Examine individual changes

[ 0 => ''''Peafowl''' is a common name for three bird species in the [[genera]] ''[[Pavo (genus)|Pavo]]'' and ''[[Afropavo]]'' within the tribe [[Pavonini]] of the family [[Phasianidae]], the pheasants and their allies. Male peafowl are referred to as '''peacocks''', and female peafowl are referred to as '''peahens''', although peafowl of either sex are often referred to [[colloquialism|colloquially]] as "peacocks".', 1 => '', 2 => 'The two Asiatic species are the blue or [[Indian peafowl]] originally of the [[Indian subcontinent]], and the [[green peafowl]] of Southeast Asia; the one African species is the [[Congo peafowl]], native only to the [[Congo Basin]]. Male peafowl are known for their piercing calls and their extravagant plumage. The latter is especially prominent in the Asiatic species, which have an eye-spotted "tail" or "train" of [[covert feathers]], which they display as part of a [[courtship]] ritual.', 3 => '', 4 => 'The functions of the elaborate [[iridescent]] [[Animal coloration|colouration]] and large "train" of peacocks have been the subject of extensive scientific debate. [[Charles Darwin]] suggested that they served to attract females, and the showy features of the males had evolved by [[sexual selection]]. More recently, [[Amotz Zahavi]] proposed in his [[handicap theory]] that these features [[Signalling theory|acted as honest signals]] of the males' fitness, since less-fit males would be disadvantaged by the difficulty of surviving with such large and conspicuous structures.', 5 => '', 6 => '== Plumage ==', 7 => '[[File:Eggs of Peafowl at Aravath Kasaragod.jpg|thumb|Peafowl eggs]] ', 8 => '[[File:Baby Peacock (18131813108).jpg|thumb|Peachick]]', 9 => '[[File:Peacock-JS.jpg|thumb|Head of adult peacock]]', 10 => '[[File:Paon blanc Madère 2008.jpg|thumb|A [[leucistic]] Indian peacock]]', 11 => '[[File:Biomechanics-of-the-Peacocks-Display-How-Feather-Structure-and-Resonance-Influence-Multimodal-pone.0152759.s002.ogv|thumb|Video analysis of the mechanisms behind the display.]]', 12 => '[[File:Peacock by Nihal jabin.jpg|thumb|Peacock from behind.]]', 13 => 'The Indian peacock has iridescent blue and green plumage, mostly metallic blue and green, but the green peacock has green and bronze body feathers. In both species, females are a little smaller than males in terms of weight and wingspan, but males are significantly longer due to the "tail", also known as a "train".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/peafowl|title=Peafowl|publisher=San Diego Zoo|website=sandiegozoo.org|access-date=13 March 2021}}</ref> The peacock train consists not of tail quill feathers, but highly elongated upper tail coverts. These feathers are marked with eyespots, best seen when a peacock fans his tail. Both sexes of all species have a crest atop the head. The Indian peahen has a mixture of dull grey, brown, and green in her plumage. The female also displays her plumage to ward off female competition or signal danger to her young.', 14 => '', 15 => '[[Green peafowl]] differ from Indian peafowl in that the male has green and gold plumage and black wings with a sheen of blue. Unlike Indian peafowl, the green peahen is similar to the male, but has shorter upper tail coverts, a more coppery neck, and overall less iridescence.', 16 => '', 17 => 'The Congo peacock male does not display his covert feathers, but uses his actual tail feathers during courtship displays. These feathers are much shorter than those of the Indian and green species, and the ocelli are much less pronounced. Females of the Indian and African species are dull grey and/or brown.', 18 => '', 19 => 'Chicks of both sexes in all the species are cryptically coloured. They vary between yellow and tawny, usually with patches of darker brown or light tan and "dirty white" ivory.', 20 => '', 21 => 'Mature peahens have been recorded as suddenly growing typically male peacock plumage and making male calls.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morgan |first1=T. H. |title=Sex inversion in the peafowl |journal=Journal of Heredity |date=July 1942 |volume=33 |issue=7 |pages=247–248 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a105182 }}</ref> While initially [[gynandromorphism]] was suspected, researchers have suggested that changes in mature birds are due to a lack of estrogen from old or damaged ovaries, and that male plumage and calls are the default unless hormonally suppressed.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Inglis-Arkell |first1=Esther |title=The long-running mystery of why birds seemingly change sex |url=https://io9.gizmodo.com/the-long-running-mystery-of-why-birds-seemingly-change-493154825 |work=io9 |date=7 May 2013 }}</ref>', 22 => '', 23 => '=== Colour and pattern variations ===', 24 => 'Hybrids between Indian peafowl and Green peafowl are called ''Spaldings'', after the first person to successfully hybridise them, Mrs. Keith Spalding. Unlike many hybrids, spaldings are fertile and generally benefit from hybrid vigour; spaldings with a high-green phenotype do much better in cold temperatures than the cold-intolerant green peafowl while still looking like their green parents. Plumage varies between individual spaldings, with some looking far more like green peafowl and some looking far more like blue peafowl, though most visually carry traits of both.', 25 => '', 26 => 'In addition to the wild-type "blue" colouration, several hundred variations in colour and pattern are recognised as separate morphs of the Indian Blue among peafowl breeders. Pattern variations include solid-wing/black shoulder (the black and brown stripes on the wing are instead one solid colour), pied, white-eye (the ocelli in a male's eye feathers have white spots instead of black), and silver pied (a mostly white bird with small patches of colour). Colour variations include white, purple, Buford bronze, opal, midnight, charcoal, jade, and taupe, as well as the sex-linked colours purple, cameo, peach, and Sonja's Violeta. Additional colour and pattern variations are first approved by the United Peafowl Association to become officially recognised as a morph among breeders. Alternately-coloured peafowl are born differently coloured than wild-type peafowl, and though each colour is recognisable at hatch, their peachick plumage does not necessarily match their adult plumage.', 27 => '', 28 => 'Occasionally, peafowl appear with white plumage. Although [[albinism|albino]] peafowl do exist,{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}} this is quite rare, and almost all white peafowl are not albinos; they have a genetic condition called [[leucism]], which causes pigment cells to fail to migrate from the neural crest during development. Leucistic peafowl can produce pigment but not deposit the pigment to their feathers, resulting in their blue-grey eye colour and the complete lack of colouration in their plumage. Pied peafowl are affected by partial leucism, where only some pigment cells fail to migrate, resulting in birds that have colour but also have patches absent of all colour; they, too, have blue-grey eyes. By contrast, true albino peafowl would have a complete lack of [[melanin]], resulting in irises that look red or pink. Leucistic peachicks are born yellow and become fully white as they mature.', 29 => '', 30 => '=== Iridescence ===', 31 => '{{further|Iridescence|Structural colouration}}', 32 => '', 33 => 'As with many birds, vibrant iridescent plumage colours are not primarily [[pigment]]s, but [[structural coloration|structural colouration]]. Optical [[Wave interference|interference]] [[Bragg reflections]], based on regular, periodic nanostructures of the [[barbule]]s (fiber-like components) of the feathers, produce the peacock's colours. More specifically, there are 2D photonic-crystal structures that are within the layers or surface area of those various barbules, which are essentially in charge of the colouration of their feathers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zi |first1=Jian |last2=Yu |first2=Xindi |last3=Li |first3=Yizhou |last4=Hu |first4=Xinhua |last5=Xu |first5=Chun |last6=Wang |first6=Xingjun |last7=Liu |first7=Xiaohan |last8=Fu |first8=Rongtang |date=2003-10-28 |title=Coloration strategies in peacock feathers |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=100 |issue=22 |pages=12576–12578 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2133313100 |issn=0027-8424 |pmid=14557541|pmc=240659 |bibcode=2003PNAS..10012576Z |doi-access=free }}</ref> Slight changes to the spacing of these barbules result in different colours. Brown feathers are a mixture of red and blue: one colour is created by the periodic structure and the other is created by a [[Fabry–Pérot interferometer|Fabry–Pérot interference]] peak from reflections from the outer and inner boundaries. Such structural colouration causes the iridescence of the peacock's hues. Color derived from physical structure rather than pigment can vary with viewing angle.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blau |first1=Steven K. |title=Light as a Feather: Structural Elements Give Peacock Plumes Their Color |journal=Physics Today |date=January 2004 |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=18–20 |doi=10.1063/1.1650059 |bibcode=2004PhT....57a..18B }}</ref> Most commonly, during a courtship display, the visiting female peahen will stop directly in front of the male peacock – thus providing her the ability to assess the male at 90° to the surface of the feather. Then, the male will turn and display his feathers about 45° to the right of the sun's azimuth which allows the sunlight to accentuate the iridescence of his train. If the female chooses to interact with the male, he will then turn to face her and shiver his train so as to begin the mating process.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adeline Loyau, Doris Gomez, Benoît Moureau, Marc Théry, Nathan S. Hart, Michel Saint Jalme, Andrew T.D. Bennett, Gabriele Sorci| title=Iridescent structurally based coloration of eyespots correlates with mating success in the peacock| journal=Behavioral Ecology| date=November 2007|volume=18| issue=6| pages=1123–1131| doi=10.1093/beheco/arm088| doi-access=free}}</ref>', 34 => '', 35 => '=== Evolution===', 36 => '====Sexual selection ====', 37 => '[[Charles Darwin]] suggested in ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' that the peafowl's plumage had evolved through sexual selection. He expanded upon this in his second book, ''[[The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''.', 38 => '', 39 => '{{blockquote|The sexual struggle is of two kinds; in the one it is between individuals of the same sex, generally the males, in order to drive away or kill their rivals, the females remaining passive; whilst in the other, the struggle is likewise between the individuals of the same sex, in order to excite or charm those of the opposite sex, generally the females, which no longer remain passive, but select the more agreeable partners.<ref>Darwin, Charles. (1871), ''[[The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' John Murray, London.</ref>}}', 40 => '', 41 => 'Sexual selection is the ability of male and female organisms to exert selective forces on each other with regard to mating activity.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Creations|first=Natural Science|title=Lean Stack|url=https://naturalscience.com/products/lean-stack|access-date=2023-02-08|website=Natural Science Creations|language=en}}</ref> The strongest driver of sexual selection is gamete size. In general, eggs are bigger than sperm, and females produce fewer gametes than males. This leads to eggs being a bigger investment, so to females being selective about the traits that will be passed on to her offspring by males. The peahen's reproductive success and the likelihood of survival of her chicks is partly dependent on the genotype of the mate.<ref name="Age-advertisement and the evolution">{{cite journal |last1=Manning |first1=J. T. |title=Age-advertisement and the evolution of the peacock's train |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |date=September 1989 |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=379–384 |doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.1989.2050379.x |s2cid=86740688 }}</ref> Females generally have more to lose when mating with an inferior male due to her gametes being more costly than the male's.', 42 => '', 43 => '==== Food courtship theory ====', 44 => 'Merle Jacobs' food-courtship<!-- Which is correct: Food courtship, food-courtship (hyphen), or food–courtship (en dash)? --> theory states that peahens are attracted to peacocks for the resemblance of their eye spots to blue berries. <ref name="Jacobs">{{cite web |last1=Jacobs |first1=Merle |title=A New Look at Darwinian Sexual Selection |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908162951/http://naturalscience.com/ns/articles/01-11/ns_mej.html |website=NaturalSCIENCE |publisher=Heron Publishing |access-date=22 May 2023 |ref=Jacobs}}</ref>', 45 => '', 46 => '==== Natural selection ====', 47 => 'It has been suggested that a peacock's train, loud call, and fearless behaviour have been formed by natural selection (with or without sexual selection too), and served as an [[aposematic]] display to intimidate predators and rivals.<ref name="jj2">{{Cite journal |last=Jordania |first=Joseph |date=September 2021 |title=Can there be an Alternative Evolutionary Reason Behind the Peacock's Impressive Train? |url=https://www.academia.edu/54119122 |journal=Academia Letters|doi=10.20935/AL3534 |s2cid=244187388 }}</ref><ref>[[Joseph Jordania|Jordania, Joseph]] (2011) "Peacock's Tail: Tale of Beauty and Intimidation". pp. 192–196 in ''[[Why do People Sing? Music in Human Evolution]]'' Logos.</ref> This hypothesis is designed to explain Takahashi's findings that in Japan, neither reproductive success nor physical condition correlates with the train's length, symmetry or number of eyespots.<ref name="takahashi"/>', 48 => '', 49 => '==== Female choice ====', 50 => '[[File:Peahen in front of displaying peacock.jpg|thumb|left|Peacock (seen from behind) displaying to attract peahen in foreground.]]', 51 => '', 52 => 'Multiple hypotheses attempt to explain the evolution of female choice. Some of these suggest direct benefits to females, such as protection, shelter, or nuptial gifts that affect the female's choice of mate. Another hypothesis is that females choose mates with good genes. Males with more exaggerated secondary sexual characteristics, such as bigger, brighter peacock trains, tend to have better genes in the peahen's eyes.<ref name="Age-advertisement and the evolution"/> These better genes directly benefit her offspring, as well as her fitness and reproductive success. Runaway selection also seeks to clarify the evolution of the peacock's train. In runaway sexual selection, linked genes in males and females code for sexually dimorphic traits in males, and preference for those traits in females.<ref>Caldwell, Roy, and Jennifer Collins. "[http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIIE3aRunawayselec.shtml When Sexual Selection Runs Away] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129135558/http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIIE3aRunawayselec.shtml |date=29 November 2014 }}." Evolution 101: Runaway Selection. N.p., n.d. 24 November 2014.</ref> The close spatial association of [[alleles]] for [[Locus (genetics)|loci]] involved in the train in males, and for preference for more exuberant trains in females, on the chromosome ([[linkage disequilibrium]]) causes a [[positive feedback]] loop that exaggerates both the male traits and the female preferences. Another hypothesis is sensory bias, in which females have a preference for a trait in a nonmating context that becomes transferred to mating. Multiple causality for the evolution of female choice is also possible.', 53 => '', 54 => 'Work concerning female behaviour in many species of animals has sought to confirm Darwin's basic idea of female preference for males with certain characteristics as a major force in the evolution of species.<ref name="Zuk">Zuk, Marlene. (2002). ''Sexual Selections: What we can and can't learn about sex from animals''. University of California Press; Berkeley, CA. {{ISBN|0520240758}}</ref> Females have often been shown to distinguish small differences between potential mates, and to prefer mating with individuals bearing the most exaggerated characteristics.<ref>Davies N, Krebs J, and West S. (2012). ''An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology'', 4th ed., Wiley-Blackwell; Oxford.</ref> In some cases, those males have been shown to be more healthy and vigorous, suggesting that the ornaments serve as markers indicating the males' abilities to survive, and thus their genetic qualities.', 55 => '', 56 => 'The peacock's train and iridescent plumage are perhaps the best-known example of traits believed to have arisen through sexual selection, though with some controversy.<ref>[http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/male-peacocks-feathers-fail-to-impress-females-study_10031697.html Male Peacock's Feather Fails to Impress Females: Study]. The Indian News. 27 March 2008.</ref> Male peafowl erect their trains to form a shimmering fan in their display to females. Marion Petrie tested whether or not these displays signalled a male's genetic quality by studying a feral population of peafowl in [[Whipsnade Wildlife Park]] in southern England. The number of [[eyespot (mimicry)|eyespot]]s in the train predicted a male's mating success. She was able to manipulate this success by cutting the eyespots off some of the males' tails:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Petrie |first1=Marion |last2=Halliday |first2=T. |last3=Sanders |first3=C. |year=1991 |title=Peahens prefer peacocks with elaborate trains |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=41 |pages=323–331 |doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80484-1 |issue=2|s2cid=53201236 }}</ref> females lost interest in pruned males and became attracted to untrimmed ones. Males with fewer eyespots, thus with lower mating success, suffered from greater predation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Petrie |first=M. |year=1992 |title= Peacocks with low mating success are more likely to suffer predation |journal=Animal Behaviour |doi=10.1016/0003-3472(92)90072-H |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232545934 |volume=44 |pages=585–586|s2cid=53167596 }}</ref> She allowed females to mate with males with differing numbers of eyespots, and reared the offspring in a communal incubator to control for differences in maternal care. Chicks fathered by more ornamented males weighed more than those fathered by less ornamented males, an attribute generally associated with better survival rate in birds. These chicks were released into the park and recaptured one year later. Those with heavily ornamented feathers were better able to avoid predators and survive in natural conditions.<ref name="Zuk" /> Thus, Petrie's work has shown correlations between tail ornamentation, mating success, and increased survival ability in both the ornamented males and their offspring.', 57 => '', 58 => '[[File:Peacock Flying.jpg|thumb|A peacock in flight: Zahavi argued that the long train would be a handicap.]]', 59 => '', 60 => 'Furthermore, peafowl and their sexual characteristics have been used in the discussion of the causes for sexual traits. Amotz Zahavi used the excessive tail plumes of male peafowls as evidence for his "[[handicap principle]]".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zahavi|first1=Amotz|title=Mate selection—A selection for a handicap|journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology|volume=53|issue=1|year=1975|pages=205–214|pmid=1195756|doi=10.1016/0022-5193(75)90111-3|bibcode=1975JThBi..53..205Z|url=http://ckwri.tamuk.edu/fileadmin/tpl/misc/Selection_for_a_handicap_Zahavi_1975.pdf|citeseerx=10.1.1.586.3819|access-date=28 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126204931/http://ckwri.tamuk.edu/fileadmin/tpl/misc/Selection_for_a_handicap_Zahavi_1975.pdf|archive-date=26 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Since these trains are likely to be deleterious to an individual's survival (as their brilliance makes them more visible to [[predator]]s and their length hinders escape from danger), Zahavi argued that only the fittest males could survive the handicap of a large train. Thus, a brilliant train serves as an [[signalling theory|honest indicator]] for females that these highly ornamented males are good at surviving for other reasons, so are preferable mates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loyau |first1=Adeline |last2=Saint Jalme |first2=Michel |last3=Cagniant |first3=Cécile |last4=Sorci |first4=Gabriele |title=Multiple sexual advertisements honestly reflect health status in peacocks (''Pavo cristatus'') |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |date=October 2005 |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=552–557 |doi=10.1007/s00265-005-0958-y |s2cid=27621492 }}</ref> This theory may be contrasted with [[Ronald Fisher]]'s theory (and Darwin's hypothesis) that male sexual traits are the result of initially arbitrary [[aesthetic]] selection by females.', 61 => '', 62 => 'In contrast to Petrie's findings, a seven-year Japanese study of free-ranging peafowl concluded that female peafowl do not select mates solely on the basis of their trains. Mariko Takahashi found no evidence that peahens preferred peacocks with more elaborate trains (such as with more eyespots), a more symmetrical arrangement, or a greater length.<ref name="takahashi">{{cite journal |last1=Takahashi |first1=Mariko |last2=Arita |first2=Hiroyuki |last3=Hiraiwa-Hasegawa |first3=Mariko |last4=Hasegawa |first4=Toshikazu |title=Peahens do not prefer peacocks with more elaborate trains |journal=Animal Behaviour |date=April 2008 |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=1209–1219 |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.10.004 |s2cid=53196851 |url=http://id.nii.ac.jp/1013/00003652/ }}</ref> Takahashi determined that the peacock's train was not the universal target of female [[mate choice]], showed little variance across male populations, and did not correlate with male physiological condition. Adeline Loyau and her colleagues responded that alternative and possibly central explanations for these results had been overlooked.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loyau |first1=Adeline |last2=Petrie |first2=Marion |last3=Saint Jalme |first3=Michel |last4=Sorci |first4=Gabriele |title=Do peahens not prefer peacocks with more elaborate trains? |journal=Animal Behaviour |date=November 2008 |volume=76 |issue=5 |pages=e5–e9 |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.07.021 |s2cid=40638610 }}</ref> They concluded that female choice might indeed vary in different ecological conditions.', 63 => '', 64 => '==== Plumage colours as attractants ====', 65 => '[[File:Peacock Feather Close Up.JPG|thumb|upright|Eyespot on a peacock's train feather.]]', 66 => 'A peacock's copulation success rate depends on the colours of his [[eyespot (mimicry)|eyespots (ocelli)]] and the angle at which they are displayed. The angle at which the ocelli are displayed during courtship is more important in a peahen's choice of males than train size or number of ocelli.<ref name=Dakin>{{cite journal |last1=Dakin |first1=Roslyn |last2=Montgomerie |first2=Robert |title=Eye for an eyespot: how iridescent plumage ocelli influence peacock mating success |journal=Behavioral Ecology |date=2013 |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=1048–1057 |doi=10.1093/beheco/art045 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Peahens pay careful attention to the different parts of a peacock's train during his display. The lower train is usually evaluated during close-up courtship, while the upper train is more of a long-distance attraction signal. Actions such as train rattling and wing shaking also kept the peahens' attention.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yorzinski |first1=Jessica L. |last2=Patricelli |first2=Gail L. |last3=Babcock |first3=Jason S. |last4=Pearson |first4=John M. |last5=Platt |first5=Michael L. |title=Through their eyes: selective attention in peahens during courtship |journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology |date=15 August 2013 |volume=216 |issue=16 |pages=3035–3046 |doi=10.1242/jeb.087338 |pmid=23885088 |pmc=4232502 }}</ref>', 67 => '', 68 => '==== Redundant signal hypothesis ====', 69 => 'Although an intricate display catches a peahen's attention, the redundant signal hypothesis also plays a crucial role in keeping this attention on the peacock's display. The redundant signal hypothesis explains that whilst each signal that a male projects is about the same quality, the addition of multiple signals enhances the reliability of that mate. This idea also suggests that the success of multiple signalling is not only due to the repetitiveness of the signal, but also of multiple receivers of the signal. In the peacock species, males congregate a communal display during breeding season and the peahens observe. Peacocks first defend their territory through intra-sexual behaviour, defending their areas from intruders. They fight for areas within the congregation to display a strong front for the peahens. Central positions are usually taken by older, dominant males, which influences mating success. Certain morphological and behavioural traits come in to play during inter and intra-sexual selection, which include train length for territory acquisition and visual and vocal displays involved in mate choice by peahens.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loyau |first1=Adeline |last2=Jalme |first2=Michel Saint |last3=Sorci |first3=Gabriele |title=Intra- and Intersexual Selection for Multiple Traits in the Peacock (''Pavo cristatus'') |journal=Ethology |date=September 2005 |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=810–820 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.2005.01091.x }}</ref>', 70 => '', 71 => '== Behaviour ==', 72 => '[[File:Peafowl at the Taipei Zoo.jpg|thumb|A green peafowl (''[[Pavo muticus]]'').]]', 73 => '[[File:Peacock at cat rescue centre May 2017.jpg|thumb|left|Peacock sitting.]]', 74 => '', 75 => 'Peafowl are forest birds that nest on the ground, but roost in trees. They are terrestrial feeders. All species of peafowl are believed to be [[Polygamy|polygamous]]. In common with other members of the [[Galliformes]], the males possess metatarsal spurs or "thorns" on their legs used during [[Intraspecific antagonism|intraspecific]] territorial fights with some other members of their kind.', 76 => '', 77 => '{{Listen', 78 => ' |filename = Pavo+cristatus.wav', 79 => ' |title = ''Pavo cristatus'' vocalisation', 80 => '}}', 81 => '', 82 => 'In courtship, vocalisation stands to be a primary way for peacocks to attract peahens. Some studies suggest that the intricacy of the "song" produced by displaying peacocks proved to be impressive to peafowl. Singing in peacocks usually occurs just before, just after, or sometimes during copulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anoop |first1=K. R. |last2=Yorzinski |first2=Jessica L. |title=Peacock copulation calls attract distant females |journal=Behaviour |date=1 January 2013 |volume=150 |issue=1 |pages=61–74 |doi=10.1163/1568539X-00003037 |s2cid=86482247 }}</ref>', 83 => '', 84 => '== Diet ==', 85 => 'Peafowl are [[omnivore]]s and mostly eat plants, flower petals, seed heads, insects and other [[arthropod]]s, [[reptile]]s, and [[amphibian]]s. Wild peafowl look for their food scratching around in [[leaf litter]] either early in the morning or at dusk. They retreat to the shade and security of the woods for the hottest portion of the day. These birds are not picky and will eat almost anything they can fit in their beak and digest. They actively hunt insects like ants, crickets and termites; millipedes; and other [[arthropod]]s and small mammals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Peacock |url=http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/peacock/ |website=National Geographic |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100302193601/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/peacock/ |archive-date=2010-03-02}}</ref> Indian peafowl also eat small snakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnsingh |first1=A. J. T. |year=1976 |title=Peacocks and cobra |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=73 |issue=1 |page=214 }}</ref>', 86 => '', 87 => 'Domesticated peafowl may also eat bread and cracked grain such as oats and corn, cheese, cooked rice and sometimes cat food. It has been noticed by keepers that peafowl enjoy protein-rich food including larvae that infest [[granaries]], different kinds of meat and fruit, as well as vegetables including dark leafy greens, broccoli, carrots, beans, beets, and peas.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Is a Peacock's Diet? |url=http://animals.pawnation.com/peacocks-diet-10104.html |website=pawnation.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511085413/http://animals.pawnation.com/peacocks-diet-10104.html |archive-date=2014-05-11}}</ref>', 88 => '', 89 => '== Cultural significance ==', 90 => '[[File:Peacock from BL Harley 3469.jpg|alt=|thumb|upright|A peacock in a flask, "representing the stage in the [[Alchemy|alchemical]] process when the substance breaks out into many colours",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://catalogue.wellcomelibrary.org/record=b1196650|title=Splendor solis|website=Wellcome Library no. 38825i|publisher=Wellcome Trust|access-date=2017-01-31}}</ref> from the ''[[Splendor Solis]]'' (1582).]]', 91 => '', 92 => '=== Indian peafowl ===', 93 => 'The peafowl is native to [[India]] and significant in its culture. In [[Hinduism]], the Indian peacock is the mount of the [[List of war deities|god of war]], Lord [[Kartikeya]], and the warrior goddess [[Kaumari]], and is also depicted around the goddess [[Santoshi]].<ref>Clothey, Fred W. Many Faces of Murakan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. Walter De Gruyter Inc., 1978. {{ISBN|978-9027976321}}.</ref> During a war with [[Asuras]], Kartikeya split the demon king [[Surapadman]] in half. Out of respect for his adversary's prowess in battle, the god converted the two halves into an integral part of himself. One half became a peacock serving as his mount, and the other a rooster adorning his flag. The peacock displays the divine shape of [[Om]]kara when it spreads its magnificent plumes into a full-blown circular form.<ref name=Ayyar>{{cite web|last=Ayyar|first=SRS|title=Muruga – The Ever-Merciful Lord|url=http://murugan.org/ayyar_1.htm|work=Murugan Bhakti: The Skanda Kumāra site|access-date=31 March 2014}}</ref> Peacock feathers also adorn the crest of Lord [[Krishna]], an avatar of Lord [[Vishnu]], one of the [[trimurti]].', 94 => '', 95 => '[[Chandragupta Maurya]], the founder of the [[Mauryan Empire]], was born an orphan and raised by a family farming peacocks. According to the Buddhist tradition, the ancestors of the Maurya kings had settled in a region where peacocks (''mora'' in [[Pali language|Pali]]) were abundant. Therefore, they came to be known as "Moriyas", literally, "belonging to the place of peacocks". According to another Buddhist account, these ancestors built a city called Moriya-nagara ("Moriya-city"), which was so called, because it was built with the "bricks coloured like peacocks' necks".{{sfn|R. K. Mookerji|1966|p=14}} After conquering the [[Nanda Empire]] and defeating the [[Seleucid Empire]], the Chandragupta dynasty reigned uncontested during its time. Its royal emblem remained the peacock until Emperor Ashoka changed it to a [[Asiatic lion|lion]], as seen in the [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]], as well in his [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts]]. The peacock continued to represent elegance and royalty in India during medieval times; for instance, the [[Mughal emperors|Mughal]] seat of power was called the [[Peacock Throne]].', 96 => '', 97 => 'The peacock is represented in both the [[Burmese zodiac#Weekdays|Burmese]] and [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] [[zodiacs]]. To the [[Sinhalese people]], the peacock is the third animal of the zodiac of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BoJEAAAAcAAJ|title=The history and doctrine of Budhism, popularly illustrated|first=Edward|last=Upham|date=20 June 2018|publisher=Ackermann|via=Google Books}}</ref>', 98 => '', 99 => 'Peacocks (often a symbol of pride and vanity) were believed to deliberately consume poisonous substances in order to become immune to them, as well as to make the colours of their resplendent plumage all the more vibrant – seeing as so many poisonous flora and fauna are so colourful due to [[aposematism]], this idea appears to have merit. The Buddhist deity [[Mahamayuri]] is depicted seated on a peacock. Peacocks are seen supporting the throne of [[Amitabha]], the ruby red sunset coloured archetypal Buddha of Infinite Light.', 100 => '', 101 => 'India adopted the peacock as its national bird in 1963 and it is one of the [[national symbols of India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.culturalindia.net/national-symbols/national-bird.html|title=Indian Peacock: A Symbol of Grace, Joy, Beauty and Love}}</ref>', 102 => '', 103 => '=== Persia and Mesopotamia ===', 104 => 'In [[Persia]] and [[Babylonia]], the peacock is seen as a guardian of royalty and is often engraved upon royal thrones.', 105 => '', 106 => '[[Tawûsî Melek ]] ({{lang-ar|طاووس ملك}}; {{lang-fa|ملک طاووس}}; {{lang-ku|Tawûsî Melek }}), the "Peacock Angel", is the [[Yazidi]] name for the central figure of their faith. The Yazidi consider ''Tawûsî Melek '' an [[emanationism|emanation]] of [[God]] and a benevolent angel who has {{cns|redeemed himself from his [[Satan#In Islam|fall]] and has become a [[demiurge]] who created the cosmos from the [[World egg|cosmic egg]]. After he repented, he wept for 7,000 years, his tears filling seven jars, which then quenched the fires of [[hell]].|date=November 2021}} In art and sculpture, ''Tawûsî Melek'' is depicted as a peacock.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is the Peacock Angel? |url=http://www.yeziditruth.org/the_peacock_angel |access-date=24 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313212136/http://www.yeziditruth.org/the_peacock_angel |archive-date=2016-03-13}}</ref>', 107 => '', 108 => 'In the ''[[The Baptism of Hibil Ziwa]]'', the [[Mandaeism|Mandaean]] [[uthra]] and emanation [[Yushamin]] is described as a peacock.<ref>{{cite book|last=Drower|first=Ethel S.|author-link=E. S. Drower|title=The Haran Gawaita and The Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa: The Mandaic text reproduced together with translation, notes and commentary |location=[[Vatican City]] |publisher=[[Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana]] |year=1953 |page=52}}</ref>', 109 => '', 110 => '=== Elsewhere ===', 111 => '[[File:Peacock walking.jpg|thumb|A peacock walking freely around a zoo.]]', 112 => 'Ancient Greeks believed that the flesh of peafowl did not decay after death, so it became a symbol of immortality. In Hellenistic imagery, the Greek goddess [[Hera]]'s chariot was pulled by peacocks, birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]. Alexander's tutor, [[Aristotle]], refers to it as "the Persian bird". When Alexander saw the birds in India, he was so amazed at their beauty that he threatened the severest penalties for any man who slew one.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Aelian, De Natura Animalium, book 5, chapter 21|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc&#61;urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0545.tlg001.perseus-grc1:5.21|access-date=2023-02-08|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> [[Claudius Aelianus]] writes that there were peacocks in India, larger than anywhere else.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Aelian, De Natura Animalium, book 16, chapter 2|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc&#61;urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0545.tlg001.perseus-grc1:16.2|access-date=2023-02-08|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>', 113 => '', 114 => 'One myth states that Hera's servant, the hundred-eyed [[Argus Panoptes]], was instructed to guard the woman-turned-cow, [[Io (mythology)|Io]]. Hera had transformed Io into a cow after learning of [[Zeus]]'s interest in her. Zeus had the messenger of the gods, [[Hermes]], kill Argus through eternal sleep and free Io. According to [[Ovid]], to commemorate her faithful watchman, Hera had the hundred eyes of Argus preserved forever, in the peacock's tail.<ref>[[Ovid]] I, 625. The peacock is an Eastern bird, unknown to Greeks before the time of Alexander.</ref>', 115 => '', 116 => 'The symbolism was adopted by early Christianity, thus many early Christian paintings and mosaics show the peacock. The peacock is still used in the Easter season, especially in the east.<ref>"Birds, symbolic". Peter and Linda Murray, ''Oxford Dictionary of Christian Art'' (2004).</ref> The 'eyes' in the peacock's tail feathers symbolise the all-seeing Christian God and – in some interpretations – the Church. A peacock drinking from a vase is used as a symbol of a Christian believer drinking from the waters of eternal life. The peacock can also symbolise the cosmos if one interprets its tail with its many 'eyes' as the vault of heaven dotted by the sun, moon, and stars. By Christian adoption of old Persian and Babylonian symbolism, in which the peacock was associated with Paradise and the Tree of Life, the bird is again associated with immortality. In Christian iconography, the peacock is often depicted next to the Tree of Life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.singhaniauniversity.co.in |title=Singhania University|publisher=Jewish Folk Songs |language=en |access-date=2017-05-14}}</ref>', 117 => '', 118 => 'Among [[Ashkenazi Jews]], the golden peacock is a symbol for joy and creativity, with quills from the bird's feathers being a metaphor for a writer's inspiration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishfolksongs.com/en/golden-peacock |title=The Golden Peacock |publisher=Jewish Folk Songs |language=en |access-date=2017-05-14}}</ref>', 119 => '', 120 => 'The peacock motif was revived in the [[Renaissance]] iconography that unified Hera and Juno, and on which European painters focused.<ref>Seznec, Jean (1953) ''The Survival of the Pagan Gods: Mythological Tradition in Renaissance Humanism and Art''</ref>', 121 => '', 122 => 'In 1956, John J. Graham created an abstraction of an 11-feathered [[peacock logo]] for American broadcaster [[NBC]]. This brightly hued peacock was adopted due to the increase in colour programming. NBC's first colour broadcasts showed only a still frame of the colourful peacock. The emblem made its first on-air appearance on 22 May 1956.<ref>{{cite book |title=The New York Times Encyclopedia of Television |first=Les |last=Brown |publisher=Times Books |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-8129-0721-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newyorktimesency00brow/page/328 328] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/newyorktimesency00brow/page/328 }}</ref> The current, six-feathered logo debuted on 12 May 1986.', 123 => '[[File:Peahen at the zoo.jpg|thumb|A female peafowl, or peahen, walking freely around a zoo.]]', 124 => 'A group of peacocks is called an "ostentation" or a "muster".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lipton|first=James|url=https://archive.org/details/exaltationoflark0000lipt_x7z9|url-access=registration|title=An Exaltation of Larks|date=1991|publisher=Viking|isbn=978-0-670-30044-0|language=en}}</ref>', 125 => '', 126 => '<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">', 127 => 'File:Caucasian albanian stone azerbaijan mingechaur2.jpg|Stone from [[Mingachevir Church Complex]].', 128 => 'File:Kesi roundel with five-clawed dragon design.jpg|Roundel with five-clawed dragon design, [[Qing-dynasty]] China, late 17th century. Individual peacock feather [[barbule]]s were placed, among silk and metal threads, to highlight the scales of the dragon. Metropolitan Museum, NYC.', 129 => '</gallery>', 130 => '', 131 => '=== Depictions in culture ===', 132 => '<gallery mode="nolines" widths="200px" heights="200px">', 133 => 'File:Murugan by Raja Ravi Varma.jpg|Lord [[Kartikeya]] with his wives on his peacock mount.', 134 => 'File:Abramishvili1.JPG|"Peacock" by [[Merab Abramishvili]].', 135 => 'File:The Annunciation, with Saint Emidius - Carlo Crivelli - National Gallery.jpg|In the 1486 painting ''Annunciation with St. Emidius'' by [[Carlo Crivelli]]'', a peacock is sitting on the roof above the praying [[Virgin Mary]].', 136 => 'File:PeacockInTheWoods.jpg|Painting by [[Abbott Thayer]] and Richard Meryman for [[Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom|Thayer's 1909 book]], wrongly suggesting that the peacock's plumage was [[camouflage]].', 137 => 'File:Pavo Cristafus- Common Pea Fowl. 64.98.209.jpg|Common Pea Fowl, John Gould, c.1880 [[Brooklyn Museum]].', 138 => 'File:Bowl with Peacock Motif, ca. 1200–1230, 78.81.jpg|Syrian Bowl with Peacock Motif, c. 1200 [[Brooklyn Museum]].', 139 => 'File:Golingeswara temple complex Biccavole 02.jpg|Peacock sculpture at Golingeshwara temple complex in [[Biccavolu]], India.', 140 => 'File:Peacock on a brass chariot of Searsole Rajbari, West Bengal, India.jpg|Peacock on a brass chariot of Searsole Rajbari, West Bengal, India', 141 => '</gallery>', 142 => '', 143 => '== Gastronomy ==', 144 => '[[File:Peacock served in full plumage (detail of BRUEGHEL Taste, Hearing and Touch).jpg|thumb|A peacock served in full plumage (detail of the ''Allegory of Taste, Hearing and Touch'' by [[Jan Brueghel the Elder]], 1618).]]', 145 => 'In ancient Rome, peafowl were served as a delicacy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gillis|first=Francesca|date=2020-05-04|title=Ancient Foodies: Modern Misconceptions, Alternative Uses, and Recipes for Food in Ancient Rome|url=https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/classics_honors/26|journal=Classics Honors Projects}}</ref> The dish was introduced there in approximately 35 B.C.E. The poet [[Horace]] ridiculed the eating of peafowl, saying they tasted like chicken. Peafowl eggs were also valued. [[Petronius|Gaius Petronius]] in his [[Satyricon]] also mocked the ostentation and snobbery of eating peafowl and their eggs.', 146 => '', 147 => 'During the [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] period, various types of fowl were consumed as food, with the poorer populations (such as [[Serfdom|serfs]]) consuming more common [[bird]]s, such as [[chicken]]. However, the more wealthy [[gentry]] were privileged to eat less usual foods, such as swan, and even peafowl were consumed. On a king's table, a peacock would be for [[conspicuous consumption|ostentatious display]] as much as for [[Cuisine|culinary]] consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medieval-recipes.com/medievalrecipes/fowlrecipes.htm |title=Fowl Recipes |publisher=Medieval-Recipes.com |year=2010 |access-date=30 March 2012 }}</ref>', 148 => '', 149 => 'From the 1864 ''[[The English and Australian Cookery Book]]'', regarding occasions and preparation of the bird:', 150 => '', 151 => '<blockquote>Instead of plucking this bird, take off the skin with the greatest care, so that the feathers do not get detached or broken. Stuff it with what you like, as truffles, mushrooms, livers of fowls, bacon, salt, spice, thyme, crumbs of bread, and a bay-leaf. Wrap the claws and head in several folds of cloth, and envelope the body in buttered paper. The head and claws, which project at the two ends, must be basted with water during the cooking, to preserve them, and especially the tuft. Before taking it off the spit, brown the bird by removing the paper. Garnish with lemon and flowers. If to come on the table cold, place the bird in a wooden trencher, in the middle of which is fixed a wooden skewer, which should penetrate the body of the bird, to keep it upright. Arrange the claws and feathers in a natural manner, and the tail like a fan, supported with wire. No ordinary cook can place a peacock on the table properly. This ceremony was reserved, in the times of chivalry, for the lady most distinguished for her beauty. She carried it, amidst inspiring music, and placed it, at the commencement of the banquet, before the master of the house. At a nuptial feast, the peacock was served by the maid of honour, and placed before the bride for her to consume.<ref>{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=Edward |title=The English and Australian Cookery Book |url=https://archive.org/details/b21505524 |date=1864}}</ref></blockquote>', 152 => '', 153 => '== References ==', 154 => '{{Reflist}}', 155 => '', 156 => '== General sources ==', 157 => '* {{cite book |author=R. K. Mookerji |author-link=Radha Kumud Mukherjee |title=Chandragupta Maurya and His Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA14 |year=1966 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0405-0 }}', 158 => '', 159 => '== External links ==', 160 => '* {{wikiquote-inline}}', 161 => '* {{Commons and category-inline|Pavo cristatus|Pavo cristatus}}', 162 => '* {{wikispecies-inline|Pavo}}', 163 => '', 164 => '{{Phasianidae}}', 165 => '{{Birds in culture}}', 166 => '{{Taxonbar|from1=Q201251|from2=Q3917160|from3=Q10730907|from4=Q61865|from5=Q254636|from6=Q338996}}', 167 => '{{Authority control}}', 168 => '', 169 => '[[Category:Peafowl| ]]', 170 => '[[Category:Birds of Asia| ]]', 171 => '[[Category:Bird common names]]', 172 => '[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]', 173 => '[[Category:Paraphyletic groups]]' ]