Micaud|title=Arabs and Berbers: from tribe to nation in North Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I64tAQAAIAAJ|year=1972|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-669-83865-7|page=27}}</ref>), regions that were nominally Moroccan but which were not submitted to the authority of the central government.<ref>{{cite book |author=Frank E. Trout |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IO69HppDTDgC |title=Morocco's Saharan Frontiers |publisher=Droz |year=1969 |page=24|isbn=978-2-6000-4495-0}}</ref>
An armed conflict opposed [[19th Army Corps (France)|French 19th Corps]]' Oran and Algiers divisions to the [[Aït Khabbash]], a faction of the Aït Ounbgui ''khams'' of the [[Aït Atta]] confederation. The conflict ended by the annexation of the Touat-Gourara-Tidikelt complex by France in 1901.<ref>Claude Lefébure, [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/remmm_0035-1474_1986_num_41_1_2114 {{lang|fr|Ayt Khebbach, impasse sud-est. L'involution d'une tribu marocaine exclue du Sahara}}], in: {{lang|fr|Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, N°41–42, 1986. Désert et montagne au Maghreb.}} pp. 136–157: "{{lang|fr|les Divisions d'Oran et d'Alger du 19e Corps d'armée n'ont pu conquérir le Touat et le Gourara qu'au prix de durs combats menés contre les semi-nomades d'obédience marocaine qui, depuis plus d'un siècle, imposaient leur protection aux oasiens.}}"</ref>
In the 1930s, the [[Saoura]] valley and the region of [[Tindouf]] were in turn annexed to French Algeria at the expense of Morocco, then under French protectorate since 1912.
====Conquest of the Sahara====
{{See also|Kaocen revolt}}
The French military expedition led by Lieutenant-Colonel [[Paul Flatters]], was annihilated by [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] attack in 1881.
The French took advantage of long-standing animosity between Tuareg and [[Chaamba]] Arabs. The newly raised ''[[Méhariste|Compagnies Méharistes]]'' were originally recruited mainly from the Chaamba nomadic tribe. The ''Méhariste'' [[Méhariste|camel corps]] provided an effective means of policing the desert.
In 1902, Lieutenant {{ILL|Gaston-Ernest Cottenest|fr}} penetrated [[Hoggar Mountains]] and defeated [[Kel Ahaggar|Ahaggar Tuareg]] in the battle of [[Tit, Tamanrasset|Tit]].
===During World War II (1940–45)===
{{See also|Operation Torch}}
[[File:The Royal Navy during the Second World War- Operation Torch, North Africa, November 1942 A12662.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Arzew]] inhabitants meet [[United States Army Rangers|U.S. Army Rangers]] in November 1942 during Allied [[Operation Torch]]]]
Colonial troops of French Algeria were sent to fight in metropolitan France during the [[Battle of France]] in 1940. After the Fall of France, the Third French Republic collapsed and was replaced by the [[Philippe Pétain]]'s [[Vichy France|French State]], better known as Vichy France.
===Under the Fourth Republic (1946–58)===
{{Quote box
| quote = [The French] had been for over a hundred years in Algeria and were determined that it was part of France, and they damn well were going to stay there. Of course, there was a very strong school of thought in the rest of Africa that they damn well weren't.
| author = US [[Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs]], [[Joseph C. Satterthwaite]]
| source = <ref>{{Cite web|last=Moss|first=William W.|date=March 2, 1971|title=Joseph C. Satterthwaite, recorded interview|url=https://www.jfklibrary.org/sites/default/files/archives/JFKOH/Satterthwaite,%20Joseph%20C/JFKOH-JCS-01/JFKOH-JCS-01-TR.pdf|access-date=2020-06-27|website=www.jfklibrary.org|publisher=John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program}}</ref>
| align = right
| width = 25%
}}{{See also|Algerian War}}
[[File:Semaine des barricades Alger 1960 Haute Qualité.jpg|thumb|250px|Supporters of General [[Jacques Massu]] set barricades in Algiers in January 1960]]
Many Algerians had fought as French soldiers during the Second World War. Thus Algerian Muslims felt that it was even more unjust that their votes were not equal to those of the other Algerians, especially after 1947 when the Algerian Assembly was created. This assembly was composed of 120 members. Algerian Muslims, representing about 6.85 million people, could designate 50% of the Assembly members, while 1,150,000 non-Muslim Algerians could designate the other half. Moreover, a massacre occurred in [[Sétif massacre|Sétif]] on 8 May 1945. It opposed Algerians who were demonstrating for their national claim to the French Army. After skirmishes with police, Algerians killed about 100 French. The French army retaliated harshly, resulting in the deaths of approximately 6,000 Algerians.<ref>Horne, Alistair, ''A Savage War of Peace'', p. 27</ref> This triggered a radicalization of Algerian nationalists and could be considered the beginning of the [[Algerian War]].
In 1956, about 512,000 French soldiers were in Algeria. No resolution was imaginable in the short term. An overwhelming majority of French politicians were opposed to the idea of independence while independence was gaining ground in Muslim Algerians' minds.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} France was deadlocked and the Fourth Republic collapsed over this dispute.
===Under the Fifth Republic (1958–62)===
In 1958, [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s return to power in response to a [[May 1958 crisis|military coup in Algiers in May]] was supposed to keep Algeria's status quo as [[departments of France]] as hinted by his speeches delivered in Oran and Mostaganem on 6 June 1958, in which he exclaimed {{lang|fr|"Vive l'Algérie française!"}} (lit. "Long live French Algeria!").<ref>{{cite web |title=Discours de Mostaganem, 6 juin 1958 |author=Charles de Gaulle |publisher=Fondation Charles de Gaulle |url=http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/accueil/discours/le-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969/discours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php |date=1958-06-06 |access-date=2010-01-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114102144/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/accueil/discours/le-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969/discours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php |archive-date=2009-11-14}}</ref> De Gaulle's republican constitution project was approved through the [[1958 French constitutional referendum|September 1958 referendum]] and the Fifth Republic was established the following month with de Gaulle as its president.
The latter consented to independence in 1962 after a [[French referendum on Algerian self-determination, 1961|referendum on Algerian self-determination]] in January 1961 and despite a subsequent [[Algiers putsch of 1961|aborted military coup in Algiers]] led by four French generals in April 1961.
==Post-colonial relations==
{{Main|Foreign relations of France}}
Relations between post-colonial Algeria and France have remained close throughout the years, although sometimes difficult. In 1962, the [[Evian Accords]] peace treaty provided land in the Sahara for the French Army, which it had used under [[Charles de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] to carry out its first nuclear tests (''[[Gerboise bleue]]''). Many European settlers ({{lang|fr|[[pieds-noirs]]}}) living in Algeria and [[Algerian Jews]], who contrary to Algerian Muslims had been granted French citizenship by the [[Crémieux decrees]] at the end of the 19th century, were expelled to France where they formed a new community. On the other hand, the issue of the {{lang|fr|[[harki]]s}}, the Muslims who had fought on the French side during the war, still remained unresolved. Large numbers of {{lang|fr|harkis}} were killed in 1962, during the immediate aftermath of the Algerian War, while those who escaped with their families to France have tended to remain an unassimilated refugee community. The present Algerian government continues to refuse to allow {{lang|fr|harkis}} and their descendants to return to Algeria.
On 23 February 2005, the [[French law on colonialism]] was an act passed by the [[Union for a Popular Movement]] (UMP) [[conservatism|conservative]] majority, which imposed on high-school (lycée) teachers to teach the "positive values" of [[colonialism]] to their students, in particular in North Africa (article 4). The law created a public uproar and opposition from the whole of the [[left-wing]], and was finally repealed by [[President of the French Republic|President]] [[Jacques Chirac]] (UMP) at the beginning of 2006, after accusations of [[historical revisionism (negationism)|historical revisionism]] from various teachers and historians.
Algerians feared that the French law on colonialism would hinder the task of the French in confronting the dark side of their colonial rule in Algeria because article four of the law decreed among other things that "School programmes are to recognise in particular the positive role of the French presence overseas, especially in North Africa."<ref name="HS-050516">{{cite news |title=Colonial abuses haunt France |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4552473.stm |access-date=9 June 2012 |work=[[BBC News Online]] |date=16 May 2005 |last=Schofield |first=Hugh}}</ref> [[Benjamin Stora]], a leading specialist on French Algerian history of colonialism and a pied-noir himself, said "France has never taken on its colonial history. It is a big difference with the Anglo-Saxon countries, where post-colonial studies are now in all the universities. We are phenomenally behind the times."<ref name="HS-050516"/> In his opinion, although the historical facts were known to academics, they were not well known by the French public, and this led to a lack of honesty in France over French colonial treatment of the Algerian people.<ref name="HS-050516"/>
In 2017, President [[Emmanuel Macron]] described France's colonization of Algeria as a "[[crimes against humanity|crime against humanity]]".<ref name=loseslead>{{cite news | access-date = 25 April 2017 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/18/macron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/18/macron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark/ |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | title= Emmanuel Macron loses lead in French election polls after remarks on colonial Algeria and gay marriage spark outrage | work =[[The Daily Telegraph]] | date = 18 February 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="frarel">{{Cite web|url=https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/|title=FRANCE RESETS AFRICAN RELATIONS: A POTENTIAL LESSON FOR PRESIDENT TRUMP|last=Genin|first=Aaron|date=30 April 2019|website=The California Review|language=en-US|access-date=1 May 2019}}</ref> He also said: "It's truly barbarous and it's part of a past that we need to confront by apologizing to those against whom we committed these acts."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20170216-france-presidential-hopeful-macron-describes-colonisation-algeria-crime-against-humanity |title= French presidential hopeful Macron calls colonization a 'crime against humanity | publisher= France 24 |date=16 February 2017 | access-date=26 April 2017}}</ref> Polls following his remarks reflected a decrease in his support.<ref name=loseslead/>
In July 2020, the remains of 24 Algerian resistance fighters and leaders, who were decapitated by the French colonial forces in the 19th century and whose skulls were taken to Paris as war trophies and held in the [[Musee de l'Homme]] in Paris, were repatriated to Algeria and buried in the Martyrs' Square at [[El Alia Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200705-algeria-buries-repatriated-skulls-of-resistance-fighters-as-it-marks-independence-from-france |title=Algeria buries repatriated skulls of resistance fighters as it marks independence from France |website=France 24 |date=5 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="APS 5 July 2020">{{cite web | title=Skulls of Algerian resistance fighters to French occupation return to homeland | website=Algérie Presse Service | date=7 Jun 2020 | url=http://www.aps.dz/en/algeria/34792-aircraft-carrying-skulls-of-algerian-resistance-fighters-to-french-occupation-lands-at-algiers-airport | access-date=7 Jul 2020}}</ref><ref name="APS 03 July 2020">{{cite web | title=Algerian fighters' skulls buried in Martyrs' Square at El-Alia Cemetery | website=Algérie Presse Service | date=7 Jun 2020 | url=http://www.aps.dz/en/algeria/34813-algerian-fighters-s-skulls-buried-in-martyrs-square-at-el-alia-cemetery | access-date=7 Jul 2020}}</ref>
In January 2021, Macron stated there would be "no repentance nor apologies" for the French colonization of Algeria, colonial abuses or French involvement during the Algerian independence war.<ref name="macreap"/><ref name="macofab"/><ref name="macapocol"/> Instead efforts would be devoted toward reconciliation.<ref name="macreap">{{cite news|title='No repentance nor apologies' for colonial abuses in Algeria, says Macron|url=https://www.france24.com/en/france/20210120-no-repentance-nor-apologies-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-says-macron|agency=France 24|date=20 January 2021|access-date=30 January 2021|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="macofab">{{cite news|title=Macron rules out official apology for colonial abuses in Algeria|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/20/macron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria|agency=Al Jazeera|date=20 January 2021|access-date=30 January 2021|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="macapocol">{{cite news|title=Macron Rules Out Apology For Colonial Abuses In Algeria|url=https://www.barrons.com/news/macron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-01611140710?tesla=y|agency=Barron's|date=20 January 2021|access-date=30 January 2021|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
=={{lang|fr|Algérie française|nocat=y}}==
{{lang|fr|Algérie française}} was a slogan used about 1960 by those French people who wanted to keep [[Algeria]] ruled by France. Literally "French Algeria," it means that the three {{lang|fr|[[departments of France|départements]]}} of Algeria were to be considered integral parts of France. By integral parts, it is meant that they have their deputies (representatives) in the [[French National Assembly]], and so on. Further, the people of Algeria who were to be permitted to vote for the deputies would be those who universally accepted French law, rather than [[sharia]] (which was used in personal cases among Algerian Muslims under laws dating back to [[Napoleon III]]), and such people were predominantly of French origin or Jewish origin. Many who used this slogan were returnees.<ref>Mouloud Feraoun (1962) ''Journal, 1955–1962'', {{lang|fr|[[Éditions du Seuil]]}}, Paris</ref>
In [[Paris]], during the perennial traffic jams, adherence to the slogan was indicated by sounding a car horn in the form of four [[morse code|telegraphic]] dots followed by a [[dash]], as "{{lang|fr|al-gé-rie-fran-'''çaise'''}}". Whole choruses of such horn soundings were heard. This was intended to be reminiscent of the [[Second World War]] slogan, "V for Victory," which had been three dots followed by a dash. The intention was that the opponents of {{lang|fr|Algérie française}} were to be considered as traitorous as the [[collaboration with Nazis|collaborators]] with Germany during the [[German occupation of France during World War II|Occupation of France]].
==See also==
* {{lang|fr|[[Le Chant des Africains]]}}
* [[Boufarik colonization monument]]
* [[List of French possessions and colonies]]
* [[Nationalism and resistance in Algeria]]
* [[Scramble for Africa]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* Original text: '' [https://web.archive.org/web/20130115052428/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html Library of Congress Country Study] of Algeria''
* Aussaresses, Paul. ''The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957''. (New York: Enigma Books, 2010) {{ISBN|978-1-929631-30-8}}.
* Bennoune, Mahfoud. ''The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830–1987'' (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
* Gallois, William. ''A History of Violence in the Early Algerian Colony'' (2013), On French violence 1830–47 [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/african_studies_review/v057/57.1.kuby.html online review]
* Horne, Alistair. ''A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962'', (Viking Adult, 1978)
* Roberts, Sophie B. ''Sophie B. Roberts. Citizenship and Antisemitism in French Colonial Algeria, 1870–1962.'' (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2017) {{ISBN|978-1-107-18815-0}}.
* Roberts, Stephen H. ''History Of French Colonial Policy 1870–1925'' (2 vol 1929) vol 2 pp 175–268 [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.89866 online]
*{{cite book|author=Sessions, Jennifer E.|title=By Sword and Plow: France and the Conquest of Algeria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtBqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1|year=2015|isbn=9780801454462|publisher=Cornell University Press}}; Cultural History
* Stora, Benjamin, Jane Marie Todd, and William B. Quandt. ''Algeria, 1830–2000: A short history'' (Cornell University Press, 2004)
* Vandervort, Bruce. "French conquest of Algeria (1830–1847)." in ''The Encyclopedia of War'' (2012).
===In French===
* {{in lang|fr}} [[Patrick Weil]], {{lang|fr|[https://web.archive.org/web/20051224193731/http://www.iue.it/PUB/HEC03-03.pdf Le statut des musulmans en Algérie coloniale, Une nationalité française dénaturée]}}, [[European University Institute]], [[Florence]] (on the legal statuses of Muslim populations in Algeria)
* {{in lang|fr}} {{lang|fr|[[Olivier LeCour Grandmaison]], Coloniser, Exterminer – Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, [[Fayard]]}}, 2005, {{ISBN|2-213-62316-3}} ( [http://www.ldh-toulon.net/article.php3?id_article=508#table Table of contents])
* {{in lang|fr}} Charles-Robert Ageron, {{lang|fr|Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine, 1871–1954}}, 1979 (a ground-breaking work on the historiography of French colonialism)
* {{in lang|fr}} {{lang|fr|Nicolas Schaub, Représenter l'Algérie. Images et conquête au XIXe siècle, CTHS-INHA}}, 2015, "L'Art & l'Essai" (vol. 15)
* {{cite book|last1=Cointet|first1=Michèle|title=De Gaulle et l'Algérie française, 1958–1962|date=1995|publisher=Perrin|location=Paris|isbn=9782262000776|oclc=34406158}}
* {{Anchor|CITEREFBlévis2003}} {{in lang|fr}} Laure Blévis, {{lang|fr|La citoyenneté française au miroir de la colonisation : étude des demandes de naturalisation des « sujets français » en Algérie coloniale}}, Genèses, volume=4, numéro=53, year 2003, pages 25–47, [http://www.cairn.info/revue-geneses-2003-4-page-25.htm ]
* {{Anchor|CITEREFBlévis2012}} {{in lang|fr}} Laure Blévis, {{lang|fr| L'invention de l'« indigène »}}, Français non citoyen, auteurs:Abderrahmane Bouchène, Jean-Pierre Peyroulou, Ouanassa Siari Tengour et Sylvie Thénault, Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale, 1830–1962, Éditions La Découverte et Éditions Barzakh, year 2012, chapter=200, passage=212–218, {{ISBN|9782707173263}}, id=Blévis, 2012a
* {{Anchor|CITEREFWeil2002}} {{in lang|fr}} Patrick Weil, Qu'est-ce qu'un Français, Histoire de la nationalité française depuis la Révolution, Paris, Grasset, year 2002, 403 pages, {{isbn|2-246-60571-7}}, bnf=38818954d
* {{Anchor|CITEREFWeil2005}} {{in lang|fr}} Patrick Weil, La justice en Algérie, Le statut des musulmans en Algérie coloniale. Une nationalité française dénaturée, 1830–1962, Histoire de la justice, La Documentation française, year 2005, chapter 95, passage 95–109, {{isbn|2-11-005693-2}} http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101093147/http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf |date=2013-11-01 }}
* {{Anchor|CITEREFSahia-Cherchari2004}} {{in lang|fr}} Mohamed Sahia Cherchari, Indigènes et citoyens ou l'impossible universalisation du suffrage, Revue française de droit constitutionnel, volume=4, numéro=60, year 2004 |pages 741–770, [http://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-droit-constitutionnel-2004-4-page-741.htm ]
* {{Anchor|CITEREFGallissot2009}} {{in lang|fr}} René Gallissot, Les effets paradoxaux de la catégorie « d'origine indigène », 25–26 octobre 2009, [http://www.univ-skikda.dz/revolution/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27:-les-effets-paradoxaux-de-la-categorie-qdorigine-indigeneq&catid=30 ], 4e colloque international sur la Révolution algérienne : « Évolution historique de l'Image de l'Algérien dans le discours colonial » — Université du 20 août 1955 de Skikda
* {{Anchor|CITEREFCollot1987}} {{in lang|fr}} Claude Collot, Les institutions de l'Algérie durant la période coloniale (1830–1962), Éditions du CNRS et Office des publications universitaires, year 1987, passage 291,{{ISBN|2222039576}}
* {{Anchor|CITEREFThénault2012}} {{in lang|fr}} Sylvie Thénault, Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale, 1830–1962, Le "code de l'indigénat", Abderrahmane Bouchène, Jean-Pierre Peyroulou, Ouanassa Siari Tengour et Sylvie Thénault, Éditions La Découverte et Éditions Barzakh, year 2012, chapter page 200, pages 200–206,{{ISBN|9782707173263}},
{{Refend}}
==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
* [http://www.ina.fr/recherche/recherche?vue=Video&startVideo=0&triVideo=date-diff&dirVideo=asc 1940~1962 Newsreel archives about French Algeria] <small>(from French National Audiovisiual Institute INA)</small>
* [http://www.humaniteinenglish.com/spip.php?article259 Benjamin Stora on French Colonialism and Algeria Today!] <small>(from French Communist Party's newspaper {{lang|fr|L'Humanité}})</small>
{{Former French colonies}}
{{Algeria topics}}
{{France topics}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:French Algeria| ]]
[[Category:Former colonies in Africa]]
[[Category:Former French colonies|Algeria]]
[[Category:French colonisation in Africa|Algeria]]
[[Category:19th century in Algeria]]
[[Category:20th century in Algeria]]
[[Category:Contemporary French history]]
[[Category:French Union|Algeria]]
[[Category:1830 establishments in Algeria]]
[[Category:1962 disestablishments in Algeria]]
[[Category:1830 establishments in the French colonial empire|Algeria]]
[[Category:1962 disestablishments in the French colonial empire|Algeria]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1830]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1962]]
[[Category:Former countries of the Cold War]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,71 +1,3 @@
-{{Short description|French colony in Northern Africa from 1830 to 1962}}
-{{About|Algeria||Algeria (disambiguation)}}
-{{Redirect|French in Algeria|usage of the French language|French language in Algeria}}
-{{Infobox country
-| native_name = <span style="font-weight: normal">{{native name|fr|Algérie française|italics=no}}<br />{{native name|ar|الجزائر المستعمرة|italics=no}}</span><!-- Unenboldened per [[MOS:BADITALICS]] -->
-| conventional_long_name = French Algeria
-| common_name = Algeria
-| image_flag = Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1958).svg
-| flag_type =
-| image_coat =
-| symbol =
-| symbol_type =
-| symbol_width =
-| other_symbol = [[File:Official Arabic seal of the Governor General of Algeria.png|150px]]
-| other_symbol_type = Official Arabic seal of the Governor General of Algeria
-| image_map = French Algeria evolution 1830-1962 map-fr.svg
-| image_map_caption = Chronological map of French Algeria's evolution
-| status = '''1830–1848:'''<br />[[Colony]]<br />'''1848–1962''':<br />''De jure'': [[Departments of France#Departments of Algeria (Départements d'Algérie)|Départements]] of Metropolitan France<br />''De facto'': [[French colonial empire|Colony]]
-| empire = French Algeria
-| government_type = [[Departments of France#Departments of Algeria (Départements d'Algérie)|French Department]]
-| title_representative = [[List of French governors of Algeria|Governor General]]
-| representative1 = [[Louis-Auguste-Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont|Louis-Auguste-Victor Bourmont]]
-| year_representative1 = 1830 (first)
-| representative2 = [[Christian Fouchet]]
-| year_representative2 = 1962 (last)
-| official_languages = [[French language|French]]
-| area_km2 = 2381741
-| area_sq_mi = 919595
-| year_start = 1830
-| year_end = 1962
-| date_start = 5 July
-| date_end = 5 July
-| event_start = [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|Surrender of Algiers]]
-| event_end = [[Algerian War|Algerian Independence]]
-| p1 = Ottoman Algeria
-| flag_p1 = Flag of_Ottoman Algiers.gif
-| p2 = Emirate of Abdelkader
-| flag_p2 = Flag of the Emirate of Mascara.svg
-| p3 = Kingdom of Ait Abbas
-| flag_p3 = Beni Abbas Kingdom2.svg
-| p4 = Kel Ahaggar
-| flag_p4 = Flag of Kel Ahaggar.svg
-| s1 = Algeria{{!}}People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
-| flag_s1 = Flag of Algeria.svg
-| national_anthem = [[La Parisienne (song)|La Parisienne]] (1830–1848)<br />[[Le Chant des Girondins]] (1848–1852)<br />[[Partant pour la Syrie]] (1852–1870)<br />[[La Marseillaise]] (1870–1962)
-| capital = [[Algiers]]
-| largest_city = capital
-| currency = [[Algerian budju|Budju]] (1830–1848)<br />[[Algerian franc|(Algerian) Franc]] (1848–1962)
-| time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
-| utc_offset = +1
-| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy
-| drives_on = right
-| today = [[Algeria]]
-| demonym =
-| area_rank =
-| GDP_PPP =
-| GDP_PPP_year =
-| HDI =
-| HDI_year =
-| legislature = {{illm|Algerian Assembly|fr|Assemblée algérienne}} (1948–1956)
-| languages = {{hlist|[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]|[[Berber languages|Berber]]|}}
-| languages_type = Other languages
-}}
-
-'''French Algeria''' ({{lang-fr|Alger}} to 1839, then {{lang|fr|Algérie}} afterwards;<ref>Scheiner, Virgile (14 October 1839) {{lang|fr|Le pays occupé par les Français dans le nord de l'Afrique sera, à l'avenir, désigné sous le nom d'Algérie.}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> unofficially {{lang|fr|Algérie française}},<ref>Non exhaustive list of ancient and modern books named "{{lang|fr|Algérie française}}": {{in lang|fr}} [https://archive.org/details/histoiredelalgr00claugoog 1848]; [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FTJ1p231EuoC 1856]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=KPS2TOIwk_kC 1864]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=G5HtnmIji7IC 2007]; [https://www.google.fr/search?q=%22Alg%C3%A9rie+fran%C3%A7aise%22&hl=en&tbm=bks&start=10&ei=WhJaVr_2B4T4aoP1n5gF and so on]</ref><ref>{{cite book |publisher=Royal Institute for international affairs |title=African Boundaries |year=1979 |page=89 |isbn=9780903983877 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8Du4k0udx4C&pg=PA89}}</ref> {{lang-ar|الجزائر المستعمرة}}), also known as '''Colonial Algeria''', was the period of French colonisation of [[Algeria]]. French rule in the region began in 1830 with the [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|invasion of Algiers]] and lasted until the end of the [[Algerian War|Algerian War of Independence]] in 1962. While the administration of Algeria changed significantly over the 132 years of French rule, the Mediterranean coastal region of Algeria, housing the vast majority of its population, was ruled as an [[Departments of France#Departments of Algeria (Départements d'Algérie)|integral part of France]] from 1848 until its independence.
-
-As one of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants known as [[colonist|''colons'']], and later as {{lang|fr|[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]}}. However, the indigenous [[Muslim]] population remained the majority of the territory's population throughout its history. Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population due to their lack of political and economic freedom fueled calls for greater [[Political freedom|political autonomy]], and eventually independence from France.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Surkis, Judith|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1089839922|title=Sex, law, and sovereignty in French Algeria, 1830–1930|date=15 December 2019|isbn=978-1-5017-3952-1|location=Ithaca|oclc=1089839922}}</ref> Tensions between the two groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events began of what was later called the [[Algerian War]], characterised by [[guerrilla warfare]] and [[Torture during the Algerian War of Independence|crimes against humanity]] used by the French in order to stop the revolt. The war ended in 1962, when Algeria gained independence following the [[Evian agreements]] in March 1962 and the [[1962 Algerian self-determination referendum|self-determination referendum]] in July 1962.
-
-During its last years of being a French colony, Algeria was an integral part of France, a founding member of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] and the [[European Economic Community]].<ref name="GrothSousa-Poza2012">{{cite book|author1=Hans Groth|author2=Alfonso Sousa-Poza|title=Population Dynamics in Muslim Countries: Assembling the Jigsaw|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bpq9Mg-l5jMC&pg=PA227|date=26 March 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-27881-5|page=227}}</ref>
+. Nik la France
==History==
' |
New page size (new_size) | 119917 |
Old page size (old_size) | 127130 |
Size change in edit (edit_delta) | -7213 |
Lines added in edit (added_lines) | [
0 => '. Nik la France'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '{{Short description|French colony in Northern Africa from 1830 to 1962}}',
1 => '{{About|Algeria||Algeria (disambiguation)}}',
2 => '{{Redirect|French in Algeria|usage of the French language|French language in Algeria}}',
3 => '{{Infobox country',
4 => '| native_name = <span style="font-weight: normal">{{native name|fr|Algérie française|italics=no}}<br />{{native name|ar|الجزائر المستعمرة|italics=no}}</span><!-- Unenboldened per [[MOS:BADITALICS]] -->',
5 => '| conventional_long_name = French Algeria',
6 => '| common_name = Algeria',
7 => '| image_flag = Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1958).svg',
8 => '| flag_type = ',
9 => '| image_coat = ',
10 => '| symbol = ',
11 => '| symbol_type = ',
12 => '| symbol_width = ',
13 => '| other_symbol = [[File:Official Arabic seal of the Governor General of Algeria.png|150px]]',
14 => '| other_symbol_type = Official Arabic seal of the Governor General of Algeria',
15 => '| image_map = French Algeria evolution 1830-1962 map-fr.svg',
16 => '| image_map_caption = Chronological map of French Algeria's evolution',
17 => '| status = '''1830–1848:'''<br />[[Colony]]<br />'''1848–1962''':<br />''De jure'': [[Departments of France#Departments of Algeria (Départements d'Algérie)|Départements]] of Metropolitan France<br />''De facto'': [[French colonial empire|Colony]]',
18 => '| empire = French Algeria',
19 => '| government_type = [[Departments of France#Departments of Algeria (Départements d'Algérie)|French Department]]',
20 => '| title_representative = [[List of French governors of Algeria|Governor General]]',
21 => '| representative1 = [[Louis-Auguste-Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont|Louis-Auguste-Victor Bourmont]]',
22 => '| year_representative1 = 1830 (first)',
23 => '| representative2 = [[Christian Fouchet]]',
24 => '| year_representative2 = 1962 (last)',
25 => '| official_languages = [[French language|French]]',
26 => '| area_km2 = 2381741',
27 => '| area_sq_mi = 919595',
28 => '| year_start = 1830',
29 => '| year_end = 1962',
30 => '| date_start = 5 July',
31 => '| date_end = 5 July',
32 => '| event_start = [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|Surrender of Algiers]]',
33 => '| event_end = [[Algerian War|Algerian Independence]]',
34 => '| p1 = Ottoman Algeria',
35 => '| flag_p1 = Flag of_Ottoman Algiers.gif',
36 => '| p2 = Emirate of Abdelkader',
37 => '| flag_p2 = Flag of the Emirate of Mascara.svg',
38 => '| p3 = Kingdom of Ait Abbas',
39 => '| flag_p3 = Beni Abbas Kingdom2.svg',
40 => '| p4 = Kel Ahaggar',
41 => '| flag_p4 = Flag of Kel Ahaggar.svg',
42 => '| s1 = Algeria{{!}}People's Democratic Republic of Algeria',
43 => '| flag_s1 = Flag of Algeria.svg',
44 => '| national_anthem = [[La Parisienne (song)|La Parisienne]] (1830–1848)<br />[[Le Chant des Girondins]] (1848–1852)<br />[[Partant pour la Syrie]] (1852–1870)<br />[[La Marseillaise]] (1870–1962)',
45 => '| capital = [[Algiers]]',
46 => '| largest_city = capital',
47 => '| currency = [[Algerian budju|Budju]] (1830–1848)<br />[[Algerian franc|(Algerian) Franc]] (1848–1962)',
48 => '| time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]',
49 => '| utc_offset = +1',
50 => '| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy',
51 => '| drives_on = right',
52 => '| today = [[Algeria]]',
53 => '| demonym = ',
54 => '| area_rank = ',
55 => '| GDP_PPP = ',
56 => '| GDP_PPP_year = ',
57 => '| HDI = ',
58 => '| HDI_year = ',
59 => '| legislature = {{illm|Algerian Assembly|fr|Assemblée algérienne}} (1948–1956)',
60 => '| languages = {{hlist|[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]|[[Berber languages|Berber]]|}}',
61 => '| languages_type = Other languages',
62 => '}}',
63 => '',
64 => ''''French Algeria''' ({{lang-fr|Alger}} to 1839, then {{lang|fr|Algérie}} afterwards;<ref>Scheiner, Virgile (14 October 1839) {{lang|fr|Le pays occupé par les Français dans le nord de l'Afrique sera, à l'avenir, désigné sous le nom d'Algérie.}} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> unofficially {{lang|fr|Algérie française}},<ref>Non exhaustive list of ancient and modern books named "{{lang|fr|Algérie française}}": {{in lang|fr}} [https://archive.org/details/histoiredelalgr00claugoog 1848]; [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FTJ1p231EuoC 1856]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=KPS2TOIwk_kC 1864]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=G5HtnmIji7IC 2007]; [https://www.google.fr/search?q=%22Alg%C3%A9rie+fran%C3%A7aise%22&hl=en&tbm=bks&start=10&ei=WhJaVr_2B4T4aoP1n5gF and so on]</ref><ref>{{cite book |publisher=Royal Institute for international affairs |title=African Boundaries |year=1979 |page=89 |isbn=9780903983877 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8Du4k0udx4C&pg=PA89}}</ref> {{lang-ar|الجزائر المستعمرة}}), also known as '''Colonial Algeria''', was the period of French colonisation of [[Algeria]]. French rule in the region began in 1830 with the [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|invasion of Algiers]] and lasted until the end of the [[Algerian War|Algerian War of Independence]] in 1962. While the administration of Algeria changed significantly over the 132 years of French rule, the Mediterranean coastal region of Algeria, housing the vast majority of its population, was ruled as an [[Departments of France#Departments of Algeria (Départements d'Algérie)|integral part of France]] from 1848 until its independence.',
65 => '',
66 => 'As one of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants known as [[colonist|''colons'']], and later as {{lang|fr|[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]}}. However, the indigenous [[Muslim]] population remained the majority of the territory's population throughout its history. Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population due to their lack of political and economic freedom fueled calls for greater [[Political freedom|political autonomy]], and eventually independence from France.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Surkis, Judith|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1089839922|title=Sex, law, and sovereignty in French Algeria, 1830–1930|date=15 December 2019|isbn=978-1-5017-3952-1|location=Ithaca|oclc=1089839922}}</ref> Tensions between the two groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events began of what was later called the [[Algerian War]], characterised by [[guerrilla warfare]] and [[Torture during the Algerian War of Independence|crimes against humanity]] used by the French in order to stop the revolt. The war ended in 1962, when Algeria gained independence following the [[Evian agreements]] in March 1962 and the [[1962 Algerian self-determination referendum|self-determination referendum]] in July 1962.',
67 => '',
68 => 'During its last years of being a French colony, Algeria was an integral part of France, a founding member of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] and the [[European Economic Community]].<ref name="GrothSousa-Poza2012">{{cite book|author1=Hans Groth|author2=Alfonso Sousa-Poza|title=Population Dynamics in Muslim Countries: Assembling the Jigsaw|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bpq9Mg-l5jMC&pg=PA227|date=26 March 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-27881-5|page=227}}</ref>'
] |
All external links added in the edit (added_links) | [] |
All external links removed in the edit (removed_links) | [
0 => '//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1089839922',
1 => 'https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FTJ1p231EuoC',
2 => 'https://archive.org/details/histoiredelalgr00claugoog',
3 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=A8Du4k0udx4C&pg=PA89',
4 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=Bpq9Mg-l5jMC&pg=PA227',
5 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=G5HtnmIji7IC',
6 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=KPS2TOIwk_kC',
7 => 'https://www.google.fr/search?q=%22Alg%C3%A9rie+fran%C3%A7aise%22&hl=en&tbm=bks&start=10&ei=WhJaVr_2B4T4aoP1n5gF',
8 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1089839922'
] |
All external links in the new text (all_links) | [
0 => 'https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ',
1 => 'https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ/page/n545',
2 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=gWjpowTH4b4C&pg=PA105',
3 => 'https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-220553/Algeria#487751.hook',
4 => 'https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16314373',
5 => 'http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/disowning-morris',
6 => 'https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326',
7 => 'https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/374',
8 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/23/turkey-accuses-france-genocide-algeria',
9 => 'http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k104391p',
10 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120718104037/http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm',
11 => 'http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm',
12 => 'http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/northafrica/tlalgiers.html',
13 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92',
14 => 'https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/364',
15 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=WoNaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158',
16 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=0iVpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42',
17 => 'http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-06-24/2000-06-24-227522',
18 => 'https://rebellyon.info/La-conquete-coloniale-de-l-Algerie',
19 => 'http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5789413p',
20 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV-ot5-eo-s',
21 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/PV-ot5-eo-s',
22 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMWSTPV0O48&t=127s',
23 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/LMWSTPV0O48',
24 => 'https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26',
25 => 'https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/le-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945',
26 => '//www.worldcat.org/oclc/436981240',
27 => 'http://ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&num_notice=8&total_notices=8&mc=Favre,%20Bernard',
28 => 'http://www.elwatan.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=7095',
29 => 'http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778',
30 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070930181518/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778',
31 => 'http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm',
32 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20071020184243/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm',
33 => 'http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=702899',
34 => 'https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041813/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html',
35 => 'http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html',
36 => 'http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797',
37 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20050624162750/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797',
38 => 'http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html',
39 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070209225257/http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html',
40 => 'http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827',
41 => 'https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041927/http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827',
42 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/13/france-state-responsible-for-1957-death-of-dissident-maurice-audin-in-algeria-says-macron',
43 => 'https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/',
44 => 'https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/',
45 => '//www.worldcat.org/issn/0307-1235',
46 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/',
47 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46401992',
48 => '//www.worldcat.org/oclc/46401992',
49 => 'https://journals.openedition.org/rh19/4041',
50 => '//doi.org/10.4000%2Frh19.4041',
51 => 'https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5657089r/f233.image',
52 => 'https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6127976d',
53 => 'https://archive.org/details/howtobefrenchnat0000weil/page/128',
54 => 'https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20507/v507.pdf',
55 => 'https://d-o-i-f.blogspot.com/p/afrique.html',
56 => 'https://rh19.revues.org/4051',
57 => '//doi.org/10.4000%2Frh19.4051',
58 => '//www.worldcat.org/issn/1265-1354',
59 => 'http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29265&ext=.pdf',
60 => 'http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29453&ext=.pdf',
61 => 'http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29267&ext=.pdf',
62 => '//doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x00116453',
63 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159891511',
64 => '//doi.org/10.2307%2F216479',
65 => '//www.jstor.org/stable/216479',
66 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=I64tAQAAIAAJ',
67 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=IO69HppDTDgC',
68 => 'http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/remmm_0035-1474_1986_num_41_1_2114',
69 => 'https://www.jfklibrary.org/sites/default/files/archives/JFKOH/Satterthwaite,%20Joseph%20C/JFKOH-JCS-01/JFKOH-JCS-01-TR.pdf',
70 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20091114102144/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/accueil/discours/le-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969/discours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php',
71 => 'http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/accueil/discours/le-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969/discours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php',
72 => 'http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4552473.stm',
73 => 'https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/18/macron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark/',
74 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/18/macron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark/',
75 => 'http://www.france24.com/en/20170216-france-presidential-hopeful-macron-describes-colonisation-algeria-crime-against-humanity',
76 => 'https://www.france24.com/en/20200705-algeria-buries-repatriated-skulls-of-resistance-fighters-as-it-marks-independence-from-france',
77 => 'http://www.aps.dz/en/algeria/34792-aircraft-carrying-skulls-of-algerian-resistance-fighters-to-french-occupation-lands-at-algiers-airport',
78 => 'http://www.aps.dz/en/algeria/34813-algerian-fighters-s-skulls-buried-in-martyrs-square-at-el-alia-cemetery',
79 => 'https://www.france24.com/en/france/20210120-no-repentance-nor-apologies-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-says-macron',
80 => 'https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/20/macron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria',
81 => 'https://www.barrons.com/news/macron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-01611140710?tesla=y',
82 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218272#identifiers',
83 => '//www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22French+Algeria%22',
84 => '//www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22French+Algeria%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1',
85 => '//www.google.com/search?&q=%22French+Algeria%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks',
86 => '//www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22French+Algeria%22+-wikipedia',
87 => '//scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22French+Algeria%22',
88 => 'https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22French+Algeria%22&acc=on&wc=on',
89 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130115052428/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html',
90 => 'http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/african_studies_review/v057/57.1.kuby.html',
91 => 'https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.89866',
92 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=EtBqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1',
93 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20051224193731/http://www.iue.it/PUB/HEC03-03.pdf',
94 => 'http://www.ldh-toulon.net/article.php3?id_article=508#table',
95 => '//www.worldcat.org/oclc/34406158',
96 => 'http://www.cairn.info/revue-geneses-2003-4-page-25.htm',
97 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20131101093147/http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf',
98 => 'http://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-droit-constitutionnel-2004-4-page-741.htm',
99 => 'http://www.univ-skikda.dz/revolution/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27:-les-effets-paradoxaux-de-la-categorie-qdorigine-indigeneq&catid=30',
100 => 'http://www.ina.fr/recherche/recherche?vue=Video&startVideo=0&triVideo=date-diff&dirVideo=asc',
101 => 'http://www.humaniteinenglish.com/spip.php?article259',
102 => 'https://viaf.org/viaf/304924396',
103 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/identities/containsVIAFID/304924396',
104 => 'https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb153222402',
105 => 'https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb153222402',
106 => 'https://www.idref.fr/027268853',
107 => 'http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf'
] |
Links in the page, before the edit (old_links) | [
0 => '//doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x00116453',
1 => '//doi.org/10.2307%2F216479',
2 => '//doi.org/10.4000%2Frh19.4041',
3 => '//doi.org/10.4000%2Frh19.4051',
4 => '//scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22French+Algeria%22',
5 => '//www.google.com/search?&q=%22French+Algeria%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks',
6 => '//www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22French+Algeria%22',
7 => '//www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22French+Algeria%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1',
8 => '//www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22French+Algeria%22+-wikipedia',
9 => '//www.jstor.org/stable/216479',
10 => '//www.worldcat.org/issn/0307-1235',
11 => '//www.worldcat.org/issn/1265-1354',
12 => '//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1089839922',
13 => '//www.worldcat.org/oclc/34406158',
14 => '//www.worldcat.org/oclc/436981240',
15 => '//www.worldcat.org/oclc/46401992',
16 => 'http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k104391p',
17 => 'http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5789413p',
18 => 'http://ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&num_notice=8&total_notices=8&mc=Favre,%20Bernard',
19 => 'http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/african_studies_review/v057/57.1.kuby.html',
20 => 'http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4552473.stm',
21 => 'http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html',
22 => 'http://www.aps.dz/en/algeria/34792-aircraft-carrying-skulls-of-algerian-resistance-fighters-to-french-occupation-lands-at-algiers-airport',
23 => 'http://www.aps.dz/en/algeria/34813-algerian-fighters-s-skulls-buried-in-martyrs-square-at-el-alia-cemetery',
24 => 'http://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-droit-constitutionnel-2004-4-page-741.htm',
25 => 'http://www.cairn.info/revue-geneses-2003-4-page-25.htm',
26 => 'http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/accueil/discours/le-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969/discours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php',
27 => 'http://www.elwatan.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=7095',
28 => 'http://www.france24.com/en/20170216-france-presidential-hopeful-macron-describes-colonisation-algeria-crime-against-humanity',
29 => 'http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797',
30 => 'http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-06-24/2000-06-24-227522',
31 => 'http://www.humaniteinenglish.com/spip.php?article259',
32 => 'http://www.ina.fr/recherche/recherche?vue=Video&startVideo=0&triVideo=date-diff&dirVideo=asc',
33 => 'http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29265&ext=.pdf',
34 => 'http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29453&ext=.pdf',
35 => 'http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29267&ext=.pdf',
36 => 'http://www.ldh-toulon.net/article.php3?id_article=508#table',
37 => 'http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778',
38 => 'http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=702899',
39 => 'http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827',
40 => 'http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html',
41 => 'http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm',
42 => 'http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/remmm_0035-1474_1986_num_41_1_2114',
43 => 'http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/disowning-morris',
44 => 'http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm',
45 => 'http://www.univ-skikda.dz/revolution/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27:-les-effets-paradoxaux-de-la-categorie-qdorigine-indigeneq&catid=30',
46 => 'http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/northafrica/tlalgiers.html',
47 => 'http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf',
48 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159891511',
49 => 'https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326',
50 => 'https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/374',
51 => 'https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/364',
52 => 'https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FTJ1p231EuoC',
53 => 'https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ',
54 => 'https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ/page/n545',
55 => 'https://archive.org/details/histoiredelalgr00claugoog',
56 => 'https://archive.org/details/howtobefrenchnat0000weil/page/128',
57 => 'https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.89866',
58 => 'https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26',
59 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=0iVpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42',
60 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=A8Du4k0udx4C&pg=PA89',
61 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=Bpq9Mg-l5jMC&pg=PA227',
62 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=EtBqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1',
63 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=G5HtnmIji7IC',
64 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=I64tAQAAIAAJ',
65 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=IO69HppDTDgC',
66 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=KPS2TOIwk_kC',
67 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92',
68 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=WoNaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158',
69 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=gWjpowTH4b4C&pg=PA105',
70 => 'https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/',
71 => 'https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb153222402',
72 => 'https://d-o-i-f.blogspot.com/p/afrique.html',
73 => 'https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb153222402',
74 => 'https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5657089r/f233.image',
75 => 'https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6127976d',
76 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/',
77 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/18/macron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark/',
78 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/PV-ot5-eo-s',
79 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/LMWSTPV0O48',
80 => 'https://journals.openedition.org/rh19/4041',
81 => 'https://rebellyon.info/La-conquete-coloniale-de-l-Algerie',
82 => 'https://rh19.revues.org/4051',
83 => 'https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20507/v507.pdf',
84 => 'https://viaf.org/viaf/304924396',
85 => 'https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041813/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html',
86 => 'https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041927/http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827',
87 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20050624162750/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797',
88 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20051224193731/http://www.iue.it/PUB/HEC03-03.pdf',
89 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070209225257/http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html',
90 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070930181518/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778',
91 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20071020184243/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm',
92 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20091114102144/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/accueil/discours/le-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969/discours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php',
93 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120718104037/http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm',
94 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130115052428/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html',
95 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20131101093147/http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf',
96 => 'https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/20/macron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria',
97 => 'https://www.barrons.com/news/macron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-01611140710?tesla=y',
98 => 'https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16314373',
99 => 'https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-220553/Algeria#487751.hook',
100 => 'https://www.france24.com/en/20200705-algeria-buries-repatriated-skulls-of-resistance-fighters-as-it-marks-independence-from-france',
101 => 'https://www.france24.com/en/france/20210120-no-repentance-nor-apologies-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-says-macron',
102 => 'https://www.google.fr/search?q=%22Alg%C3%A9rie+fran%C3%A7aise%22&hl=en&tbm=bks&start=10&ei=WhJaVr_2B4T4aoP1n5gF',
103 => 'https://www.idref.fr/027268853',
104 => 'https://www.jfklibrary.org/sites/default/files/archives/JFKOH/Satterthwaite,%20Joseph%20C/JFKOH-JCS-01/JFKOH-JCS-01-TR.pdf',
105 => 'https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22French+Algeria%22&acc=on&wc=on',
106 => 'https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/le-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945',
107 => 'https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/18/macron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark/',
108 => 'https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/',
109 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/23/turkey-accuses-france-genocide-algeria',
110 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/13/france-state-responsible-for-1957-death-of-dissident-maurice-audin-in-algeria-says-macron',
111 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218272#identifiers',
112 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/identities/containsVIAFID/304924396',
113 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1089839922',
114 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46401992',
115 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMWSTPV0O48&t=127s',
116 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV-ot5-eo-s'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><p>. Nik la France
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Initial_conflicts"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Initial conflicts</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#French_conquest_of_Algeria"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">French conquest of Algeria</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Fly_Whisk_Incident_(April_1827)"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Fly Whisk Incident (April 1827)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Invasion_of_Algiers_(June_1830)"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Invasion of Algiers (June 1830)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Characterization_as_genocide"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Characterization as genocide</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Popular_revolts_against_the_French_occupation"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Popular revolts against the French occupation</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Conquest_of_the_Algerian_territories_under_the_July_Monarchy_(1830–1848)"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Conquest of the Algerian territories under the July Monarchy (1830–1848)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Resistance_of_Lalla_Fadhma_N'Soumer"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Resistance of Lalla Fadhma N'Soumer</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Resistance_of_Emir_Abd_al_Qadir"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Resistance of Emir Abd al Qadir</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#French_rule"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">French rule</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Demography"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Demography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#French_atrocities_against_the_Algerian_indigenous_population"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">French atrocities against the Algerian indigenous population</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Hegemony_of_the_colons"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Hegemony of the <span><i>colons</i></span></span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Political_organization"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Political organization</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Economic_organization"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Economic organization</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Schools"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Schools</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Relationships_between_the_colons,_Indigènes_and_France"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Relationships between the colons, Indigènes and France</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Separate_personal_status"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Separate personal status</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Status_before_1865"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Status before 1865</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Status_since_1865"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Status since 1865</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Muslim_French"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Muslim French</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Algerian_citizens"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Algerian citizens</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Government_and_administration"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Government and administration</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Initial_settling_of_Algeria_(1830–48)"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Initial settling of Algeria (1830–48)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Colonisation_and_military_control"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Colonisation and military control</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Under_the_French_Second_Republic_and_Second_Empire_(1848–70)"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Under the French Second Republic and Second Empire (1848–70)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Land_and_colonisers"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Land and colonisers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Under_the_Third_Republic_(1870–1940)"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Under the Third Republic (1870–1940)</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Comte_and_colonialism_in_the_Third_Republic"><span class="tocnumber">4.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Comte and colonialism in the Third Republic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Kabylie_insurrection"><span class="tocnumber">4.5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Kabylie insurrection</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32"><a href="#Conquest_of_the_southwestern_territories"><span class="tocnumber">4.5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Conquest of the southwestern territories</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><a href="#Conquest_of_the_Sahara"><span class="tocnumber">4.5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Conquest of the Sahara</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#During_World_War_II_(1940–45)"><span class="tocnumber">4.6</span> <span class="toctext">During World War II (1940–45)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Under_the_Fourth_Republic_(1946–58)"><span class="tocnumber">4.7</span> <span class="toctext">Under the Fourth Republic (1946–58)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Under_the_Fifth_Republic_(1958–62)"><span class="tocnumber">4.8</span> <span class="toctext">Under the Fifth Republic (1958–62)</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#Post-colonial_relations"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Post-colonial relations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Algérie_française"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext"><span><i>Algérie française</i></span></span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#In_French"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">In French</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Initial_conflicts">Initial conflicts</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg/220px-Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2237" data-file-height="1623" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Purchase of Christian slaves by French monks in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> in 1662</div></div></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_enclaves_in_North_Africa_before_1830" title="European enclaves in North Africa before 1830">European enclaves in North Africa before 1830</a></div>
<p>Since the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capture_of_Algiers_(1516)" title="Capture of Algiers (1516)">1516 capture of Algiers</a> by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> admirals, the brothers <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oru%C3%A7_Reis" title="Oruç Reis">Ours</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa" title="Hayreddin Barbarossa">Hayreddin Barbarossa</a>, Algeria had been a base for conflict and piracy in the Mediterranean. In 1681, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> asked Admiral <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abraham_Duquesne" title="Abraham Duquesne">Abraham Duquesne</a> to fight the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_corsairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary corsairs">Berber pirates</a> and also ordered a large-scale attack on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> between 1682 and 1683 on the pretext of assisting and rescuing Christian slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> Again, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean_II_d%27Estr%C3%A9es" title="Jean II d'Estrées">Jean II d'Estrées</a> bombarded <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tripoli" title="Tripoli">Tripoli</a> and Algiers from 1685 to 1688. An ambassador from Algiers visited the Court in Versailles, and a treaty was signed in 1690 that provided peace throughout the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a> regime of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="First French Republic">First French Republic</a> (1795–99), the Bacri and the Busnach, Jewish merchants of Algiers, provided large quantities of grain for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grande_Arm%C3%A9e" title="Grande Armée">Napoleon's soldiers</a> who participated in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars:_Campaigns_of_1796" class="mw-redirect" title="French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1796">Italian campaign</a> of 1796. However, Bonaparte refused to pay the bill, claiming it was excessive. In 1820, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a> paid back half of the Directory's debts. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dey" title="Dey">dey</a>, who had loaned to the Bacri 250,000 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">francs</a>, requested the rest of the money from France.
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1045330069">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:#f8f9fa;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:720px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:History_of_Algeria" title="Category:History of Algeria">a series</a> on the</div></th>
</tr><tr>
<th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: none;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Algeria" title="History of Algeria">History of <span class="fn org label">Algeria</span></a></th>
</tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Algeria.svg" class="image"><img alt="Emblem of Algeria.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Emblem_of_Algeria.svg/80px-Emblem_of_Algeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Emblem_of_Algeria.svg/120px-Emblem_of_Algeria.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Emblem_of_Algeria.svg/160px-Emblem_of_Algeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="695" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prehistoric_Central_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric Central North Africa">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aterian" title="Aterian">Aterian Culture</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(80,000 BC)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iberomaurusian" title="Iberomaurusian">Iberomaurusian Culture</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20,000 BC)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capsian_culture" title="Capsian culture">Capsian culture</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(10,000 BC)</span></li>
<li>Rock art in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rock_art_of_south_Oran_(Algeria)" title="Rock art of south Oran (Algeria)">Oran</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rock_art_of_the_Djelfa_region" title="Rock art of the Djelfa region">Djelfa</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tassili_n%27Ajjer" title="Tassili n'Ajjer">Tassili</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahaggar_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahaggar Mountains">Ahaggar</a></li></ul>
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roknia" title="Roknia">Roknia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Madghacen" title="Madghacen">Madghacen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jedars" title="Jedars">Jedars</a></li></ul>
</div>
<ul><li>Related: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archeology_of_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology of Algeria">Archeology of Algeria</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Africa_during_Antiquity" title="North Africa during Antiquity">Antiquity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(202–46 BC)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(264–146 BC)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jugurthine_War" title="Jugurthine War">Jugurthine War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(111–106 BC)</span></li>
<li>Roman <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis" title="Mauretania Caesariensis">Mauretania</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(146 BC–590 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal Kingdom</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(435–534 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mauro-Roman_Kingdom" title="Mauro-Roman Kingdom">Mauro-Roman Kingdom</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(477–578 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Aur%C3%A8s" title="Kingdom of the Aurès">Kingdom of the Aurès</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(484–703 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(578–708 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Africa" title="Praetorian prefecture of Africa">Prefecture of Africa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(534–585 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(585–698 AD)</span></li></ul>
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_African_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early African Church">Early African Church</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Partenia">Partenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fossatum_Africae" title="Fossatum Africae">Fossatum Africae</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gemellae" title="Gemellae">Gemellae</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_Muslim_Algeria" title="Medieval Muslim Algeria">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of North Africa">Arab conquest</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(647–709 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(703–744 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ifranid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ifranid dynasty">Ifranids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(742–1066 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhallabids" title="Muhallabids">Muhallabids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(771–793 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rustamid_dynasty" title="Rustamid dynasty">Rustamids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(776–909 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(789–828 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aghlabids" title="Aghlabids">Aghlabids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(800–909 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fatimids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimids">Fatimids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(909–1171 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maghrawa" title="Maghrawa">Maghrawas</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(970–1068 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zirid_dynasty" title="Zirid dynasty">Zirids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(973–1152 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hammadids" class="mw-redirect" title="Hammadids">Hammadids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1014–1152 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1040–1147 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohads</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1121–1269 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marinid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Marinid dynasty">Marinids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1215–1465 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hafsid_dynasty" title="Hafsid dynasty">Hafsids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1229–1574 AD)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ziyyanid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ziyyanid dynasty">Ziyyanids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1235–1556 AD)</span></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee">Modern times</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Algeria" title="Ottoman Algeria">Ottoman Algeria</a> (16th - 19th centuries)</b>
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Regency_of_Algiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Regency of Algiers">Regency of Algiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_governors_of_Algiers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman governors of Algiers">Ottoman governors</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Beni_Abbas" title="Kingdom of Beni Abbas">Emirate of Beni Abbas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kuku" title="Kingdom of Kuku">Emirate of Kuku</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_Slave_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary Slave Trade">Barbary Slave Trade</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Barbary_War" title="First Barbary War">First Barbary War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Barbary_War" title="Second Barbary War">Second Barbary War</a></li></ul>
</div>
<p><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French Algeria</a> (19th - 20th centuries)</b>
</p>
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_French_governors_of_Algeria" title="List of French governors of Algeria">French governors</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Algeria#Popular_revolts_against_the_French_occupation" title="French Algeria">Resistance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Pacification</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdelkader_El_Djezairi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdelkader El Djezairi">Emir Abdelkader</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lalla_Fatma_N%27Soumer" title="Lalla Fatma N'Soumer">Fatma N'Soumer</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mokrani_Revolt" title="Mokrani Revolt">Mokrani Revolt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cheikh_Bouamama" title="Cheikh Bouamama">Cheikh Bouamama</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nationalism_and_resistance_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalism and resistance in Algeria">Nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutionary_Committee_of_Unity_and_Action" title="Revolutionary Committee of Unity and Action">RCUA</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">FLN</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Algerian_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic">GPRA</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/May_1958_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="May 1958 crisis">1958 putsch</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algiers_putsch_of_1961" title="Algiers putsch of 1961">1961 putsch</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">Évian Accords</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_independence_referendum,_1962" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian independence referendum, 1962">Independence referendum</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pied-Noir" title="Pied-Noir">Pied-Noir</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harki" title="Harki">Harkis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oujda_Group" title="Oujda Group">Oujda Group</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Algeria_(1962%E2%80%931999)" title="History of Algeria (1962–1999)">Contemporary era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b>1960s–80s</b>
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%89tat_du_19_juin_1965_en_Alg%C3%A9rie" class="extiw" title="fr:Coup d'État du 19 juin 1965 en Algérie">1965 putsch</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berber_Spring" title="Berber Spring">Berber Spring</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1988_October_Riots" title="1988 October Riots">1988 Riots</a></li></ul>
</div>
<p><b>1990s</b>
</p>
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_Civil_War" title="Algerian Civil War">Algerian Civil War</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Algerian_Civil_War" title="Timeline of the Algerian Civil War">Timeline</a>)</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_Salvation_Front" title="Islamic Salvation Front">FIS</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armed_Islamic_Group_of_Algeria" title="Armed Islamic Group of Algeria">GIA</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Algerian_massacres_of_the_1990s" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Algerian massacres of the 1990s">List of massacres</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/High_Council_of_State_(Algeria)" title="High Council of State (Algeria)">High Council of State</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_Civil_Concord_referendum,_1999" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian Civil Concord referendum, 1999">Civil Concord</a></li></ul>
</div>
<p><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2000s_in_Algeria" title="2000s in Algeria">2000s</a> to present</b>
</p>
<div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charter_for_Peace_and_National_Reconciliation" title="Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation">Peace Charter</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Algerian_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2010–2011 Algerian protests">Arab Spring</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Algeria" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Algeria">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_Algeria" title="Outline of Algeria">Outline of Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_history_of_Algeria" title="Military history of Algeria">Military history of Algeria</a><br />(<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Algeria" title="List of wars involving Algeria">List of wars involving Algeria</a></span>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Algeria" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Algeria">Postal history of Algeria</a><br />(<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=List_of_people_on_stamps_of_Algeria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of people on stamps of Algeria (page does not exist)">List of people on stamps of Algeria</a></span>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_North_Africa" title="History of North Africa">History of North Africa</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:History_of_Algeria" title="Template:History of Algeria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Algeria" title="Template talk:History of Algeria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Algeria&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dey_of_Algiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Dey of Algiers">Dey of Algiers</a> himself was weak politically, economically, and militarily. Algeria was then part of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary States">Barbary States</a>, along with today's Tunisia – which depended on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, then led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a> — but enjoyed relative independence. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_Coast" title="Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> was the stronghold of Berber pirates, who carried out raids against European and American ships. Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a> culminated in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Barbary_War" title="First Barbary War">First</a> (1801–05) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Barbary_War" title="Second Barbary War">Second</a> (1815) Barbary Wars. An Anglo-Dutch force, led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Admiral_(Royal_Navy)" title="Admiral (Royal Navy)">Admiral</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edward_Pellew,_1st_Viscount_Exmouth" title="Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth">Lord Exmouth</a>, carried out a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Punitive_expedition" title="Punitive expedition">punitive expedition</a>, the August 1816 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1816)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1816)">bombardment of Algiers</a>. The Dey was forced to sign the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_treaties" title="Barbary treaties">Barbary treaties</a>, while the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gunpowder_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunpowder warfare">technological advantage</a> of U.S., British, and French forces overwhelmed the Algerians' expertise at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">naval warfare</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Following the conquest under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/July_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="July monarchy">July monarchy</a>, the Algerian territories, disputed with the Ottoman Empire, were first named "French possessions in North Africa" before being called "Algeria" by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marshal_General_of_France" title="Marshal General of France">Marshal General</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean-de-Dieu_Soult" title="Jean-de-Dieu Soult">Jean-de-Dieu Soult</a>, Duke of Dalmatia, in 1839.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="French_conquest_of_Algeria">French conquest of Algeria</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest of Algeria</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Empire_colonial_fran%C3%A7ais_(1920).png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Empire_colonial_fran%C3%A7ais_%281920%29.png/220px-Empire_colonial_fran%C3%A7ais_%281920%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Empire_colonial_fran%C3%A7ais_(1920).png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The French colonial empire in 1920</div></div></div>
<p>The conquest of Algeria was initiated in the last days of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a>, as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the French people, particularly in Paris, where many veterans of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> lived. His intention was to bolster patriotic sentiment, and distract attention from ineptly handled domestic policies by "skirmishing against the dey".<sup id="cite_ref-EncBrit_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncBrit-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span id="Fly_Whisk_Incident_.28April_1827.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Fly_Whisk_Incident_(April_1827)">Fly Whisk Incident (April 1827)</span></h4>
<p>In the 1790s, France had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two merchants in Algiers, Messrs. Bacri and Boushnak, and was in arrears paying them. Bacri and Boushnak owed money to the dey and claimed they could not pay it until France paid its debts to them. The dey had unsuccessfully negotiated with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pierre_Deval_(diplomat)" title="Pierre Deval (diplomat)">Pierre Deval</a>, the French consul, to rectify this situation, and he suspected Deval of collaborating with the merchants against him, especially when the French government made no provisions to pay the merchants in 1820. Deval's nephew Alexandre, the consul in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/B%C3%B4ne" class="mw-redirect" title="Bône">Bône</a>, further angered the dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/El_Kala" title="El Kala">La Calle</a>, contrary to the terms of prior agreements.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide satisfactory answers on 29 April 1827, the dey struck Deval with his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fly_whisk" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly whisk">fly whisk</a>. Charles X used this slight against his diplomatic representative to first demand an apology from the dey, and then to initiate a blockade against the port of Algiers. France demanded that the dey send an ambassador to France to resolve the incident. When the dey responded with cannon fire directed toward one of the blockading ships, the French determined that more forceful action was required.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span id="Invasion_of_Algiers_.28June_1830.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Invasion_of_Algiers_(June_1830)">Invasion of Algiers (June 1830)</span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Invasion_of_Algiers_in_1830" title="Invasion of Algiers in 1830">Invasion of Algiers in 1830</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Bombardementd_alger-1830.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bombardementd_alger-1830.jpg/220px-Bombardementd_alger-1830.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="1288" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Bombardementd_alger-1830.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The attack of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guy-Victor_Duperr%C3%A9" title="Guy-Victor Duperré">Admiral Duperré</a> during the take-over of Algiers in 1830</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Fighting_at_the_gates_of_Algiers_1830.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Fighting_at_the_gates_of_Algiers_1830.jpg/220px-Fighting_at_the_gates_of_Algiers_1830.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="733" data-file-height="488" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Fighting_at_the_gates_of_Algiers_1830.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Fighting at the gates of Algiers in 1830</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ottoman_cannon_end_of_16th_century_length_385cm_cal_178mm_weight_2910_stone_projectile_founded_8_October_1581_Alger_seized_1830.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ottoman_cannon_end_of_16th_century_length_385cm_cal_178mm_weight_2910_stone_projectile_founded_8_October_1581_Alger_seized_1830.jpg/220px-Ottoman_cannon_end_of_16th_century_length_385cm_cal_178mm_weight_2910_stone_projectile_founded_8_October_1581_Alger_seized_1830.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2889" data-file-height="1981" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ottoman_cannon_end_of_16th_century_length_385cm_cal_178mm_weight_2910_stone_projectile_founded_8_October_1581_Alger_seized_1830.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Ornate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_weapons" title="Ottoman weapons">Ottoman cannon</a>, length: 385cm, cal:178mm, weight: 2910, stone projectile, founded 8 October 1581 in Algiers, seized by France at Algiers in 1830. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_l%27Arm%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée de l'Armée">Musée de l'Armée</a>, Paris</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pierre_Deval_(diplomat)" title="Pierre Deval (diplomat)">Pierre Deval</a> and other French residents of Algiers left for France, while the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minister_of_War_(France)" title="Minister of War (France)">Minister of War</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_Marie_Gaspard_de_Clermont-Tonnerre" class="mw-redirect" title="Aimé Marie Gaspard de Clermont-Tonnerre">Clermont-Tonnerre</a>, proposed a military expedition. However, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Count_of_Vill%C3%A8le" class="mw-redirect" title="Count of Villèle">Count of Villèle</a>, an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">ultra-royalist</a>, President of the council and the monarch's heir, opposed any military action. The Bourbon Restoration government finally decided to blockade Algiers for three years. Meanwhile, the Berber pirates were able to exploit the geography of the coast with ease. Before the failure of the blockade, the Restoration decided on 31 January 1830 to engage a military expedition against Algiers.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guy-Victor_Duperr%C3%A9" title="Guy-Victor Duperré">Admiral Duperré</a> commanded an armada of 600 ships that originated from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a>, leading it to Algiers. Using <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s 1808 contingency plan for the invasion of Algeria, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_de_Bourmont" class="mw-redirect" title="General de Bourmont">General de Bourmont</a> then landed 27 kilometres (17 mi) west of Algiers, at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sidi_Ferruch" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidi Ferruch">Sidi Ferruch</a> on 14 June 1830, with 34,000 soldiers. In response to the French, the Algerian dey ordered an opposition consisting of 7,000 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">janissaries</a>, 19,000 troops from the beys of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a>, and about 17,000 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kabyles" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabyles">Kabyles</a>. The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. The French troops took the advantage on 19 June during the battle of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Staou%C3%A9li" title="Staouéli">Staouéli</a>, and entered Algiers on 5 July after a three-week campaign. The dey agreed to surrender in exchange for his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he exiled himself with his family, departing on a French ship for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian peninsula">Italian peninsula</a>. 2,500 janissaries also quit the Algerian territories, heading for Asia,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Asia is a big place (August 2009)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> on 11 July.
The French army then recruited the first <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zouaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Zouaves">zouaves</a></i></span> (a title given to certain <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Light_infantry" title="Light infantry">light infantry</a> regiments) in October, followed by the <span title="Ottoman Turkish (1500-1928)-language text"><i lang="ota-Latn"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spahis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spahis">spahis</a></i></span> regiments, while France expropriated all the land properties belonging to the Turkish settlers, known as <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">Beliks</i></span>. In the western region of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abderrahmane_of_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Abderrahmane of Morocco">Sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amir_al-Mu%27minin" title="Amir al-Mu'minin">Commander of the Faithful</a>, could not remain indifferent to the massacres committed by the French Christian troops and to belligerent calls for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a> from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marabout" title="Marabout">marabouts</a>. Despite the diplomatic rupture between Morocco and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Two_Sicilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Sicilies">Two Sicilies</a> in 1830, and the naval warfare engaged against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> as well as with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mid-nineteenth_century_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-nineteenth century Spain">Spain</a>, then headed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a>, Sultan Abderrahmane lent his support to the Algerian insurgency of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Jaza%27iri" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri">Abd El-Kader</a>. The latter fought for years against the French. Directing an army of 12,000 men, Abd El-Kader first organized the blockade of Oran.
</p><p>Algerian refugees were welcomed by the Moroccan population, while the Sultan recommended that the authorities of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tetuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetuan">Tetuan</a> assist them, by providing jobs in the administration or the military forces. The inhabitants of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tlemcen" title="Tlemcen">Tlemcen</a>, near the Moroccan border, asked that they be placed under the Sultan's authority in order to escape the invaders. Abderrahmane named his nephew Prince <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Moulay_Ali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moulay Ali (page does not exist)">Moulay Ali</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> of Tlemcen, charged with the protection of the city. In retaliation France executed two Moroccans: Mohamed Beliano and Benkirane, as spies, while their goods were seized by the military governor of Oran, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pierre_Fran%C3%A7ois_Xavier_Boyer" title="Pierre François Xavier Boyer">Pierre François Xavier Boyer</a>.
</p><p>Hardly had the news of the capture of Algiers reached Paris than Charles X was deposed during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Three_Glorious_Days" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Glorious Days">Three Glorious Days</a> of July 1830, and his cousin <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis-Philippe_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis-Philippe of France">Louis-Philippe</a>, the "citizen king", was named to preside over a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. The new government, composed of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="French liberalism">liberal opponents</a> of the Algiers expedition, was reluctant to pursue the conquest begun by the old regime, but withdrawing from Algeria proved more difficult than conquering it.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Characterization_as_genocide">Characterization as genocide</span></h4>
<p>Some governments and scholars have called France's conquest of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>For example, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Ben Kiernan</a>, an Australian expert on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> wrote in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blood_and_Soil_(book)" title="Blood and Soil (book)">Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur</a></i> on the French conquest of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote>
<p><i>By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking a French author to protest in 1882 that in Algeria, "we hear it repeated every day that we must expel the native and, if necessary, destroy him." As a French statistical journal urged five years late, "the system of extermination must give way to a policy of penetration."</i>
<br />
—Ben Kiernan, <i>Blood and Soil</i>
</p>
</blockquote>
<p>When France recognized the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>, Turkey accused France of having committed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> against 15% of Algeria's population.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Popular_revolts_against_the_French_occupation">Popular revolts against the French occupation</span></h2>
<h3><span id="Conquest_of_the_Algerian_territories_under_the_July_Monarchy_.281830.E2.80.931848.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Conquest_of_the_Algerian_territories_under_the_July_Monarchy_(1830–1848)">Conquest of the Algerian territories under the July Monarchy (1830–1848)</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Court_-_Sylvain_Charles_Val%C3%A9e_(1773-1846)_-_MV_1176.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Court_-_Sylvain_Charles_Val%C3%A9e_%281773-1846%29_-_MV_1176.jpg/220px-Court_-_Sylvain_Charles_Val%C3%A9e_%281773-1846%29_-_MV_1176.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="1967" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sylvain_Charles_Val%C3%A9e.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sylvain_Charles_Val%C3%A9e" title="Sylvain Charles Valée">Sylvain Charles Valée</a></div></div></div>
<p>On 1 December 1830, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis-Philippe_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis-Philippe of France">King Louis-Philippe</a> named the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anne_Jean_Marie_Ren%C3%A9_Savary" title="Anne Jean Marie René Savary">Duc de Rovigo</a> as head of military staff in Algeria. De Rovigo took control of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/B%C3%B4ne" class="mw-redirect" title="Bône">Bône</a> and initiated colonisation of the land. He was recalled in 1833 due to the overtly violent nature of the repression. Wishing to avoid a conflict with Morocco, Louis-Philippe sent an extraordinary mission to the sultan, mixed with displays of military might, sending war ships to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bay_of_Tangier" title="Bay of Tangier">Bay of Tangier</a>. An ambassador was sent to Sultan <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moulay_Abderrahmane" class="mw-redirect" title="Moulay Abderrahmane">Moulay Abderrahmane</a> in February 1832, headed by the Count <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles-Edgar_de_Mornay" title="Charles-Edgar de Mornay">Charles-Edgar de Mornay</a> and including the painter <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a>. However the sultan refused French demands that he evacuate Tlemcen.
</p><p>In 1834, France annexed as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">colony</a> the occupied areas of Algeria, which had an estimated Muslim population of about two million. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">Colonial administration</a> in the occupied areas — the so-called <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">régime du sabre</i></span> (government of the sword) — was placed under a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonial_heads_of_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial heads of Algeria">governor-general</a>, a high-ranking army officer invested with civil and military jurisdiction, who was responsible to the minister of war. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marshal_Bugeaud" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Bugeaud">Marshal Bugeaud</a>, who became the first governor-general, headed the conquest.
</p><p>Soon after the conquest of Algiers, the soldier-politician <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bertrand_Clauzel" title="Bertrand Clauzel">Bertrand Clauzel</a> and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and, despite official discouragement, to subsidize its settlement by European farmers, triggering a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_run" title="Land run">land rush</a>. Clauzel recognized the farming potential of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mitidja_Plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitidja Plain">Mitidja Plain</a> and envisioned the large-scale production there of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>. As governor-general (1835–36), he used his office to make private investments in land and encouraged army officers and bureaucrats in his administration to do the same. This development created a vested interest among government officials in greater French involvement in Algeria. Commercial interests with influence in the government also began to recognize the prospects for profitable land speculation in expanding the French zone of occupation. They created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and hired local labor.
</p><p>Among others testimonies, Lieutenant-colonel Lucien de Montagnac wrote on 15 March 1843, in a letter to a friend:
</p>
<blockquote><p>All populations who do not accept our conditions must be despoiled. Everything must be seized, devastated, without age or sex distinction: grass must not grow any more where the French army has set foot. Who wants the end wants the means, whatever may say our philanthropists. I personally warn all good soldiers whom I have the honour to lead that if they happen to bring me a living Arab, they will receive a beating with the flat of the saber.... This is how, my dear friend, we must make war against Arabs: kill all men over the age of fifteen, take all their women and children, load them onto naval vessels, send them to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marquesas_Islands" title="Marquesas Islands">Marquesas Islands</a> or elsewhere. In one word, annihilate everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Whatever initial misgivings Louis Philippe's government may have had about occupying Algeria, the geopolitical realities of the situation created by the 1830 intervention argued strongly for reinforcing French presence there. France had reason for concern that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a>, which was pledged to maintain the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, would move to fill the vacuum left by a French withdrawal. The French devised elaborate plans for settling the hinterland left by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> provincial authorities in 1830, but their efforts at state-building were unsuccessful on account of lengthy armed resistance.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:La_prise_de_Constantine_1837_par_Horace_Vernet.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/La_prise_de_Constantine_1837_par_Horace_Vernet.jpg/220px-La_prise_de_Constantine_1837_par_Horace_Vernet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1760" data-file-height="1754" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:La_prise_de_Constantine_1837_par_Horace_Vernet.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The capture of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a> by French troops, 13 October 1837 by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horace_Vernet" title="Horace Vernet">Horace Vernet</a></div></div></div>
<p>The most successful local opposition immediately after the fall of Algiers was led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmed_Bey_ben_Mohamed_Ch%C3%A9rif" title="Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif">Ahmad ibn Muhammad</a>, <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">bey</i></span> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a>. He initiated a radical overhaul of the Ottoman administration in his <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">beylik</i></span> by replacing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkish</a> officials with local leaders, making <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> the official language, and attempting to reform finances according to the precepts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. After the French failed in several attempts to gain some of the <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">bey</i></span>'s territories through negotiation, an ill-fated invasion force, led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bertrand_Clauzel" title="Bertrand Clauzel">Bertrand Clauzel</a>, had to retreat from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a> in 1836 in humiliation and defeat. However, the French captured Constantine under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sylvain_Charles_Val%C3%A9e" title="Sylvain Charles Valée">Sylvain Charles Valée</a> the following year, on 13 October 1837.
</p><p>Historians generally set the indigenous population of Algeria at 3 million in 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> Although the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_Algeria" title="Demographics of Algeria">Algerian population</a> decreased at some point under French rule, most certainly between 1866 and 1872,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> the French military was not fully responsible for the extent of this decrease, as some of these deaths could be explained by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Locust" title="Locust">locust</a> plagues of 1866 and 1868, as well as by a rigorous winter in 1867–68, which caused a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> followed by an epidemic of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Resistance_of_Lalla_Fadhma_N.27Soumer"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Resistance_of_Lalla_Fadhma_N'Soumer">Resistance of Lalla Fadhma N'Soumer</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lalla_Fatma_N%27Soumer" title="Lalla Fatma N'Soumer">Lalla Fatma N'Soumer</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Portrait-Fatma_N%27Soumer.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Portrait-Fatma_N%27Soumer.jpg/250px-Portrait-Fatma_N%27Soumer.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="285" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="453" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Portrait-Fatma_N%27Soumer.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A print showing Fadhma N'Soumer during combat</div></div></div>
<p>The French began their occupation of Algiers in 1830, starting with a landing in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>. As occupation turned into colonization, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kabylia" title="Kabylia">Kabylia</a> remained the only region independent of the French government. Pressure on the region increased, and the will of her people to resist and defend Kabylia increased as well.
</p><p>In about 1849, a mysterious man arrived in Kabiliya. He presented himself as Mohamed ben Abdallah (the name of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prophets_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophets of Islam">Prophet</a>), but is more commonly known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sherif_Boubaghla" title="Sherif Boubaghla">Sherif Boubaghla</a>. He was probably a former lieutenant in the army of Emir <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Jaza%27iri" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri">Abdelkader</a>, defeated for the last time by the French in 1847. Boubaghla refused to surrender at that battle, and retreated to Kabylia. From there he began a war against the French armies and their allies, often employing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> tactics. Boubaghla was a relentless fighter, and very eloquent in Arabic. He was very religious, and some legends tell of his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thaumaturgy" title="Thaumaturgy">thaumaturgic</a> skills.
</p><p>Boubaghla went often to Soumer to talk with high-ranking members of the religious community, and Lalla Fadhma was soon attracted by his strong personality. At the same time, the relentless combatant was attracted by a woman so resolutely willing to contribute, by any means possible, to the war against the French. With her inspiring speeches, she convinced many men to fight as <span title="Kabyle-language text"><i lang="kab">imseblen</i></span> (volunteers ready to die as martyrs) and she herself, together with other women, participated in combat by providing cooking, medicines, and comfort to the fighting forces.
</p><p>Traditional sources tell that a strong bond was formed between Lalla Fadhma and Boubaghla. She saw this as a wedding of peers, rather than the traditional submission as a slave to a husband. In fact, at that time Boubaghla left his first wife (Fatima Bent Sidi Aissa) and sent back to her owner a slave he had as a concubine (Halima Bent Messaoud). But on her side, Lalla Fadhma wasn't free: even if she was recognized as <span title="Kabyle-language text"><i lang="kab">tamnafeqt</i></span> ("woman who left her husband to get back to his family", a Kabylia institution), the matrimonial tie with her husband was still in place, and only her husband's will could free her. However he did not agree to this, even when offered large bribes. The love between Fadhma and Bou remained platonic, but there were public expressions of this feeling between the two.
</p><p>Fadhma was personally present at many fights in which Boubaghla was involved, particularly the battle of Tachekkirt won by Boubaghla forces (18–19 July 1854), where the French general <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Louis_C%C3%A9sar_Randon" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacques Louis César Randon">Jacques Louis César Randon</a> was caught but managed to escape later. On 26 December 1854, Boubaghla was killed; some sources claim it was due to treason of some of his allies. The resistance was left without a charismatic leader and a commander able to guide it efficiently. For this reason, during the first months of 1855, on a sanctuary built on top of the Azru Nethor peak, not far from the village where Fadhma was born, there was a great council among combatants and important figures of the tribes in Kabylie. They decided to grant Lalla Fadhma, assisted by her brothers, the command of combat.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Resistance_of_Emir_Abd_al_Qadir">Resistance of Emir Abd al Qadir</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:EmirAbdelKader.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/EmirAbdelKader.jpg/200px-EmirAbdelKader.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="247" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1591" data-file-height="1963" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:EmirAbdelKader.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Jaza%27iri" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri">Abd el-Kader</a></div></div></div>
<p>The French faced other opposition as well in the area. The superior of a religious brotherhood, <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Muhyi_ad_Din&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhyi ad Din (page does not exist)">Muhyi ad Din</a>, who had spent time in Ottoman jails for opposing the bey's rule, launched attacks against the French and their makhzen allies at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a> in 1832. In the same year, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a> was declared<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> and to lead it tribal elders chose Muhyi ad Din's son, twenty-five-year-old <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Jaza%27iri" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri">Abd al Qadir</a>. Abd al Qadir, who was recognized as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amir_al-Muminin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amir al-Muminin">Amir al-Muminin</a> (commander of the faithful), quickly gained the support of tribes throughout Algeria. A devout and austere marabout, he was also a cunning political leader and a resourceful warrior. From his capital in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tlemcen" title="Tlemcen">Tlemcen</a>, Abd al Qadir set about building a territorial Muslim state based on the communities of the interior but drawing its strength from the tribes and religious brotherhoods. By 1839, he controlled more than two-thirds of Algeria. His government maintained an army and a bureaucracy, collected taxes, supported education, undertook public works, and established agricultural and manufacturing cooperatives to stimulate economic activity.
</p><p>The French in Algiers viewed with concern the success of a Muslim government and the rapid growth of a viable territorial state that barred the extension of European settlement. Abd al Qadir fought running battles across Algeria with French forces, which included units of the Foreign Legion, organized in 1831 for Algerian service. Although his forces were defeated by the French under General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Bugeaud" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Bugeaud">Thomas Bugeaud</a> in 1836, Abd al Qadir negotiated a favorable peace treaty the next year. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Tafna" title="Treaty of Tafna">treaty of Tafna</a> gained conditional recognition for Abd al Qadir's regime by defining the territory under its control and salvaged his prestige among the tribes just as the shaykhs were about to desert him. To provoke new hostilities, the French deliberately broke the treaty in 1839 by occupying <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a>. Abd al Qadir took up the holy war again, destroyed the French settlements on the Mitidja Plain, and at one point advanced to the outskirts of Algiers itself. He struck where the French were weakest and retreated when they advanced against him in greater strength. The government moved from camp to camp with the amir and his army. Gradually, however, superior French resources and manpower and the defection of tribal chieftains took their toll. Reinforcements poured into Algeria after 1840 until Bugeaud had at his disposal 108,000 men, one-third of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_army" class="mw-redirect" title="French army">French army</a>.
</p>
<div class="center"><div class="thumb tnone"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:802px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Prise_de_la_smalah_d_Abd-El-Kader_a_Taguin_16_mai_1843_Horace_Vernet.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Prise_de_la_smalah_d_Abd-El-Kader_a_Taguin_16_mai_1843_Horace_Vernet.jpg/800px-Prise_de_la_smalah_d_Abd-El-Kader_a_Taguin_16_mai_1843_Horace_Vernet.jpg" decoding="async" width="800" height="177" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2994" data-file-height="664" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Prise_de_la_smalah_d_Abd-El-Kader_a_Taguin_16_mai_1843_Horace_Vernet.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Smala" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Smala">Battle of Smala</a>, 16 May 1843. <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Prise de la smalah d Abd-El-Kader à Taguin. 16 mai 1843</i></span>, by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horace_Vernet" title="Horace Vernet">Horace Vernet</a></div></div></div></div>
<p>One by one, the amir's strongholds fell to the French, and many of his ablest commanders were killed or captured so that by 1843 the Muslim state had collapsed.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:FrenchTroopsMogador.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/FrenchTroopsMogador.JPG/220px-FrenchTroopsMogador.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2531" data-file-height="1109" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:FrenchTroopsMogador.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>French troops disembarking on the island of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogador" class="mw-redirect" title="Mogador">Mogador</a>, in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Essaouira" title="Essaouira">Essaouira</a> bay in 1844</div></div></div>
<p>Abd al Qadir took refuge in 1841 with his ally, the sultan of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abderrahmane_of_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Abderrahmane of Morocco">Abd ar Rahman II</a>, and launched raids into Algeria. This alliance led the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> to bombard and briefly occupy <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Essaouira" title="Essaouira">Essaouira</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogador" class="mw-redirect" title="Mogador">Mogador</a>) under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prince_de_Joinville" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince de Joinville">Prince de Joinville</a> on August 16, 1844. A French force was destroyed at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Sidi-Brahim" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Sidi-Brahim">Battle of Sidi-Brahim</a> in 1845. However, Abd al Qadir was obliged to surrender to the commander of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a> Province, General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_de_Lamorici%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis de Lamoricière">Louis de Lamoricière</a>, at the end of 1847.
</p><p>Abd al Qadir was promised safe conduct to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> if his followers laid down their arms and kept the peace. He accepted these conditions, but the minister of war — who years earlier as general in Algeria had been badly defeated by Abd al Qadir — had him consigned in France in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_d%27Amboise" title="Château d'Amboise">Château d'Amboise</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="French_rule">French rule</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Demography">Demography</span></h3>
<table class="toccolours" style="width:13.5em;border-top-width:0;border-spacing: 0;float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0;"><caption style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;border-left:1px #aaa solid;border-right:1px #aaa solid;background-color:lavender;padding:0.25em;font-weight:bold">Algeria's population under the French<br /> <small> → <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_Algeria#Population" title="Demographics of Algeria">after 1962</a></small></caption><tbody><tr valign="top"><td style="padding:0 0.5em"><table style="border-spacing:0;width:13.5em"><tbody><tr style="font-size:95%"><th style="border-bottom:1px solid black;padding:1px;width:3em">Year</th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid black;padding:1px 2px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Population">Pop.</abbr></th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid black;padding:1px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Per annum growth rate">±% p.a.</abbr></th></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1830 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">3,000,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">—    </td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1851 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">2,554,100</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−0.76%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1856 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">2,496,100</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−0.46%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1862 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">2,999,100</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+3.11%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">1866 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">2,921,200</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">−0.66%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1872 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">2,894,500</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−0.15%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1877 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">2,867,600</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−0.19%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1882 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">3,310,400</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+2.91%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1886 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">3,867,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+3.96%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">1892 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">4,174,700</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+1.28%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1896 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">4,479,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.77%</td></tr></tbody></table></td><td style="padding:0 0.5em;border-left:solid 1px #aaa"><table style="border-spacing:0;width:13.5em"><tbody><tr style="font-size:95%"><th style="border-bottom:1px solid black;padding:1px;width:3em">Year</th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid black;padding:1px 2px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Population">Pop.</abbr></th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid black;padding:1px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Per annum growth rate">±% p.a.</abbr></th></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1900 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">4,675,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.08%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1901 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">4,739,300</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.38%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1906 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">5,231,900</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+2.00%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">1911 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">5,563,800</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+1.24%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1921 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">5,804,300</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+0.42%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1930<sup>e</sup> </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">6,453,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.18%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1940<sup>e</sup> </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">7,614,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.67%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1947 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">8,302,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.24%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">1948 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">8,681,800</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+4.57%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1949 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">8,602,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−0.92%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1950 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">8,753,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.76%</td></tr></tbody></table></td><td style="padding:0 0.5em;border-left:solid 1px #aaa"><table style="border-spacing:0;width:13.5em"><tbody><tr style="font-size:95%"><th style="border-bottom:1px solid black;padding:1px;width:3em">Year</th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid black;padding:1px 2px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Population">Pop.</abbr></th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid black;padding:1px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Per annum growth rate">±% p.a.</abbr></th></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1951 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">8,927,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.99%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1952 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">9,126,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+2.23%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">1953 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">9,370,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+2.67%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1954 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">9,529,700</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.70%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1955 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">9,678,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.56%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1956 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">9,903,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+2.32%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1958 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">10,127,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.12%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">1959 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">10,575,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+4.42%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1960 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">10,853,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+2.63%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1962 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">10,920,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+0.31%</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="border-top:1px solid black;font-size:85%;text-align:left"><big><b><sup>e</sup></b></big> – Indicates that this is an estimated figure.<br />Source: <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1039153519">@media all and (max-width:720px){body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mw-graph{min-width:100%!important;max-width:100%;overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:visible}}.mw-parser-output .mw-graph-img{width:inherit;height:inherit}</style><div class="mw-graph mw-graph-always mw-graph-nofallback" style="min-width:150px;min-height:150px" data-graph-id="e4f39766c042678587d5374d3f6d3ffe60484c0c"></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1039153519"/><div class="mw-graph mw-graph-always mw-graph-nofallback" style="min-width:240px;min-height:135px" data-graph-id="2eb13ba55caae46f911f906f8c76e06694c4e97c"></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1039153519"/><div class="mw-graph mw-graph-always mw-graph-nofallback" style="min-width:320px;min-height:180px" data-graph-id="dbb4566ebb29440acca073fcb9d22ef83003f0f0"></div>
<div style="clear:both;"></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="French_atrocities_against_the_Algerian_indigenous_population">French atrocities against the Algerian indigenous population</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Takin_of_Laghouat_1852.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Takin_of_Laghouat_1852.jpg/220px-Takin_of_Laghouat_1852.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="584" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Takin_of_Laghouat_1852.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Laghouat" title="Siege of Laghouat">siege of Laghouat</a> (1852) during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Pacification of Algeria</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Ben Kiernan</a>, Colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. Within the first three decades (1830–1860) of French conquest, between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, out of a total of 3 million, were killed due to war, massacres, disease and famine.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kiernan2007_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiernan2007-20">[20]</a></sup> Atrocities committed by the French during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a> during the 1950s against Algerians include deliberate bombing and killing of unarmed civilians, rape, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Torture_during_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Torture during the Algerian War">torture</a>, executions through "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Death_flights" title="Death flights">death flights</a>" or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burial_alive" class="mw-redirect" title="Burial alive">burial alive</a>, thefts and pillaging.<sup id="cite_ref-Fawole_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fawole-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huma00_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huma00-23">[23]</a></sup> Up to 2 million Algerian civilians were also deported in internment camps.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Pacification of Algeria</a> (1835-1903) French forces engaged in a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a> policy against the Algerian population. Colonel <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lucien_de_Montagnac" title="Lucien de Montagnac">Lucien de Montagnac</a> stated that the purpose of the pacification was to "destroy everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs"<sup id="cite_ref-scoear_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scoear-25">[25]</a></sup> The scorched earth policy, decided by Governor General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Bugeaud" title="Thomas Robert Bugeaud">Thomas Robert Bugeaud</a>, had devastating effects on the socio-economic and food balances of the country: "we fire little gunshot, we burn all douars, all villages, all huts; the enemy flees across taking his flock."<sup id="cite_ref-scoear_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scoear-25">[25]</a></sup> According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Olivier_Le_Cour_Grandmaison" title="Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison">Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison</a>, the colonisation of Algeria lead to the extermination of a third of the population from multiple causes (massacres, deportations, famines or epidemics) that were all interrelated.<sup id="cite_ref-thirki_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thirki-26">[26]</a></sup> Returning from an investigation trip to Algeria, Tocqueville wrote that "we make war much more barbaric than the Arabs themselves [...] it is for their part that civilization is situated."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>French forces deported and banished entire Algerian tribes. The Moorish families of Tlemcen were exiled to the Orient, and others were emigrated elsewhere. The tribes that were considered too troublesome were banned, and some took refuge in Tunisia, Morocco and Syria or were deported to New Caledonia or Guyana. Also, French forces also engaged in wholesale massacres of entire tribes. All 500 men, women and children of the El Oufia tribe were killed in one night,<sup id="cite_ref-tribekil_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tribekil-28">[28]</a></sup> while all 500 to 700 members of the Ouled Rhia tribe were killed by suffocation in a cave.<sup id="cite_ref-tribekil_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tribekil-28">[28]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Laghouat" title="Siege of Laghouat">Siege of Laghouat</a> is referred by Algerians as the year of the "Khalya", Arabic for emptiness, which is commonly known to the inhabitants of Laghouat as the year that the city was emptied of its population.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> It is also commonly known as the year of Hessian sacks, referring to the way the captured surviving men and boys were put alive in the hessian sacks and thrown into dug-up trenches.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>From 8 May to June 26, 1945, the French carried out the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_and_Guelma_massacre" title="Sétif and Guelma massacre">Sétif and Guelma massacre</a>, in which between 6,000 and 80,000 Algerian Muslims were killed. Its initial outbreak occurred during a parade of about 5,000 people of the Muslim Algerian population of Sétif to celebrate the surrender of Nazi Germany in World War II; it ended in clashes between the marchers and the local French gendarmerie, when the latter tried to seize banners attacking colonial rule.<sup id="cite_ref-TedMorgan_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TedMorgan-33">[33]</a></sup> After five days, the French colonial military and police suppressed the rebellion, and then carried out a series of reprisals against Muslim civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> The army carried out <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary executions</a> of Muslim rural communities. Less accessible villages were bombed by French aircraft, and cruiser <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_cruiser_Duguay-Trouin_(1923)" title="French cruiser Duguay-Trouin (1923)">Duguay-Trouin</a>, standing off the coast in the Gulf of Bougie, shelled Kherrata.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Vigilantes lynched prisoners taken from local jails or randomly shot Muslims not wearing white arm bands (as instructed by the army) out of hand.<sup id="cite_ref-TedMorgan_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TedMorgan-33">[33]</a></sup> It is certain that the great majority of the Muslim victims had not been implicated in the original outbreak.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne27_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne27-36">[36]</a></sup> The dead bodies in Guelma were buried in mass graves, but they were later dug up and burned in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/H%C3%A9liopolis,_Algeria" title="Héliopolis, Algeria">Héliopolis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JeanPierre_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JeanPierre-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a> (1954-1962), the French used deliberate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Torture_during_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Torture during the Algerian War">illegal methods</a> against the Algerians, including (as described by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henri_Alleg" title="Henri Alleg">Henri Alleg</a>, who himself had been tortured, and historians such as Raphaëlle Branche) beatings, torture by electroshock, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Waterboarding" title="Waterboarding">waterboarding</a>, burns, and rape.<sup id="cite_ref-Huma00_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huma00-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Horne_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rey_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rey-39">[39]</a></sup> Prisoners were also locked up <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">without food</a> in small cells, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buried_alive" class="mw-redirect" title="Buried alive">buried alive</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Death_flights" title="Death flights">thrown from helicopters</a> to their death or into the sea with concrete on their feet.<sup id="cite_ref-Huma00_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huma00-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Claude_Bourdet" title="Claude Bourdet">Claude Bourdet</a> had denounced these acts on 6 December 1951, in the magazine <i>L'Observateur</i>, rhetorically asking, "Is there a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> in Algeria?".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-44">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup>
D. Huf, in his seminal work on the subject, argued that the use of torture was one of the major factors in developing French opposition to the war.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> Huf argued, "Such tactics sat uncomfortably with France's revolutionary history, and brought unbearable comparisons with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. The French national psyche would not tolerate any parallels between their experiences of occupation and their colonial mastery of Algeria." General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_Aussaresses" title="Paul Aussaresses">Paul Aussaresses</a> admitted in 2000 that systematic torture techniques were used during the war and justified it. He also recognized the assassination of lawyer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ali_Boumendjel" title="Ali Boumendjel">Ali Boumendjel</a> and the head of the FLN in Algiers, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Larbi_Ben_M%27Hidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Larbi Ben M'Hidi">Larbi Ben M'Hidi</a>, which had been disguised as suicides.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marcel_Bigeard" title="Marcel Bigeard">Bigeard</a>, who called FLN activists "savages", claimed torture was a "necessary evil".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> To the contrary, General Jacques Massu denounced it, following Aussaresses's revelations and, before his death, pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of the use of torture during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup>
In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sidi_Ferruch" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidi Ferruch">Sidi Ferruch</a>, a torture center where Algerians were murdered. Bigeard qualified <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louisette_Ighilahriz" title="Louisette Ighilahriz">Louisette Ighilahriz</a>'s revelations, published in the <i>Le Monde</i> newspaper on June 20, 2000, as "lies." An ALN activist, Louisette Ighilahriz had been tortured by General Massu.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> However, since General Massu's revelations, Bigeard has admitted the use of torture, although he denies having personally used it, and has declared, "You are striking the heart of an 84-year-old man." Bigeard also recognized that Larbi Ben M'Hidi was assassinated and that his death was disguised as a suicide.
</p><p>In 2018 France officially admitted that torture was systematic and routine.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Hegemony_of_the_colons">Hegemony of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_organization">Political organization</span></h4>
<p>A commission of inquiry established by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="French Senate">French Senate</a> in 1892 and headed by former Premier <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jules_Ferry" title="Jules Ferry">Jules Ferry</a>, an advocate of colonial expansion, recommended that the government abandon a policy that assumed French law, without major modifications, could fit the needs of an area inhabited by close to two million Europeans and four million Muslims. Muslims had no representation in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_National_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="French National Assembly">French National Assembly</a> before 1945 and were grossly under-represented on local councils. Because of the many restrictions imposed by the authorities, by 1915 only 50,000 Muslims were eligible to vote in elections in the civil communes. Attempts to implement even the most modest reforms were blocked or delayed by the local administration in Algeria, dominated by <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span>, and by the 27 <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colon</i></span> representatives in the National Assembly (six deputies and three senators from each department).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Once elected to the National Assembly, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span> became permanent fixtures. Because of their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seniority" title="Seniority">seniority</a>, they exercised disproportionate influence, and their support was important to any government's survival.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> The leader of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colon</i></span> delegation, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Auguste_Warnier" title="Auguste Warnier">Auguste Warnier</a> (1810–1875), succeeded during the 1870s in modifying or introducing legislation to facilitate the private transfer of land to settlers and continue the Algerian state's appropriation of land from the local population and distribution to settlers. Consistent proponents of reform, like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a> and socialist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean_Jaur%C3%A8s" title="Jean Jaurès">Jean Jaurès</a>, were rare in the National Assembly.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Economic_organization">Economic organization</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Moorish_women_making_Arab_carpets,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697844.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Moorish_women_making_Arab_carpets%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697844.jpg/220px-Moorish_women_making_Arab_carpets%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697844.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2465" data-file-height="3343" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Moorish_women_making_Arab_carpets,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697844.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Moorish women making Arab carpets, Algiers, 1899</div></div></div>
<p>The bulk of Algeria's wealth in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> was controlled by the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">grands colons</i></span>. The modern European-owned and -managed sector of the economy centered on small industry and a highly developed export trade, designed to provide food and raw materials to France in return for capital and consumer goods. Europeans held about 30% of the total arable land, including the bulk of the most fertile land and most of the areas under irrigation.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> By 1900, Europeans produced more than two-thirds of the value of output in agriculture and practically all agricultural exports. The modern, or European, sector was run on a commercial basis and meshed with the French market system that it supplied with wine, citrus, olives, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a>. Nearly half of the value of European-owned real property was in vineyards by 1914. By contrast, subsistence <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereal</a> production—supplemented by olive, fig, and date growing and stock raising—formed the basis of the traditional sector, but the land available for cropping was submarginal even for cereals under prevailing traditional cultivation practices.
</p><p>In 1953, sixty per cent of the Muslim rural population were officially classed as being destitute. The European community, numbering at the time about one million out of a total population of nine million, owned about 66% of farmable land and produced all of the 1.3 million tons of wine that provided the base of the Algerian economy. Exports of Algerian wine and wheat to France were balanced in trading terms by a flow of manufactured goods.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p><p>The colonial regime imposed more and higher taxes on Muslims than on Europeans.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> The Muslims, in addition to paying traditional taxes dating from before the French conquest, also paid new taxes, from which the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span> were normally exempted. In 1909, for instance, Muslims, who made up almost 90% of the population but produced 20% of Algeria's income, paid 70% of direct taxes and 45% of the total taxes collected. And <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span> controlled how these revenues would be spent. As a result, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colon</i></span> towns had handsome municipal buildings, paved streets lined with trees, fountains and statues, while Algerian villages and rural areas benefited little if at all from tax revenues.
</p><p>In financial terms Algeria was a drain on the French tax-payer. In the early 1950s the total Algerian budget of seventy-two billion francs included a direct subsidy of twenty-eight billion contributed from the metropolitan budget. Described at the time as being a French luxury, continued rule from Paris was justified on a variety of grounds including historic sentiment, strategic value and the political influence of the European settler population.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Schools">Schools</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Arab_school_of_embroidery,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697839.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Arab_school_of_embroidery%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697839.jpg/220px-Arab_school_of_embroidery%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697839.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3367" data-file-height="2512" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Arab_school_of_embroidery,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697839.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Arab school of embroidery, Algiers, 1899</div></div></div>
<p>The colonial regime proved severely detrimental to overall education for Algerian Muslims, who had previously relied on religious schools to learn reading and writing and engage in religious studies. Not only did the state appropriate the habus lands (the religious foundations that constituted the main source of income for religious institutions, including schools) in 1843, but <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colon</i></span> officials refused to allocate enough money to maintain schools and mosques properly and to provide for enough teachers and religious leaders for the growing population. In 1892, more than five times as much was spent for the education of Europeans as for Muslims, who had five times as many children of school age. Because few Muslim teachers were trained, Muslim schools were largely staffed by French teachers. Even a state-operated <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">madrasah</a></i> (school) often had French faculty members. Attempts to institute bilingual, bicultural schools, intended to bring Muslim and European children together in the classroom, were a conspicuous failure, rejected by both communities and phased out after 1870. According to one estimate, fewer than 5% of Algerian children attended any kind of school in 1870. As late as 1954 only one Muslim boy in five and one girl in sixteen was receiving formal schooling.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> The level of literacy amongst the total Muslim population was estimated at only 2% in urban areas and half of that figure in the rural hinterland.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p>Efforts were begun by 1890 to educate a small number of Muslims along with European students in the French school system as part of France's "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civilizing_mission" title="Civilizing mission">civilizing mission</a>" in Algeria. The curriculum was entirely French and allowed no place for Arabic studies, which were deliberately downgraded even in Muslim schools. Within a generation, a class of well-educated, gallicized Muslims — the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">évolués</i></span> (literally, the evolved ones)—had been created. Almost all of the handful of Muslims who accepted French citizenship were <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">évolués</i></span>; ironically, this privileged group of Muslims, strongly influenced by French culture and political attitudes, developed a new Algerian self-consciousness.
</p>
<h4><span id="Relationships_between_the_colons.2C_Indig.C3.A8nes_and_France"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Relationships_between_the_colons,_Indigènes_and_France">Relationships between the colons, Indigènes and France</span></h4>
<p>Reporting to the French Senate in 1894, Governor General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jules_Cambon" title="Jules Cambon">Jules Cambon</a> wrote that Algeria had "only a dust of people left her." He referred to the destruction of the traditional ruling class that had left Muslims without leaders and had deprived France of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">interlocuteurs valables</i></span> (literally, valid go-betweens), through whom to reach the masses of the people. He lamented that no genuine communication was possible between the two communities.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span> who ran Algeria maintained a dialog only with the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beni-oui-ouis" class="mw-redirect" title="Beni-oui-ouis">beni-oui-ouis</a></i></span>. Later they thwarted contact between the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%89volu%C3%A9" title="Évolué">évolués</a></i></span> and Muslim traditionalists on the one hand and between <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">évolués</i></span> and official circles in France on the other. They feared and mistrusted the Francophone <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">évolués</i></span>, who were classified either as assimilationist, insisting on being accepted as Frenchmen but on their own terms, or as integrationists, eager to work as members of a distinct Muslim elite on equal terms with the French.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Separate_personal_status">Separate personal status</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indig%C3%A9nat" title="Indigénat">Indigénat</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Negroes_playing_chess,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697845.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Negroes_playing_chess%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697845.jpg/220px-Negroes_playing_chess%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697845.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3343" data-file-height="2494" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Negroes_playing_chess,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697845.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Algerians playing chess, Algiers, 1899</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Moorish_coffee_house,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697835.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Moorish_coffee_house%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697835.jpg/220px-Moorish_coffee_house%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697835.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3337" data-file-height="2500" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Moorish_coffee_house,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697835.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Moorish coffee house, Algiers, 1899</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Group_of_Arabs,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697831.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Group_of_Arabs%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697831.jpg/220px-Group_of_Arabs%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697831.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3331" data-file-height="2470" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Group_of_Arabs,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697831.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Group of Arabs, Algiers, 1899</div></div></div>
<p>Two communities existed: the French national and the people living with their own traditions.
Following its conquest of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman empire">Ottoman</a>-controlled <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> in 1830, for well over a century, France maintained what was effectively <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_colonial_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="French colonial empires">colonial rule</a> in the territory, though the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1848" title="French Constitution of 1848">French Constitution of 1848</a> made Algeria part of France, and Algeria was usually understood as such by French people, even on the Left.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>Algeria became the prototype for a pattern of French colonial rule.
</p><p>With nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians "dominated" by one million settlers, Algeria had similarities with South Africa, that has later been described as "quasi-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-Bell_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bell-64">[64]</a></sup> while the concept of apartheid was formalized in 1948.
</p><p>This personal status lasted the entire time Algeria was French, from 1830 till 1962, with various changes in the meantime.
</p><p>When French rule began, France had no well-established systems for intensive colonial governance, the main existing legal provision being the 1685 <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></i> which was related to slave-trading and owning and incompatible with the legal context of Algeria.
</p><p>Indeed, France was committed in respecting the local law.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Status_before_1865">Status before 1865</span></h4>
<p>On 5 July 1830, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hussein_Dey" title="Hussein Dey">Hussein Dey</a>, regent of Algiers, signed the act of capitulation to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/R%C3%A9gence" title="Régence">Régence</a>, which committed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Victor_de_Ghaisne_de_Bourmont" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Auguste Victor de Ghaisne de Bourmont">General de Bourmont</a> and France "not to infringe on the freedom of people of all classes and their religion".<sup id="cite_ref-Weil-2005-96_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weil-2005-96-65">[65]</a></sup>
Muslims still remain submitted to the Muslim Customary law and Jews to the Law of Moses; all of them remained linked to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blévis-2012-213_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blévis-2012-213-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>That same year and the same month, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> ended the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a> and began the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a> in which <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a> was King of the French.
</p><p>The royal <i>"Ordonnance du 22 juillet 1834"</i> organized general government and administration of the French territories in North Africa and is usually considered as an effective <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annexation</a> of Algeria by France;<sup id="cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746-67">[67]</a></sup> the annexation made all people legally linked to France and broke the legal link between people and the Ottoman Empire,<sup id="cite_ref-Blévis-2012-213_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blévis-2012-213-66">[66]</a></sup> because <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a> made annexation systematically induce a <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/r%C3%A9gnicole" class="extiw" title="fr:régnicole">régnicoles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746-67">[67]</a></sup> This made people living in Algeria "French subjects",<sup id="cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747-68">[68]</a></sup> without providing them any way to become French nationals.<sup id="cite_ref-Weil-2005-97_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weil-2005-97-69">[69]</a></sup> However, since it was not <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Positive_law" title="Positive law">positive law</a>, this text did not introduce legal certainty on this topic.<sup id="cite_ref-Blévis-2012-213_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blévis-2012-213-66">[66]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747-68">[68]</a></sup>
This was confirmed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1848" title="French Constitution of 1848">French Constitution of 1848</a>
</p><p>As French rule in Algeria expanded, particularly under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas-Robert_Bugeaud" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas-Robert Bugeaud">Thomas-Robert Bugeaud</a> (1841–48), discriminatory governance became increasingly formalised. In 1844, Bugeaud formalised a system of European settlements along the coast, under civil government, with Arab/Berber areas in the interior under military governance.<sup id="cite_ref-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52-70">[70]</a></sup> An important feature of French rule was <i>cantonnement</i>, whereby tribal land that was supposedly unused was seized by the state, which enabled French colonists to expand their landholdings, and pushed indigenous people onto more marginal land and made them more vulnerable to drought;<sup id="cite_ref-Allan_Christelow_2005_pp._52-53_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allan_Christelow_2005_pp._52-53-71">[71]</a></sup> this was extended under the governance of Bugeaud's successor, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Louis_Randon" title="Jacques Louis Randon">Jacques Louis Randon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>A case in 1861 questioned the legal status of people in Algeria. On 28 November 1861, the <i>conseil de l'ordre des avocats du barreau d'Alger</i> (Bar association of Algiers) declined to recognise <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=%C3%89lie_%C3%89nos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Élie Énos (page does not exist)">Élie Énos</a> (or Aïnos), a Jew from Algiers, since only French citizens could become lawyers.<sup id="cite_ref-Blévis-2012-213_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blévis-2012-213-66">[66]</a></sup> On 24 February 1862 (<i>appeal</i>) and on 15 February 1864 <i>(cassation)</i>, judges reconsidered this, deciding that people could display the qualities of being French (without having access to the full rights of a French citizen).<sup id="cite_ref-Blévis2012-213-214_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blévis2012-213-214-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Status_since_1865">Status since 1865</span></h4>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1097763485">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}</style><table class="box-Rough_translation plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-rough_translation" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Translation_to_english_arrow.svg" class="image" title="Translation arrow icon"><img alt="Translation arrow icon" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Translation_to_english_arrow.svg/50px-Translation_to_english_arrow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Translation_to_english_arrow.svg/75px-Translation_to_english_arrow.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Translation_to_english_arrow.svg/100px-Translation_to_english_arrow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may be a rough <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Translation" title="Wikipedia:Translation">translation</a> from French</b>. It may have been generated, in whole or in part, by a computer or by a translator without dual proficiency.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=French_Algeria&action=edit">enhance the translation</a>. The original article is under "Français" in the <i>"languages"</i> sidebar.
<hr />
<small>If <b>you</b> have just labeled this article as needing attention, please add</small><br /><code>{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Needtrans" title="Template:Needtrans">subst:Needtrans</a>|pg=French Algeria |language=French |comments= }}</code><code> ~~~~</code><br /><small>to the bottom of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:PNTCU#September_2022" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:PNTCU">WP:PNTCU</a> section on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Pages_needing_translation_into_English" title="Wikipedia:Pages needing translation into English">Wikipedia:Pages needing translation into English</a>.</small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> was the first elected president of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">French Second Republic</a> before becoming <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emperor_of_the_French" title="Emperor of the French">Emperor of the French</a> by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1852_French_Second_Empire_referendum" title="1852 French Second Empire referendum">1852 French Second Empire referendum</a> after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_of_1851" class="mw-redirect" title="French coup d'état of 1851">French coup d'état of 1851</a>. In the 1860s, influenced by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ismael_Urbain" title="Ismael Urbain">Ismael Urbain</a>, he introduced what were intended as liberalizing reforms in Algeria, promoting the French colonial model of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assimilation_(French_colonialism)" title="Assimilation (French colonialism)">assimilation</a>, whereby colonised peoples would eventually <a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%89volu%C3%A9" title="Évolué">become French</a>. His reforms were resisted by colonists in Algeria, and his attempts to allow Muslims to be elected to a putative new assembly in Paris failed.
</p><p>However, he oversaw an 1865 decree (<i>sénatus-consulte du 14 juillet 1865 sur l'état des personnes et la naturalisation en Algérie</i>) that "stipulated that all the colonised indigenous were under French jurisdiction, i.e., French nationals subjected to French laws", and allowed Arab, Jewish, and Berber Algerians to request French citizenship—but only if they "renounced their Muslim religion and culture".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>This was the first time <i>indigènes</i> (natives) were allowed to access French citizenship,<sup id="cite_ref-Weil-2002-227_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weil-2002-227-74">[74]</a></sup> but such citizenship was incompatible with the <i>statut personnel</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Blévis-2003-28_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blévis-2003-28-75">[75]</a></sup> which allowed them to live within the Muslim traditions.
</p>
<ul><li>Flandin argued that French citizenship was not compatible with Muslim status, since it had opposing laws on marriage, repudiation, divorce, and children's legal status.</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Claude_Alphonse_Delangle" title="Claude Alphonse Delangle">Claude Alphonse Delangle</a>, senator, also argued that Muslim and Jewish religions allowed polygamy, repudiation, and divorce.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>Later, Azzedine Haddour argued that this decree established "the formal structures of a political apartheid".<sup id="cite_ref-Debra_Kelly_2005,_p._43_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debra_Kelly_2005,_p._43-77">[77]</a></sup> Since few people were willing to abandon their religious values (which was seen as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">apostasy</a>), rather than promoting assimilation, the legislation had the opposite effect: by 1913, only 1,557 Muslims had been granted French citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>Special penalties were managed by the <i>cadis</i> or tribe head but because this system was unfair it was decided by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Circulaire" title="Circulaire">Circulaire</a> on 12 February 1844 to take control of those specific fines. Those fines were defined by various prefectural decrees, and were later known as the <i>Code de l'indigénat.</i> Lack of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codification</a> means that there is no complete text summary of these fines available.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 28 July 1881, a new law (<i>loi qui confère aux Administrateurs des communes mixtes en territoire civil la répression, par voie disciplinaire, des infractions spéciales à l'indigénat</i>) known as the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Code_de_l%27indig%C3%A9nat" class="mw-redirect" title="Code de l'indigénat">Code de l'indigénat</a></i> was formally introduced for seven years to help administration.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> It enabled district officials to issue summary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fine_(penalty)" title="Fine (penalty)">fines</a> to Muslims without due legal process, and to extract special taxes.
This temporary law was renewed by other temporary laws: the laws of 27 June 1888 for two years, 25 June 1890, 25 June 1897, 21 December 1904, 24 December 1907, 5 July 1914, 4 August 1920, 11 July 1922 and 30 December 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-Collot-1987-291_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collot-1987-291-80">[80]</a></sup> By 1897, fines could be changed into
forced labor.<sup id="cite_ref-Thénault-2012-205_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thénault-2012-205-81">[81]</a></sup>
</p><p>Periodic attempts at partial reform failed:
</p>
<ul><li>In 1881, <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Paul_Leroy-Beaulieu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Leroy-Beaulieu (page does not exist)">Paul Leroy-Beaulieu</a> created the <i>Société française pour la protection des Indigènes des colonies (French society for the protection of natives)</i> to give <i>indigènes</i> the right of vote.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761-82">[82]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weil-2002-230_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weil-2002-230-83">[83]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1887, <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Henri_Michelin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henri Michelin (page does not exist)">Henri Michelin</a> and <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Alfred_Nicolas_Gaulier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfred Nicolas Gaulier (page does not exist)">Alfred Gaulier</a> proposed the naturalisation of the <i>indigènes</i>, keeping the personal status from the local law but removing the personal status of common right from the Civil Code.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761-82">[82]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weil-2002-230-231_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weil-2002-230-231-84">[84]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1890, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alfred_Albert_Martineau" title="Alfred Albert Martineau">Alfred Martineau</a> proposed a progressive French naturalisation of all Muslim <i>indigènes</i> living in Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761-82">[82]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weil-2002-231_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weil-2002-231-85">[85]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1911, <i>La revue indigène</i> published several articles signed by law professors (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Weiss_(jurist)" class="mw-redirect" title="André Weiss (jurist)">André Weiss</a>, Arthur Giraud, Charles de Boeck and <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Eug%C3%A8ne_Audinet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eugène Audinet (page does not exist)">Eugène Audinet</a>) advocating naturalization of the <i>indigènes</i> with their status.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761_82-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761-82">[82]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1912, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mouvement_national_alg%C3%A9rien#Jeunes_Algériens" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouvement national algérien">Jeunes Algériens</a> movement claimed in its <i>Manifeste</i> that the naturalization with their status and with conditions of the Algerian <i>indigènes</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761_82-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761-82">[82]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>In 1909, 70% of all direct taxes in Algeria were paid by Muslims, despite their general poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>Opportunities for Muslims improved slightly from the 1890s, particularly for urban elites, which helped ensure acquiescence to the introduction of military conscription for Muslims in 1911.<sup id="cite_ref-Allan_Christelow_2005_pp._52-53_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allan_Christelow_2005_pp._52-53-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoléon III">Napoléon III</a> received a petition signed by more than 10,000 local Jews asking for collective access to French citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-Weil-2005-98_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weil-2005-98-86">[86]</a></sup> This was also the desire, between 1865 and 1869, of the <i>Conseils généraux des départements algériens</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Weil-2005-98_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weil-2005-98-86">[86]</a></sup> The Jews were the main part of the population that desired French citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallissot-2009-7_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallissot-2009-7-87">[87]</a></sup>
</p><p>Under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a>, on 24 October 1870, based on a project from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Blévis-2012-215-216_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blévis-2012-215-216-88">[88]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adolphe_Cr%C3%A9mieux" title="Adolphe Crémieux">Adolphe Crémieux</a>, founder and president of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alliance_isra%C3%A9lite_universelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Alliance israélite universelle">Alliance israélite universelle</a> and minister of Justice of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_National_Defense" title="Government of National Defense">Government of National Defense</a> defined with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patrice_de_Mac_Mahon" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrice de Mac Mahon">Mac Mahon</a>'s agreement a series of seven decrees related to Algeria, the most notable being number 136 known as the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cr%C3%A9mieux_Decree" title="Crémieux Decree">Crémieux Decree</a></i> which granted French citizenship to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algerian indigenous Jews</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Weil-2005-98_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weil-2005-98-86">[86]</a></sup> A different decree, numbered 137, related to Muslims and foreigners and required 21 years of age to ask for French citizenship.
</p><p>In 1870, the French government granted <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algerian Jews</a> French citizenship under the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cr%C3%A9mieux_Decree" title="Crémieux Decree">Crémieux Decree</a></i>, but not Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-Weil_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weil-89">[89]</a></sup> This meant that most Algerians were still 'French subjects', treated as the objects of French law, but were still not citizens, could still not vote, and were effectively without the right to citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-Debra_Kelly_2005,_p._43_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debra_Kelly_2005,_p._43-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1919, after the involvement of 172,019 Algerians in the First World War, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jonnart_Law" title="Jonnart Law">Jonnart Law</a> eased access to French citizenship for those who met one of several criteria, such as working for the French army, a son in a war, knowing how to read and write in the French language, having a public position, being married to or born of an indigène who became a French citizen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenucci2004§_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenucci2004§-90">[90]</a></sup> Half a million Algerians were exempted from the <i>indigénat</i> status, and this status became void in 1927 in the mixed towns but remained applicable in other towns until its abrogation in 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-Thénault-2012-205_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thénault-2012-205-81">[81]</a></sup>
</p><p>Later, Jewish people's citizenship was revoked by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vichy_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Vichy government">Vichy government</a> in the early 1940s, but was restored in 1943.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Muslim_French">Muslim French</span></h4>
<p>Despite periodic attempts at partial reform, the situation of the <i>Code de l'indigénat</i> persisted until the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">French Fourth Republic</a>, which formally began in 1946.
</p><p>On 7 March 1944 <i>ordonnance</i> ended the <i>Code de l'indigénat</i> and created a second electoral college for 1,210,000 non-citizen Muslims and made 60,000 Muslims French citizen and with a vote in the first electoral college. <br />
The 17 August 1945 <i>ordonnance</i> gave each of the two colleges 15 MPs and 7 senators.<br />
On 7 May 1946, the <i>Loi Lamine Guèye</i> gave French citizenship to every overseas national, including Algerians, giving them a right to vote at 21 years old.<br />
The <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_fran%C3%A7aise_du_27_octobre_1946" class="extiw" title="fr:Constitution française du 27 octobre 1946">French Constitution</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a> conceptualized the dissociation of citizenship and personal status (but no legal text implements this dissociation).
</p><p>Although Muslim Algerians were accorded the rights of citizenship, the system of discrimination was maintained in more informal ways. Frederick Cooper writes that Muslim Algerians "were still marginalized in their own territory, notably the separate voter roles of "French" civil status and of "Muslim" civil status, to keep their hands on power."<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the specific context following the second war, in 1947 is introduced the <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statut_de_1947" class="extiw" title="fr:Statut de 1947">1947 statute</a> which granted a local status citizenship to the <i>indigènes</i> who became "Muslim French" (<i>Français musulmans</i>), while other French were <i>Français non-musulmans</i> remain civil status citizens<sup id="cite_ref-Gallissot-2009-10_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallissot-2009-10-92">[92]</a></sup> <b>·</b> .<sup id="cite_ref-Baussant-2004-109_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baussant-2004-109-93">[93]</a></sup> The rights differences are no longer implied by a status difference, but by the difference between the two territories, Algerian and French.<sup id="cite_ref-Shepard-2008-60-61_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shepard-2008-60-61-94">[94]</a></sup>
</p><p>This system is rejected by some European for introducing Muslims into the European college, and rejected by some Algerian nationalists for not giving full sovereignty to the Algerian nation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>This "internal system of apartheid" met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">1954 insurrection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wall_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wall-95">[95]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Algerian_citizens">Algerian citizens</span></h4>
<p>On 18 March 1962, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">Évian Accords</a> guaranteed of protection, non-discrimination and property rights for all Algerian citizens and the right of self-determination to Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-evian_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evian-96">[96]</a></sup> In France it was approved by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1962_French_%C3%89vian_Accords_referendum" title="1962 French Évian Accords referendum">1962 French Évian Accords referendum</a>.
</p><p>The agreement address various statuses:
</p>
<ul><li>Algerian civil rights</li>
<li>Rights and freedoms of Algerian citizens of ordinary civil status</li>
<li>French nationals residing in Algeria as aliens.<sup id="cite_ref-evian_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evian-96">[96]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>The Évian Accords offered French nationals Algerian civil rights for three years, but required them to apply for Algerian nationality.<sup id="cite_ref-evian_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evian-96">[96]</a></sup> During the three years period, the agreement offer:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They will receive guarantees appropriate to their cultural, linguistic and religious characteristics. They will retain their personal status, which will be respected and enforced by Algerian courts composed of judges of the same status. They will use the French language within the assemblies and in their relations with the constituted authorities.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Évian Accords.<sup id="cite_ref-evian_96-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evian-96">[96]</a></sup></cite></div></blockquote>
<p>The European French community (the <i>colon</i> population), the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pieds-noirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pieds-noirs">pieds-noirs</a></i> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">indigenous Sephardi Jews</a> in Algeria were guaranteed religious freedom and property rights as well as French citizenship with the option to choose between French and Algerian citizenship after three years. Algerians were permitted to continue freely circulating between their country and France for work, although they would not have political rights equal to French citizens.
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organisation_arm%C3%A9e_secr%C3%A8te" title="Organisation armée secrète">OAS</a> right-wing movement opposed this agreement.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Government_and_administration">Government and administration</span></h2>
<h3><span id="Initial_settling_of_Algeria_.281830.E2.80.9348.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Initial_settling_of_Algeria_(1830–48)">Initial settling of Algeria (1830–48)</span></h3>
<p>In November 1830, French colonial officials attempted to limit the arrivals at Algerian ports by requiring the presentation of passports and residence permits.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-97">[97]</a></sup> The regulations created by the French government in May 1831 required permission from the Interior Ministry to enter Algeria and other French controlled territories.
</p><p>This May circular allowed merchants with trading interests easy access to passports because they were not permanent settlers?, and wealthy persons who planned to found agricultural enterprises in Algeria were also freely given access to move. The circular forbade passage to indigents and needy unskilled workers.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-97">[97]</a></sup> During the 1840s, the French government assisted certain emigrants to Algeria, who were mostly urban workers from the Paris basin and France's eastern frontier and were not the agricultural workers that the colonial officials wanted to be sent from France. Single men received 68 percent of the free passages and only 14 percent of the emigrants were women because of varying policies about the emigration of families that all favored unaccompanied males who were seen as more flexible and useful for laborious tasks. Initially in November 1840, families were eligible only if they had no small children and two-thirds of the family was able to work.
</p><p>Later, in September 1841, only unaccompanied males could travel to Algeria for free and a complicated system for families was developed that made subsidized travel almost unavailable. These emigrants were offered many different forms of government assistance including free passage (both to the ports of France and by ship to Algeria), wine rations and food, land concessions, and were promised high wages. Between 1841 and 1845, about 20,000 individuals were offered this assisted emigration by the French government, though it is unknown exactly how many actually went to Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-97">[97]</a></sup> These measures were funded and supported by the French government (both local and national) because they saw the move to Algeria as a solution to overpopulation and unemployment; those who applied for assisted emigration emphasized their work ethic, undeserved employment in France, a presumption of government obligation to the less fortunate. By 1848, Algeria was populated by 109,400 Europeans, only 42,274 of whom were French.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_97-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-97">[97]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Colonisation_and_military_control">Colonisation and military control</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485"/><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=French_Algeria&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22French+Algeria%22">"French Algeria"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22French+Algeria%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?&q=%22French+Algeria%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22French+Algeria%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22French+Algeria%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22French+Algeria%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg/220px-Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1713" data-file-height="1343" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Arrival of Marshal <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Louis_Randon" title="Jacques Louis Randon">Randon</a> in Algiers in 1857</div></div></div>
<p>A royal ordinance in 1845 called for three types of administration in Algeria. In areas where Europeans were a substantial part of the population, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span> elected mayors and councils for self-governing "full exercise" communes (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">communes de plein exercice</i></span>). In the "mixed" communes, where Muslims were a large majority, government was in the hands of appointed and some elected officials, including representatives of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">grands chefs</i></span> (great chieftains) and a French administrator. The indigenous communes (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">communes indigènes</i></span>), remote areas not adequately pacified, remained under the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">régime du sabre</i></span> (rule of the sword).
</p><p>By 1848 nearly all of northern Algeria was under French control. Important tools of the colonial administration, from this time until their elimination in the 1870s, were the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bureaux_arabes" title="Bureaux arabes">bureaux arabes</a></i></span> (Arab Bureaus), staffed by Arabists whose function was to collect information on the indigenous people and to carry out administrative functions, nominally in cooperation with the army. The <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">bureaux arabes</i></span> on occasion acted with sympathy to the local population and formed a buffer between Muslims and <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span>.
</p><p>Under the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">régime du sabre</i></span>, the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span> had been permitted limited self-government in areas where European settlement was most intense, but there was constant friction between them and the army. The <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span> charged that the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">bureaux arabes</i></span> hindered the progress of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a>. They agitated against <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military rule</a>, complaining that their legal rights were denied under the arbitrary controls imposed on the colony and insisting on a civil administration for Algeria fully integrated with metropolitan France. The army warned that the introduction of civilian government would invite Muslim retaliation and threaten the security of Algeria. The French government vacillated in its policy, yielding small concessions to the <i>colon</i> demands on the one hand while maintaining the <i>régime du sabre</i> to control the Muslim majority on the other.
</p>
<h3><span id="Under_the_French_Second_Republic_and_Second_Empire_.281848.E2.80.9370.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Under_the_French_Second_Republic_and_Second_Empire_(1848–70)">Under the French Second Republic and Second Empire (1848–70)</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485"/><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=French_Algeria&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22French+Algeria%22">"French Algeria"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22French+Algeria%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?&q=%22French+Algeria%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22French+Algeria%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22French+Algeria%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22French+Algeria%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Naval_ensign_of_French_Algeria_(1848%E2%80%931910).svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Naval_ensign_of_French_Algeria_%281848%E2%80%931910%29.svg/220px-Naval_ensign_of_French_Algeria_%281848%E2%80%931910%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Naval_ensign_of_French_Algeria_%281848%E2%80%931910%29.svg/330px-Naval_ensign_of_French_Algeria_%281848%E2%80%931910%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Naval_ensign_of_French_Algeria_%281848%E2%80%931910%29.svg/440px-Naval_ensign_of_French_Algeria_%281848%E2%80%931910%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="700" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:French_Algeria_Naval_Ensign_1848-1910.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Merchant ensign 1848–1910<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Prise_de_la_Zaatcha_(1849).png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Prise_de_la_Zaatcha_%281849%29.png/220px-Prise_de_la_Zaatcha_%281849%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1394" data-file-height="880" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Prise_de_la_Zaatcha_(1849).png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Capture of the Zaatcha (1849)</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Alg%C3%A9rie_fr.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Alg%C3%A9rie_fr.jpg/220px-Alg%C3%A9rie_fr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2645" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Alg%C3%A9rie_fr.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>1877 map of the three French departments of Alger, Oran and Constantine</div></div></div>
<p>Shortly after Louis Philippe's constitutional monarchy was overthrown in the revolution of 1848, the new government of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a> ended Algeria's status as a colony and declared in the 1848 Constitution the occupied lands an integral part of France. Three civil territories — <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alger_(department)" title="Alger (department)">Alger</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oran_(department)" title="Oran (department)">Oran</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constantine_(departement)" title="Constantine (departement)">Constantine</a> — were organized as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Departments_of_France" title="Departments of France">Departments of France</a> (local administrative units) under a civilian government. This made them a part of France proper as opposed to a colony. For the first time, French citizens in the civil territories elected their own councils and mayors; Muslims had to be appointed, could not hold more than one-third of council seats, and could not serve as mayors or assistant <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mayor" title="Mayor">mayors</a>. The administration of territories outside the zones settled by colons remained under the French Army. Local Muslim administration was allowed to continue under the supervision of French Army commanders, charged with maintaining order in newly pacified regions, and the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">bureaux arabes</i></span>. Theoretically, these areas were closed to European colonization.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Land_and_colonisers">Land and colonisers</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg/220px-Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="413" data-file-height="626" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The famine of Algeria in 1869<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>Even before the decision was made to annex Algeria, major changes had taken place. In a bargain-hunting frenzy to take over or buy at low prices all manner of property—homes, shops, farms and factories—Europeans poured into Algiers after it fell. French authorities took possession of the <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">beylik</i></span> lands, from which Ottoman officials had derived income. Over time, as pressures increased to obtain more land for settlement by Europeans, the state seized more categories of land, particularly that used by tribes, religious foundations, and villages<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.
</p><p>Called either <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span> (settlers), Algerians, or later, especially following the 1962 independence of Algeria, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pied-noir" class="mw-redirect" title="Pied-noir">pieds noirs</a></i></span> (literally, black feet), the European settlers were largely of peasant farmer or working-class origin from the poor southern areas of Italy, Spain,<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup> and France. Others were criminal and political deportees from France, transported under sentence in large numbers to Algeria. In the 1840s and 1850s, to encourage settlement in rural areas, official policy was to offer grants of land for a fee and a promise that improvements would be made. A distinction soon developed between the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">grands colons</i></span> (great settlers) at one end of the scale, often self-made men who had accumulated large estates or built successful businesses, and smallholders and workers at the other end, whose lot was often not much better than that of their Muslim counterparts. According to historian <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=John_Ruedy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Ruedy (page does not exist)">John Ruedy</a>, although by 1848 only 15,000 of the 109,000 European settlers were in rural areas, "by systematically expropriating both pastoralists and farmers, rural colonization was the most important single factor in the destructuring of traditional society."<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup>
</p><p>European migration, encouraged during the Second Republic, stimulated the civilian administration to open new land for settlement against the advice of the army. With the advent of the Second Empire in 1852, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> returned Algeria to military control. In 1858 a separate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Algerian_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Algerian Affairs">Ministry of Algerian Affairs</a> was created to supervise administration of the country through a military <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Governor_general" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor general">governor general</a> assisted by a civil minister.
</p><p>Napoleon III visited Algeria twice in the early 1860s. He was profoundly impressed with the nobility and virtue of the tribal chieftains, who appealed to the emperor's romantic nature, and was shocked by the self-serving attitude of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colon</i></span> leaders. He decided to halt the expansion of European settlement beyond the coastal zone and to restrict contact between Muslims and the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span>, whom he considered to have a corrupting influence on the indigenous population. He envisioned a grand design for preserving most of Algeria for the Muslims by founding a <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">royaume arabe</i></span> (Arab kingdom) with himself as the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">roi des Arabes</i></span> (king of the Arabs). He instituted the so-called politics of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">grands chefs</i></span> to deal with the Muslims directly through their traditional leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>To further his plans for the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">royaume arabe</i></span>, Napoleon III issued two decrees affecting tribal structure, land tenure, and the legal status of Muslims in French Algeria. The first, promulgated in 1863, was intended to renounce the state's claims to tribal lands and eventually provide private plots to individuals in the tribes, thus dismantling "feudal" structures and protecting the lands from the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span>. Tribal areas were to be identified, delimited into <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">douars</i></span> (administrative units), and given over to councils. Arable land was to be divided among members of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">douar</i></span> over a period of one to three generations, after which it could be bought and sold by the individual owners. Unfortunately for the tribes, however, the plans of Napoleon III quickly unraveled. French officials sympathetic to the colons took much of the tribal land they surveyed into the public domain. In addition, some tribal leaders immediately sold communal lands for quick gains. The process of converting arable land to individual ownership was accelerated to only a few years when laws were enacted in the 1870s stipulating that no sale of land by an individual Muslim could be invalidated by the claim that it was collectively owned. The cudah and other tribal officials, appointed by the French on the basis of their loyalty to France rather than the allegiance owed them by the tribe, lost their credibility as they were drawn into the European orbit, becoming known derisively as <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/B%C3%A9ni-oui-oui" title="Béni-oui-oui">béni-oui-oui</a></i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>Napoleon III visualized three distinct Algerias: a French colony, an Arab country, and a military camp, each with a distinct form of local government. The second decree, issued in 1865, was designed to recognize the differences in cultural background of the French and the Muslims. As French nationals, Muslims could serve on equal terms in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_armed_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="French armed forces">French armed forces</a> and civil service and could migrate to France proper. They were also granted the protection of French law while retaining the right to adhere to Islamic law in litigation concerning their personal status. But if Muslims wished to become full citizens, they had to accept the full jurisdiction of the French legal code, including laws affecting marriage and inheritance, and reject the authority of the religious courts. In effect, this meant that a Muslim had to renounce some of the mores of his religion in order to become a French citizen. This condition was bitterly resented by Muslims, for whom the only road to political equality was perceived to be <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">apostasy</a>. Over the next century, fewer than 3,000 Muslims chose to cross the barrier and become French citizens. A similar status applied to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jewish</a> natives.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Under_the_Third_Republic_.281870.E2.80.931940.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Under_the_Third_Republic_(1870–1940)">Under the Third Republic (1870–1940)</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Place_de_la_republique,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697812.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Place_de_la_republique%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697812.jpg/220px-Place_de_la_republique%2C_Algiers%2C_Algeria-LCCN2001697812.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3361" data-file-height="2506" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Place_de_la_republique,_Algiers,_Algeria-LCCN2001697812.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Place de la republique, Algiers, 1899</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:D%C3%A9partements_fran%C3%A7ais_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie_1934-1955_map-fr.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/D%C3%A9partements_fran%C3%A7ais_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie_1934-1955_map-fr.svg/220px-D%C3%A9partements_fran%C3%A7ais_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie_1934-1955_map-fr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/D%C3%A9partements_fran%C3%A7ais_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie_1934-1955_map-fr.svg/330px-D%C3%A9partements_fran%C3%A7ais_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie_1934-1955_map-fr.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/D%C3%A9partements_fran%C3%A7ais_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie_1934-1955_map-fr.svg/440px-D%C3%A9partements_fran%C3%A7ais_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie_1934-1955_map-fr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1287" data-file-height="1278" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:D%C3%A9partements_fran%C3%A7ais_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie_1934-1955_map-fr.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Administrative organisation between 1905 and 1955. Three <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">départements</i></span> Oran, Alger and Constantine in the north (in pink colour), and four territories Aïn-Sefra, Ghardaïa, Oasis and Touggourt in the south (in yellow). The external boundaries of the land are those between 1934 and 1962.</div></div></div>
<p>When the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussians</a> captured Napoleon III at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Battle of Sedan</a> (1870), ending the Second Empire, demonstrations in Algiers by the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colons</i></span> led to the departure of the just-arrived new governor general and the replacement of the military administration by settler committees.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup> Meanwhile, in France the government of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> directed one of its ministers, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adolphe_Cr%C3%A9mieux" title="Adolphe Crémieux">Adolphe Crémieux</a>, "to destroy the military regime ... [and] to completely assimilate Algeria into France." In October 1870, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Crémieux</i></span>, whose concern with Algerian affairs dated from the time of the Second Republic, issued a series of decrees providing for representation of the Algerian départements in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Assembly_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of France">National Assembly of France</a> and confirming <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colon</i></span> control over local administration. A civilian governor general was made responsible to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Interior">Ministry of Interior</a>. The Crémieux Decrees also granted full French citizenship to Algerian Jews,<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> who then numbered about 40,000. This act set them apart from Muslims, in whose eyes they were identified thereafter with the <i>colons</i>. The measure had to be enforced, however, over the objections of the <i>colons</i>, who made little distinction between Muslims and Jews. (Automatic citizenship was subsequently extended in 1889 to children of non-French Europeans born in Algeria unless they specifically rejected it.)
</p><p>The loss of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a> to Prussia in 1871 after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>, led to pressure on the French government to make new land available in Algeria for about 5,000 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsatian</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lorraine_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorraine (province)">Lorrainer</a> refugees who were resettled there. During the 1870s, both the amount of European-owned land and the number of settlers were doubled, and tens of thousands of unskilled Muslims, who had been uprooted from their land, wandered into the cities or to colon farming areas in search of work.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Comte_and_colonialism_in_the_Third_Republic">Comte and colonialism in the Third Republic</span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485"/><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="image"><img alt="[icon]" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=French_Algeria&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2016</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Kabylie_insurrection">Kabylie insurrection</span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mokrani_Revolt" title="Mokrani Revolt">Mokrani Revolt</a></div>
<p>The most serious native insurrection since the time of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Jaza%27iri" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri">Abd al Qadir</a> broke out in 1871 in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kabylia" title="Kabylia">Kabylia</a> and spread through much of Algeria. The revolt was triggered by Crémieux's extension of civil (that is, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">colon</i></span>) authority to previously self-governing tribal reserves and the abrogation of commitments made by the military government, but it had its basis in more long-standing grievances. Since the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> (1854–56), the demand for grain had pushed the price of Algerian wheat up to European levels. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Storage_silo" class="mw-redirect" title="Storage silo">Storage silos</a> were emptied when the world market's impact was felt in Algeria, and Muslim farmers sold their grain reserves — including seed grain — to speculators. But the community-owned silos were the fundamental adaptation of a subsistence economy to an unpredictable climate, and a good year's surplus was stored away against a bad year's dearth. When serious drought struck Algeria and grain crops failed in 1866 and for several years following, Muslim areas faced starvation, and with famine came pestilence. It was estimated that 20% of the Muslim population of Constantine died over a three-year period. In 1871 the civil authorities repudiated guarantees made to tribal chieftains by the previous military government for loans to replenish their seed supply. This act alienated even pro-French Muslim leaders, while it undercut their ability to control their people. It was against this background that the stricken <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kabyles" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabyles">Kabyles</a> rose in revolt, following immediately on the mutiny in January 1871 of a squadron of Muslim <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spahi" title="Spahi">spahis</a> in the French Army who had been ordered to embark for France.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup> The withdrawal of a large proportion of the army stationed in Algeria to serve in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> had weakened France's control of the territory, while reports of defeats undermined French prestige amongst the indigenous population.
</p><p>In the aftermath of the 1871 uprising, French authorities imposed stern measures to punish and control the entire Muslim population. France confiscated more than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,900 sq mi) of tribal land and placed Kabylia under a <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/R%C3%A9gime_d%27exception" class="mw-redirect" title="Régime d'exception">régime d'exception</a></i></span> (extraordinary rule), which denied <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> guaranteed French nationals. A special <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indig%C3%A9nat" title="Indigénat">indigénat</a></i></span> (native code) listed as offenses acts such as insolence and unauthorized assembly not punishable by French law, and the normal jurisdiction of the <i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Cudah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cudah (page does not exist)">cudah</a></i> was sharply restricted. The governor general was empowered to jail suspects for up to five years without trial. The argument was made in defense of these exceptional measures that the French penal code as applied to Frenchmen was too permissive to control Muslims. Some were deported to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerians_of_the_Pacific" title="Algerians of the Pacific">Algerians of the Pacific</a>.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Conquest_of_the_southwestern_territories">Conquest of the southwestern territories</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:North_Africa_(XIX_century).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/North_Africa_%28XIX_century%29.jpg/220px-North_Africa_%28XIX_century%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="5478" data-file-height="3981" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Algeria,_Morocco_and_Tunis_(XIX_century).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Maghreb in the second half of the 19th century</div></div></div>
<p>In the 1890s, the French administration and military called for the annexation of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Touat" class="mw-redirect" title="Touat">Touat</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gourara" class="mw-redirect" title="Gourara">Gourara</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tidikelt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tidikelt (page does not exist)">Tidikelt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> a complex that during the period prior to 1890, was part of what was known as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bled_es-Siba" title="Bled es-Siba">Bled es-Siba</a> (land of dissidence)<sup id="cite_ref-GellnerMicaud1972_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GellnerMicaud1972-109">[109]</a></sup>), regions that were nominally Moroccan but which were not submitted to the authority of the central government.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup>
</p><p>An armed conflict opposed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/19th_Army_Corps_(France)" title="19th Army Corps (France)">French 19th Corps</a>' Oran and Algiers divisions to the <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=A%C3%AFt_Khabbash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aït Khabbash (page does not exist)">Aït Khabbash</a>, a faction of the Aït Ounbgui <i>khams</i> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/A%C3%AFt_Atta" title="Aït Atta">Aït Atta</a> confederation. The conflict ended by the annexation of the Touat-Gourara-Tidikelt complex by France in 1901.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the 1930s, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saoura" title="Saoura">Saoura</a> valley and the region of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tindouf" title="Tindouf">Tindouf</a> were in turn annexed to French Algeria at the expense of Morocco, then under French protectorate since 1912.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Conquest_of_the_Sahara">Conquest of the Sahara</span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaocen_revolt" title="Kaocen revolt">Kaocen revolt</a></div>
<p>The French military expedition led by Lieutenant-Colonel <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_Flatters" title="Paul Flatters">Paul Flatters</a>, was annihilated by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tuareg_people" title="Tuareg people">Tuareg</a> attack in 1881.
</p><p>The French took advantage of long-standing animosity between Tuareg and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chaamba" title="Chaamba">Chaamba</a> Arabs. The newly raised <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/M%C3%A9hariste" title="Méhariste">Compagnies Méharistes</a></i> were originally recruited mainly from the Chaamba nomadic tribe. The <i>Méhariste</i> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/M%C3%A9hariste" title="Méhariste">camel corps</a> provided an effective means of policing the desert.
</p><p>In 1902, Lieutenant <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gaston-Ernest_Cottenest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaston-Ernest Cottenest (page does not exist)">Gaston-Ernest Cottenest</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston-Ernest_Cottenest" class="extiw" title="fr:Gaston-Ernest Cottenest">fr</a>]</span> penetrated <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hoggar_Mountains" title="Hoggar Mountains">Hoggar Mountains</a> and defeated <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kel_Ahaggar" title="Kel Ahaggar">Ahaggar Tuareg</a> in the battle of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tit,_Tamanrasset" title="Tit, Tamanrasset">Tit</a>.
</p>
<h3><span id="During_World_War_II_.281940.E2.80.9345.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="During_World_War_II_(1940–45)">During World War II (1940–45)</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_Operation_Torch,_North_Africa,_November_1942_A12662.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_Operation_Torch%2C_North_Africa%2C_November_1942_A12662.jpg/250px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_Operation_Torch%2C_North_Africa%2C_November_1942_A12662.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="179" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="5366" data-file-height="3843" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_Operation_Torch,_North_Africa,_November_1942_A12662.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arzew" title="Arzew">Arzew</a> inhabitants meet <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Army_Rangers" title="United States Army Rangers">U.S. Army Rangers</a> in November 1942 during Allied <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a></div></div></div>
<p>Colonial troops of French Algeria were sent to fight in metropolitan France during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a> in 1940. After the Fall of France, the Third French Republic collapsed and was replaced by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">French State</a>, better known as Vichy France.
</p>
<h3><span id="Under_the_Fourth_Republic_.281946.E2.80.9358.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Under_the_Fourth_Republic_(1946–58)">Under the Fourth Republic (1946–58)</span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1062260506">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{background-color:#F9F9F9;text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;">
<blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="">
<p>[The French] had been for over a hundred years in Algeria and were determined that it was part of France, and they damn well were going to stay there. Of course, there was a very strong school of thought in the rest of Africa that they damn well weren't.
</p>
</blockquote>
<p><cite class="left-aligned" style="">US <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_State_for_African_Affairs" title="Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs">Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_C._Satterthwaite" title="Joseph C. Satterthwaite">Joseph C. Satterthwaite</a>, <sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup></cite>
</p>
</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg/250px-Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="5585" data-file-height="3780" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Supporters of General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Massu" title="Jacques Massu">Jacques Massu</a> set barricades in Algiers in January 1960</div></div></div>
<p>Many Algerians had fought as French soldiers during the Second World War. Thus Algerian Muslims felt that it was even more unjust that their votes were not equal to those of the other Algerians, especially after 1947 when the Algerian Assembly was created. This assembly was composed of 120 members. Algerian Muslims, representing about 6.85 million people, could designate 50% of the Assembly members, while 1,150,000 non-Muslim Algerians could designate the other half. Moreover, a massacre occurred in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sétif massacre">Sétif</a> on 8 May 1945. It opposed Algerians who were demonstrating for their national claim to the French Army. After skirmishes with police, Algerians killed about 100 French. The French army retaliated harshly, resulting in the deaths of approximately 6,000 Algerians.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup> This triggered a radicalization of Algerian nationalists and could be considered the beginning of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a>.
</p><p>In 1956, about 512,000 French soldiers were in Algeria. No resolution was imaginable in the short term. An overwhelming majority of French politicians were opposed to the idea of independence while independence was gaining ground in Muslim Algerians' minds.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> France was deadlocked and the Fourth Republic collapsed over this dispute.
</p>
<h3><span id="Under_the_Fifth_Republic_.281958.E2.80.9362.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Under_the_Fifth_Republic_(1958–62)">Under the Fifth Republic (1958–62)</span></h3>
<p>In 1958, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>'s return to power in response to a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/May_1958_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="May 1958 crisis">military coup in Algiers in May</a> was supposed to keep Algeria's status quo as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Departments_of_France" title="Departments of France">departments of France</a> as hinted by his speeches delivered in Oran and Mostaganem on 6 June 1958, in which he exclaimed <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">"Vive l'Algérie française!"</i></span> (lit. "Long live French Algeria!").<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup> De Gaulle's republican constitution project was approved through the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1958_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1958 French constitutional referendum">September 1958 referendum</a> and the Fifth Republic was established the following month with de Gaulle as its president.
</p><p>The latter consented to independence in 1962 after a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_referendum_on_Algerian_self-determination,_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="French referendum on Algerian self-determination, 1961">referendum on Algerian self-determination</a> in January 1961 and despite a subsequent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algiers_putsch_of_1961" title="Algiers putsch of 1961">aborted military coup in Algiers</a> led by four French generals in April 1961.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Post-colonial_relations">Post-colonial relations</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_France" title="Foreign relations of France">Foreign relations of France</a></div>
<p>Relations between post-colonial Algeria and France have remained close throughout the years, although sometimes difficult. In 1962, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evian_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="Evian Accords">Evian Accords</a> peace treaty provided land in the Sahara for the French Army, which it had used under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a> to carry out its first nuclear tests (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gerboise_bleue" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerboise bleue">Gerboise bleue</a></i>). Many European settlers (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pieds-noirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pieds-noirs">pieds-noirs</a></i></span>) living in Algeria and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian Jews">Algerian Jews</a>, who contrary to Algerian Muslims had been granted French citizenship by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cr%C3%A9mieux_decrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Crémieux decrees">Crémieux decrees</a> at the end of the 19th century, were expelled to France where they formed a new community. On the other hand, the issue of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harki" title="Harki">harkis</a></i></span>, the Muslims who had fought on the French side during the war, still remained unresolved. Large numbers of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">harkis</i></span> were killed in 1962, during the immediate aftermath of the Algerian War, while those who escaped with their families to France have tended to remain an unassimilated refugee community. The present Algerian government continues to refuse to allow <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">harkis</i></span> and their descendants to return to Algeria.
</p><p>On 23 February 2005, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_law_on_colonialism" title="French law on colonialism">French law on colonialism</a> was an act passed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Union_for_a_Popular_Movement" title="Union for a Popular Movement">Union for a Popular Movement</a> (UMP) <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservative</a> majority, which imposed on high-school (lycée) teachers to teach the "positive values" of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> to their students, in particular in North Africa (article 4). The law created a public uproar and opposition from the whole of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left-wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing">left-wing</a>, and was finally repealed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_the_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the French Republic">President</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a> (UMP) at the beginning of 2006, after accusations of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historical_revisionism_(negationism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical revisionism (negationism)">historical revisionism</a> from various teachers and historians.
</p><p>Algerians feared that the French law on colonialism would hinder the task of the French in confronting the dark side of their colonial rule in Algeria because article four of the law decreed among other things that "School programmes are to recognise in particular the positive role of the French presence overseas, especially in North Africa."<sup id="cite_ref-HS-050516_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HS-050516-115">[115]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benjamin_Stora" title="Benjamin Stora">Benjamin Stora</a>, a leading specialist on French Algerian history of colonialism and a pied-noir himself, said "France has never taken on its colonial history. It is a big difference with the Anglo-Saxon countries, where post-colonial studies are now in all the universities. We are phenomenally behind the times."<sup id="cite_ref-HS-050516_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HS-050516-115">[115]</a></sup> In his opinion, although the historical facts were known to academics, they were not well known by the French public, and this led to a lack of honesty in France over French colonial treatment of the Algerian people.<sup id="cite_ref-HS-050516_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HS-050516-115">[115]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2017, President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Emmanuel Macron</a> described France's colonization of Algeria as a "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crime against humanity</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-loseslead_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loseslead-116">[116]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frarel_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frarel-117">[117]</a></sup> He also said: "It's truly barbarous and it's part of a past that we need to confront by apologizing to those against whom we committed these acts."<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup> Polls following his remarks reflected a decrease in his support.<sup id="cite_ref-loseslead_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loseslead-116">[116]</a></sup>
</p><p>In July 2020, the remains of 24 Algerian resistance fighters and leaders, who were decapitated by the French colonial forces in the 19th century and whose skulls were taken to Paris as war trophies and held in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Musee_de_l%27Homme" class="mw-redirect" title="Musee de l'Homme">Musee de l'Homme</a> in Paris, were repatriated to Algeria and buried in the Martyrs' Square at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/El_Alia_Cemetery" title="El Alia Cemetery">El Alia Cemetery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-APS_5_July_2020_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APS_5_July_2020-120">[120]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-APS_03_July_2020_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APS_03_July_2020-121">[121]</a></sup>
</p><p>In January 2021, Macron stated there would be "no repentance nor apologies" for the French colonization of Algeria, colonial abuses or French involvement during the Algerian independence war.<sup id="cite_ref-macreap_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macreap-122">[122]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-macofab_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macofab-123">[123]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-macapocol_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macapocol-124">[124]</a></sup> Instead efforts would be devoted toward reconciliation.<sup id="cite_ref-macreap_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macreap-122">[122]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-macofab_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macofab-123">[123]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-macapocol_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macapocol-124">[124]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span id="Alg.C3.A9rie_fran.C3.A7aise"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Algérie_française"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Algérie française</i></span></span></h2>
<p><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Algérie française</i></span> was a slogan used about 1960 by those French people who wanted to keep <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> ruled by France. Literally "French Algeria," it means that the three <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Departments_of_France" title="Departments of France">départements</a></i></span> of Algeria were to be considered integral parts of France. By integral parts, it is meant that they have their deputies (representatives) in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_National_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="French National Assembly">French National Assembly</a>, and so on. Further, the people of Algeria who were to be permitted to vote for the deputies would be those who universally accepted French law, rather than <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> (which was used in personal cases among Algerian Muslims under laws dating back to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>), and such people were predominantly of French origin or Jewish origin. Many who used this slogan were returnees.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, during the perennial traffic jams, adherence to the slogan was indicated by sounding a car horn in the form of four <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">telegraphic</a> dots followed by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dash" title="Dash">dash</a>, as "<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">al-gé-rie-fran-<b>çaise</b></i></span>". Whole choruses of such horn soundings were heard. This was intended to be reminiscent of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> slogan, "V for Victory," which had been three dots followed by a dash. The intention was that the opponents of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Algérie française</i></span> were to be considered as traitorous as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazis" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaboration with Nazis">collaborators</a> with Germany during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of France during World War II">Occupation of France</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Le_Chant_des_Africains" title="Le Chant des Africains">Le Chant des Africains</a></i></span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boufarik_colonization_monument" title="Boufarik colonization monument">Boufarik colonization monument</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies" title="List of French possessions and colonies">List of French possessions and colonies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nationalism_and_resistance_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalism and resistance in Algeria">Nationalism and resistance in Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1067248974">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFMartin1865" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Henri (1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ"><i>Martin's history of France: the age of Louis XIV</i></a>. Walker, Wise and co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ/page/n545">522</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Martin%27s+history+of+France%3A+the+age+of+Louis+XIV&rft.pages=522&rft.pub=Walker%2C+Wise+and+co.&rft.date=1865&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMatar2009" class="citation book cs1">Matar, Nabil I. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gWjpowTH4b4C&pg=PA105"><i>Europe Through Arab Eyes, 1578–1727</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p. 313. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231141949" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231141949"><bdi>978-0231141949</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+Through+Arab+Eyes%2C+1578%E2%80%931727&rft.pages=313&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0231141949&rft.aulast=Matar&rft.aufirst=Nabil+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgWjpowTH4b4C%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>La Guerre d'Algérie</i>. <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Collection: Librio-Documents <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a></i></span>. 2003. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-2903-3569-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-2903-3569-7"><bdi>978-2-2903-3569-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Guerre+d%27Alg%C3%A9rie&rft.pub=%3Cspan+title%3D%22French-language+text%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22fr%22%3ECollection%3A+Librio-Documents+Le+Monde%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+French-language+text&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-2-2903-3569-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-EncBrit-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EncBrit_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-220553/Algeria#487751.hook">"Algeria, Colonial Rule"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. p. 39<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Algeria%2C+Colonial+Rule&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=39&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-220553%2FAlgeria%23487751.hook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abun-Nasr, Jamil. <i>A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period</i>, p. 249</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abun-Nasr, p. 250</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16314373">"Turkey accuses France of genocide in colonial Algeria"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 2011-12-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Turkey+accuses+France+of+genocide+in+colonial+Algeria&rft.date=2011-12-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-16314373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMorris1995" class="citation web cs1">Morris, Stephen J. (30 June 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/disowning-morris">"Disowning Morris"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phnom_Penh_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Phnom Penh Post">Phnom Penh Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Phnom+Penh+Post&rft.atitle=Disowning+Morris&rft.date=1995-06-30&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phnompenhpost.com%2Fnational%2Fdisowning-morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFKiernan2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Kiernan, Ben</a> (2007). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326"><i>Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur</i></a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/374">374</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300100983" title="Special:BookSources/9780300100983"><bdi>9780300100983</bdi></a>. <q>374.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+Soil%3A+A+World+History+of+Genocide+and+Extermination+from+Sparta+to+Darfur&rft.pages=374&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780300100983&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbloodan_kie_2007_00_0326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFChrisafis2011" class="citation news cs1">Chrisafis, Angelique (23 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/23/turkey-accuses-france-genocide-algeria">"Turkey accuses France of genocide in Algeria"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guardian_News_%26_Media_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Guardian News & Media Limited">Guardian News & Media Limited</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Turkey+accuses+France+of+genocide+in+Algeria&rft.date=2011-12-23&rft.aulast=Chrisafis&rft.aufirst=Angelique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2011%2Fdec%2F23%2Fturkey-accuses-france-genocide-algeria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16314373">"Turkey accuses France of genocide in colonial Algeria"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/BBC_News_Online" title="BBC News Online">BBC News Online</a></i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. 23 December 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News+Online&rft.atitle=Turkey+accuses+France+of+genocide+in+colonial+Algeria&rft.date=2011-12-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-16314373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lieutenant-colonel de Montagnac, Lettres d'un soldat, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plon_(publisher)" title="Plon (publisher)">Plon</a>, Paris, 1885, republished by Christian Destremeau, 1998, p. 153; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k104391p">Book accessible on</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gallica" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallica">Gallica</a>'s website. French: <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Toutes les populations qui n'acceptent pas nos conditions doivent être rasées. Tout doit être pris, saccagé, sans distinction d'âge ni de sexe : l'herbe ne doit plus pousser où l'armée française a mis le pied. Qui veut la fin veut les moyens, quoiqu'en disent nos philanthropes. Tous les bons militaires que j'ai l'honneur de commander sont prévenus par moi-même que s'il leur arrive de m'amener un Arabe vivant, ils recevront une volée de coups de plat de sabre. ... Voilà, mon brave ami, comment il faut faire la guerre aux Arabes : tuer tous les hommes jusqu'à l'âge de quinze ans, prendre toutes les femmes et les enfants, en charger les bâtiments, les envoyer aux îles Marquises ou ailleurs. En un mot, anéantir tout ce qui ne rampera pas à nos pieds comme des chiens.</i></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFEtemad2012" class="citation book cs1">Etemad, Bouda (2012). <i>L'héritage ambigu de la colonisation</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27h%C3%A9ritage+ambigu+de+la+colonisation&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Etemad&rft.aufirst=Bouda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFRicoux,_Dr1880" class="citation book cs1">Ricoux, Dr, René (1880). <i>La Démographie figurée de l'Algérie : étude statistique des populations européennes qui habitent l'Algérie</i>. Paris: Librairie de l'Académie de Médecine. p. 260.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+D%C3%A9mographie+figur%C3%A9e+de+l%27Alg%C3%A9rie+%3A+%C3%A9tude+statistique+des+populations+europ%C3%A9ennes+qui+habitent+l%27Alg%C3%A9rie&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=Librairie+de+l%27Acad%C3%A9mie+de+M%C3%A9decine&rft.date=1880&rft.aulast=Ricoux%2C+Dr&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Lefeuvre, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Pour en finir avec la repentance coloniale</i></span>, Editions <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Groupe_Flammarion" title="Groupe Flammarion">Flammarion</a> (2006), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-210440-0" title="Special:BookSources/2-08-210440-0">2-08-210440-0</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFTucker2013" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2013). "Abd al-Qadir". <i>Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern ..</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abd+al-Qadir&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Insurgency+and+Counterinsurgency%3A+A+New+Era+of+Modern+...&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO.&rft.date=2013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFLahmeyer2003" class="citation web cs1">Lahmeyer, Jan (11 October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120718104037/http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm">"ALgeria [Djazaïria] historical demographic data of the whole country"</a>. <i>Population statistics</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm">the original</a> on 18 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Population+statistics&rft.atitle=ALgeria+%5BDjaza%C3%AFria%5D+historical+demographic+data+of+the+whole+country&rft.date=2003-10-11&rft.aulast=Lahmeyer&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.populstat.info%2FAfrica%2Falgeriac.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/northafrica/tlalgiers.html">"Timeline: Algeria"</a>. <i>World History at KMLA</i>. 31 May 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+at+KMLA&rft.atitle=Timeline%3A+Algeria&rft.date=2005-05-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zum.de%2Fwhkmla%2Fregion%2Fnorthafrica%2Ftlalgiers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFJalata2016" class="citation book cs1">Jalata, Asafa (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92"><i>Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama bin Laden</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 92–3. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-55234-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-55234-1"><bdi>978-1-137-55234-1</bdi></a>. <q>Within the first three decades, the French military massacred between half a million to one million from approximately three million Algerian people.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phases+of+Terrorism+in+the+Age+of+Globalization%3A+From+Christopher+Columbus+to+Osama+bin+Laden&rft.pages=92-3&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+US&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-137-55234-1&rft.aulast=Jalata&rft.aufirst=Asafa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSCjxCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Kiernan2007-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kiernan2007_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFKiernan2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Kiernan, Ben</a> (2007). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326"><i>Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur</i></a></span>. Yale University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/364">364</a>–ff. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10098-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10098-3"><bdi>978-0-300-10098-3</bdi></a>. <q>In Algeria, colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. From 1830 to 1847, its European settler population quadrupled to 104,000. Of the native Algerian population of approximately 3 million in 1830, about 500,000 to 1 million perished in the first three decades of French conquest.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+Soil%3A+A+World+History+of+Genocide+and+Extermination+from+Sparta+to+Darfur&rft.pages=364-ff&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10098-3&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbloodan_kie_2007_00_0326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Fawole-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fawole_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFW._Alade_Fawole2018" class="citation book cs1">W. Alade Fawole (June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WoNaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158"><i>The Illusion of the Post-Colonial State: Governance and Security Challenges in Africa</i></a>. Lexington Books. p. 158. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498564618" title="Special:BookSources/9781498564618"><bdi>9781498564618</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illusion+of+the+Post-Colonial+State%3A+Governance+and+Security+Challenges+in+Africa&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2018-06&rft.isbn=9781498564618&rft.au=W.+Alade+Fawole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWoNaDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMarnia_Lazreg2014" class="citation book cs1">Marnia Lazreg (23 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iVpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42"><i>The Eloquence of Silence: Algerian Women in Question</i></a>. p. 42. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134713301" title="Special:BookSources/9781134713301"><bdi>9781134713301</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eloquence+of+Silence%3A+Algerian+Women+in+Question&rft.pages=42&rft.date=2014-04-23&rft.isbn=9781134713301&rft.au=Marnia+Lazreg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0iVpAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Huma00-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huma00_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huma00_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huma00_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-06-24/2000-06-24-227522">"Prise de tête Marcel Bigeard, un soldat propre ?"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/L%27Humanit%C3%A9" title="L'Humanité">L'Humanité</a></i> (in French). 24 June 2000<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=L%27Humanit%C3%A9&rft.atitle=Prise+de+t%C3%AAte+Marcel+Bigeard%2C+un+soldat+propre+%3F&rft.date=2000-06-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanite.presse.fr%2Fjournal%2F2000-06-24%2F2000-06-24-227522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBernardot2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bernardot, Marc (2008). <i>Camps d'étrangers</i> (in French). Paris: Terra. p. 127. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782914968409" title="Special:BookSources/9782914968409"><bdi>9782914968409</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Camps+d%27%C3%A9trangers&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Terra&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9782914968409&rft.aulast=Bernardot&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-scoear-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scoear_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scoear_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Marc Ferro, "The conquest of Algeria", in The black book of colonialism, Robert Laffont, p. 657.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-thirki-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thirki_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colonize Exterminate. On War and the Colonial State, Paris, Fayard, 2005. See also the book by the American historian Benjamin Claude Brower, A Desert named Peace. The Violence of France's Empire in the Algerian Sahara, 1844–1902, New York, Columbia University Press.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexis de Tocqueville, De colony in Algeria. 1847, Complexe Editions, 1988.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-tribekil-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tribekil_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tribekil_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Blood and Soil: Ben Kiernan, page 365, 2008</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rebellyon.info/La-conquete-coloniale-de-l-Algerie">"La conquête coloniale de l'Algérie par les Français - Rebellyon.info"</a>. <i>rebellyon.info</i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rebellyon.info&rft.atitle=La+conqu%C3%AAte+coloniale+de+l%27Alg%C3%A9rie+par+les+Fran%C3%A7ais+-+Rebellyon.info&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frebellyon.info%2FLa-conquete-coloniale-de-l-Algerie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFPein1871" class="citation book cs1">Pein, Théodore (1871). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5789413p"><i>Lettres familières sur l'Algérie : un petit royaume arabe</i></a>. Paris: C. Tanera. pp. 363–370.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lettres+famili%C3%A8res+sur+l%27Alg%C3%A9rie+%3A+un+petit+royaume+arabe&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=363-370&rft.pub=C.+Tanera&rft.date=1871&rft.aulast=Pein&rft.aufirst=Th%C3%A9odore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k5789413p&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0a-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0a_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDzland_Mourad2013" class="citation cs2">Dzland Mourad (2013-11-30), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV-ot5-eo-s"><i>Documentaire :Le Génocide De Laghouat 1852 Mourad AGGOUNE</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/PV-ot5-eo-s">archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-12<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-11-23</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documentaire+%3ALe+G%C3%A9nocide+De+Laghouat+1852+Mourad+AGGOUNE&rft.date=2013-11-30&rft.au=Dzland+Mourad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DPV-ot5-eo-s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFAl_Jazeera_Documentary_الجزيرة_الوثائقية2017" class="citation cs2">Al Jazeera Documentary الجزيرة الوثائقية (2017-11-05), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMWSTPV0O48&t=127s"><i>أوجاع الذاكرة – الجزائر</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/LMWSTPV0O48">archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-12<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-11-23</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B0%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9+%E2%80%93+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1&rft.date=2017-11-05&rft.au=Al+Jazeera+Documentary+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DLMWSTPV0O48%26t%3D127s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-TedMorgan-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TedMorgan_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TedMorgan_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ted_Morgan_(writer)" title="Ted Morgan (writer)">Morgan, Ted</a> (2006-01-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26"><i>My Battle of Algiers</i></a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26">26</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-085224-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-085224-5"><bdi>978-0-06-085224-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Battle+of+Algiers&rft.pages=26&rft.date=2006-01-31&rft.isbn=978-0-06-085224-5&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmybattleofalgier00morg%2Fpage%2F26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">General R. Hure, page 449 "L' Armee d' Afrique 1830–1962", Charles-Lavauzelle, Paris-Limoges 1977</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/le-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945">"Le cas de Sétif-Kherrata-Guelma (Mai 1945) | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche"</a>. <i>www.sciencespo.fr</i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.sciencespo.fr&rft.atitle=Le+cas+de+S%C3%A9tif-Kherrata-Guelma+%28Mai+1945%29+%7C+Sciences+Po+Violence+de+masse+et+R%C3%A9sistance+%E2%80%93+R%C3%A9seau+de+recherche&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Ffr%2Fdocument%2Fle-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Horne27-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Horne27_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horne, p. 27.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-JeanPierre-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JeanPierre_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFPeyroulou2009" class="citation book cs1">Peyroulou, Jean-Pierre (2009). "8. La légitimation et l'essor de la subversion 13-19 mai 1945". <i>Guelma, 1945 : une subversion française dans l'Algérie coloniale</i>. Paris: Éditions La Découverte. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782707154644" title="Special:BookSources/9782707154644"><bdi>9782707154644</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/436981240">436981240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8.+La+l%C3%A9gitimation+et+l%27essor+de+la+subversion+13-19+mai+1945&rft.btitle=Guelma%2C+1945+%3A+une+subversion+fran%C3%A7aise+dans+l%27Alg%C3%A9rie+coloniale&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+La+D%C3%A9couverte&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F436981240&rft.isbn=9782707154644&rft.aulast=Peyroulou&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Horne-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Horne_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHorne1977" class="citation book cs1">Horne, Alistair (1977). <i>A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962</i>. New York Review (published 2006). pp. 198–200. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-218-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-218-6"><bdi>978-1-59017-218-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Savage+War+of+Peace%3A+Algeria+1954%E2%80%931962&rft.pages=198-200&rft.pub=New+York+Review&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-1-59017-218-6&rft.aulast=Horne&rft.aufirst=Alistair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Rey-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rey_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Text published in <i>Vérité Liberté</i> n°9 May 1961.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&num_notice=8&total_notices=8&mc=Favre,%20Bernard">Film testimony</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_Teitgen" title="Paul Teitgen">Paul Teitgen</a>, <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Duquesne_(journalist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacques Duquesne (journalist) (page does not exist)">Jacques Duquesne</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/H%C3%A9lie_Denoix_de_Saint_Marc" class="mw-redirect" title="Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc">Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc</a> on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Institut_national_de_l%27audiovisuel" title="Institut national de l'audiovisuel">INA</a> archive website<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2013">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elwatan.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=7095">Henri Pouillot, mon combat contre la torture</a>, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/El_Watan" title="El Watan">El Watan</a></i>, 1 November 2004.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778">Des guerres d’Indochine et d’Algérie aux dictatures d’Amérique latine</a>, interview with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marie-Monique_Robin" title="Marie-Monique Robin">Marie-Monique Robin</a> by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ligue_des_droits_de_l%27homme" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligue des droits de l'homme">Ligue des droits de l'homme</a> (LDH, Human Rights League), 10 January 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930181518/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778">Archived</a> 30 September 2007 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohamed_Harbi" title="Mohamed Harbi">Mohamed Harbi</a>, <i>La guerre d'Algérie</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:3-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benjamin_Stora" title="Benjamin Stora">Benjamin Stora</a>, <i>La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rapha%C3%ABlle_Branche" title="Raphaëlle Branche">Raphaëlle Branche</a>, <i>La torture et l'armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie, 1954–1962</i>, Paris, Gallimard, 2001 See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm">The French Army and Torture During the Algerian War (1954–1962)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071020184243/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm">Archived</a> 2007-10-20 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rennes" title="Rennes">Rennes</a>, 18 November 2004 <span class="languageicon">(in English)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=David_Huf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Huf (page does not exist)">David Huf</a>, <i>Between a Rock and a Hard Place: France and Algeria, 1954–1962</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=702899">"L'accablante confession du général Aussaresses sur la torture en Algérie"</a>. <i>Le Monde</i>. 3 May 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde&rft.atitle=L%27accablante+confession+du+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral+Aussaresses+sur+la+torture+en+Alg%C3%A9rie&rft.date=2001-05-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lemonde.fr%2Fcgi-bin%2FACHATS%2Facheter.cgi%3Foffre%3DARCHIVES%26type_item%3DART_ARCH_30J%26objet_id%3D702899&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041813/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html">"Guerre d'Algérie: le général Bigeard et la pratique de la torture"</a>. <i>Le Monde</i>. 4 July 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html">the original</a> on 19 February 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde&rft.atitle=Guerre+d%27Alg%C3%A9rie%3A+le+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral+Bigeard+et+la+pratique+de+la+torture&rft.date=2000-07-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lemonde.fr%2Fweb%2Frecherche_breve%2F1%2C13-0%2C37-90746%2C0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797">Torture Bigeard: " La presse en parle trop "</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050624162750/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797">Archived</a> June 24, 2005, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/L%27Humanit%C3%A9" title="L'Humanité">L'Humanité</a></i>, May 12, 2000 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html">La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie / 1954 – 1962 40 ans après, l'exigence de vérité</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070209225257/http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html">Archived</a> 2007-02-09 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, AIDH</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827">"Le témoignage de cette femme est un tissu de mensonges. Tout est faux, c'est une manoeuvre"</a>, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a></i>, June 22, 2000 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041927/http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827">Archived</a> February 19, 2010, at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archive-It" class="mw-redirect" title="Archive-It">Archive-It</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/13/france-state-responsible-for-1957-death-of-dissident-maurice-audin-in-algeria-says-macron">"France admits systematic torture during Algeria war for first time"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 13 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=France+admits+systematic+torture+during+Algeria+war+for+first+time&rft.date=2018-09-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2018%2Fsep%2F13%2Ffrance-state-responsible-for-1957-death-of-dissident-maurice-audin-in-algeria-says-macron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGenin2019" class="citation web cs1">Genin, Aaron (2019-04-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/">"FRANCE RESETS AFRICAN RELATIONS: A POTENTIAL LESSON FOR PRESIDENT TRUMP"</a>. <i>The California Review</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+California+Review&rft.atitle=FRANCE+RESETS+AFRICAN+RELATIONS%3A+A+POTENTIAL+LESSON+FOR+PRESIDENT+TRUMP&rft.date=2019-04-30&rft.aulast=Genin&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcalrev.org%2F2019%2F04%2F30%2Ffrench-soft-power-resetting-african-relations%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSamuel2018" class="citation news cs1">Samuel, Henry (2018-09-15). <span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/">"France may have apologised for atrocities in Algeria, but the war still casts a long shadow"</a></span>. <i>The Telegraph</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/0307-1235">0307-1235</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=France+may+have+apologised+for+atrocities+in+Algeria%2C+but+the+war+still+casts+a+long+shadow&rft.date=2018-09-15&rft.issn=0307-1235&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2018%2F09%2F15%2Ffrance-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBeckett2001" class="citation book cs1">Beckett, I. F. W. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46401992"><i>Modern insurgencies and counter-insurgencies : guerrillas and their opponents since 1750</i></a>. London: Routledge. pp. 160–161. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23933-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23933-8"><bdi>0-415-23933-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/46401992">46401992</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+insurgencies+and+counter-insurgencies+%3A+guerrillas+and+their+opponents+since+1750&rft.place=London&rft.pages=160-161&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46401992&rft.isbn=0-415-23933-8&rft.aulast=Beckett&rft.aufirst=I.+F.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F46401992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alistair Horne, page 62 "A Savage War of Peace", <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7">0-670-61964-7</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Gunther" title="John Gunther">John Gunther</a>, pages 122–123 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd London 1955</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alistair Horne, page 63 "A Savage War of Peace", <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7">0-670-61964-7</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Gunther, page 123 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd. London 1955</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alistair Horne, pages 60–61 "A Savage War of Peace", <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7">0-670-61964-7</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Gunther, page 125 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd. London 1955</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alistair Horne, page 36 "A Savage War of Peace", <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7">0-670-61964-7</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Scott Bell. <i>Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France</i>, Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bell-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bell_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Algeria ... was a society of nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians who were dominated by the
million settlers of diverse origins (but fiercely French) who maintained a quasi-apartheid regime." David Scott Bell. <i>Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France</i>, Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Weil-2005-96-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weil-2005-96_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeil2005">Weil 2005</a>, p. 96.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Blévis-2012-213-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blévis-2012-213_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blévis-2012-213_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blévis-2012-213_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blévis-2012-213_66-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlévis2012">Blévis 2012</a>, p. 213.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-745-746_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSahia-Cherchari2004">Sahia-Cherchari 2004</a>, pp. 745–746.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-747_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSahia-Cherchari2004">Sahia-Cherchari 2004</a>, p. 747.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Weil-2005-97-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weil-2005-97_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeil2005">Weil 2005</a>, p. 97.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray_Steele_2005_pp._50-52_70-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Murray Steele, 'Algeria: Government and Administration, 1830–1914', <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, ed. by Kevin Shillington, 3 vols (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005), I pp. 50–52 (at p. 51).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Allan_Christelow_2005_pp._52-53-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allan_Christelow_2005_pp._52-53_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allan_Christelow_2005_pp._52-53_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Allan Christelow, 'Algeria: Muslim Population, 1871–1954', <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, ed. by Kevin Shillington, 3 vols (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005), I pp. 52–53 (p. 52).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Blévis2012-213-214-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blévis2012-213-214_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlévis2012">Blévis 2012</a>, pp. 213–214.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Debra Kelly. <i>Autobiography and Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French</i>, Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Weil-2002-227-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weil-2002-227_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeil2002">Weil 2002</a>, p. 227.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Blévis-2003-28-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blévis-2003-28_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlévis2003">Blévis 2003</a>, p. 28.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSurkis2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Surkis, Judith (15 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/rh19/4041">"Propriété, polygamie et statut personnel en Algérie coloniale, 1830–1873"</a>. <i>Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle</i> (in French) (41): 27–48. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Frh19.4041">10.4000/rh19.4041</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27histoire+du+XIXe+si%C3%A8cle&rft.atitle=Propri%C3%A9t%C3%A9%2C+polygamie+et+statut+personnel+en+Alg%C3%A9rie+coloniale%2C+1830%E2%80%931873&rft.issue=41&rft.pages=27-48&rft.date=2010-12-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Frh19.4041&rft.aulast=Surkis&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Frh19%2F4041&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Debra_Kelly_2005,_p._43-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Debra_Kelly_2005,_p._43_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Debra_Kelly_2005,_p._43_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Debra Kelly, <i>Autobiography and Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French</i>, Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5657089r/f233.image"><i>Répertoire du droit administratif. Tome 1 / Par Léon Béquet,... ; avec le concours de M. Paul Dupré</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=R%C3%A9pertoire+du+droit+administratif.+Tome+1+%2F+Par+L%C3%A9on+B%C3%A9quet%2C...+%3B+avec+le+concours+de+M.+Paul+Dupr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k5657089r%2Ff233.image&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-jul-greg-uncertainty"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6127976d">"Recueil général des lois et des arrêts : en matière civile, criminelle, commerciale et de droit public... / par J.-B. Sirey"</a>. <i>Gallica</i>. February 28, 1882.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gallica&rft.atitle=Recueil+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral+des+lois+et+des+arr%C3%AAts+%3A+en+mati%C3%A8re+civile%2C+criminelle%2C+commerciale+et+de+droit+public...+%2F+par+J.-B.+Sirey&rft.date=1882-02-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k6127976d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Collot-1987-291-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Collot-1987-291_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollot1987">Collot 1987</a>, p. 291.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Thénault-2012-205-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thénault-2012-205_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thénault-2012-205_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThénault2012">Thénault 2012</a>, p. 205.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761_82-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sahia-Cherchari-2004-761_82-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSahia-Cherchari2004">Sahia-Cherchari 2004</a>, p. 761.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Weil-2002-230-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weil-2002-230_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeil2002">Weil 2002</a>, p. 230.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Weil-2002-230-231-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weil-2002-230-231_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeil2002">Weil 2002</a>, pp. 230–231.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Weil-2002-231-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weil-2002-231_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeil2002">Weil 2002</a>, p. 231</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Weil-2005-98-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weil-2005-98_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weil-2005-98_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weil-2005-98_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeil2005">Weil 2005</a>, p. 98.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Gallissot-2009-7-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gallissot-2009-7_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGallissot2009">Gallissot 2009</a>, p. 7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Blévis-2012-215-216-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blévis-2012-215-216_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlévis2012">Blévis 2012</a>, pp. 215–216.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Weil-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weil_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Weil, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howtobefrenchnat0000weil/page/128"><i>How to Be French: Nationality in the Making since 1789,</i></a> Duke University Press 2008 p.253.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERenucci2004§-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenucci2004§_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRenucci2004">Renucci 2004</a>, §.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFRenucci2004 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFCooper2011" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Frederick (2011). "Alternatives to Nationalism in French West Africa, 1945–60". In Frey, Marc; Dülferr, Jost (eds.). <i>Elites and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century</i>. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 110–37. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-24369-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-24369-9"><bdi>978-0-230-24369-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alternatives+to+Nationalism+in+French+West+Africa%2C+1945%E2%80%9360&rft.btitle=Elites+and+Decolonization+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=Houndmills&rft.pages=110-37&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-230-24369-9&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Gallissot-2009-10-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gallissot-2009-10_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGallissot2009">Gallissot 2009</a>, p. 10.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Baussant-2004-109-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baussant-2004-109_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaussant2004">Baussant 2004</a>, p. 109<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBaussant2004 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Shepard-2008-60-61-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shepard-2008-60-61_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShepard2008">Shepard 2008</a>, pp. 60–61<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShepard2008 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Wall-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wall_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWall2001" class="citation book cs1">Wall, Irwin M. (2001). <i>France, the United States, and the Algerian War</i>. University of California Press. p. 262. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22534-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-22534-1"><bdi>0-520-22534-1</bdi></a>. <q>As a settler colony with an internal system of apartheid, administered under the fiction that it was part of metropolitan France, and endowed with a powerful colonial lobby that virtually determined the course of French politics with respect to its internal affairs, it experienced insurrection in 1954 on the part of its Muslim population.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%2C+the+United+States%2C+and+the+Algerian+War&rft.pages=262&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-520-22534-1&rft.aulast=Wall&rft.aufirst=Irwin+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-evian-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-evian_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-evian_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-evian_96-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-evian_96-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20507/v507.pdf">"Exchange of letters and declarations adopted on 19 March 1962 at the close of the Evian talks, constituting an agreement. Paris and Rocher Noir, 3 July 1962 known as Évian Accords"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Exchange+of+letters+and+declarations+adopted+on+19+March+1962+at+the+close+of+the+Evian+talks%2C+constituting+an+agreement.+Paris+and+Rocher+Noir%2C+3+July+1962+known+as+%C3%89vian+Accords&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftreaties.un.org%2Fdoc%2FPublication%2FUNTS%2FVolume%2520507%2Fv507.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_97-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_97-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSessions2011" class="citation book cs1">Sessions, Jennifer (2011). <i>By Sword and Plow: France and the Conquest of Algeria</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801449758" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801449758"><bdi>978-0801449758</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=By+Sword+and+Plow%3A+France+and+the+Conquest+of+Algeria&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0801449758&rft.aulast=Sessions&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-o-i-f.blogspot.com/p/afrique.html">"Drapeaux d'Origine & d'Inspiration Françaises (DO&IF): Afrique"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Drapeaux+d%27Origine+%26+d%27Inspiration+Fran%C3%A7aises+%28DO%26IF%29%3A+Afrique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fd-o-i-f.blogspot.com%2Fp%2Fafrique.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFTaithe2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Taithe, Bertrand (2010-12-15). Hélène Blais, Claire Fredj, Saada Emmanuelle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rh19.revues.org/4051">"La famine de 1866–1868 : anatomie d'une catastrophe et construction médiatique d'un événement"</a>. <i>Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle. Société d'histoire de la révolution de 1848 et des révolutions du XIXe siècle</i> (in French) (41): 113–127. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Frh19.4051">10.4000/rh19.4051</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/1265-1354">1265-1354</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27histoire+du+XIXe+si%C3%A8cle.+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+d%27histoire+de+la+r%C3%A9volution+de+1848+et+des+r%C3%A9volutions+du+XIXe+si%C3%A8cle&rft.atitle=La+famine+de+1866%E2%80%931868+%3A+anatomie+d%27une+catastrophe+et+construction+m%C3%A9diatique+d%27un+%C3%A9v%C3%A9nement&rft.issue=41&rft.pages=113-127&rft.date=2010-12-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Frh19.4051&rft.issn=1265-1354&rft.aulast=Taithe&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frh19.revues.org%2F4051&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Between <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29265&ext=.pdf">1882</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29453&ext=.pdf">1911</a>, over 100,000 Spaniards moved to Algeria in search of a better life. During 1882 to 1887, it was the country that received a greater number of Spanish migrants <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29265&ext=.pdf">[1]</a>. However, a short-term migration also took place during harvesting seasons <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29267&ext=.pdf">[2]</a>. By 1915, while the total number of Spaniards in Algeria was still high, other countries in the New World had overtaken Algeria as the preferred destination.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/pdfDispacher.do?td=29453&ext=.pdf">[3]</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Ruedy, <i>Modern Algeria</i> (2nd ed.), pp. 70–71, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-21782-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-21782-2">0-253-21782-2</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alistair Horne, page 31 "A Savage War of Peace, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7">0-670-61964-7</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alistair Horne, page 35, <i>A Savage War of Peace</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-61964-7">0-670-61964-7</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBrett1988" class="citation journal cs1">Brett, Michael (1988). "Legislating for Inequality in Algeria". <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>. <b>51</b> (3): 440–461, see 456–457. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x00116453">10.1017/s0041977x00116453</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159891511">159891511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Legislating+for+Inequality+in+Algeria&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=440-461%2C+see+456-457&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0041977x00116453&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159891511%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brett&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Page 164, Vol. 13, Encyclopædia Britannica, Macropaedia, 15th Edition</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin, Roger. (2003) <i>Renoir and Algeria</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003, p. 25.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Hure, page 155, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">L'Armee d'Afrique 1830–1962</i></span>, Charles-Lavauzelle 1977</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFrank_E._Trout1970" class="citation cs2">Frank E. Trout (1970), "Morocco's Boundary in the Guir-Zousfana River Basin", <i>African Historical Studies</i>, Boston University African Studies Center, <b>3</b> (1): 37–56, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F216479">10.2307/216479</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.jstor.org/stable/216479">216479</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Morocco%27s+Boundary+in+the+Guir-Zousfana+River+Basin&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-56&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F216479&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F216479%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Frank+E.+Trout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-GellnerMicaud1972-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GellnerMicaud1972_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGellnerCharles_Antoine_Micaud1972" class="citation book cs1">Gellner, Ernest; Charles Antoine Micaud (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I64tAQAAIAAJ"><i>Arabs and Berbers: from tribe to nation in North Africa</i></a>. Lexington Books. p. 27. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-669-83865-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-669-83865-7"><bdi>978-0-669-83865-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabs+and+Berbers%3A+from+tribe+to+nation+in+North+Africa&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-669-83865-7&rft.aulast=Gellner&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rft.au=Charles+Antoine+Micaud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI64tAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFrank_E._Trout1969" class="citation book cs1">Frank E. Trout (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IO69HppDTDgC"><i>Morocco's Saharan Frontiers</i></a>. Droz. p. 24. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-6000-4495-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-6000-4495-0"><bdi>978-2-6000-4495-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morocco%27s+Saharan+Frontiers&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Droz&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-2-6000-4495-0&rft.au=Frank+E.+Trout&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIO69HppDTDgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Claude Lefébure, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/remmm_0035-1474_1986_num_41_1_2114"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Ayt Khebbach, impasse sud-est. L'involution d'une tribu marocaine exclue du Sahara</i></span></a>, in: <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, N°41–42, 1986. Désert et montagne au Maghreb.</i></span> pp. 136–157: "<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">les Divisions d'Oran et d'Alger du 19e Corps d'armée n'ont pu conquérir le Touat et le Gourara qu'au prix de durs combats menés contre les semi-nomades d'obédience marocaine qui, depuis plus d'un siècle, imposaient leur protection aux oasiens.</i></span>"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMoss1971" class="citation web cs1">Moss, William W. (March 2, 1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jfklibrary.org/sites/default/files/archives/JFKOH/Satterthwaite,%20Joseph%20C/JFKOH-JCS-01/JFKOH-JCS-01-TR.pdf">"Joseph C. Satterthwaite, recorded interview"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.jfklibrary.org</i>. John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jfklibrary.org&rft.atitle=Joseph+C.+Satterthwaite%2C+recorded+interview&rft.date=1971-03-02&rft.aulast=Moss&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jfklibrary.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Farchives%2FJFKOH%2FSatterthwaite%2C%2520Joseph%2520C%2FJFKOH-JCS-01%2FJFKOH-JCS-01-TR.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horne, Alistair, <i>A Savage War of Peace</i>, p. 27</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFCharles_de_Gaulle1958" class="citation web cs1">Charles de Gaulle (1958-06-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091114102144/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/accueil/discours/le-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969/discours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php">"Discours de Mostaganem, 6 juin 1958"</a>. Fondation Charles de Gaulle. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/accueil/discours/le-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969/discours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php">the original</a> on 2009-11-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Discours+de+Mostaganem%2C+6+juin+1958&rft.pub=Fondation+Charles+de+Gaulle&rft.date=1958-06-06&rft.au=Charles+de+Gaulle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.charles-de-gaulle.org%2Fpages%2Fl-homme%2Faccueil%2Fdiscours%2Fle-president-de-la-cinquieme-republique-1958-1969%2Fdiscours-de-mostaganem-6-juin-1958.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-HS-050516-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HS-050516_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HS-050516_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HS-050516_115-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSchofield2005" class="citation news cs1">Schofield, Hugh (16 May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4552473.stm">"Colonial abuses haunt France"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/BBC_News_Online" title="BBC News Online">BBC News Online</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News+Online&rft.atitle=Colonial+abuses+haunt+France&rft.date=2005-05-16&rft.aulast=Schofield&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2F4552473.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-loseslead-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-loseslead_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-loseslead_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/18/macron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark/">"Emmanuel Macron loses lead in French election polls after remarks on colonial Algeria and gay marriage spark outrage"</a></span>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i>. 18 February 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/18/macron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Emmanuel+Macron+loses+lead+in+French+election+polls+after+remarks+on+colonial+Algeria+and+gay+marriage+spark+outrage&rft.date=2017-02-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2017%2F02%2F18%2Fmacron-loses-lead-remarks-colonial-algeria-gay-marriage-spark%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-frarel-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-frarel_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGenin2019" class="citation web cs1">Genin, Aaron (30 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/">"FRANCE RESETS AFRICAN RELATIONS: A POTENTIAL LESSON FOR PRESIDENT TRUMP"</a>. <i>The California Review</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+California+Review&rft.atitle=FRANCE+RESETS+AFRICAN+RELATIONS%3A+A+POTENTIAL+LESSON+FOR+PRESIDENT+TRUMP&rft.date=2019-04-30&rft.aulast=Genin&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcalrev.org%2F2019%2F04%2F30%2Ffrench-soft-power-resetting-african-relations%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.france24.com/en/20170216-france-presidential-hopeful-macron-describes-colonisation-algeria-crime-against-humanity">"French presidential hopeful Macron calls colonization a 'crime against humanity"</a>. France 24. 16 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=French+presidential+hopeful+Macron+calls+colonization+a+%27crime+against+humanity&rft.date=2017-02-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2F20170216-france-presidential-hopeful-macron-describes-colonisation-algeria-crime-against-humanity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.france24.com/en/20200705-algeria-buries-repatriated-skulls-of-resistance-fighters-as-it-marks-independence-from-france">"Algeria buries repatriated skulls of resistance fighters as it marks independence from France"</a>. <i>France 24</i>. 5 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=France+24&rft.atitle=Algeria+buries+repatriated+skulls+of+resistance+fighters+as+it+marks+independence+from+France&rft.date=2020-07-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2F20200705-algeria-buries-repatriated-skulls-of-resistance-fighters-as-it-marks-independence-from-france&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-APS_5_July_2020-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-APS_5_July_2020_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.dz/en/algeria/34792-aircraft-carrying-skulls-of-algerian-resistance-fighters-to-french-occupation-lands-at-algiers-airport">"Skulls of Algerian resistance fighters to French occupation return to homeland"</a>. <i>Algérie Presse Service</i>. 7 Jun 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 Jul</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alg%C3%A9rie+Presse+Service&rft.atitle=Skulls+of+Algerian+resistance+fighters+to+French+occupation+return+to+homeland&rft.date=2020-06-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.dz%2Fen%2Falgeria%2F34792-aircraft-carrying-skulls-of-algerian-resistance-fighters-to-french-occupation-lands-at-algiers-airport&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-APS_03_July_2020-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-APS_03_July_2020_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.dz/en/algeria/34813-algerian-fighters-s-skulls-buried-in-martyrs-square-at-el-alia-cemetery">"Algerian fighters' skulls buried in Martyrs' Square at El-Alia Cemetery"</a>. <i>Algérie Presse Service</i>. 7 Jun 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 Jul</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alg%C3%A9rie+Presse+Service&rft.atitle=Algerian+fighters%27+skulls+buried+in+Martyrs%27+Square+at+El-Alia+Cemetery&rft.date=2020-06-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.dz%2Fen%2Falgeria%2F34813-algerian-fighters-s-skulls-buried-in-martyrs-square-at-el-alia-cemetery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-macreap-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-macreap_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-macreap_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.france24.com/en/france/20210120-no-repentance-nor-apologies-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-says-macron">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'No repentance nor apologies' for colonial abuses in Algeria, says Macron"</a>. France 24. 20 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27No+repentance+nor+apologies%27+for+colonial+abuses+in+Algeria%2C+says+Macron&rft.date=2021-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2Ffrance%2F20210120-no-repentance-nor-apologies-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-says-macron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: url-status (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status" title="Category:CS1 maint: url-status">link</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-macofab-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-macofab_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-macofab_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/20/macron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria">"Macron rules out official apology for colonial abuses in Algeria"</a>. Al Jazeera. 20 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Macron+rules+out+official+apology+for+colonial+abuses+in+Algeria&rft.date=2021-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2021%2F1%2F20%2Fmacron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: url-status (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status" title="Category:CS1 maint: url-status">link</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-macapocol-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-macapocol_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-macapocol_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.barrons.com/news/macron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-01611140710?tesla=y">"Macron Rules Out Apology For Colonial Abuses In Algeria"</a>. Barron's. 20 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Macron+Rules+Out+Apology+For+Colonial+Abuses+In+Algeria&rft.date=2021-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.barrons.com%2Fnews%2Fmacron-rules-out-official-apology-for-colonial-abuses-in-algeria-01611140710%3Ftesla%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: url-status (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status" title="Category:CS1 maint: url-status">link</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mouloud Feraoun (1962) <i>Journal, 1955–1962</i>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%89ditions_du_Seuil" title="Éditions du Seuil">Éditions du Seuil</a></i></span>, Paris</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul><li>Original text: <i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130115052428/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html">Library of Congress Country Study</a> of Algeria</i></li>
<li>Aussaresses, Paul. <i>The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957</i>. (New York: Enigma Books, 2010) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-929631-30-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-929631-30-8">978-1-929631-30-8</a>.</li>
<li>Bennoune, Mahfoud. <i>The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830–1987</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2002)</li>
<li>Gallois, William. <i>A History of Violence in the Early Algerian Colony</i> (2013), On French violence 1830–47 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/african_studies_review/v057/57.1.kuby.html">online review</a></li>
<li>Horne, Alistair. <i>A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962</i>, (Viking Adult, 1978)</li>
<li>Roberts, Sophie B. <i>Sophie B. Roberts. Citizenship and Antisemitism in French Colonial Algeria, 1870–1962.</i> (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2017) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-18815-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-18815-0">978-1-107-18815-0</a>.</li>
<li>Roberts, Stephen H. <i>History Of French Colonial Policy 1870–1925</i> (2 vol 1929) vol 2 pp 175–268 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.89866">online</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSessions,_Jennifer_E.2015" class="citation book cs1">Sessions, Jennifer E. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EtBqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1"><i>By Sword and Plow: France and the Conquest of Algeria</i></a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801454462" title="Special:BookSources/9780801454462"><bdi>9780801454462</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=By+Sword+and+Plow%3A+France+and+the+Conquest+of+Algeria&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780801454462&rft.au=Sessions%2C+Jennifer+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEtBqBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span>; Cultural History</li>
<li>Stora, Benjamin, Jane Marie Todd, and William B. Quandt. <i>Algeria, 1830–2000: A short history</i> (Cornell University Press, 2004)</li>
<li>Vandervort, Bruce. "French conquest of Algeria (1830–1847)." in <i>The Encyclopedia of War</i> (2012).</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="In_French">In French</span></h3>
<ul><li><span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patrick_Weil" title="Patrick Weil">Patrick Weil</a>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051224193731/http://www.iue.it/PUB/HEC03-03.pdf">Le statut des musulmans en Algérie coloniale, Une nationalité française dénaturée</a></i></span>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_University_Institute" title="European University Institute">European University Institute</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> (on the legal statuses of Muslim populations in Algeria)</li>
<li><span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Olivier_LeCour_Grandmaison" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivier LeCour Grandmaison">Olivier LeCour Grandmaison</a>, Coloniser, Exterminer – Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fayard" title="Fayard">Fayard</a></i></span>, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-213-62316-3" title="Special:BookSources/2-213-62316-3">2-213-62316-3</a> ( <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ldh-toulon.net/article.php3?id_article=508#table">Table of contents</a>)</li>
<li><span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> Charles-Robert Ageron, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine, 1871–1954</i></span>, 1979 (a ground-breaking work on the historiography of French colonialism)</li>
<li><span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Nicolas Schaub, Représenter l'Algérie. Images et conquête au XIXe siècle, CTHS-INHA</i></span>, 2015, "L'Art & l'Essai" (vol. 15)</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFCointet1995" class="citation book cs1">Cointet, Michèle (1995). <i>De Gaulle et l'Algérie française, 1958–1962</i>. Paris: Perrin. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782262000776" title="Special:BookSources/9782262000776"><bdi>9782262000776</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/34406158">34406158</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Gaulle+et+l%27Alg%C3%A9rie+fran%C3%A7aise%2C+1958%E2%80%931962&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Perrin&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34406158&rft.isbn=9782262000776&rft.aulast=Cointet&rft.aufirst=Mich%C3%A8le&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench+Algeria" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><span class="anchor" id="CITEREFBlévis2003"></span> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> Laure Blévis, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">La citoyenneté française au miroir de la colonisation : étude des demandes de naturalisation des « sujets français » en Algérie coloniale</i></span>, Genèses, volume=4, numéro=53, year 2003, pages 25–47, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.cairn.info/revue-geneses-2003-4-page-25.htm">[4]</a></li>
<li><span class="anchor" id="CITEREFBlévis2012"></span> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> Laure Blévis, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">L'invention de l'« indigène »</i></span>, Français non citoyen, auteurs:Abderrahmane Bouchène, Jean-Pierre Peyroulou, Ouanassa Siari Tengour et Sylvie Thénault, Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale, 1830–1962, Éditions La Découverte et Éditions Barzakh, year 2012, chapter=200, passage=212–218, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782707173263" title="Special:BookSources/9782707173263">9782707173263</a>, id=Blévis, 2012a</li>
<li><span class="anchor" id="CITEREFWeil2002"></span> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> Patrick Weil, Qu'est-ce qu'un Français, Histoire de la nationalité française depuis la Révolution, Paris, Grasset, year 2002, 403 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-246-60571-7" title="Special:BookSources/2-246-60571-7">2-246-60571-7</a>, bnf=38818954d</li>
<li><span class="anchor" id="CITEREFWeil2005"></span> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> Patrick Weil, La justice en Algérie, Le statut des musulmans en Algérie coloniale. Une nationalité française dénaturée, 1830–1962, Histoire de la justice, La Documentation française, year 2005, chapter 95, passage 95–109, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-11-005693-2" title="Special:BookSources/2-11-005693-2">2-11-005693-2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf">http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131101093147/http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-11-01 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><span class="anchor" id="CITEREFSahia-Cherchari2004"></span> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> Mohamed Sahia Cherchari, Indigènes et citoyens ou l'impossible universalisation du suffrage, Revue française de droit constitutionnel, volume=4, numéro=60, year 2004 |pages 741–770, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-droit-constitutionnel-2004-4-page-741.htm">[5]</a></li>
<li><span class="anchor" id="CITEREFGallissot2009"></span> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> René Gallissot, Les effets paradoxaux de la catégorie « d'origine indigène », 25–26 octobre 2009, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.univ-skikda.dz/revolution/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27:-les-effets-paradoxaux-de-la-categorie-qdorigine-indigeneq&catid=30">[6]</a>, 4e colloque international sur la Révolution algérienne : « Évolution historique de l'Image de l'Algérien dans le discours colonial » — Université du 20 août 1955 de Skikda</li>
<li><span class="anchor" id="CITEREFCollot1987"></span> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> Claude Collot, Les institutions de l'Algérie durant la période coloniale (1830–1962), Éditions du CNRS et Office des publications universitaires, year 1987, passage 291,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/2222039576" title="Special:BookSources/2222039576">2222039576</a></li>
<li><span class="anchor" id="CITEREFThénault2012"></span> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> Sylvie Thénault, Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale, 1830–1962, Le "code de l'indigénat", Abderrahmane Bouchène, Jean-Pierre Peyroulou, Ouanassa Siari Tengour et Sylvie Thénault, Éditions La Découverte et Éditions Barzakh, year 2012, chapter page 200, pages 200–206,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782707173263" title="Special:BookSources/9782707173263">9782707173263</a>,</li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:French_Algeria" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:French Algeria">French Algeria</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ina.fr/recherche/recherche?vue=Video&startVideo=0&triVideo=date-diff&dirVideo=asc">1940~1962 Newsreel archives about French Algeria</a> <small>(from French National Audiovisiual Institute INA)</small></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humaniteinenglish.com/spip.php?article259">Benjamin Stora on French Colonialism and Algeria Today!</a> <small>(from French Communist Party's newspaper <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">L'Humanité</i></span>)</small></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_overseas_empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:French_overseas_empire" title="Template:French overseas empire"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:French_overseas_empire" title="Template talk:French overseas empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:French_overseas_empire&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_overseas_empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French overseas empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template:Former French colonies in Africa and the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in Africa and the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">Former French colonies</a> in Africa and the Indian Ocean</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">North Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="French protectorate in Morocco">Morocco</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">West Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Ivory_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="French Ivory Coast">Côte d'Ivoire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Dahomey" title="French Dahomey">Dahomey</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Sudan" title="French Sudan">Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Guinea" title="French Guinea">Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonial_Mauritania" title="Colonial Mauritania">Mauritania</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arguin" title="Arguin">Arguin Island</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colony_of_Niger" title="Colony of Niger">Niger</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="French Senegal">Senegal</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Four_Communes" title="Four Communes">Four Communes</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Upper_Volta" title="French Upper Volta">Upper Volta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Togoland" title="French Togoland">Togoland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kunta_Kinteh_Island" title="Kunta Kinteh Island">James Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Albreda" title="Albreda">Albreda</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">Equatorial Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">Chad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Gabon">Gabon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">Middle Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ubangi-Shari" title="Ubangi-Shari">Ubangi-Shari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Cameroons" class="mw-redirect" title="French Cameroons">Cameroons</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Comoros" class="mw-redirect" title="French Comoros">Comoros</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anjouan" title="Anjouan">Anjouan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grande_Comore" title="Grande Comore">Grande Comore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moh%C3%A9li" title="Mohéli">Mohéli</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Somaliland" title="French Somaliland">Somaliland (Djibouti)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isle_de_France_(Mauritius)" title="Isle de France (Mauritius)">Isle de France</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Template:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">Former French colonies</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">in the Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canada_(New_France)" title="Canada (New France)">Canada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Terre Neuve</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grenadines" title="Grenadines">The Grenadines</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ha%C3%AFti" class="mw-redirect" title="Haïti">Haïti</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Era_de_Francia" title="Era de Francia">Dominican Republic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saint_Kitts_%26_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Kitts & Nevis">Saint Kitts & Nevis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saint_Vincent_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Vincent (island)">Saint Vincent</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the British Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Equinoctial_France" title="Equinoctial France">Equinoctial France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berbice" title="Berbice">Berbice</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/France_Antarctique" title="France Antarctique">France Antarctique</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inini" title="Inini">Inini</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonization of the Americas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_West_India_Company" title="French West India Company">French West India Company</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Template:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">Former French colonies</a> in Asia and Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chandannagar" title="Chandannagar">Chandernagor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coromandel_Coast" title="Coromandel Coast">Coromandel Coast</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Chennai" title="History of Chennai">Madras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mah%C3%A9,_India" title="Mahé, India">Mahé</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Puducherry" title="History of Puducherry">Pondichéry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karaikal" title="Karaikal">Karaikal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yanam" title="Yanam">Yanaon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">Indochinese Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">Laos</a></li>
<li>Vietnam<sup>[<a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A1p_thu%E1%BB%99c" class="extiw" title="vi:Pháp thuộc">vi</a>]</sup>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Kouang-Tchéou-Wan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandate for Syria<br />and the Lebanon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_of_Aleppo" title="State of Aleppo">Aleppo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_of_Damascus" title="State of Damascus">Damascus</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alawite_State" title="Alawite State">Alawite State</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jabal_Druze_State" title="Jabal Druze State">Jabal al-Druze</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanjak_of_Alexandretta" title="Sanjak of Alexandretta">Sanjak of Alexandretta</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Vanuatu" title="History of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nanto-Bordelaise_Company" title="Nanto-Bordelaise Company">Port Louis-Philippe (Akaroa)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/France%E2%80%93Asia_relations" title="France–Asia relations">France–Asia relations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_East_India_Company" title="French East India Company">French East India Company</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Overseas_France" title="Template:Overseas France"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Overseas_France" title="Template talk:Overseas France"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Overseas_France&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Overseas_France" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overseas_France" title="Overseas France">Overseas France</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Inhabited_territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Inhabited territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overseas_departments_and_regions_of_France" title="Overseas departments and regions of France">Overseas<wbr />​ regions</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Outre-mer_en.png" class="image" title="Location of French Overseas Territories"><img alt="Location of French Overseas Territories" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Outre-mer_en.png/255px-Outre-mer_en.png" decoding="async" width="255" height="128" class="thumbborder" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="740" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overseas_collectivity" title="Overseas collectivity">Overseas<wbr />​ collectivities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin" title="Collectivity of Saint Martin">Saint Martin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna" title="Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">Sui generis</a><wbr />​ collectivity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Uninhabited_territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Uninhabited territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">North Pacific Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clipperton_Island" title="Clipperton Island">Clipperton Island</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overseas_territory_(France)" title="Overseas territory (France)">Overseas territory</a><wbr />​ (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands" title="French Southern and Antarctic Lands">French Southern<wbr />​ and Antarctic Lands</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land" title="Adélie Land">Adélie Land</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crozet_Islands" title="Crozet Islands">Crozet Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_domains_of_Saint_Helena" title="French domains of Saint Helena">French domains of Saint Helena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerguelen_Islands" title="Kerguelen Islands">Kerguelen Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Saint-Paul" title="Île Saint-Paul">Saint Paul</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Amsterdam" title="Île Amsterdam">Amsterdam Islands</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scattered_Islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean">Scattered Islands in<wbr />​ the Indian Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bassas_da_India" title="Bassas da India">Bassas da India</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Europa_Island" title="Europa Island">Europa Island</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glorioso_Islands" title="Glorioso Islands">Glorioso Islands</a><sup><small>2, 3</small></sup>
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Banc_du_Geyser" title="Banc du Geyser">Banc du Geyser</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Juan_de_Nova_Island" title="Juan de Nova Island">Juan de Nova Island</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tromelin_Island" title="Tromelin Island">Tromelin Island</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Also known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overseas_departments_and_regions_of_France" title="Overseas departments and regions of France">overseas departments</a></li>
<li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Claimed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li>
<li><sup><small>3</small></sup> Claimed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li>
<li><sup><small>4</small></sup> Claimed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Algeria_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Algeria_topics" title="Template:Algeria topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Algeria_topics" title="Template talk:Algeria topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Algeria_topics&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Algeria_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_Algeria-related_articles" title="Index of Algeria-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Algeria" title="History of Algeria">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prehistoric_North_Africa" title="Prehistoric North Africa">Prehistory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Africa_during_Antiquity" title="North Africa during Antiquity">Classical period <span style="font-size:85%;">(Antiquity)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_Muslim_Algeria" title="Medieval Muslim Algeria">Medieval Muslim Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Algeria" title="Ottoman Algeria">Ottoman rule</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French rule</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nationalism_and_resistance_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalism and resistance in Algeria">Nationalism and resistance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1965_Algerian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1965 Algerian coup d'état">1965 coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Algeria_(1962%E2%80%931999)" title="History of Algeria (1962–1999)">1962–1999</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_Civil_War" title="Algerian Civil War">Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2000s_in_Algeria" title="2000s in Algeria">2000s</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2010%E2%80%932012_Algerian_protests" title="2010–2012 Algerian protests">2010–2012 protests</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2019_Algerian_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 Algerian protests">2019 protests</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Algeria.svg" class="image"><img alt="Emblem of Algeria.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Emblem_of_Algeria.svg/100px-Emblem_of_Algeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Emblem_of_Algeria.svg/150px-Emblem_of_Algeria.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Emblem_of_Algeria.svg/200px-Emblem_of_Algeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="695" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geography_of_Algeria" title="Geography of Algeria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Algeria" title="Template:Borders of Algeria">Borders</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Algeria" title="List of cities in Algeria">Cities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Districts_of_Algeria" title="Districts of Algeria">Districts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Algeria" title="List of earthquakes in Algeria">Earthquakes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Algeria" title="List of ecoregions in Algeria">Ecoregions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communes_of_Algeria" title="Communes of Algeria">Municipalities <span style="font-size:85%;">(communes)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of national parks of Algeria">National parks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provinces_of_Algeria" title="Provinces of Algeria">Provinces</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Algeria" title="List of rivers of Algeria">Rivers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Algeria" title="List of volcanoes in Algeria">Volcanoes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wildlife_of_Algeria" title="Wildlife of Algeria">Wildlife</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_Algeria" title="Politics of Algeria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cabinet_of_Algeria" title="Cabinet of Algeria">Cabinet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_Algeria" title="Constitution of Algeria">Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_the_Nation" title="Council of the Nation">Council of the Nation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elections_in_Algeria" title="Elections in Algeria">Elections</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Algeria" title="Foreign relations of Algeria">Foreign relations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_rights_in_Algeria" title="Human rights in Algeria">Human rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Algeria" title="LGBT rights in Algeria">LGBT</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Algeria" title="Law enforcement in Algeria">Law enforcement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_People%27s_National_Army" title="Algerian People's National Army">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_National_Assembly" title="People's National Assembly">People's National Assembly</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Algeria" title="List of political parties in Algeria">Political parties</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_Algeria" title="President of Algeria">President</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Algeria" title="Prime Minister of Algeria">Prime Minister</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Algeria" title="Economy of Algeria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bank_of_Algeria" title="Bank of Algeria">Bank of Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Algeria" title="List of companies of Algeria">Companies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_dinar" title="Algerian dinar">Dinar <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_in_Algeria" title="Energy in Algeria">Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_in_Algeria" title="Health in Algeria">Health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Algeria" title="Mining industry of Algeria">Mining</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taxation_in_Algeria" title="Taxation in Algeria">Taxation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Algeria" title="Telecommunications in Algeria">Telecommunications</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_Algeria" title="Tourism in Algeria">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Algeria" title="Trade unions in Algeria">Trade unions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transport_in_Algeria" title="Transport in Algeria">Transport</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Society_of_Algeria" title="Category:Society of Algeria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_Algeria" title="Demographics of Algeria">Demographics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education_in_Algeria" title="Education in Algeria">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Algeria" title="Ethnic groups in Algeria">Ethnic groups</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Languages_of_Algeria" title="Languages of Algeria">Languages</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Algerians" title="List of Algerians">List of Algerians</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Algeria" title="Public holidays in Algeria">Public holidays</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Squatting_in_Algeria" title="Squatting in Algeria">Squatting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women_in_Algeria" title="Women in Algeria">Women</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_Algeria" title="Culture of Algeria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_cuisine" title="Algerian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_Algeria" title="Flag of Algeria">Flag</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Football_in_Algeria" title="Football in Algeria">Football</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algerian_literature" title="Algerian literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Media_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Media in Algeria">Media</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Algerian_films" title="List of Algerian films">films</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_of_Algeria" title="Music of Algeria">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Religion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_Algeria" title="Outline of Algeria">Outline</a></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_Algeria-related_articles" title="Index of Algeria-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Algeria" title="Category:Algeria">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Algeria" title="Portal:Algeria">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="France_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:France_topics" title="Template:France topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:France_topics" title="Template talk:France topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:France_topics&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="France_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_France" title="Outline of France">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_French_history" title="Timeline of French history">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_history_of_France" title="Military history of France">Military history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_French" title="History of French">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_French_foreign_relations" title="History of French foreign relations">Foreign relations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_French_journalism" title="History of French journalism">Journalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">Liberalism and radicalism in France</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Brittany" title="History of Brittany">History of Brittany</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Normandy" title="History of Normandy">History of Normandy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greek colonies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_modern_France" title="Early modern France">Early modern era</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France" title="Absolute monarchy in France">Absolute monarchy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Second Hundred Years' War">Second Hundred Years' War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution_of_1756" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic Revolution of 1756">Diplomatic Revolution of 1756</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Revolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Modern">Late Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">Long nineteenth century</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1851_French_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1851 French coup d'état">1851 French coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_National_Defense" title="Government of National Defense">Government of National Defense</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">France in World War I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France in World War II</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France">Liberation of France</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Post-liberation 1944-1946</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_France_(1900_to_present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of France (1900 to present)">1900 to present</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2005_French_riots" title="2005 French riots">2005 French riots</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2021_French_labor_protests" title="2021 French labor protests">2021 French labor protests</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg/80px-Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="96" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg/120px-Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg/160px-Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="364" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geography_of_France" title="Geography of France">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_France" title="Administrative divisions of France">Administrative divisions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_communes_in_France_with_over_20,000_inhabitants" title="List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants">Cities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_islands_of_France" title="List of islands of France">Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_France" title="List of lakes of France">Lakes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_French_mountains_by_prominence" title="List of French mountains by prominence">Mountains</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_France" title="List of rivers of France">Rivers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_France" title="List of World Heritage Sites in France">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitutions_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutions of France">Constitutions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elections_in_France" title="Elections in France">Elections</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Presidential_elections_in_France" title="Presidential elections in France">presidential</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_France" title="Foreign relations of France">Foreign relations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_rights_in_France" title="Human rights in France">Human rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_France" title="Intersex rights in France">Intersex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_France" title="LGBT rights in France">LGBT</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judiciary_of_France" title="Judiciary of France">Judiciary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">Law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_France" title="Law enforcement in France">enforcement</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Armed_Forces" title="French Armed Forces">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Parliament" title="French Parliament">Parliament</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_France" title="List of political parties in France">Political parties</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_France" title="Economy of France">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_France#Agriculture" title="Economy of France">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_France" title="Automotive industry in France">Automotive industry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Banking_in_France" title="Banking in France">Banking</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bank_of_France" title="Bank of France">Central bank</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_in_France" title="Energy in France">Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euro</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_exports_of_France" title="List of exports of France">Exports</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">Franc <span style="font-size:85%;">(former currency)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_French_regions_and_overseas_collectivities_by_GDP" title="List of French regions and overseas collectivities by GDP">French subdivisions by GDP</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Euronext_Paris" title="Euronext Paris">Stock exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_France" title="Science and technology in France">Science and technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taxation_in_France" title="Taxation in France">Taxation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">Telecommunications</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_France" title="Tourism in France">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_France" title="List of trade unions in France">Trade unions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transport_in_France" title="Transport in France">Transport</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Society_of_France" title="Category:Society of France">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crime_in_France" title="Crime in France">Crime</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_France" title="Demographics of France">Demographics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_care_in_France" title="Health care in France">Health care</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_people" title="French people">People</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_France" title="Poverty in France">Poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">Religion</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Secularism_in_France" title="Secularism in France">secularism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">Social class</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_protection_in_France" title="Social protection in France">Welfare</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_France" title="Culture of France">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">Anthem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_architecture" title="French architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_art" title="French art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_emblem_of_France" title="National emblem of France">Coat of arms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinema_of_France" title="Cinema of France">Cinema</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_cuisine" title="French cuisine">Cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_cultural_icons_of_France" title="List of cultural icons of France">Cultural icons</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_fashion" title="French fashion">Fashion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Flag</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Remarkable_Gardens_of_France" title="List of Remarkable Gardens of France">Gardens</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Languages_of_France" title="Languages of France">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Media_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of France">Media</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_of_France" title="Music of France">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_holidays_in_France" title="Public holidays in France">Public holidays</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sport_in_France" title="Sport in France">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Symbols_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols of France">Symbols</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theatre_of_France" title="Theatre of France">Theatre</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="padding:0.25em;"><div><div style="margin-top:0;line-height:1.4em;margin-bottom:-0.2em;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_France" title="Outline of France">Outline</a></li></ul>
</div><div style="margin-top:-0.2em;line-height:1.4em;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:0;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:France" title="Category:France">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_France" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject France">WikiProject</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218272#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218272#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218272#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" class="noprint" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/VIAF_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="VIAF (identifier)">VIAF</a>
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/304924396">1</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/identities/containsVIAFID/304924396">WorldCat (via VIAF)</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National libraries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb153222402">France</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb153222402">(data)</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/SUDOC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SUDOC (identifier)">SUDOC (France)</a>
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027268853">1</a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1663951634' |