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Variables generated for this change
| Variable | Value |
|---|---|
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Name of the user account (user_name) | '99.25.252.177' |
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Page ID (page_id) | 26295 |
Page namespace (page_namespace) | 0 |
Page title without namespace (page_title) | 'Russian Civil War' |
Full page title (page_prefixedtitle) | 'Russian Civil War' |
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Page age in seconds (page_age) | 679851730 |
Action (action) | 'edit' |
Edit summary/reason (summary) | '/* Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, early Constituent Assembly rebellions */ Deleted random info and added info that makes sense ' |
Old content model (old_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
New content model (new_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|1917–23 armed conflict in the former Russian Empire}}
{{Other uses|Russian Civil War (disambiguation)}}
{{POV|date=May 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Russian Civil War
| partof = the [[Russian Revolution]] and the [[aftermath of World War I]]
| image = [[File:Russian Civil War montage.png|370px]]
| caption = '''Clockwise from top left:'''
{{flatlist|
*Soldiers of the [[Don Army]]
*Soldiers of the [[Siberian Army]]
*Bolshevik suppression of the [[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*American troops in Vladivostok during the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Allied intervention]]
*Victims of the [[Red Terror]] in [[Crimea]]
*Hanging of workers in [[Dnipro|Yekaterinoslav]] by the [[Austro-Hungarian Army|Austrians]]
*A review of Red Army troops in Moscow.
}}
| date = [[October Revolution|7 November 1917]] – [[Yakut revolt|16 June 1923]]{{Efn|The main phase ended on 25 October 1922. Revolt against the Bolsheviks continued [[Basmachi movement|in Central Asia]] and [[Tungus Republic|the Far East]] through the 1920s and 1930s.}}<ref name=Mapolwdsley2007>{{cite book|last=Mawdsley|first=Evan|title=The Russian Civil War|location=New York|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2007|isbn=9781681770093|url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan|url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|3,230}}<ref>Последние бои на Дальнем Востоке. М., Центрполиграф, 2005.</ref><br>(5 years, 7 months and 9 days)
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = yes
| title = Peace treaties
|'''[[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]'''<br>Signed 3 March 1918<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=3|day2=3|year2=1918}})
|'''[[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)]]'''<br>Signed 2 February 1920<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=2|day2=2|year2=1920}})
|'''[[Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty]]'''<br>Signed 12 July 1920<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=7|day2=12|year2=1920}})
|'''[[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Finnish)]]'''<br>Signed 14 October 1920<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=10|day2=14|year2=1920}})
|'''[[Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty]]'''<br>Signed 11 August 1920<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=8|day2=11|year2=1920}})
|'''[[Peace of Riga]]'''<br>Signed 17 September 1921<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=9|day2=17|year2=1921}})
|'''[[Treaty of Kars]]'''<br>Signed 13 October 1921<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=9|day2=13|year2=1921}})
}}
| place = '''Former [[Russian Empire]]''', [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]], [[Bogd Khanate of Mongolia|Mongolia]], [[Uryankhay Krai|Tuva]], [[Qajar Iran|Persia]]
| result = '''[[Bolshevik]] victory''':
* Collapse of the [[Russian Republic]] and [[Russian State (1918–1920)|Russian State]]
* [[Execution of the Romanov family|Execution]] of the [[House of Romanov|Russian Imperial family]]
* Defeat of the [[White movement]] and [[White émigré|its exodus]]
* Creation of the [[Soviet Union]] in most of the former Empire
* Creation of Bolshevist [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolian]] and [[Tuvan People's Republic|Tuvan]] states
* [[Philosophers' ships|Expulsion]] of many prominent Russian intellectuals and activists
* Beginning of [[Anti-Soviet partisans|anti-Bolshevik resistance]]
{{Ubl
| '''Partial victory by [[Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War|independence movements]]''':<ref name=Bullock2008>{{cite book|last=Bullock|first=David|title=The Russian Civil War 1918–22.|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84603-271-4|location=Oxford|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ|access-date=26 December 2017|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140213/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|7}}}}
* [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], and [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] gain independence
* [[Ukrainian People's Republic|Ukraine]], [[Belarusian People's Republic|Belarus]], [[Georgian Democratic Republic|Georgia]], [[First Armenian Republic|Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]], [[Moldavian Democratic Republic|Moldavia]] and many other nations of the former Russian Empire are either annexed by the Bolsheviks or by other nations
* Socialist movements or Bolshevik puppet states in [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic|Finland]], [[Commune of the Working People of Estonia|Estonia]], [[Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic|Latvia]], [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–19)|Lithuania]] and [[Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee|Poland]] defeated
| territory = {{Collapsible list
| bullets = yes
| title = Cessions to [[Bolshevik]] states
| Establishment of the [[Soviet Union]]
| Establishment of [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolian]] and [[Tanna Tuva|Tuvan]] republics
| Cession of [[Central Russia|Russia proper]], [[Kuban]], [[Don (river)|Don]], [[Eastern Karelia]], [[Siberia]] and [[Russian Far East|Far East]]; [[Central Ukraine|Central]], [[Southern Ukraine|Southern]], and [[Eastern Ukraine]]; [[Eastern Belorussia|Eastern Belarus]], [[Northern Caucasus]], [[South Caucasus|Transcaucasia]] and [[Central Asia]] to the Soviet Union
| Joint Sino-Soviet administration of the [[Chinese Eastern Railway]] [[Return of the Chinese Eastern Railway|until 1952]]
| Cession of [[Uryankhay Krai]] to Tuva
| Cession of [[Bogd Khanate of Mongolia|Bogd Khanate]] to Mongolia
}}
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = yes
| title = Cessions to [[Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War|national separatists]]
| Independence of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland
| Cession of [[Vistula Land|Vistula]], [[Western Belorussia|Western Belarus]] and [[Western Ukraine]] to Poland
| Cession of [[Grand Duchy of Finland|Grand Duchy]] and [[Pechengsky District|Petsamo]] to Finland
| Cession of [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia|Autonomous Governorate]] to Estonia
| Cession of [[Governorate of Livonia|Southern Livonia]] and [[Courland Governorate|Courland]] to Latvia
| Cession of [[Vilna Governorate|Northern Vilna]] and [[Kovno Governorate]] to Lithuania
}}
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = yes
| title = Cessions to other nations
| Cession of [[Bessarabian Governorate|Bessarabia]] to [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]]
| Cession of [[Kars Oblast|Kars]] to [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|Turkey]]
| Cession of concessions in [[Russian concession of Tianjin|Tianjin]] and [[Hankou]] to [[Beiyang government|China]]
}}
| combatants_header= Main belligerents
| combatant1 = {{Ubl
|'''[[Bolshevik Party|Bolsheviks]]''':
| '''{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Russian SFSR]]'''<br>{{small|(1917–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919-1929).svg}} [[Ukrainian SSR]]<br>{{small|({{flagicon image|Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic of the Soviets.svg|size=15px}} [[Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets|1917–18]]; [[Ukrainian Soviet Republic|1918]]; 1919–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919-1927).svg}} [[Byelorussian SSR|Belarusian SSR]]<br>{{small|({{flagicon image|Flag_of_Byelorussian_SSR_(1919-1927).png|size=15px}} [[Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia|1919]]; {{flagicon image|Flag of the Lithuanian-Byelorussian SSR.svg|size=15px}} [[Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia|1919–20]];<br>1920–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Ru transcaucasia1922.png}} [[Transcaucasian SFSR]] {{small|(1922)}}
| '''{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Soviet Union]]'''<br>{{small|(after 1922)}}
}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
| {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic|Bessarabian SSR]]<br>({{small|1919}})
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic|Finnish SWR]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Donets-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic|D-KRSR]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Odessa Soviet Republic|Odessa SR]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic|Taurida SSR]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Commune of the Working People of Estonia.svg}} [[Commune of the Working People of Estonia|Estonian Commune]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic (1918–1920).svg}} [[Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic|Latvian SSR]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Lithuanian-Byelorussian SSR.svg}} [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–19)|Lithuanian SSR]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flagdeco|Far Eastern Republic}} [[Far Eastern Republic]]<br>{{small|(1920–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Galician SSR.svg}} [[Galician Soviet Socialist Republic|Galician SSR]]<br>{{small|(1920)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Polrewkom]]<br>{{small|(1920)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Persian Socialist Soviet Republic.svg}} [[Persian SSR]]<br>{{small|(1920–21)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922).svg}} [[Armenian SSR]]<br>{{small|(1920–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1920).svg}} [[Azerbaijan SSR]]<br>{{small|(1920–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1922).svg}} [[Georgian SSR]]<br>{{small|(1921–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Khiva 1920-1923.svg}} [[Khorezm People's Soviet Republic|Khorezm PSR]]<br>{{small|(after 1920)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic.svg}} [[Bukharan People's Soviet Republic|Bukharan PSR]]<br>{{small|(after 1920)}}
}}
----
{{ubl
| '''Supported by''':
| {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Chinese Communist Party (Pre-1996).svg}} [[Chinese in the Russian Revolution and in the Russian Civil War|Chinese communists]]<br>{{small|(1917–23)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Latvian Riflemen#Red Latvian Riflemen|Red Latvian Riflemen]]<br>{{small|(1917–20)}}
| {{flag|Lithuania}}{{Efn|[[Soviet-Polish War]].}}<br>{{small|(1919–20)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the People's Republic of Mongolia (1921-1924).svg}} [[Mongolian People's Party|MPP]]<br>{{small|(1920–23)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of United Kingdom.svg}} [[Murmansk Legion]]{{efn|[[Viena expedition#British Intervention]]}}<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}}}
| combatant2 = {{Ubl
|{{nowrap|'''{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Russian Republic (1917–1918)|Russian Republic]]'''{{Efn|''De facto'' deposed after the [[Bolshevik Coup]] of November 1917; formally abolished in January 1918 after the dissolution of the [[Russian Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]].}}}}<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}}}
----
{{Ubl
|'''[[White movement|White Guards]]'''{{nobold|:}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[General Command of the Armed Forces of South Russia|South Russia]]<br>{{small|(1917–19; [[South Russian Government|Mar–Apr]],<br>[[Government of South Russia|Apr–Nov 1920]])}}
| '''{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Russian State]]'''<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Eastern Okraina]]<br>{{small|(1920)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Provisional Priamurye Government]]<br>{{small|(after 1921)}}
}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = {{nowrap|Also{{nobold|:}}}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Ural_government_(1918).svg}} [[Provisional Regional Government of the Urals]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Provisional Siberian Government.svg}} [[Provisional Siberian Government (Omsk)|Omsk Siberian Government]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Provisional Siberian Government.svg}} [[Provisional Siberian Government (Vladivostok)|Vladivostok Siberian Government]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly|Komuch]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Supreme Administration of the Northern Region|North Russia]]<br>{{small|(1918, [[Provisional Government of the Northern Region|1918–20]])}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Regional Government of Northwest Russia|Northwest Russia]] {{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Crimean Regional_Government.svg}} [[Crimean Regional Government|Crimea]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flagicon|Don Republic}} [[Don Republic]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Kuban People's Republic.svg}} [[Kuban People's Republic|Kuban Republic]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
}}
----
{{ubl
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
|'''Supported by''':
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Alash Autonomy.svg}} [[Alash Autonomy|Alash-Orda]]<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
|[[File:Flag of Bogd Khaanate Mongolia.svg|23px]] [[Bogd Khanate|Mongolia]]<br>{{small|(1921)}}
|{{flagicon image|State flag of Persia (1907–1933).svg|23px}} [[Qajar Iran|Persia]]<br>{{small|(1919–20)}}}}
| combatant3 = {{ubl
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
|'''[[Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War|Separatists]]''':
|{{flagdeco|Poland|1919}} [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]<br>{{small|(1918–21)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Finland (1918–1920).svg}} [[Finland]]<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic 1917.svg}} [[Ukrainian People's Republic|Ukraine]]<br>{{small|(1917–18; 1918–20)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Belarus (1918, 1991–1995).svg}} [[Belarusian People's Republic|Belarus]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
|{{flag|Estonia}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
|{{flag|Latvia}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
|{{flag|Lithuania}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
| 5={{flagicon image|Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic 1917.svg}} [[West Ukrainian People's Republic|West Ukraine]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| 6={{flagicon image|Flaga Litwy Środkowej.svg|23px}} [[Republic of Central Lithuania|Central Lithuania]]<br>{{small|(1920–22)}}
| 7={{flagicon image|Flag of the Moldavian Democratic Republic.svg|23px}} [[Moldavian Democratic Republic|Moldavia]]<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
| 8=[[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic|Transcaucasia]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| 9={{flagicon|Democratic Republic of Georgia}} [[Democratic Republic of Georgia|Georgia]]<br>{{small|(1918–21)}}
| 10={{flagicon image|Flag of the First Republic of Armenia.svg}} [[First Republic of Armenia|Armenia]]<br>{{small|(1918–20; [[Republic of Mountainous Armenia|1921]])}}
| 11={{flagicon image|Flag of the Turkestan (Kokand) Autonomy.svg}} [[Turkestan Autonomy|Turkestan]]<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
| 12={{flagicon image|Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg}} [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspia]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| 13={{flagicon image|Flag of the Republic of Aras.svg}} [[Republic of Aras|Aras]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| 14={{flagicon image|Flag of North Caucasian Emirate.svg}} [[North Caucasian Emirate|Caucasian Emirate]]<br>{{small|(1919–20)}}
| 15={{flagicon image|Flag of Azerbaijan 1918.svg}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| 16={{flagicon image|Flag of the Mountain Republic.svg}} [[Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus|Northern Caucasus]]<br>{{small|(1917–21)}}
| 17={{flagicon image|Flag of Green Ukraine.svg}} [[Green Ukraine]]<br>{{small|(1918–22)}}
| 18=[[State of Buryat-Mongolia|Buryat-Mongolia]]<br>{{small|(1917–21)}}
| 19={{flagicon image|flag of the German Empire.svg}} [[Yakutia (1918)|Yakutia]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| 20={{flagicon image|Confederated Republic of Altai Flag.svg}} [[Karakorum Government|Altai]]<br>{{small|(1917–20; 1921–22)}}
| 23={{flagicon image|Karelian National Flag.svg}} [[Republic of Uhtua|Karelia]]<br>{{small|(1918–20; [[Olonets Government of Southern Karelia|1920]]; [[Karelian United Government|1920–23]])}}
| 24={{flagicon image|Ingrian people.svg}} [[North Ingria]]<br>{{small|(1919–20)}}
| 27=[[File:Bandera del Turquestan.svg|23px]] [[Basmachi movement|Basmachi]]<br>{{small|(1918–22)}}
| 28=[[File:Flag of the Emirate of Bukhara.svg|23px]] [[Emirate of Bukhara|Bukhara]]<br>{{small|(1920)}}
| 29={{flagicon image|Flag of the Khanate of Khiva.svg}} [[Khanate of Khiva|Khiva]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}}}
----
{{Ubl
|'''Supported by''':
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Sweden.svg}} [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]]{{efn|[[Finnish Civil War]]}}<br>{{small|(1918)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Hungary (1918-1919).svg}} [[First Hungarian Republic|Hungary]]{{efn|[[Polish-Soviet War]]}}<br>{{small|(1919–20)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1919–1921).svg}} [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]{{efn|[[Basmachi movement]]}}<br>{{small|(until 1922)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Finland.svg}} [[Republic of Finland|Finland]]{{efn|[[Heimosodat]]}}<br>{{small|(1918–20; 1921–22)}}
}}
| combatant1a = {{Ubl
|'''Anti-Bolshevik Left''':
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries|Left SRs]]{{Efn|Aligned with the Bolsheviks until March 1918, when they fell out over the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. Most Left SRs opposed the Bolsheviks afterward, but a minority of Left SRs remained allied to the Bolsheviks for years after.}}<br>{{small|(1917–21)}}
| {{flagicon image|Darker green and Black flag.svg}} [[Green armies|Green Army]]{{Efn|Aligned with the Bolsheviks until 1919; opposed after.}}<br>{{small|(1918–21)}}
| {{flagicon image|Махновское знамя.svg}} [[Makhnovshchina]]{{Efn|Aligned with the Bolsheviks until 1920; opposed after.}}<br>{{small|(1918–21)}}
| {{flagicon image|Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt flag.svg}} [[Kronstadt rebels]]<br>{{small|(1921)}}
}}
| combatant2a = {{Ubl
|'''[[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Allied Powers]]''':
| {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}{{Efn|Japan also stayed in North [[Sakhalin]] [[Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention|until 1925]].}}<br>{{small|(1918–22)}}
| {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flag|United States|1912}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| {{flagcountry|First Czechoslovak Republic|1918}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Greece|state}}
| {{flagicon|Kingdom of Serbia}} [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]]<br>{{small|({{flagicon|Kingdom of Yugoslavia|size=15px}} [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes|after 1918]])}}
| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}}
| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}}
| {{flagdeco|Republic of China (1912–1949)|1912}} [[Beiyang government|China]]
| {{flag|Canada|1868}}<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flag|Australia}}<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flag|British Raj|name=India}}
| {{flag|Union of South Africa|name=South Africa|1912}}}}
| combatant3a = {{Ubl
|{{nowrap|'''[[Central Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War|Central Powers]]''':}}
| {{nowrap|{{flagcountry|German Empire|name=Germany}}}}<br>{{small|(1917–18; {{flagicon|Weimar Republic|size=15px}} [[Weimar Republic|1919]])}}
| {{nowrap|{{flagcountry|Austria-Hungary}}}}<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
| {{nowrap|{{flagcountry|Ottoman Empire}}}}<br>{{small|(1917–18; {{flagicon|Turkey|size=15px}} [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|1920–21]])}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Iron Division Freikorps.svg}} [[Freikorps in the Baltic|Freikorps]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Collaborators{{nobold|:}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Poland.svg}} [[Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)|Kingdom of Poland]]<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Finland (1918–1920).svg}} [[Kingdom of Finland (1918)|Kingdom of Finland]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Lithuania (1918–1940).svg}} [[Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)|Kingdom of Lithuania]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Belarus (1918, 1991–1995).svg}} [[Belarusian People's Republic|Belarus]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukranian State.svg}} [[Ukrainian State]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of Georgia}} [[Democratic Republic of Georgia|Georgia]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Baltic German.svg}} [[Baltische Landeswehr|Landeswehr]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagicon image|WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg|size=23px}} [[West Russian Volunteer Army|Bermontians]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}{{efn|Official allegiance to the [[Russian State]]<br>Unofficial allegiance to the [[German Empire]]}}
}}
| commander1 = {{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Vladimir Lenin]]<br>{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Leon Trotsky]]<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Jukums Vācietis]]<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Yakov Sverdlov]]<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Sergey Kamenev|S. Kamenev]]<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Nikolai Podvoisky|N. Podvoisky]]<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Joseph Stalin]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919-1929).svg}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Yukhym Medvedev|Y. Medvedev]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1919-1927).svg}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Vilhelm Knorin]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Far Eastern Republic.svg}} [[Alexander Krasnoshchyokov|A. Krasnoshchyokov]]
| commander2 = {{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Alexander Kerensky|A. Kerensky]]{{Surrendered}}}}<br>{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Alexander Kolchak]]{{Executed}}}} <br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Lavr Kornilov]]{{KIA}} <br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Anton Denikin]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Pyotr Wrangel]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Nikolai Yudenich]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov|Grigory Semyonov]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Yevgeny Miller]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}}{{flagicon|Don Republic}} [[Pyotr Krasnov]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}}[[File:Flag of Bogd Khaanate Mongolia.svg|12px]] [[Roman von Ungern-Sternberg|R. von Ungern]]{{Executed}}
| commander3 = {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Poland|1919}} [[Józef Piłsudski]]}}<br>{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of Finland (1918–1920).svg}} [[C.G.E. Mannerheim]]}}<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic 1917.svg}} [[Symon Petliura]]<br>{{flagdeco|Estonia}} [[Konstantin Päts]]<br>{{flagdeco|Latvia}} [[Jānis Čakste]]<br>{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|Lithuania}} [[Antanas Smetona]]}}<br>{{flagicon image|Karelian National Flag.svg}} [[S. Tikhonov]]<br>{{flagicon|Democratic Republic of Georgia}} [[Noe Zhordania]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the First Republic of Armenia.svg}} [[Alexander Khatisian|A. Khatisian]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Azerbaijan 1918.svg}} [[Nasib bey Yusifbeyli|Nasib Yusifbeyli]]
| commander1a = {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Vladimir Vol'skii|Vladimir Volsky]]<br>{{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Maria Spiridonova]]<br>{{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Nykyfor Hryhoriv]]{{KIA|Killed in Action}}<br>{{flagicon image|Махновское знамя.svg}} [[Nestor Makhno]]<br>{{flagicon image|Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt flag.svg}} [[Stepan Maximovich Petrichenko|Stepan Petrichenko]]<br>{{small|[[Leaders of the Russian Civil War|…''and others'']]}}
| commander2a = {{flagdeco|Empire of Japan}} [[Otani Kikuzo]]<br>{{flagdeco|United Kingdom}} [[Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside|Edmund Ironside]]<br>{{flagdeco|United States|1912}} [[William S. Graves]]<br>{{flagicon|Czechoslovakia|1918}} [[Radola Gajda]]<br>{{flagdeco|France|1830}} [[Maurice Janin]]<br>{{small|…''and others''}}
| commander3a = {{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Hermann von Eichhorn|H. von Eichhorn]]{{KIA}}<br>{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]]<br>{{flagdeco|Belarus|1991|link=no}} [[Jan Sierada]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukranian State.svg}} [[Pavlo Skoropadskyi]]<br>{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg|size=23px}} [[Pavel Bermondt-Avalov|P. Bermondt-Avalov]]}}<br>{{small|…''and others''}}
| strength1 = {{Ubl
|[[File:Soviet Red Army Hammer and Plough.svg|15px]] [[Red Army]]:<br>5,498,000 {{small|(peak)}}{{sfn|Erickson|1984|p=763}}{{efn|The Red Army peaked in October 1920 with 5,498,000: 2,587,000 in reserves, 391,000 in labor armies, 159,000 on the front and 1,780,000 drawing rations}}}}
----
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon image|Death to oppressors of workers.svg}} [[Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine|Makhnovtsi]]:<br>103,000 {{small|(peak)}}<ref>Belash, Victor & Belash, Aleksandr, ''Dorogi Nestora Makhno'', p. 340</ref>
|{{flagicon image|Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg}} [[Green armies|Green Army]]:<br>70,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt flag.svg}} [[Kronstadt rebellion|Kronstadt Mutineers]]:<br>17,961}}
| strength2 = {{Ubl
|[[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[White Army]]:<br>1,023,000 {{small|(peak)}}{{efn|683,000 active<br>340,000 reserve}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = no
| title = Local forces{{nobold|:}}
| [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[Armed Forces of South Russia|AFSR]]: 270,000 {{small|(peak)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Siberia.svg}} [[Siberian Army]]: 60,000 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:Flag of the Ural government (1918).svg|23px]] [[People's Army of Komuch|Komuch Army]]: 30,000 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:СЗА нарукавный знак.JPG|15px]] [[Northwestern Army (Russia)|Northwestern Army]]: 18,500 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[Northern Army (Russia)|Northern Army]]: 54,700 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[Western Army of the White Movement|Western Army]]: 48,000 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[Orenburg Independent Army|Orenburg Army]]: 25,000 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[Ural Army]]: 17,200 {{small|(peak)}}}}
----
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon image|War flag of the Imperial Japanese Army (1868–1945).svg}} [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese Army]]: 70,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|[[File:Coat of arms of the Czechoslovak Legion.svg|15px]] [[Czechoslovak Legion]]: 50,000 {{small|(peak)}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
|{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[American Expeditionary Force, Siberia|AEF, Siberia]]:<br>7,950
|{{flagicon|United Kingdom|1801}} [[British Army]]:<br>57,636<ref>Damien Wright, ''Churchill's Secret War with Lenin: British and Commonwealth Military Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1918–20'', Solihull, UK, 2017, pp. 394, 526–528, 530–535; Clifford Kinvig, ''Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia 1918–1920'', London 2006, {{ISBN|1-85285-477-4}}, p. 297; Timothy Winegard, ''The First World Oil War'', University of Toronto Press (2016), p. 229</ref>
|{{flagicon|Kingdom of Romania}} [[Romanian Army]]:<br>50,000
|{{flagicon|France|1830}} [[French Army]]:<br>15,600
|{{army|Greece}}:<br>23,000
|{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} [[Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force|CSEF]]:<br>~5,000
|{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[American Expeditionary Force, North Russia|AEF, North Russia]]:<br>5,000
|{{flagicon image|Flag_of_Italy_(1860).svg}} [[Legione Redenta]]:<br>2,500
|[[File:Beiyang star.svg|15px]] [[Beiyang Army]]:<br>2,300
|{{flagicon|Kingdom of Serbia}} [[Serbian Army]]:<br>2,000
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Royal Indian Army.svg}} [[British Indian Army]]:<br>950
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Australia (converted).svg}} [[Australian Army]]:<br>150}}
| strength3 = {{Ubl
|[[File:Orzełek II RP.svg|12px]] [[Polish Armed Forces (Second Polish Republic)|Polish Army]]: ~1,000,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|[[File:Coat of arms of Finland.svg|12px]] [[Finnish Army]]:<br>90,000 {{small|(peak)}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
|[[File:Coat of Arms of UNR.svg|15px]] [[Ukrainian People's Army|Ukrainian Army]]: 100,000 {{small|(peak)}}
----
'''Supported by''':
|[[File:Infantry_Colour_of_the_Royal_Hungarian_Defence_Forces_(1939-1945).svg|15px]] [[Royal Hungarian Army|Hungarian Army]]:<br>30,000 {{small|(peak)}}
----
|[[File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Latvian_National_Armed_Forces.svg|15px]] [[Latvian National Armed Forces|Latvian Army]]:<br>69,232 {{small|(peak)}}
|[[File:Maavagi_crest.svg|15px]] [[Estonian Defence Forces|Estonian Army]]:<br>86,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|[[File:Insignia_of_the_Lithuanian_Armed_Forces.svg|15px]] [[Lithuanian Armed Forces|Lithuanian Army]]:<br>20,000 {{small|(peak)}}
----
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Finland (1918–1920).svg}} [[White Guard (Finland)|Finnish Volunteers]]:<br>8,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Karel.svg}} [[Forest Guerrillas]]:<br>2,000 {{small|(peak)}}
----
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Swedish Brigade (Ruotsalainen prikaati).svg}} [[Swedish Brigade]]:<br>1,000 {{small|(peak)}}}}
----
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon image|Kaiserstandarte.svg}} [[German Army (German Empire)|German Army]]:<br>~547,000 {{small|(peak)}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag_of_Germany_(3-2_aspect_ratio).svg}} [[Weimar Republic|Saxon Volunteers]]:<br>10,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ottoman Empire.svg}} [[Islamic Army of the Caucasus|Caucasus Army]]:<br>20,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Turkey.svg}} [[Turkish Land Forces|Turkish Army]]:<br>20,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Iron Division Freikorps.svg}} [[Freikorps in the Baltic|Iron Division]]:<br>14,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Baltic German.svg}} [[Baltische Landeswehr|Landeswehr]]:<br>10,500 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg}} [[West Russian Volunteer Army|Bermontians]]:<br>50,000 {{small|(peak)}}}}
| casualties1 = {{Ubl
|{{flagicon image|Red Army flag.svg}} ~1,500,000<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last1=Smele |first1=Jon |title=The "Russian" Civil Wars, 1916–1926 : ten years that shook the world |date=2015 |location=New York |isbn=9780190613211 |page=160}}</ref>}}
* 259,213 killed<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 60,059 missing<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 616,605 died of disease/wounds<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 3,878 died in accidents/suicides<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 548,857 wounded/frostbitten{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=7-38}}{{efn|There were an additional 6,242,926 hospitalizations from sickness.}}
| casualties2 = {{ubl
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} ~1,500,000<ref name="auto"/>}}
* 127,000 killed<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 784,000 executed/dead<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 450,000 wounded/sick<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
----
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon|Czechoslovakia|1918}} 13,000 killed
|{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan}} 6,500 killed
|{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} 938+ killed<ref>Damien Wright, ''Churchill's Secret War with Lenin: British and Commonwealth Military Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1918–20'', Solihull, UK, 2017, pp. 490–492, 498–500, 504; Clifford Kinvig, ''Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia 1918–1920'', London 2006, {{ISBN|1-85285-477-4}}, pp. 289, 315; Timothy Winegard, ''The First World Oil War'', University of Toronto Press (2016), p. 208; [[Malleson mission#Casualties|Malleson Mission – Casualties]]</ref>
|{{flagicon|United States|1912}} 596 killed
|{{flagicon|Romania}} 350 killed
| {{flagicon|Kingdom of Greece|state}} 179 killed}}
| casualties3 = {{Ubl
|{{flagicon|Poland|1919}} ~250,000}}
* 57,000 killed
* 113,000 wounded
* 50,000 POWs
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon|Ukraine}} ~125,000}}
* 15,000 killed
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Finland (1918–1920).svg}} ~5,000}}
* 3,500 killed
* 1,650 executed/dead
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon|Estonia}} 3,888 killed
|{{flagicon|Latvia}} 3,046 killed
|{{flagicon|Lithuania}} 1,444 killed<ref>{{harvnb|Eidintas|Žalys|Senn|1999|p=30}}</ref>
|{{flagicon|Sweden}} 55 killed}}
----
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon|German Empire}} 500 killed}}
| casualties4 = '''7,000,000–12,000,000 total casualties, including<br>civilians and non-combatants'''<br>
1–2 million [[White émigré|refugees]] outside Russia
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Russian Civil War}}
}}
The '''Russian Civil War''' ({{lang-rus|links=no|Гражданская война в России|Grazhdanskaya voyna v Rossii}}; 7 November 1917 — 16 June 1923)<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" /> was a multi-party [[civil war]] in the [[Russian Empire]] sparked by the overthrowing of the social-democratic [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[October Revolution]], as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. It resulted in the formation of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic]] and later the [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] in most of its territory. Its finale marked the end of the [[Russian Revolution]], which was one of the [[key events of the 20th century]].
The [[List of Russian monarchs|Russian monarchy]] ended with the abdication of Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] during the [[February Revolution]], and Russia was in a state of political flux. A tense summer culminated in the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]]-led [[October Revolution]], overthrowing the [[Russian Provisional Government|Provisional Government]] of the new [[Russian Republic]]. Bolshevik seizure of power was not universally accepted, and the country descended into civil war. The two largest combatants were the [[Red Army]], fighting for the establishment of a [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Bolshevik-led]] [[socialist state]] headed by [[Vladimir Lenin]], and the loosely allied forces known as the [[White movement|White Army]], which functioned as a political [[big tent]] for [[right-wing politics|right]]- and [[left-wing politics|left-wing]] opposition to Bolshevik rule. In addition, rival militant socialists, notably the [[Anarchism in Ukraine|Ukrainian anarchists]] of the [[Makhnovshchina]] and [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries]], were involved in conflict against the Bolsheviks. They, as well as non-ideological [[green armies]], opposed the Bolsheviks, the Whites and the foreign interventionists.<ref name="britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513737/Russian-Civil-War Russian Civil War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826234907/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513737/Russian-Civil-War |date=26 August 2009 }} [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online 2012</ref> Thirteen foreign nations intervened against the Red Army, notably the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Allied intervention]], whose primary goal was re-establishing the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War I]]. Three foreign nations of the [[Central Powers]] also intervened, rivaling the Allied intervention with the main goal of retaining the territory they had received in the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with Soviet Russia.
The Bolsheviks initially consolidated control over most of the former empire. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was an emergency peace with the [[German Empire]], who had captured vast swathes of the Russian territory during the chaos of the revolution. In May 1918, [[Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion|the Czechoslovak Legion in Russia revolted]] in Siberia. In reaction, the Allies began their [[North Russia intervention|North Russian]] and [[Siberian intervention]]s. That, combined with the creation of the [[Provisional All-Russian Government]], saw the reduction of Bolshevik-controlled territory to most of [[European Russia]] and parts of [[Central Asia]]. In 1919, the White Army launched several offensives from [[Spring offensive of the White Army|the east]] in March, [[Advance on Moscow (1919)|the south]] in July, and [[Battle of Petrograd|west]] in October. The advances were later checked by the [[Eastern Front counteroffensive]], the [[Southern Front counteroffensive]], and the defeat of the [[Northwestern Army (Russia)|Northwestern Army]].
By 1919, the White armies were in retreat and by the start of 1920 were defeated on all three fronts.{{sfnm|1a1=Leggett|1y=1981|1p=184|2a1=Service|2y=2000|2p=402|3a1=Read|3y=2005|3p=206}} Although the Bolsheviks were victorious, the territorial extent of the Russian state had been reduced, for many non-Russian ethnic groups had used the disarray to push for national independence.{{sfn|Hall|2015|p=83}} In March 1921, during [[Polish–Soviet War|a related war against Poland]], the [[Peace of Riga]] was signed, splitting disputed territories in [[Belarusian Democratic Republic|Belarus]] and [[Ukrainian People's Republic|Ukraine]] between the [[Second Polish Republic|Republic of Poland]] and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia sought to re-conquer all newly [[Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War|independent nations]] of the former Empire, although their success was limited. [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonia]], [[Finnish Civil War|Finland]], [[Latvian War of Independence|Latvia]], and [[Lithuanian–Soviet War|Lithuania]] all repelled Soviet invasions, while [[Ukrainian–Soviet War|Ukraine]], Belarus (as a result of the [[Polish–Soviet War]]), [[Red Army invasion of Armenia|Armenia]], [[Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] and [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|Georgia]] were occupied by the Red Army.{{sfn|Lee|2003|pp=84, 88}}{{sfn|Goldstein|2013|p=50}} By 1921, Soviet Russia had defeated the Ukrainian national movements and occupied the [[Caucasus]], although [[Basmachi movement|anti-Bolshevik uprisings]] in [[Central Asia]] lasted until the late 1920s.{{sfn|Hall|2015|p=84}}
The armies under Kolchak were eventually forced on a [[Great Siberian Ice March|mass retreat eastward]]. Bolshevik forces advanced east, despite encountering resistance in [[Chita Operations|Chita]], [[Yakut revolt|Yakut]] and [[Soviet intervention in Mongolia|Mongolia]]. Soon the Red Army split the [[Don Army|Don]] and [[Volunteer Army|Volunteer armies]], forcing evacuations in [[Evacuation of Novorossiysk (1920)|Novorossiysk]] in March and [[Evacuation of the Crimea (1920)|Crimea]] in November 1920. After that, anti-Bolshevik resistance was sporadic for several years until the collapse of the White Army in [[Yakutia]] in June 1923, but continued on with the Muslim [[Basmachi movement]] in Central Asia and [[Tungus Republic|Khabarovsk Krai]] until 1934. There were an estimated 7 to 12 million casualties during the war, mostly civilians.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|287}}
==Background==
===World War I===
{{Main|World War I}}
The [[Russian Empire]] fought in World War I from 1914 alongside [[French Third Republic|France]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] ([[Triple Entente]]) against [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Austria-Hungary]] and later the [[Ottoman Empire]] ([[Central Powers]]).
===February Revolution===
{{Main|February Revolution}}
The February Revolution of 1917 resulted in the abdication of Emperor [[Nicholas II of Russia]]. As a result, the social-democratic [[Russian Provisional Government]] was established, and [[Soviet (council)|soviets]], elected councils of workers, soldiers, and peasants, were organized throughout the country, leading to a situation of [[dual power]]. Russia was proclaimed a [[Russian Republic|republic]] in September of the same year.
===October Revolution===
{{Main|October Revolution}}
The Provisional Government, led by [[Socialist Revolutionary Party]] politician [[Alexander Kerensky]], was unable to solve the most pressing issues of the country, most importantly to end the war with the Central Powers. A [[Kornilov affair|failed military coup]] by General [[Lavr Kornilov]] in September 1917 led to a surge in support for the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik party]], who [[Bolshevization of the Soviets|bolshevized the soviets]], which until then had been controlled by the Socialist Revolutionaries. Promising an end to the war and "all power to the Soviets", the Bolsheviks then ended dual power by overthrowing the Provisional Government in late October, on the eve of the [[Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies|Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets]], in what would be the second Revolution of 1917. Despite the Bolsheviks' seizure of power, they lost to the Socialist Revolutionary Party in the [[1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election]], and the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the Bolsheviks in retaliation. The Bolsheviks soon lost the support of other [[Far-left politics|far-left]] allies, such as the [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries]], after their acceptance of the terms of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] presented by the German Empire.<ref name="Stone-2011">{{Cite encyclopedia|author1-link=David R. Stone|last=Stone|first=David R.|title=Russian Civil War (1917–1920)|year=2011|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of War|editor-last=Martel|editor-first=Gordon|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781444338232.wbeow533|isbn=978-1-4051-9037-4|s2cid=153317860 }}</ref>
===Formation of the Red Army===
{{Main|Red Army}}
From mid-1917 onwards, the [[Russian Army (1917)|Russian Army]], the successor-organisation of the old [[Imperial Russian Army]], started to disintegrate;<ref>{{harvnb|Calder|1976|p=166}} "[...] the Russian Army disintegrated after the failure of the Galician offensive in July 1917."</ref> the Bolsheviks used the volunteer-based [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guards]] as their main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the [[Cheka]] (the Bolshevik state [[Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies|secret police]]). In January 1918, after significant Bolshevik reverses in combat, the future [[People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Russian SFSR|Russian People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs]] [[Leon Trotsky]] headed the reorganization of the Red Guards into a ''Workers' and Peasants' Red Army'' in order to create a more effective fighting force. The Bolsheviks appointed [[political commissars]] to each unit of the Red Army to maintain morale and to ensure loyalty.
In June 1918, when it had become apparent that a revolutionary army composed solely of workers would not suffice, Trotsky instituted mandatory [[Conscription in the Soviet Union|conscription]] of the rural peasantry into the Red Army.<ref>{{harvnb|Read|1996|p=237}} By 1920, 77% of the Red Army's enlisted ranks were peasant conscripts.</ref> The Bolsheviks overcame opposition of rural Russians to Red Army conscription units by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary in order to force compliance.<ref>Williams, Beryl, ''[[iarchive:russianrevolutio0000will|The Russian Revolution 1917–1921]]'', Blackwell Publishing Ltd. (1987), {{ISBN|978-0-631-15083-1}}: Typically, men of conscriptible age (17 to 40 years old) in a village would vanish when Red Army draft-units approached. The taking of hostages and a few summary executions usually brought the men back.</ref> The forced conscription drive had mixed results, successfully creating a larger army than the Whites, but with members indifferent towards [[Communism|communist ideology]].<ref name="Stone-2011" />
The Red Army also utilized former Tsarist officers as "military specialists" (''voenspetsy'');<ref name="Overy 2004">{{harvnb|Overy|2004|p=446}} By the end of the civil war, one-third of all Red Army officers were ex-Tsarist ''voenspetsy''"</ref> sometimes their families were taken hostage in order to ensure their loyalty.<ref name="Williams, Beryl 1921">Williams, Beryl, ''The Russian Revolution 1917–1921'', Blackwell Publishing Ltd. (1987), {{ISBN|978-0-631-15083-1}}</ref> At the start of the civil war, former Tsarist officers formed three-quarters of the Red Army officer-corps.<ref name="Williams, Beryl 1921"/> By its end, 83% of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers.<ref name="Overy 2004" />
===Anti-Bolshevik movement===
{{Main|White movement|Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine|Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War}}
[[File:Колчак, Нокс и английские офицеры восточного фронта.jpg|thumb|left|Admiral [[Alexander Kolchak]] (seated) and General [[Alfred Knox]] (behind Kolchak) observing military exercise, 1919]]
The [[White movement]] ({{lang-rus|[[Reforms of Russian orthography#Post-revolution reform|pre–1918]] Бѣлое движеніе / post–1918 Белое движение|r= Beloye dvizheniye|p= ˈbʲɛləɪ dvʲɪˈʐenʲɪɪ}}){{efn|The old spelling was retained by the Whites to differentiate from the Reds.}} also known as the '''Whites''' (Бѣлые / Белые, ''Beliye''), was a loose confederation of [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] forces that fought the [[Communism|communist]] [[Bolsheviks]], also known as the ''Reds'', in the Russian Civil War and that to a lesser extent continued operating as militarized associations of rebels both outside and within Russian borders in [[Siberia]] until roughly [[World War II]] (1939–1945). The movement's military arm was the [[White Army]] (Бѣлая армія / Белая армия, ''Belaya armiya''), also known as the White Guard (Бѣлая гвардія / Белая гвардия, ''Belaya gvardiya'') or White Guardsmen (Бѣлогвардейцы / Белогвардейцы, ''Belogvardeytsi'').
When the White Army was created, the structure of the [[Russian Army (1917)|Russian Army of the Provisional Government period]] was used, while almost every individual formation had its own characteristics. The military art of the White Army was based on the experience of the [[World War I|First World War]], which, however, left a strong imprint on the specifics of the Civil War.<ref>Military Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editorial Board: Alexander Gorkin, Vladimir Zolotarev et al. – Moscow: Great Russian Encyclopedia, RIPOL Classic, 2002 – 1664 Pages</ref>
During the Russian Civil War, the White movement functioned as a [[Big tent|big-tent]] political movement representing an array of political opinions in Russia united in their opposition to the Bolsheviks—from the republican-minded liberals and [[Alexander Kerensky|Kerenskyite]] social-democrats on the left through monarchists and supporters of a united multinational Russia to the ultra-nationalist [[Black Hundreds]] on the right.
====Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, early Constituent Assembly rebellions====
The [[Russian Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]] had been a demand of the Bolsheviks against the Provisional Government, which kept delaying it. After the October Revolution the elections were run by the body appointed by the previous Provisional Government. It was based on universal suffrage, but used party lists from before the Left-Right SR split. The anti-Bolshevik Right SRs [[1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election|won the elections]] with the majority of the seats,{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=111–112}} after which Lenin's ''Theses on the Constituent Assembly'' argued in ''[[Pravda]]'' that formal democracy was impossible because of class conflicts, conflicts with Ukraine and the Kadet-Kaledin uprising. He argued the Constituent Assembly must unconditionally accept sovereignty of the soviet government or it would be dealt with "by revolutionary means".{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=113–115}}
On December 30, 1917, the SR [[Nikolai Avksentiev]] and some followers were arrested for organizing a conspiracy. This was the first time Bolsheviks used this kind of repression against a socialist party. ''[[Izvestia]]'' said the arrest was not related to his membership in the Constituent Assembly.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|page=115}}
On January 4, 1918, the [[All-Russian Central Executive Committee|VTsIK]] made a resolution saying the slogan "all power to the constituent assembly" was counterrevolutionary and equivalent to "down with the soviets".{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=115–116}}
[[File:Maria Spiridonova.jpg|thumb|left|[[Maria Spiridonova]]]]
[[File:Viktor Chernov (1873-1952), Russian revolutionary (small).jpg|thumb|right|[[Viktor Chernov]]]]
The Constituent Assembly met on January 18, 1918. The Right SR Chernov was elected president defeating the Bolshevik supported candidate, the Left SR [[Maria Spiridonova]] (she would later break with the Bolsheviks and after the decades of [[gulag]], she was shot on Stalin's orders in 1941). The majority refused to accept sovereignty of the Soviet government, and in response the Bolsheviks and Left SRs walked out. It was dispersed by an armed guard, sailor Zheleznyakov.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=118–120}} A simultaneous demonstration in favor of the Constituent Assembly was dispersed with force, but there was little protest afterwards.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=120–121}}
The first large [[Cheka]] repression with some killings began against the [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]]s of Petrograd in mid-April 1918. On May 1, 1918, a pitched battle took place in Moscow between the anarchists and the police. (P.Avrich. G Maximoff)
====Constituent Assembly uprising====
The Union of Regeneration was founded in Moscow in April 1918 as an underground agency organizing democratic resistance to the Bolshevik dictatorship, composed of the Popular Socialists, Right Socialist Revolutionaries, and Defensists, among others. They were tasked with propping up anti-Bolshevik forces and to create a Russian state system based on civil liberties, patriotism, and state-consciousness with the goal to liberate the country from the "Germano-Bolshevik" yoke.<ref name=WS>[https://books.google.com/books?id=73lLeNeICXUC "White Siberia: the politics of civil war"], Norman G. O. Pereira. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, 1996. {{ISBN|0-7735-1349-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7735-1349-5}}. p. 65</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2gd7F6t2lCcC "The lost opportunity: attempts at unification of the anti-Bolsheviks, 1917–1919 : Moscow, Kiev, Jassy, Odessa"], Christopher Lazarski. {{ISBN|0-7618-4120-2}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7618-4120-3}}. p. 42-43</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mt9qzSvBrI4C "Dear comrades: Menshevik reports on the Bolshevik revolution and the civil war"], Vladimir N. Brovkin. Hoover Press, 1991. {{ISBN|0-8179-8981-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8179-8981-1}}. p. 135</ref>
On May 7, 1918, the Eighth Party Council of the [[Socialist Revolutionary Party|Party of Socialist Revolutionaries]] commenced in [[Moscow]] and recognized the Union's leading role, putting aside political ideology and class for the purpose of Russia's salvation. They decided to start an uprising against the Bolsheviks with the goal of reconvening the Russian Constituent Assembly.<ref name=WS /> While preparations were under way, the [[Czechoslovak Legion]]s overthrew Bolshevik rule in [[Siberia]], the [[Ural Mountains|Urals]] and the [[Volga River|Volga]] region in late May-early June 1918 and the center of SR activity shifted there. On June 8, 1918, five Constituent Assembly members formed the All-Russian [[Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly]] (''Komuch'') in [[Samara]] and declared it the new supreme authority in the country.<ref name="komuch">See Jonathan D. Smele. Op. cit., p.32 ("Op. cit." means to refer to a work cited earlier in the citations. this means you copied it from a citation list, and are citing something that you have not read. instead you should cite what you read and say it refers to this, or if you can get the original work and look at it then you can cite it directly.)</ref> The Social Revolutionary [[Provisional Siberian Government (Vladivostok)|Provisional Government of Autonomous Siberia]] came to power on June 29, 1918, after the uprising in [[Vladivostok]].
====Mensheviks and SRs excluded from soviets====
At the [[5th All-Russia Congress of Soviets]] of July 4, 1918, the [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries]] had 352 delegates compared to 745 Bolsheviks out of 1132 total. The Left SRs raised disagreements on the suppression of rival parties, the death penalty, and mainly, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The Bolsheviks excluded the Right SRs and Mensheviks from the government on 14 June for associating with counterrevolutionaries and seeking to "organize armed attacks against the workers and peasants" (though Mensheviks had not supported them), while the Left SRs advocated forming a government of all socialist parties. The Left SRs agreed with extrajudicial execution of political opponents to stop the counterrevolution, but opposed having the government legally pronouncing death sentences, an unusual position that is best understood within the context of the group's terrorist past. The Left SRs strongly opposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and opposed Trotsky's insistence that no one try to attack German troops in Ukraine.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=161–164}}
====Repression====
In December 1917, [[Felix Dzerzhinsky]] was appointed to the duty of rooting out [[Counter-revolutionary|counterrevolutionary]] threats to the [[Government of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]]. He was the director of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (aka [[Cheka]]), a predecessor of the KGB that served as the [[secret police]] for the Soviets.<ref name="Bird-2018" />
From early 1918, the Bolsheviks started physical elimination of opposition, other socialist and revolutionary fractions. [[Anarchism|Anarchists]] were among the first:
{{Blockquote|text=Of all the revolutionary elements in Russia it is the Anarchists who now suffer the most ruthless and systematic persecution. Their suppression by the Bolsheviki began already in 1918, when — in the month of April of that year — the Communist Government attacked, without provocation or warning, the Anarchist Club of Moscow and by the use of machine guns and artillery "liquidated" the whole organisation. It was the beginning of Anarchist hounding, but it was sporadic in character, breaking out now and then, quite planless, and frequently self-contradictory.|author=[[Alexander Berkman]], [[Emma Goldman]]|title="Bolsheviks Shooting Anarchists"<ref name="Berkman">{{cite journal |last1=Berkman |first1=Alexander |author-link1=Alexander Berkman |last2=Goldman |first2=Emma |author-link2=Emma Goldman |date=January 1922 |title=Bolsheviks Shooting Anarchists |url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman-alexander-berkman-bolsheviks-shooting-anarchists |journal=Freedom |volume=36 |issue=391 |page=4 |doi= |access-date=9 May 2023}}</ref>}}
On 11 August 1918, prior to the events that would officially catalyze the [[Red Terror]], [[Vladimir Lenin]] had [[Lenin's Hanging Order|sent telegrams]] "to introduce mass terror" in [[Nizhny Novgorod]] in response to a suspected civilian uprising there, and to "crush" landowners in [[Penza]] who resisted, sometimes violently, the requisitioning of their grain by military detachments:<ref name=BlackBook_chptr4>{{harvp|Werth, Bartosek et al.|1999|loc=Chapter 4: The Red Terror.}}
</ref>
{{blockquote|Comrades! The [[kulak]] uprising in your five districts must be crushed without pity ... You must make example of these people.
: (1) Hang (I mean hang publicly, so that people see it) at least 100 kulaks, rich bastards, and known bloodsuckers.
: (2) Publish their names.
: (3) Seize all their grain.
: (4) Single out the hostages per my instructions in yesterday's telegram.
Do all this so that for miles (versts) around people see it all, understand it, tremble, and tell themselves that we are killing the bloodthirsty kulaks and that we will continue to do so ...
Yours, Lenin.
P.S. Find tougher people.|source=[[Lenin's Hanging Order]]}}
In a mid-August 1920 letter, having received information that in Estonia and Latvia, with which Soviet Russia had concluded peace treaties, volunteers were being enrolled in anti-Bolshevik detachments, Lenin wrote to E. M. Sklyansky, deputy chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic:<ref name="litvinalkbterror">{{ill|Alter Litvin|ru|Литвин, Алтер Львович}} «Красный и Белый террор в России в 1917—1922 годах» ISBN 5-87849-164-8</ref>
{{blockquote|Great plan! Finish it with Dzerzhinsky. While pretending to be the "greens" (we will blame them later), we will advance by 10–20 miles (versts) and hang kulaks, priests, landowners. Prize: 100.000 rubles for each hanged man.}}
[[Leonid Kannegisser]], a young [[military cadet]] of the [[Imperial Russian Army]], assassinated [[Moisey Uritsky]] on August 17, 1918, outside the [[Petrograd]] Cheka headquarters in retaliation for the execution of his friend and other officers.<ref>[http://www.lib.ru/POLITOLOG/MELGUNOW/terror.txt Melgunov, S.P. ''Red Terror'' in Russia] {{in lang|ru}}</ref>
[[File:Lenin attempt.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Vladimir Pchelin's depiction of the assassination attempt on Lenin]]
On August 30, [[Socialist Revolutionary Party|Socialist Revolutionary]] [[Fanny Kaplan]] unsuccessfully [[Assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin|attempted to assassinate]] [[Vladimir Lenin]].<ref name=":11">Wilde, Robert. 2019 February 20. "[https://www.thoughtco.com/the-red-terror-1221808 The Red Terror]." ''ThoughtCo''. Retrieved March 24, 2021.</ref> and sought to eliminate [[political dissent]], opposition, and any other threat to Bolshevik power.<ref>Llewellyn, Jennifer; McConnell, Michael; Thompson, Steve (11 August 2019). [https://alphahistory.com/russianrevolution/red-terror/ "The Red Terror"]. ''Russian Revolution''. Alpha History. Retrieved 4 August 2021.</ref> More broadly, the term is usually applied to [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|Bolshevik political repression]] throughout the Civil War (1917–1922),<ref>Melgunov, Sergey [1925] 1975. ''The Red Terror in Russia''. Hyperions. {{ISBN|0-88355-187-X}}.</ref><ref>[[Sergei Melgunov|Melgunov, Sergei]]. 1927. "[http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/redterror.pdf The Record of the Red Terror]." ''[[Current History]]'' (November 1927):198–205.</ref><ref name="Bird-2018" />
During interrogation by the [[Cheka]], she made the following statement:
{{Blockquote|"My name is Fanya Kaplan. Today I shot Lenin. I did it on my own. I will not say from whom I obtained my revolver. I will give no details. I had resolved to kill Lenin long ago. I consider him a traitor to the Revolution. I was exiled to Akatui for participating in an assassination attempt against a Tsarist official in Kiev [now Kyiv]. I spent 11 years at hard labour. After the Revolution, I was freed. I favoured the [[Russian Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]] and am still for it".<ref name="spartacus">{{cite web|url=http://spartacus-educational.com/RUSkaplan.htm|title=Fanya Kaplan|work=Spartacus Educational}}</ref>}}
Kaplan referenced the Bolsheviks' growing authoritarianism, citing their forcible shutdown of the Constituent Assembly in January 1918, the [[1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election|elections]] to which they had lost. When it became clear that Kaplan would not implicate any accomplices, she was executed in [[Alexander Garden]]. The order was carried out by the commander of the Kremlin, the former Baltic sailor P. D. Malkov and a group of Latvian Bolsheviks<ref>{{Cite book|title=Malkov P. Notes of the Kremlin commandant. – M.: Molodaya gvardiya, 1968.S. 148–149.|pages=}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2021}}{{primary source inline|date=August 2021}} on September 3, 1918, with a bullet to the back of the head.<ref name="how">{{cite book |title=How Did They Die? |first1=Norman |last1=Donaldson |first2=Betty |last2=Donaldson |isbn=9780517403020 |page=221 |publisher=Greenwich House |date=January 1, 1983}}</ref> Her corpse was bundled into a barrel and set alight. The order came from [[Yakov Sverdlov]], who only six weeks earlier had ordered the [[Murder of the Romanov family|murder]] of the Tsar and his family.<ref>{{Citation|last=Slezkine |first=Yuri |title=The house of government: a saga of the Russian Revolution |isbn=978-1-5384-7835-6|oclc=1003859221 |page=158}}</ref><ref name="Lyandres">{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/2498997 |jstor=2498997 |title=The 1918 Attempt on the Life of Lenin: A New Look at the Evidence |first=Semion |last=Lyandres |journal=Slavic Review |volume=48 |issue=3 |date=Autumn 1989 |pages=432–448 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|s2cid=155228899 }}</ref>{{rp|442}}
These events persuaded the government to heed Dzerzhinsky's lobbying for greater terror against opposition. The campaign of mass repressions would officially begin thereafter.<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Bird-2018" /> The Red Terror is considered to have officially begun between 17 and 30 August 1918.<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Bird-2018">{{Cite magazine|last=Bird|first=Danny|date=September 5, 2018|title=How the 'Red Terror' Exposed the True Turmoil of Soviet Russia 100 Years Ago|url=https://time.com/5386789/red-terror-soviet-history/ |access-date=2021-03-24|magazine=Time}}</ref>
====Revolts against grain requisitioning====
Protests against grain requisitioning of the peasantry were a major component of the [[Tambov Rebellion|Tambov rebellion]] and similar uprisings; Lenin's [[New Economic Policy]] was introduced as a concession.
The policies of "food dictatorship" proclaimed by the Bolsheviks in May 1918 sparked violent resistance in numerous districts of [[European Russia]]: revolts and clashes between the peasants and the [[Red Army]] were reported in [[Voronezh]], [[Tambov]], [[Penza]], [[Saratov]] and in the districts of [[Kostroma Oblast|Kostroma]], [[Moscow Oblast|Moscow]], [[Novgorod Oblast|Novgorod]], [[Leningrad Oblast|Petrograd]], [[Pskov Oblast|Pskov]] and [[Smolensk Oblast|Smolensk]]. The revolts were bloodily crushed by the Bolsheviks: in the Voronezh Oblast, the Red Guards killed sixteen peasants during the pacification of the village, while another village was shelled with artillery in order to force the peasants to surrender and in the Novgorod Oblast the rebelling peasants were dispersed with machine-gun fire from a train sent by a detachment of Latvian Red Army soldiers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Scott Baldwin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ueUEE8jVRsC |title=Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923 |date=2011-04-15 |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh Press]] |isbn=978-0-8229-7779-7 |pages=68–70 |language=en}}</ref> While the Bolsheviks immediately denounced the rebellion as orchestrated by the SRs, there is actually no evidence that they were involved into peasant violence, which they deemed as counterproductive.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Scott Baldwin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ueUEE8jVRsC |title=Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923 |date=2011-04-15 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0-8229-7779-7 |pages=68 |language=en}}</ref>
===Allied intervention===
{{Main|Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War}}
The Western Allies armed and supported opponents of the Bolsheviks. They were worried about a possible Russo-German alliance, the prospect of the Bolsheviks making good on their threats to default on Imperial Russia's massive [[External debt|foreign loans]] and the possibility that Communist revolutionary ideas would spread (a concern shared by many Central Powers). Hence, many of the countries expressed their support for the Whites, including the provision of troops and supplies. [[Winston Churchill]] declared that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle".<ref>[http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=282 Cover Story: Churchill's Greatness.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004110408/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=282 |date=2006-10-04}} Interview with Jeffrey Wallin. (The Churchill Centre)</ref> The British and French had supported [[Russia during World War I]] on a massive scale with war materials.
After the treaty, it looked like much of that material would fall into the hands of the Germans. To meet that danger, the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Allies intervened]] with Great Britain and France sending troops into Russian ports. There were violent clashes with the Bolsheviks. Britain intervened in support of the White forces to defeat the Bolsheviks and prevent the spread of communism across Europe.<ref>Howard Fuller, "Great Britain and Russia's Civil War: The Necessity for a Definite and Coherent Policy". ''Journal of Slavic Military Studies'' 32.4 (2019): 553–559.</ref>
===Buffer states===
[[File:Trotsky_on_a_Polish_poster_of_1920.jpg|thumb|Polish anti-Soviet poster depicting [[Leon Trotsky|Lev Trotsky]]. Small caption in the lower right corner reads:<br>
The [[Bolsheviks]] promised:<br>
We'll give you peace<br>
We'll give you freedom<br>
We'll give you land<br>
Work and bread<br>
Despicably they cheated<br>
They started a [[Soviet-Polish war|war<br>
With Poland]]<br>
Instead of freedom they brought<br>
The fist<br>
Instead of land – confiscation<br>
Instead of work – misery<br>
Instead of bread – famine.<br>
]]
The German Empire created several short-lived [[satellite state|satellite]] [[buffer state]]s within its sphere of influence after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: the [[United Baltic Duchy]], [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918)|Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]], [[Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)|Kingdom of Lithuania]], [[Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918)|Kingdom of Poland]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identity and Cultural Differences|last=Keith Bullivant, Geoffrey J. Giles and Walter Pape|publisher=Rodopi|year=1999|isbn=90-420-0678-1|pages=28–29}}</ref> the [[Belarusian People's Republic]], and the [[Ukrainian State]]. Following Germany's Armistice in World War I in November 1918, the states were abolished.<ref>Mieczysław B. Biskupski, "War and the Diplomacy of Polish Independence, 1914–18." ''Polish Review'' (1990): 5–17. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25778473 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127202015/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25778473 |date=27 January 2020 }}</ref><ref>Timothy Snyder, ''The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999'' (Yale UP, 2004)</ref>
[[History of Finland|Finland]] was the first republic that [[Finnish Declaration of Independence|declared]] its [[Pro-independence movements in Russian Civil War|independence from Russia]] in December 1917 and established itself in the ensuing [[Finnish Civil War]] between pro-independence [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guards]] and pro-Russian Bolshevik [[Red Guards (Finland)|Red Guards]] from January–May 1918.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1080/03585522.1978.10407894|title = Revolutionary ferment in Finland and the origins of the civil war 1917–1918|year = 1978|last1 = Kirby|first1 = D. G.|journal = Scandinavian Economic History Review|volume = 26|pages = 15–35|doi-access = free}}</ref> The [[Second Polish Republic]], [[History of Lithuania|Lithuania]], [[History of Latvia|Latvia]] and [[History of Estonia|Estonia]] formed their own armies immediately after the abolition of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and the start of the [[Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919|Soviet westward offensive]] and subsequent [[Polish-Soviet War]] in November 1918.<ref>Anatol Lieven, ''The Baltic revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the path to independence'' (Yale UP, 1993) pp. 54–61. [https://www.amazon.com/Baltic-Revolution-Estonia-Lithuania-Independence/dp/0300055528/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316223710/https://www.amazon.com/Baltic-Revolution-Estonia-Lithuania-Independence/dp/0300055528/ |date=16 March 2021 }}</ref>
==Geography and chronology==
{{Main|Southern Front of the Russian Civil War|North Russia Campaign|Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War|Yakut Revolt|Finnish Civil War}}
In the European part of Russia the war was fought across three main fronts: the eastern, the southern and the northwestern. It can also be roughly split into the following periods.
[[File:Volunteer Army infantry company.jpg|thumb|Anti-Bolshevik [[Volunteer Army]] in South Russia, January 1918]]
The first period lasted from the Revolution until the Armistice. Already on the date of the Revolution, [[Cossack]] General [[Alexey Kaledin]] refused to recognize it and assumed full governmental authority in the [[Don River, Russia|Don]] region,<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.hrono.info/biograf/kaledina.html| title = Каледин, Алексей Максимович. A biography of Kaledin (in Russian)| access-date = 24 February 2008| archive-date = 8 November 2017| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171108100553/http://www.hrono.info/biograf/kaledina.html| url-status = live}}</ref> where the [[Volunteer Army]] began amassing support. The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk also resulted in direct Allied intervention in Russia and the arming of military forces opposed to the Bolshevik government. There were also many German commanders who offered support against the Bolsheviks, fearing a confrontation with them was impending as well.
During the first period, the Bolsheviks took control of [[Central Asia]] out of the hands of the Provisional Government and White Army, setting up a base for the Communist Party in the [[Eurasian Steppe|Steppe]] and [[Russian Turkestan|Turkestan]], where nearly two million Russian settlers were located.{{sfn|Wheeler|1964|p=103}}
[[File:Uniformes (koltchak) 001.jpg|thumb|left|Russian soldiers of the anti-Bolshevik [[Siberian Army]] in 1919]]
Most of the fighting in the first period was sporadic, involved only small groups and had a fluid and rapidly-shifting strategic situation. Among the antagonists were the Czechoslovak Legion,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://h2g2.com/edited_entry/A4241062|title=h2g2 – The Czech Legion – Edited Entry|first=Not Panicking|last=Ltd|website=h2g2.com|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=19 July 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120719122821/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4241062|url-status=live}}</ref> the Poles of the [[4th Rifle Division (Poland)|4th]] and [[5th Rifle Division (Poland)|5th Rifle Divisions]] and the pro-Bolshevik [[Latvian riflemen|Red Latvian riflemen]].
The second period of the war lasted from January to November 1919. At first the White armies' advances from the south (under Denikin), the east (under Kolchak) and the northwest (under Yudenich) were successful, forcing the Red Army and its allies back on all three fronts. In July 1919 the Red Army suffered another reverse after a mass defection of units in the Crimea to the anarchist Insurgent Army under Nestor Makhno, enabling anarchist forces to consolidate power in Ukraine. Leon Trotsky soon reformed the Red Army, concluding the first of two military alliances with the anarchists. In June the Red Army first checked Kolchak's advance. After a series of engagements, assisted by an Insurgent Army offensive against White supply lines, the Red Army defeated Denikin's and Yudenich's armies in October and November.
The third period of the war was the extended siege of the last White forces in the [[Crimea]]. General [[Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel|Wrangel]] had gathered the remnants of Denikin's armies, occupying much of the Crimea. An attempted invasion of southern Ukraine was rebuffed by the Insurgent Army under Makhno's command. Pursued into Crimea by Makhno's troops, Wrangel went over to the defensive in the Crimea. After an abortive move north against the Red Army, Wrangel's troops were forced south by Red Army and Insurgent Army forces; Wrangel and the remains of his army were evacuated to [[Istanbul|Constantinople]] in November 1920.
==Warfare==
===October Revolution===
{{Main|October Revolution}}
[[File:Russian civil war in the west.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|European theatre of the Russian Civil War]]
In the October Revolution, the Bolshevik Party directed the Red Guard (armed groups of workers and Imperial army deserters) to seize control of [[Saint Petersburg|Petrograd]] (Saint Petersburg) and immediately began the armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former Russian Empire. In January 1918 the Bolsheviks dissolved the [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] and proclaimed the Soviets (workers' councils) as the new government of Russia.
===Initial anti-Bolshevik uprisings===
{{Main|Kerensky-Krasnov uprising|Junker mutiny|Volunteer Army}}
The first attempt to regain power from the Bolsheviks was made by the Kerensky-Krasnov uprising in October 1917. It was supported by the Junker Mutiny in Petrograd but was quickly put down by the Red Guard, notably including the Latvian Rifle Division.
The initial groups that fought against the Communists were local Cossack armies that had declared their loyalty to the Provisional Government. Kaledin of the [[Don Cossacks]] and General [[Grigory Mikhailovich Semenov|Grigory Semenov]] of the [[Siberian Cossacks]] were prominent among them. The leading Tsarist officers of the Imperial Russian Army also started to resist. In November, General [[Mikhail Vasilevich Alekseev|Mikhail Alekseev]], the Tsar's Chief of Staff during the First World War, began to organize the Volunteer Army in [[Novocherkassk]]. Volunteers of the small army were mostly officers of the old Russian army, military cadets and students. In December 1917, Alekseev was joined by General Lavr Kornilov, Denikin and other Tsarist officers who had escaped from the jail, where they had been imprisoned following the abortive Kornilov affair just before the Revolution.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|27}} On 9 December, the [[Military Revolutionary Committee]] in [[Rostov-on-Don|Rostov]] rebelled, with the Bolsheviks controlling the city for five days until the Alekseev Organization supported Kaledin in recapturing the city. According to [[Peter Kenez]], "The operation, begun on December 9, can be regarded as the beginning of the Civil War."<ref name="pk">{{cite book |last1=Kenez |first1=Peter |title=Red Attack, White Resistance; Civil War in South Russia 1918 |date=2004 |publisher=New Academia Publishing |location=Washington, DC |isbn=9780974493442 |pages=64–67}}</ref>
Having stated in the November 1917 "[[Declaration of Rights of Peoples of Russia|Declaration of Rights of Nations of Russia]]" that any nation under imperial Russian rule should be immediately given the power of self-determination, the Bolsheviks had begun to usurp the power of the Provisional Government in the territories of Central Asia soon after the establishment of the Turkestan Committee in Tashkent.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=72}} In April 1917 the Provisional Government set up the committee, which was mostly made up of former Tsarist officials.{{sfn|Wheeler|1964|p=104}} The Bolsheviks attempted to take control of the Committee in Tashkent on 12 September 1917 but it was unsuccessful, and many leaders were arrested. However, because the Committee lacked representation of the native population and poor Russian settlers, they had to release the Bolshevik prisoners almost immediately because of a public outcry, and a successful takeover of that government body took place two months later in November.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=70}} The Leagues of Mohammedam Working People (which Russian settlers and natives who had been sent to work behind the lines for the Tsarist government in 1916 formed in March 1917) had led numerous strikes in the industrial centers throughout September 1917.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|pp=68–69}} However, after the Bolshevik destruction of the Provisional Government in [[Tashkent]], Muslim elites formed an autonomous government in Turkestan, commonly called the "Kokand autonomy" (or simply [[Kokand]]).{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=74}} The White Russians supported that government body, which lasted several months because of Bolshevik troop isolation from Moscow.{{sfn|Allworth|1967|p=226}} In January 1918 the Soviet forces, under Lt. Col. [[Mikhail Artemyevich Muravyov|Muravyov]], invaded Ukraine and invested [[Kiev]], where the [[Central Council of Ukraine|Central Council]] of the Ukrainian People's Republic held power. With the help of the [[Kiev Arsenal January Uprising|Kiev Arsenal Uprising]], the Bolsheviks [[Battle of Kiev (1918)|captured the city]] on 26 January.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|35}}
===Peace with the Central Powers===
{{Main|Treaty of Brest-Litovsk}}
[[File:Trotzki Deutsche Brest-Litowsk1917.jpg|thumb|Soviet delegation with [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]] greeted by [[German Empire|German]] officers at Brest-Litovsk, 8 January 1918]]
The Bolsheviks decided to immediately make peace with the Central Powers, as they had promised the Russian people before the Revolution.<ref>{{harvnb|Figes|1997|p=258}}quotes such comments from the peasant soldiers during the first weeks of the war: We have talked it over among ourselves; if the Germans want payment, it would be better to pay ten roubles a head than to kill people. Or: Is it not all the same what Tsar we live under? It cannot be worse under the German one. Or: Let them go and fight themselves. Wait a while, we will settle accounts with you. Or: 'What devil has brought this war on us? We are butting into other people's business.'</ref> [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s political enemies attributed that decision to his sponsorship by the Foreign Office of [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor]], offered to Lenin in hope that, with a revolution, Russia would withdraw from [[World War I]]. That suspicion was bolstered by the German Foreign Ministry's sponsorship of Lenin's return to Petrograd.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spartacus-educational.com/RUSlenin.htm|title=Vladimir Lenin|website=Spartacus Educational|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=10 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810163715/https://spartacus-educational.com/RUSlenin.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> However, after the military fiasco of the summer offensive (June 1917) by the Russian Provisional Government had devastated the structure of the Russian Army, it became crucial that Lenin realize the promised peace.<ref>{{harvnb|Figes|1997|p=419}}"It was partly a case of the usual military failings: units had been sent into battle without machine-guns; untrained soldiers had been ordered to engage in complex maneuvers using hand grenades and ended up throwing them without first pulling the pins."</ref> Even before the failed summer offensive the Russian population was very skeptical about the continuation of the war. Western socialists had promptly arrived from France and from the UK to convince the Russians to continue the fight, but could not change the new pacifist mood of Russia.<ref>{{harvnb|Figes|1997|p=412}} "This new civic patriotism did not extend beyond the urban middle classes, although the leaders of the Provisional Government deluded themselves that it did."</ref>
On 16 December 1917 an armistice was signed between Russia and the Central Powers in [[Brest-Litovsk]] and peace talks began.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|42}} As a condition for peace, the proposed treaty by the Central Powers conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting [[nationalist]]s and [[Conservatism|conservatives]]. Leon Trotsky, representing the Bolsheviks, refused at first to sign the treaty while continuing to observe a unilateral cease-fire, following the policy of "No war, no peace".{{sfn|Smith|Tucker|2014|pp=554–555}}
Therefore, on 18 February 1918, the Germans began [[Operation Faustschlag]] on the Eastern Front, encountering virtually no resistance in a campaign that lasted 11 days.{{sfn|Smith|Tucker|2014|pp=554–555}} Signing a formal peace treaty was the only option in the eyes of the Bolsheviks because the Russian Army was demobilized, and the newly formed Red Guard could not stop the advance. They also understood that the impending counterrevolutionary resistance was more dangerous than the concessions of the treaty, which Lenin viewed as temporary in the light of aspirations for a [[world revolution]]. The Soviets acceded to a peace treaty, and the formal agreement, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, was ratified on 3 March. The Soviets viewed the treaty as merely a necessary and expedient means to end the war.
===Ukraine, South Russia, and Caucasus (1918)===
{{Main|Ukrainian People's Republic|Kiev Arsenal January Uprising|Ice March|26 Baku Commissars|German Caucasus Expedition|Battle of Baku|Central Caspian Dictatorship|Romanian military intervention in Bessarabia}}
[[File:Dismembered Russia — Some Fragments (NYT article, Feb. 17, 1918).png|thumb|February 1918 article from ''[[The New York Times]]'' showing a map of the Russian Imperial territories claimed by the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] at the time, before the annexation of the Austro-Hungarian lands of the [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]]]]
In [[Ukraine]] the German-[[Austro-Hungary|Austrian]] Operation Faustschlag had by April 1918 removed the Bolsheviks from Ukraine.<ref name="30076britbrit">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30076/Ukraine |title=Ukraine – World War I and the struggle for independence |access-date=2008-01-30 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |archive-date=15 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615144832/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30076/Ukraine |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="istpravda152320b">{{in lang|uk}} [http://www.istpravda.com.ua/short/2018/04/18/152320/ 100 years ago Bakhmut and the rest of Donbas liberated] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501115243/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/short/2018/04/18/152320/ |date=1 May 2019 }}, [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (18 April 2018)</ref><ref name="UkrainianWeek16042018UwIbbb">{{citation | last = Tynchenko | first = Yaros | title = The Ukrainian Navy and the Crimean Issue in 1917–18 | url = http://ukrainianweek.com/History/105648 | work = [[The Ukrainian Week]] | date = 23 March 2018 | access-date = October 14, 2018 | archive-date = 11 November 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191111180649/https://ukrainianweek.com/History/105648 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="retrospective2014031918b">[https://iht-retrospective.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/1918-germany-takes-control-of-crimea/ Germany Takes Control of Crimea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930205920/https://iht-retrospective.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/1918-germany-takes-control-of-crimea/ |date=30 September 2019 }}, [[New York Herald]] (18 May 1918)</ref><ref name="harvard11181181bbb">[https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/11181181 War Without Fronts: Atamans and Commissars in Ukraine, 1917–1919] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403174842/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/11181181|date=3 April 2019}} by [[Mikhail Akulov]], [[Harvard University]], August 2013 (page 102 and 103)</ref> The German and Austro-Hungarian victories in Ukraine were caused by the apathy of the locals and the inferior fighting skills of Bolsheviks troops to their Austro-Hungarian and German counterparts.<ref name="harvard11181181bbb"/>
Under Soviet pressure, the Volunteer Army embarked on the epic Ice March from [[Krasnodar|Yekaterinodar]] to [[Kuban]] on 22 February 1918, where they joined with the Kuban Cossacks to mount an abortive assault on Yekaterinodar.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|29}} The Soviets recaptured Rostov on the next day.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|29}} Kornilov was killed in the fighting on 13 April, and Denikin took over command. Fighting off its pursuers without respite, the army succeeded in breaking its way through back towards the Don by May, where the Cossack uprising against the Bolsheviks had started.<ref name=pk/>{{rp|115–118}}
The Baku Soviet Commune was established on 13 April. Germany landed its Caucasus Expedition troops in [[Poti]] on 8 June. The Ottoman [[Army of Islam (Ottoman Empire)|Army of Islam]] (in coalition with [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]]) drove them out of Baku on 26 July 1918. Subsequently, the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation|Dashanaks]], Right SRs and [[Menshevik]]s started negotiations with Gen. [[Lionel Dunsterville|Dunsterville]], the commander of the [[British Empire|British]] troops in [[Persia]]. The Bolsheviks and their [[Left SR]] allies were opposed to it, but on 25 July the majority of the Soviets voted to call in the British and the Bolsheviks resigned. The Baku Soviet Commune ended its existence and was replaced by the Central Caspian Dictatorship.
In June 1918 the Volunteer Army, numbering some 9,000 men, started its [[Second Kuban campaign]], capturing Yekaterinodar on 16 August, followed by [[Armavir, Russia|Armavir]] and [[Stavropol]]. By early 1919, they controlled the [[Northern Caucasus]].<ref name=pk/>{{rp|166–174,182,189–190}}
On 8 October, Alekseev died. On 8 January 1919, Denikin became the Supreme Commander of the [[Armed Forces of South Russia]], uniting the Volunteer Army with [[Pyotr Krasnov]]'s [[Don Army]]. [[Pyotr Wrangel]] became Denikin's Chief of Staff.<ref name=pk/>{{rp|195,204,267–270}}
In December, three-fourths of the army was in the Northern Caucasus. That included three thousand of [[Vladimir Liakhov]]'s soldiers around [[Vladikavkaz]], thirteen thousand soldiers under Wrangel and Kazanovich in the center of the front, Stankevich's almost three thousand men with the Don Cossacks, while [[Vladimir May-Mayevsky]]'s three thousand were sent to the [[Donets basin]], and de Bode commanded two thousand in the [[Crimea]].<ref name="pk2">{{cite book |last1=Kenez |first1=Peter |title=Red Advance, White Defeat: Civil War in South Russia 1919–1920 |date=2004 |publisher=New Academia Publishing |location=Washington, DC |isbn=9780974493459 |pages=28–29}}</ref>
===Eastern Russia, Siberia and the Far East (1918)===
{{Main|Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion|Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly|Provisional All-Russian Government}}
The revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion broke out in May 1918, and proceeded to occupy the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]] from [[Ufa]] to [[Vladivostok]]. Uprisings overthrew other Bolshevik towns. On 7 July, the western portion of the legion declared itself to be a new eastern front, anticipating allied intervention. According to [[William Henry Chamberlin]], "Two governments emerged as a result of the first successes of the Czechs: the [[Provisional Siberian Government (Omsk)|West Siberian Commissariat]] and the Government of the [[Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly]] in Samara." On 17 July, shortly before the fall of [[Yekaterinburg]], the former Tsar [[Nicholas II]], and his family were [[Execution of the Romanov family|murdered]].<ref name=wc2/>{{rp|6–12,91}}
[[File:Bolshveki killed at Vladivostok.jpg|thumb|Czechoslovak legionaries of the 8th Regiment at [[Nikolsk-Ussuriysky]] killed by Bolsheviks, 1918. Above them stand also members of the Czechoslovak Legion.]]
The Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries supported [[peasant]]s fighting against Soviet control of food supplies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://isreview.org/issue/107/workers-organizations-russian-revolution|title=Workers' Organizations in the Russian Revolution|last=Muldoon|first=Amy|website=International Socialist Review|access-date=20 February 2018|archive-date=21 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221100132/https://isreview.org/issue/107/workers-organizations-russian-revolution|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 1918, with the support of the Czechoslovak Legion, they took [[Samara Oblast|Samara]] and [[Saratov]], establishing the [[Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly]]—known as the "Komuch". By July the authority of the Komuch extended over much of the area controlled by the Czechoslovak Legion. The Komuch pursued an ambivalent social policy, combining democratic and socialist measures, such as the institution of an [[eight hour day|eight-hour working day]], with "restorative" actions, such as returning both factories and land to their former owners. After the fall of [[Kazan]], Vladimir Lenin called for the dispatch of [[Petrograd]] workers to the Kazan Front: "We must send down the ''maximum'' number of Petrograd workers: (1) a few dozen 'leaders' like [[Benyamin Kayurov|Kayurov]]; (2) a few thousand militants 'from the ranks'".
After a series of reverses at the front, the Bolsheviks' War Commissar, Trotsky, instituted increasingly harsh measures in order to prevent unauthorised withdrawals, desertions, and mutinies in the Red Army. In the field, the Cheka Special Investigations Forces (termed the ''Special Punitive Department of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combat of Counter-Revolution and Sabotage'' or ''Special Punitive Brigades'') followed the Red Army, conducting field tribunals and summary executions of soldiers and officers who deserted, retreated from their positions, or failed to display sufficient offensive zeal.<ref>{{harvnb|Chamberlin|1987|p=31}}Frequently the deserters' families were taken hostage to force a surrender; a portion were customarily executed, as an example to the others.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Daniels|1993|p=70}}</ref> The Cheka Special Investigations Forces were also charged with the detection of sabotage and counter-revolutionary activity by Red Army soldiers and commanders. Trotsky extended the use of the death penalty to the occasional political commissar whose detachment retreated or broke in the face of the enemy.{{sfn|Volkogonov|1996|p=175}} In August, frustrated at continued reports of Red Army troops breaking under fire, Trotsky authorised the formation of [[barrier troops]] – stationed behind unreliable Red Army units and given orders to shoot anyone withdrawing from the battle line without authorisation.{{sfn|Volkogonov|1996|p=180|ps=: By December 1918 Trotsky had ordered the formation of special detachments to serve as blocking units throughout the Red Army.}}
[[File:Kolchak1919troops.jpg|thumb|left|Admiral [[Alexander Kolchak]] reviewing the troops, 1919]]
In September 1918, the Komuch, the Siberian Provisional Government, and other anti-Bolshevik Russians agreed during the [[State Meeting in Ufa]] to form a new [[Provisional All-Russian Government]] in Omsk, headed by a Directory of five: two [[Socialist Revolutionary Party|Socialist-Revolutionaries]]. [[Nikolai Avksentiev]] and [[Vladimir Zenzinov]], the [[Kadet]] lawyer V. A. Vinogradov, Siberian Premier Vologodskii, and General [[Vasily Boldyrev]].<ref name="wc2">{{cite book |last1=Chamberlin |first1=William |title=The Russian Revolution, 1917–1921, Volume Two |date=1935 |publisher=The Macmillan Company |location=New York |pages=20–21}}</ref>
By the fall of 1918, anti-Bolshevik White forces in the east included the People's Army ([[Komuch]]), the Siberian Army (of the Siberian Provisional Government) and insurgent Cossack units of Orenburg, the Urals, Siberia, Semirechye, Baikal, and Amur and Ussuri Cossacks, nominally under the orders of Gen. V.G. Boldyrev, Commander-in-Chief, appointed by the Ufa Directorate.
On the Volga, Col. [[Vladimir Kappel|Kappel]]'s White detachment captured Kazan on 7 August, but Red Forces recaptured the city on 8 September 1918 following a counteroffensive. On the 11th [[Simbirsk]] fell, and on 8 October [[Samara, Russia|Samara]]. The Whites fell back eastwards to Ufa and Orenburg.
In Omsk, the Russian Provisional Government quickly came under the influence and later the dominance of its new War Minister, [[Rear-Admiral]] [[Aleksandr Vasilevich Kolchak|Kolchak]]. On 18 November a [[coup d'état]] established Kolchak as supreme leader. Two members of the Directory were arrested, and subsequently deported, while Kolchak was proclaimed "Supreme Ruler", and "Commander-in-Chief of all Land and Naval Forces of Russia."<ref name=wc2/>{{rp|177–178}} By mid-December 1918, the White armies had to leave Ufa, but they balanced that failure with a successful drive towards [[Perm, Russia|Perm]], which they took on 24 December.
====Barrier troops====
In the [[Red Army]] of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] and later the [[Soviet Union]], the concept of barrier troops first arose in August 1918 with the formation of the заградительные отряды (''zagraditelnye otriady''), translated as "blocking troops" or "anti-retreat detachments" ({{lang-ru| заградотряды, заградительные отряды, отряды заграждения}}).<ref name=volko>Dmitri Volkogonov, ''Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary'', transl. and edited by Harold Shukman, HarperCollins Publishers, London (1996), p. 180</ref> The barrier troops comprised personnel drawn from the [[Cheka]] secret police punitive detachments or from regular Red Army infantry regiments. <!-- The Red Army numbered some 2.9 million troops at the start of World War II.<ref>{{Cite book|title= Stalin and Stalinism|last= McCauley|first= Martin|publisher= Routledge|year= 2013|location= New York, New York|pages= 2099}}</ref> -->
The first use of the barrier troops by the Red Army occurred in the late summer and fall of 1918 in the [[Eastern Front (RSFSR)|Eastern front]] during the Russian Civil War, when [[Minister of Defence (Soviet Union)|People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs]] (War Commissar) [[Leon Trotsky]] of the Communist [[Bolshevik]] government authorized [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]], the commander of the [[1st Army (RSFSR)|1st Army]], to station blocking detachments behind unreliable Red Army infantry regiments in the 1st Red Army, with orders to shoot if front-line troops either deserted or retreated without permission.<ref name=volko/>
In December 1918, Trotsky ordered that detachments of additional barrier troops be raised for attachment to each infantry formation in the Red Army. On December 18 he cabled: <blockquote>How do things stand with the blocking units? As far as I am aware they have not been included in our establishment and it appears they have no personnel. It is absolutely essential that we have at least an embryonic network of blocking units and that we work out a procedure for bringing them up to strength and deploying them.<ref name=volko/></blockquote> The barrier troops were also used to enforce Bolshevik control over food supplies in areas controlled by the Red Army as part of [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]]'s [[war communism]] policies, a role which soon earned them the hatred of the Russian civilian population.<ref>Lih, Lars T., ''Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921'', University of California Press (1990), p. 131</ref> These policies led to the [[Russian famine of 1921–1922]], which killed about five million people.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/War-Communism|title=War Communism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]|author=((The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica))}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mawdsley |first=Evan |url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan |title=The Russian Civil War |date=1 March 2007 |publisher=Pegasus Books |isbn=978-1-933648-15-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan/page/287 287] |author-link=Evan Mawdsley |url-access=registration}}</ref>
===Central Asia (1918)===
[[File:Europe map 1919.jpg|thumb|London Geographical Institute's 1919 map of [[Europe]] after the treaties of [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)|Brest-Litovsk]] and [[Treaty of Batum|Batum]] and before the [[Treaty of Tartu (disambiguation)|treaties of Tartu]], [[Treaty of Kars|Kars]], and [[Peace of Riga|Riga]]]]
In February 1918 the Red Army overthrew the White Russian-supported Kokand Autonomy of Turkestan.{{sfn|Rakowska-Harmstone|1970|p=19}} Although that move seemed to solidify Bolshevik power in Central Asia, more troubles soon arose for the Red Army as the Allied Forces began to intervene. British support of the White Army provided the greatest threat to the Red Army in Central Asia during 1918. Britain sent three prominent military leaders to the area. One was Lieutenant Colonel [[Frederick Marshman Baile]], who recorded a mission to Tashkent, from where the Bolsheviks forced him to flee. Another was General [[Wilfrid Malleson]], leading the [[Malleson Mission]], who assisted the Mensheviks in Ashkhabad (now the capital of Turkmenistan) with a small Anglo-Indian force. However, he failed to gain control of Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva. The third was Major General Dunsterville, who was driven out by the Bolsheviks of Central Asia only a month after his arrival in August 1918.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=75}} Despite setbacks as a result of British invasions during 1918, the Bolsheviks continued to make progress in bringing the Central Asian population under their influence. The first regional congress of the Russian Communist Party convened in the city of Tashkent in June 1918 in order to build support for a local Bolshevik Party.{{sfn|Allworth|1967|p=232}}
===Left SR Uprising===
{{Main|Left SR uprising|Yaroslavl Uprising}}
On 6 July 1918, two [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries]] and [[Cheka]] employees, [[Yakov Blumkin]] and Nikolai Andreyev, assassinated the German ambassador, Count [[Wilhelm Mirbach|Mirbach]]. In Moscow a [[Left SR uprising]] was put down by the Bolsheviks, mass arrests of Socialist-Revolutionaries followed, and executions became more frequent. Chamberlin noted, "The time of relative leniency toward former fellow-revolutionists was over. The Left Socialist Revolutionaries, of course, were no longer tolerated as members of the Soviets; from this time the Soviet regime became a pure and undiluted dictatorship of the Communist Party." Similarly, [[Boris Savinkov]]'s surprise attacks were suppressed, with many of the conspirators being executed, as "Mass Red Terror" became a reality.<ref name=wc2/>{{rp|50–59}}
===Estonia, Latvia and Petrograd===
{{Main|Estonian War of Independence|Latvian War of Independence|Battle of Petrograd}}
Estonia [[Estonian War of Independence|cleared its territory]] of the Red Army by January 1919.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1514725/Baltic-War-of-Liberation Baltic War of Liberation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008052602/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1514725/Baltic-War-of-Liberation |date=8 October 2014 }} Encyclop¿dia Britannica</ref> [[Baltische Landeswehr|Baltic German volunteers]] captured [[Riga]] from the Red [[Latvian Riflemen]] on 22 May, but the Estonian 3rd Division [[Battle of Cēsis (1919)|defeated]] the Baltic Germans a month later, aiding the establishment of the [[Republic of Latvia]].<ref name=axishistory>{{cite web|url=http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=6953|title=Generalkommando VI Reservekorps|publisher=Axis History|access-date=11 April 2012|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090953/http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=6953|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:NikolaiYudenich1916.jpeg|thumb|General [[Nikolai Yudenich]]]]
That rendered possible another threat to the Red Army, from General Yudenich, who had spent the summer organizing the Northwestern Army in Estonia with local and British support. In October 1919, he tried to capture Petrograd in a sudden assault with a force of around 20,000 men. The attack was well-executed, using night attacks and lightning cavalry maneuvers to turn the flanks of the defending Red Army. Yudenich also had six British tanks, which caused panic whenever they appeared. The Allies gave large quantities of aid to Yudenich, but he complained of receiving insufficient support.
By 19 October, Yudenich's troops had reached the outskirts of the city. Some members of the Bolshevik central committee in Moscow were willing to give up Petrograd, but Trotsky refused to accept the loss of the city and personally organized its defenses. Trotsky himself declared, "It is impossible for a little army of 15,000 ex-officers to master a working-class capital of 700,000 inhabitants." He settled on a strategy of urban defense, proclaiming that the city would "defend itself on its own ground" and that the White Army would be lost in a labyrinth of fortified streets and there "meet its grave".<ref>Williams, Beryl, ''The Russian Revolution 1917–1921'', Blackwell Publishing (1987), {{ISBN|978-0-631-15083-1}}, {{ISBN|0-631-15083-8}}</ref>
Trotsky armed all available workers, men and women, and ordered the transfer of military forces from Moscow. Within a few weeks, the Red Army defending Petrograd had tripled in size and outnumbered Yudenich three to one. Yudenich, short of supplies, then decided to call off the siege of the city and withdrew. He repeatedly asked permission to withdraw his army across the border to Estonia. However, units retreating across the border were disarmed and interned by orders of the Estonian government, which had entered into peace negotiations with the Soviet Government on 16 September and had been informed by the Soviet authorities of their 6 November decision that if the White Army was allowed to retreat into Estonia, it would be pursued across the border by the Reds.{{sfn|Rosenthal|2006|p=516}} In fact, the Reds attacked Estonian army positions and fighting continued until a ceasefire went into effect on 3 January 1920. After the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]]. most of Yudenich's soldiers went into exile. Former Imperial Russian and then Finnish General [[Mannerheim]] planned an intervention to help the Whites in Russia capture Petrograd. However, he did not gain the necessary support for the endeavour. Lenin considered it "completely certain, that the slightest aid from Finland would have determined the fate of [the city]".
===Northern Russia (1919)===
{{Main|North Russia intervention}}
The British occupied [[Murmansk]] and, alongside the [[United States|Americans]], seized [[Arkhangelsk]]. With the retreat of Kolchak in Siberia, they pulled their troops out of the cities before the winter trapped them in the port. The remaining White forces under [[Yevgeny Miller]] evacuated the region in February 1920.<ref>Ian C.D. Moffat, "The Allies Act—Murmansk and Archangel." in Ian C. D. Moffat. ed., ''The Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918–1920'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015). 68–82.</ref>
===Siberia (1919)===
At the beginning of March 1919, the general offensive of the Whites on the eastern front began. Ufa was retaken on 13 March; by mid-April, the White Army stopped at the [[Glazov]]–[[Chistopol]]–[[Bugulma]]–[[Buguruslan]]–Sharlyk line. Reds started their [[Eastern Front counteroffensive|counteroffensive against Kolchak's forces]] at the end of April. The Red 5th Army, led by the capable commander [[Tukhachevsky]], captured [[Elabuga]] on 26 May, [[Sarapul]] on 2 June and [[Izevsk]] on the 7th and continued to push forward. Both sides had victories and losses, but by the middle of summer the Red Army was larger than the White Army and had managed to recapture territory previously lost.<ref>Jonathan D. Smele, ''Civil war in Siberia: the anti-Bolshevik government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918–1920'' (Cambridge UP, 2006).</ref>
Following the abortive offensive at Chelyabinsk, the White armies withdrew beyond the [[Tobol]]. In September 1919 a White offensive was launched against the Tobol Front, the last attempt to change the course of events. However, on 14 October the Reds counterattacked, and thus began the uninterrupted [[Great Siberian Ice March|retreat of the Whites to the east]]. On 14 November 1919 the Red Army captured Omsk.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bolsheviki Grain Near Petrograd|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1919-11-15/ed-1/seq-4/|access-date=10 September 2010|newspaper=New York Tribune|date=15 November 1919|agency=[[Library of Congress]]|location=Washington, DC|page=4|archive-date=12 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012044429/http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1919-11-15/ed-1/seq-4/|url-status=live}}</ref> Adm. Kolchak lost control of his government shortly after the defeat; White Army forces in Siberia had essentially ceased to exist by December. Retreat of the eastern front by White armies lasted three months, until mid-February 1920, when the survivors, after crossing Lake Baikal, reached the [[Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai|Chita]] area and joined [[Ataman Semenov]]'s forces.
===South Russia (1919)===
[[File:За единую Россію.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Anti-Bolshevik propaganda poster "For united Russia" representing Soviet Russia as a fallen communist dragon and the White Cause as a crusading knight]]
[[File:Polish-soviet propaganda poster 1920.jpg|thumb|left|210px|[[Anti-Polish sentiment|Polonophobic]] Soviet propaganda poster, 1920]]
The Cossacks had been unable to organise and capitalise on their successes at the end of 1918. By 1919 they had begun to run short of supplies. Consequently, when the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]]'s counteroffensive began in January 1919 under the Bolshevik commander [[Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko|Antonov-Ovseenko]], the Cossack forces rapidly fell apart. The Red Army captured Kiev on 3 February 1919.<ref>Peter Kenez, ''Civil war in South Russia, 1919–1920: The defeat of the whites'' (U of California Press, 1977).</ref>
Denikin's military strength continued to grow in 1919, with significant munitions supplied by the British. In January, Denikin's Armed Forces of South Russia (AFSR) completed the elimination of Red forces in the northern Caucasus and moved north, in an effort to [[Battle for the Donbas (1919)|protect the Don district]].<ref name=pk2/>{{rp|20–35}}
On 18 December 1918, French forces landed in [[Odessa]] (now Odesa) and then the Crimea, but evacuated Odessa on 6 April 1919, and the Crimea by the end of the month. According to Chamberlin, "But France gave far less practical aid to the Whites than did England; its sole independent venture in intervention, at Odessa, ended in a complete fiasco."<ref name=wc2/>{{rp|151,165–167}}
Denikin then reorganized the Armed Forces of South Russia under the leadership of [[Vladimir May-Mayevsky]], [[Vladimir Sidorin]], and [[Pyotr Wrangel]]. On 22 May, Wrangel's Caucasian army defeated the [[10th Army (RSFSR)]] in the battle for [[Velikoknyazheskaya]], and then captured Tsaritsyn on 1 July. Sidorin advanced north toward [[Voronezh]], increasing his army's strength in the process. On 25 June, May–Mayevsky captured [[Kharkov]], and then [[Ekaterinoslav]] on 30 June, which forced the Reds to abandon [[Crimea]]. On 3 July, Denikin issued his [[Advance on Moscow (1919)|Moscow directive]], in which his armies would converge on Moscow.<ref name=pk2/>{{rp|37–41}}
Although Britain had withdrawn its own troops from the theatre, it continued to give significant military aid (money, weapons, food, ammunition and some military advisers) to the White Armies during 1919. Major [[Ewen Cameron Bruce]] of the British Army had volunteered to command a British tank mission assisting the White Army. He was awarded the [[Distinguished Service Order]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/31875/supplements/4693/page.pdf|title=Distinguished Service Order citation for Bruce in the 1920 ''London Gazette''}}</ref> for his bravery during the June 1919 Battle of Tsaritsyn for single-handedly storming and capturing the fortified city of Tsaritsyn, under heavy shell fire in a single tank, which led to the capture of over 40,000 prisoners.{{sfn|Kinvig|2006|p=225}} The fall of Tsaritsyn is viewed "as one of the key battles of the Russian Civil War" and greatly helped the White Russian cause.{{sfn|Kinvig|2006|p=225}} The notable historian [[Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart]] comments that Bruce's tank action during the battle is to be seen as "one of the most remarkable feats in the whole history of the Tank Corps".<ref name="BasilLiddellHart">Liddell Hart, Basil. "The Tanks: The History Of The Royal Tank Regiment And Its Predecessors, Heavy Branch Machine-Gun Corps, Tank Corps And Royal Tank Corps, 1914–1945. Vol I". Cassell: 1959, p. 211.</ref>
On 14 August, the Bolsheviks launched their [[Southern Front counteroffensive]]. After six weeks of heavy fighting the counteroffensive failed, and Denikin was able to capture more territory. By November, White Forces had reached the [[Zbruch]], the Ukrainian-Polish border.<ref name=pk2/>{{rp|43,154}}
[[File:Wrangel after worship Tsaritsyn 1919.jpg|thumb|left|General [[Pyotr Wrangel]] in [[Battle of Tsaritsyn|Tsaritsyn]], 15 October 1919]]
Denikin's forces constituted a real threat and for a time threatened to reach Moscow. The Red Army, stretched thin by fighting on all fronts, was forced out of Kiev on 30 August. [[Kursk]] and [[Oryol|Orel]] were taken, on 20 September and 14 October, respectively. The latter, only {{Convert|205|mi|km}} from Moscow, was the closest the AFSR would come to its target.{{Sfn|Kenez|1977|p=44}} The Cossack [[Don Army]] under the command of General [[Vladimir Sidorin]] continued north towards [[Voronezh]], but [[Semyon Budyonny]]'s cavalrymen defeated them there on 24 October. That allowed the Red Army to cross the [[Don River (Russia)|Don River]], threatening to split the Don and Volunteer Armies. Fierce fighting took place at the key rail junction of Kastornoye, which was taken on 15 November. Kursk was retaken two days later.{{Sfn|Kenez|1977|p=218}}
[[File:Klinom Krasnim by El Lisitskiy (1920).jpg|thumb|[[Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge]], a famous Bolshevik [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivist]] propaganda poster by artist [[El Lissitzky|El Lissitsky]] uses abstract symbolism to depict the defeat of the Whites by the Red Army.]]
Kenez states, "In October Denikin ruled more than forty million people and controlled the economically most valuable parts of the Russian Empire." Yet, "The White armies, which had fought victoriously during the summer and early fall, fell back in disorder in November and December." Denikin's front line was overstretched, while his reserves dealt with Makhno's anarchists in the rear. Between September and October, the Reds mobilized one hundred thousand new soldiers and adopted the Trotsky-[[Jukums Vācietis|Vatsetis]] strategy with the Ninth and Tenth armies forming V. I. Shorin's Southeastern Front between Tsaritsyn and Bobrov, while the Eighth, Twelfth, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth armies formed [[Alexander Yegorov (soldier)|A.I. Egorov]]'s Southern Front between Zhitomir and Bobrov. [[Sergey Kamenev]] was in overall command of the two fronts. On Denikin's left was [[Abram Dragomirov]], while in his center was [[Vladimir May-Mayevsky]]'s Volunteer Army, [[Vladimir Sidorin]]'s Don Cossacks were further east, with [[Pyotr Wrangel]]'s Caucasian army at Tsaritsyn, and an additional was in the Northern Caucasus attempting to capture Astrakhan. On 20 October, May–Mayevsky was forced to evacuate Orel during the [[Orel-Kursk operation]]. On 24 October, [[Semyon Budyonny]] captured Voronezh, and Kursk on 15 November, during the [[Voronezh-Kastornoye operation (1919)]]. On 6 January, the Reds reached the Black Sea at Mariupol and Taganrog, and On 9 January, they reached Rostov. According to Kenez, "The Whites had now lost all the territories which they had captured in 1919, and held approximately the same area in which they had started two years before."<ref name=pk2/>{{rp|213–223}}
===Central Asia (1919)===
By February 1919 the British government had pulled its military forces out of Central Asia.{{sfn|Allworth|1967|p=231}} Despite the success for the Red Army, the White Army's assaults in European Russia and other areas broke communication between Moscow and Tashkent. For a time Central Asia was completely cut off from Red Army forces in Siberia.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=76}} Although the communication failure weakened the Red Army, the Bolsheviks continued their efforts to gain support for the Bolshevik Party in Central Asia by holding a second regional conference in March. During the conference, a regional bureau of Muslim organisations of the Russian Bolshevik Party was formed. The Bolshevik Party continued to try to gain support among the native population by giving it the impression of better representation for the Central Asian population and throughout the end of the year could maintain harmony with the Central Asian people.{{sfn|Allworth|1967|pp=232–233}}
Communication difficulties with Red Army forces in Siberia and European Russia ceased to be a problem by mid-November 1919. Red Army successes north of Central Asia caused communication with Moscow to be re-established and the Bolsheviks to claim victory over the White Army in Turkestan.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=76}}
In the Ural-Guryev operation of 1919–1920, the Red [[Turkestan Front]] defeated the [[Ural Army]]. During winter 1920, [[Ural Cossacks]] and their families, totaling about 15,000 people, headed south along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea towards [[Fort-Shevchenko|Fort Alexandrovsk]]. Only a few hundred of them reached Persia in June 1920.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smele|first=Jonathan D.|title=The "Russian" Civil Wars, 1916–1926 |year=2015|publisher=Hurst & Company, London|isbn=978-1-84904-721-0|page=139}}</ref> The [[Orenburg Independent Army]] was formed from [[Orenburg Cossacks]] and others troops who rebelled against the Bolsheviks. During the winter 1919–20, the Orenburg Army retreated to [[Semirechye]] in what is known as the [[Starving March]], as half of the participants perished.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smele|first=Jonathan D.|title=Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwquCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1082|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-5281-3|pages=1082–1083|access-date=23 September 2019|archive-date=19 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719042353/https://books.google.com/books?id=QwquCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1082|url-status=live}}</ref> In March 1920 her remnants crossed the border into the Northwestern region of China.
===South Russia, Ukraine and Kronstadt (1920–21)===
[[File:Victims of Soviet Famine 1922.jpg|thumb| Victims of the [[Russian famine of 1921]]]]
At the beginning of 1920, Denikin was reduced to defending Novorossia, the Crimean peninsula, and the Northern Caucasus. On 26 January, the Caucasian army retreated beyond the [[Manych]]. On 7 February, the Reds occupied Odessa, but then the [[Makhnovshchina]] started fighting the Fourteenth Red Army. On 20 February, Denikin succeeded in recapturing Rostov, his last victory, before giving it up soon after.<ref name=pk2/>{{rp|236–239}}
By the beginning of 1920, the main body of the Armed Forces of South Russia was rapidly retreating towards the Don, to Rostov. Denikin hoped to hold the crossings of the Don, then rest and reform his troops, but the White Army was not able to hold the Don area, and at the end of February 1920 started a retreat across Kuban towards [[Novorossiysk]]. Slipshod [[Evacuation of Novorossiysk (1920)|evacuation of Novorossiysk]] proved to be a dark event for the White Army. Russian and Allied ships evacuated about 40,000 of Denikin's men from Novorossiysk to the Crimea, without horses or any heavy equipment, while about 20,000 men were left behind and either dispersed or were captured by the Red Army. Following the disastrous Novorossiysk evacuation, Denikin stepped down and the military council elected Wrangel as the new Commander-in-Chief of the White Army. He was able to restore order to the dispirited troops and reshape an army that could fight as a regular force again. It remained an organized force in the Crimea throughout 1920.<ref>Viktor G. Bortnevski, "White Administration and White Terror (the Denikin Period)." ''Russian Review'' 52.3 (1993): 354–366 [http://sites.bu.edu/revolutionaryrussia/files/2013/09/White-Propaganda-Efforts-in-the-South-during-the-Russian-Civil-War.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930231435/http://sites.bu.edu/revolutionaryrussia/files/2013/09/White-Propaganda-Efforts-in-the-South-during-the-Russian-Civil-War.pdf |date=30 September 2020 }}.</ref>
[[File:Tambov Rebellion.png|thumb|left|upright|[[Tambov Rebellion]] was one of the largest and best-organised [[List of peasant revolts|peasant rebellion]]s challenging the [[Bolshevik]] regime.]]
After Moscow's Bolshevik government signed a [[Starobilsk agreement|military and political alliance]] with [[Nestor Makhno]] and the [[anarchism in Ukraine|Ukrainian anarchists]], the [[Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine|Insurgent Army]] attacked and defeated several regiments of Wrangel's troops in southern Ukraine, forcing him to retreat before he could capture that year's grain harvest.<ref>Berland, Pierre, "Makhno", ''Le Temps'', 28 August 1934: In addition to supplying White Army forces and their sympathizers with food, a successful seizure of the 1920 Ukrainian grain harvest would have had a devastating effect on food supplies to Bolshevik-held cities, while depriving both Red Army and Ukrainian Insurgent Army troops of their usual bread rations.</ref>
Stymied in his efforts to consolidate his hold, Wrangel then attacked north in an attempt to take advantage of recent Red Army defeats at the close of the [[Polish–Soviet War]] of 1919–1920. The Red Army eventually halted the offensive, and Wrangel's troops had to retreat to [[Siege of Perekop (1920)|Crimea in November 1920]], pursued by both the Red and Black cavalry and infantry. [[Wrangel's fleet]] [[Evacuation of the Crimea (1920)|evacuated him and his army]] to Constantinople on 14 November 1920, ending the struggle of Reds and Whites in Southern Russia.<ref>Kenez, ''Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920'' (1977).</ref>
After the defeat of Wrangel, the Red Army immediately repudiated its 1920 treaty of alliance with Nestor Makhno and attacked the anarchist Insurgent Army; the [[Bolshevik–Makhnovist conflict#Second phase (November 1920–August 1921)|campaign to liquidate Makhno and the Ukrainian anarchists]] began with an attempted assassination of Makhno by Cheka agents. Anger at continued repression by the Bolshevik Communist government and at its liberal use of the Cheka to put down anarchist elements led to a naval mutiny at [[Kronstadt rebellion|Kronstadt]] in March 1921, followed by peasant revolts. Red Army attacks on the anarchist forces and their sympathisers increased in ferocity throughout 1921.<ref>Peter C. Mentzel, "Chaos and Utopia: The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution and Civil War", ''Independent Review'' 22/2 (Fall 2017), 173–181; available at https://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_22_2_03_mentzel.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229193315/https://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_22_2_03_mentzel.pdf |date=29 February 2020 }}; and Alexandre Skirda, ''Nestor Makhno — Anarchy's Cossack: The Struggle for Free Soviets in the Ukraine, 1917–1921'' (Chico CA: AK Press, 2004). {{ISBN|9781902593685}}</ref>
===Siberia and the Far East (1920–22)===
{{Main|Far Eastern Front in the Russian Civil War}}
In Siberia, Admiral Kolchak's army had disintegrated. He himself gave up command after the loss of Omsk and designated Gen. [[Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov|Grigory Semyonov]] as the new leader of the White Army in Siberia. Not long afterward, Kolchak was arrested by the disaffected Czechoslovak Legion as he traveled towards [[Irkutsk]] without the protection of the army and was turned over to the socialist [[Political Centre (Russia)|Political Centre]] in Irkutsk. Six days later, the regime was replaced by a Bolshevik-dominated Military-Revolutionary Committee. On 6–7 February Kolchak and his prime minister Victor Pepelyaev were shot and their bodies were thrown through the ice of the frozen Angara River, just before the arrival of the White Army in the area.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|319–21}}
Remnants of Kolchak's army reached [[Transbaikalia]] and joined Semyonov's troops, forming the Far Eastern army. With the support of the Japanese army it was able to hold Chita, but after the withdrawal of Japanese soldiers from Transbaikalia, Semenov's position became untenable, and in November 1920 he was driven by the Red Army from Transbaikalia and took refuge in China. The Japanese, who had plans to annex the [[Amur Krai]], finally pulled their troops out as Bolshevik forces gradually asserted control over the Russian Far East. On 25 October 1922 Vladivostok fell to the Red Army, and the [[Provisional Priamur Government]] was extinguished.
==Aftermath==
===Ensuing rebellion===
In Central Asia, Red Army troops continued to face resistance into 1923, where ''[[Basmachi Revolt|basmachi]]'' (armed bands of Islamic guerrillas) had formed to fight the Bolshevik takeover. The Soviets engaged non-Russian peoples in Central Asia, like [[Magaza Masanchi]], commander of the Dungan Cavalry Regiment, to fight against the Basmachis. The Communist Party did not completely dismantle the group until 1934.{{sfn|Wheeler|1964|p=107}}
General [[Anatoly Pepelyayev]] [[Yakut Revolt|continued armed resistance]] in the [[Ayano-Maysky District]] until June 1923. The regions of [[Kamchatka]] and Northern [[Sakhalin]] remained under Japanese occupation until their [[Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention|treaty]] with the Soviet Union in 1925, when their forces were finally withdrawn.
===Casualties===
{{overly detailed|section|date=June 2023}}
[[File:Streetkids RussianCivilWar.JPG|thumb|Street children during the Russian Civil War]]
{{See also|Red Terror (Russia)|White Terror (Russia)}}
The results of the civil war were momentous. Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that 300,000 men were killed in action during the Civil War and Polish-Soviet War (125,000 in the Red Army, 175,500 White armies and Poles) and the total number of military personnel from both sides dead from disease as 450,000.<ref>Urlanis B. ''Wars and Population''. Moscow, Progress publishers, 1971.</ref> Boris Sennikov estimated the total losses among the population of [[Tambov Oblast|Tambov region]] in 1920 to 1922 resulting from the war, executions, and imprisonment in concentration camps as approximately 240,000.<ref>Sennikov, B.V. (2004). [http://rusk.ru/vst.php?idar=321701 ''Tambov rebellion and liquidation of peasants in Russia''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330141755/https://rusk.ru/vst.php?idar=321701 |date=2019-03-30 }}. Moscow: Posev. In Russian. {{ISBN|5-85824-152-2}}</ref>
[[File:Refugees on flatcars.jpg|thumb|[[Refugee]]s on [[flatcar]]s]]
As many as 10 million lives were lost as a result of the Russian Civil War, and the overwhelming majority of these were civilian casualties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Russian Civil War – Foreign intervention {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Civil-War/Foreign-intervention |access-date=2023-01-31 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> There is no consensus among the Western historians on the number of deaths from the Red Terror. One source gives estimates of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922.{{sfnp|Ryan|2012|p=2}} Estimates for the number of people shot during the initial period of the Red Terror are at least 10,000.{{sfnp|Ryan|2012|p=114}} Estimates for the whole period go for a low of 50,000<ref name="anatomy">Stone, Bailey (2013). ''The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia''. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.</ref> to highs of 140,000<ref name="anatomy"/><ref>Pipes, Richard (2011). ''The Russian Revolution''. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 838.</ref> and 200,000 executed.{{sfnp|Lowe|2002|p=151}} Most estimations for the number of executions in total put the number at about 100,000.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lincoln |first=W. Bruce |author-link=W. Bruce Lincoln |year=1989 |title=Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War |publisher=Simon & Schuster |page=384 |isbn=0671631667 |quote=... the best estimates set the probable number of executions at about a hundred thousand.}}</ref> According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people.<ref>
{{cite book |last=Erlikhman |first=Vadim Viktorovich|author-link= |date=2004 |title=Poteri narodonaseleniya v XX veke. |trans-title=Population losses in the XX century |url=https://www.azstat.org/Kitweb/zipfiles/11553.pdf |location=Moscow |publisher=Russkaya panorama |page= |isbn=5-93165-107-1|language=ru}}</ref> According to [[Robert Conquest]], a total of 140,000 people were shot in 1917–1922, but Jonathan D. Smele estimates they were considerably fewer, "perhaps less than half that many".{{sfnp|Stele|2015|p=934}} Candidate of Historical Sciences Nikolay Zayats states that the number of people shot by the Cheka in 1918–1922 is about 37,300 people, shot in 1918–1921 by the verdicts of the tribunals — 14,200, i.e. about 50,000–55,000 people in total, although executions and atrocities were not limited to the Cheka, having been organized by the [[Red Army]] as well.<ref>[https://scepsis.net/library/id_3807.html К вопросу о масштабах красного террора в годы Гражданской войны]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.svoboda.org/a/29475805.html|title="Красный террор": 1918– ...?|trans-title=The Red Terror: 1918– …?}}</ref> In 1924, an anti-Bolshevik [[Popular Socialists (Russia)|Popular Socialist]] [[Sergei Melgunov]] (1879–1956) published a detailed account on the Red Terror in Russia, where he cited Professor [[Charles Saroléa]]'s estimates of 1,766,188 deaths from the Bolshevik policies. He questioned the accuracy of the figures, but endorsed Saroléa's "chracterisation of terror in Russia", stating it matches reality.<ref>Часть IV. На гражданской войнe. // ''[[Sergei Melgunov]]'' [http://lib.ru/POLITOLOG/MELGUNOW/terror.txt «Красный террор» в России 1918—1923.] — 2-ое изд., доп. — Берлин, 1924</ref><ref>{{cite book |language=de |last=Melgunov |first=Sergei Petrovich |author-link=Sergei Melgunov |date=2008 |orig-date=1924 |title= Der rote Terror in Russland 1918–1923 |type= reprint of the 1924 Olga Diakow edition |edition= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S3FGAQAAIAAJ |location=Berlin |publisher=OEZ |page=186, note 182 |quote= |isbn=9783940452474 }} An online English translation of the second edition of Melgunov's work is accessibile at [https://ia804502.us.archive.org/28/items/RedTerrorInRussia1918-1923/S.P.Melgunov_Red_Terror_In_Russia_1918-1923_En.pdf Internet Archive], whence the following translated text is drawn (p. 85, note n. 128): "Professor [[Charles Saroléa|[Charles] Sarolea]], who published a series of articles about Russia in Edinburgh newspaper “The Scotsman” touched upon the death statistics in an essay on terror (No. 7, November 1923.). He summarized the outcome of the Bolshevik massacre as follows: 28 bishops, 1219 clergy, 6000 professors and teachers, 9000 doctors, 54,000 officers, 260,000 soldiers, 70,000 policemen, 12,950 landowners, 355,250 professionals, 193,290 workers, 815,000 peasants. The author did not provide the sources of that data. Needless to say that the precise counts seem [too] fictional, but the author’s [characterisation] of terror in Russia in general matches reality." The note is somewhat abbreviated in the 1925 English edition indicated in the bibliography: in particular, there is no mention of the imaginative nature of the data (p. 111, note n. 1).</ref> Modern historian Sergei Volkov, assessing the Red Terror as the entire repressive policy of the Bolsheviks during the years of the Civil War (1917–1922), estimates the direct death toll of the Red Terror at 2 million people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iskupitel.info/node/770 |title=Istorik Sergey Volkov: "Geneticheskomu fondu Rossii byl nanesen chudovishchnyy, ne vospolnennyy do sego vremeni, uron" |trans-title=Historian Sergei Volkov: "Russia's genetic pool suffered monstrous damage, so far not repaired" (interview with the famous historian of the Civil War, Doctor of Historical Sciences Sergei Vladimirovich Volkov) |author=Perevozchikov', Artyom |date=9 September 2010 |website=iskupitel.info |publisher=Monarxist |access-date=9 May 2023 }}</ref> Volkov's calculations, however, do not appear to have been confirmed by other major scholars.<ref>In particular, they seem quite at odds with the demographic considerations elaborated by Italian historian and professor {{ill|Andrea Graziosi|it}} in the light of the good quality Tsarist and early Soviet statistics. According to him, the [[Excess mortality|excess deaths]] between 1914 and 1922 were about 16 million, of which 4–5 were military, the rest civilian; the overwhelming majority of the latter resulted from "starvation, typhus, epidemics, the [[Spanish flu]] and the famine of 1921–22", the roughly number of "victims of the various kinds of terror, and red and white repressions" amounting to a few hundred thousand— which is indeed a dreadful number in itself, however (Graziosi, pp. 171 and 570).</ref>
Some 300,000–500,000 [[Cossacks]] were killed or deported during [[Decossackization]], out of a population of around three million.{{sfn|Gellately|2007|pp=70–71}} An estimated 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/131078|first=Peter|author2=Pipe, Richard|last= Kenez|last3=Pipes|first3=Richard|title=The Prosecution of Soviet History: A Critique of Richard Pipes' The Russian Revolution |journal=Russian Review|volume=50| issue=3|year=1991|pages=345–51|jstor=131078}}</ref> Punitive organs of the All Great Don Cossack Host sentenced 25,000 people to death between May 1918 and January 1919.{{sfn|Holquist|2002|p=164}} Kolchak's government shot 25,000 people in Ekaterinburg province alone.<ref>{{cite journal|publisher=Cult Info|place=RU|url=http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/063/073.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20050510090417/http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/063/073.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2005-05-10|script-title=ru:Колчаковщина|language=ru}}</ref> The White Terror, as it would become known, killed about 300,000 people in total.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Потери народонаселения в XX веке.|last=Эрлихман|first=Вадим|publisher=Издательский дом «Русская панорама»|year=2004|isbn=5931651071}}</ref>
At the end of the Civil War the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] was exhausted and near ruin. The droughts of 1920 and 1921, as well as the [[Russian famine of 1921|1921 famine]], worsened the disaster still further, killing roughly 5 million people. Disease had reached [[pandemic]] proportions, with 3,000,000 dying of [[typhus]] throughout the war. Millions more also died of widespread starvation, wholesale massacres by both sides and [[Pogroms of the Russian Civil War|pogroms against Jews in Ukraine and southern Russia]]. By 1922, there were at least 7,000,000 [[street children]] in Russia as a result of nearly ten years of devastation from World War I and the civil war.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130621173456/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_/ai_n8801575 And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918–1930], Thomas J. Hegarty, Canadian Slavonic Papers</ref>
Another one to two million people, known as the [[White émigré]]s, fled Russia, many with General Wrangel, some through the Far East and others west into the newly independent Baltic countries. The émigrés included a large percentage of the educated and skilled population of Russia.
The Russian economy was devastated by the war, with factories and bridges destroyed, cattle and raw materials pillaged, mines flooded and machines damaged. The industrial production value descended to one seventh of the value of 1913 and agriculture to one third. According to ''[[Pravda]]'', "The workers of the towns and some of the villages choke in the throes of hunger. The railways barely crawl. The houses are crumbling. The towns are full of refuse. Epidemics spread and death strikes—industry is ruined."{{citation needed|date=September 2009}} It is estimated that the total output of mines and factories in 1921 had fallen to 20% of the pre-World War level, and many crucial items experienced an even more drastic decline. For example, cotton production fell to 5%, and iron to 2%, of pre-war levels.
[[War communism]] saved the Soviet government during the Civil War, but much of the Russian economy had ground to a standstill. Some peasants responded to [[Prodrazvyorstka|food requisitions]] by refusing to till the land. By 1921, cultivated land had shrunk to 62% of the pre-war area, and the harvest yield was only about 37% of normal. The number of horses declined from 35 million in 1916 to 24 million in 1920 and cattle from 58 to 37 million. The exchange rate with the US dollar declined from two [[roubles]] in 1914 to 1,200 Rbls in 1920.
With the end of the war, the Communist Party no longer faced an acute military threat to its existence and power. However, the perceived threat of continued popular discontent, combined with the failure of socialist revolutions in other countries—most notably the [[German Revolution]]—contributed to the continued militarisation of Soviet society. Although Russia experienced extremely rapid economic growth<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nintil.com/the-soviet-union-gdp-growth/|title=The Soviet Union: GDP growth|date=2016-03-26|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517053259/https://nintil.com/the-soviet-union-gdp-growth/|archive-date=2020-05-17}}</ref> in the 1930s, the combined effect of World War I and the Civil War left a lasting scar on Russian society and had permanent effects on the development of the [[Soviet Union]].
==In fiction==
===Literature===
* ''The Road to Calvary'' (1922–41) by [[Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy]]
* ''[[Chapaev]]'' (1923) by [[Dmitri Furmanov]]
* ''The Iron Flood'' (1924) by [[Alexander Serafimovich]]
* ''[[Red Cavalry]]'' (1926) by [[Isaac Babel]]
* ''The Rout'' (1927) by [[Alexander Alexandrovich Fadeyev|Alexander Fadeyev]]
* ''Conquered City'' (1932) by [[Victor Serge]]
* ''Futility'' (1922) by [[William Gerhardie]]
* ''[[How the Steel Was Tempered]]'' (1934) by [[Nikolai Ostrovsky]]
* ''[[Optimistic Tragedy]]'' (1934) by [[Vsevolod Vishnevsky]]
* ''[[And Quiet Flows the Don]]'' (1928–1940) by [[Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov|Mikhail Sholokhov]]
* ''[[The Don Flows Home to the Sea]]'' (1940) by [[Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov|Mikhail Sholokhov]]
* ''[[Doctor Zhivago (novel)|Doctor Zhivago]]'' (1957) by [[Boris Pasternak]]
* ''[[The White Guard]]'' (1966) by [[Mikhail Bulgakov]]
* ''[[Byzantium Endures]]'' (1981) by [[Michael Moorcock]]
* ''Chevengur'' (written in 1927, first published in 1988 in the USSR) by [[Andrei Platonov]].
* ''[[Fall of Giants]]'' (2010) by [[Ken Follett]]
* ''A Splendid Little War'' (2012) by [[Derek Robinson (novelist)]]
===Film===
* ''[[Arsenal (1929 film)|Arsenal]]'' (1928)
* ''[[Storm Over Asia (1928 film)|Storm Over Asia]]'' (1928)
* ''[[Chapaev (film)|Chapaev]]'' (1934)
* ''Thirteen'' (1936), directed by [[Mikhail Romm]]
* ''We Are from Kronstadt'' (1936), directed by [[Efim Dzigan|Yefim Dzigan]]
* ''[[Knight Without Armour]]'' (1937)
* ''The Year 1919'' (1938), directed by [[Ilya Trauberg]]
* ''The Baltic Marines'' (1939), directed by A. Faintsimmer
* ''[[Shchors (film)|Shchors]]'' (1939), directed by Dovzhenko
* ''[[How the Steel Was Tempered|Pavel Korchagin]]'' (1956), directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov
* ''[[The Forty-First (1956 film)|The Forty-First]]'' (1956), directed by [[Grigori Chukhrai]]
* ''[[The Communist (film)]]'' (1957), directed by [[Yuli Raizman]]
* ''[[And Quiet Flows the Don (film)|And Quiet Flows the Don]]'' (1958), directed by [[Sergei Gerasimov (film director)|Sergei Gerasimov]]
* ''[[Doctor Zhivago (film)|Doctor Zhivago]]'' (1965), directed by [[David Lean]]
* ''[[The Elusive Avengers]]'' (1966)
* ''[[The Red and the White (film)|The Red and the White]]'' (1967)
* ''[[White Sun of the Desert]]'' (1970)
* ''[[The Flight (1970 film)|The Flight]]'' (1970), directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov
* ''[[Reds (film)|Reds]]'' (1981), directed by [[Warren Beatty]]
* ''[[Corto Maltese|Corto Maltese in Siberia]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Nine Lives of Nestor Makhno]]'' (2005/2007)
* ''[[The Admiral (2008 film)|Admiral]]'' (2008)
* ''[[Sunstroke (2014 film)|Sunstroke]]'' (2014), directed by [[Nikita Mikhalkov]]
==See also==
{{Portal|Soviet Union}}
* [[Polish–Soviet War]] (1917–1922)
* [[Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War]]
* [[Index of articles related to the Russian Revolution and Civil War]]
* [[Nikolayevsk incident]]
* [[Revolutionary Mass Festivals]]
* [[Timeline of the Russian Civil War]]
* [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Allied Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}
===Bibliography===
{{See also|Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Allworth|first=Edward|title=Central Asia: A Century of Russian Rule|url=https://archive.org/details/centralasiacentu0000allw|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1967|oclc=396652}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Avrich |first1=Paul |author-link=Paul Avrich |title=[[Kronstadt, 1921]] |date=1970 |language=en |isbn=0-691-08721-0 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J. |oclc=67322 }}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro00andr|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro00andr/page/28 28]|quote=kgb cheka executions probably numbered as many as 250,000.|last1=Andrew|first1=Christopher|last2=Mitrokhin|first2=Vasili|title=The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|year=1999|location=New York|isbn=978-0465003129}}
* {{cite book|last=Bullock|first=David|title=The Russian Civil War 1918–22|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84603-271-4|location=Oxford|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ|access-date=26 December 2017|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140213/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book| last1 = Calder| first1 = Kenneth J.| title = Britain and the Origins of the New Europe 1914–1918| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nME8AAAAIAAJ| series = International Studies| location = Cambridge| publisher = Cambridge University Press| date = 1976| isbn = 978-0521208970| access-date = 2017-10-06}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/34982|title=The Russian Revolution, Volume II: 1918–1921: From the Civil War to the Consolidation of Power|last=Chamberlin|first=William Henry|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1987|isbn=978-1400858705|location=Princeton, NJ|url-access=subscription|via=Project MUSE|access-date=27 December 2017|archive-date=27 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227180409/https://muse.jhu.edu/book/34982|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last1=Coates|first1=W. P.|last2=Coates|first2=Zelda K.|author-link=W. P. Coates|author-link2=Zelda Kahan|title=Soviets in Central Asia|location=New York|publisher=Philosophical Library|year=1951|oclc=1533874|url=https://archive.org/details/SovietsInCentralAsiaCoates}}
* {{cite book|last=Daniels|first=Robert V.|title=A Documentary History of Communism in Russia: From Lenin to Gorbachev|publisher=University Press of New England|year= 1993|location=Hanover, NH|isbn=978-0-87451-616-6}}
* {{citation | first1=Alfonsas | last1=Eidintas | first2=Vytautas | last2=Žalys | first3=Alfred Erich | last3=Senn | title=Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940 | edition=Paperback | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_i8yez8udgC&pg=PA33 | year=1999 | publisher=St. Martin's Press | location=New York | isbn=0-312-22458-3 }}
* {{cite book|last=Erickson|first=John.|title=The Soviet High Command: A Military-Political History, 1918–1941: A Military Political History, 1918–1941 |publisher=Westview Press, Inc.|year= 1984|isbn=978-0-367-29600-1}}
* {{Cite book|title=A People's Tragedy: A History of the Russian Revolution|last=Figes|first=Orlando|publisher=Viking|year=1997|isbn=978-0670859160|location=New York|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestragedyhi00fige}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Robert Gellately|last=Gellately|first=Robert|title=Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe|location=New York|publisher=Knopf|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4000-4005-6}}
* Grebenkin, I.N. "The Disintegration of the Russian Army in 1917: Factors and Actors in the Process." ''Russian Studies in History'' 56.3 (2017): 172–187.
* {{cite book|last1= Haupt|first1= Georges|last2= Marie|first2= Jean-Jacques|name-list-style= amp|title= Makers of the Russian revolution|publisher= George Allen & Unwin|place= London|year= 1974|isbn= 978-0801408090|url-access= registration|url= https://archive.org/details/makersofrussianr0000haup}}
* {{cite book|first=Peter|last=Holquist|title=Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia's Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-674-00907-X}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vREGB60UPWMC|title=Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920: The Defeat of the Whites|last=Kenez|first=Peter|publisher=University of California Press|year=1977|isbn=978-0520033467|location=Berkeley|author-link=Peter Kenez}}
* {{cite book|last=Kinvig|first=Clifford|title=Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia, 1918–1920|publisher=Hambledon Continuum|year=2006|isbn=978-1847250216|location=London}}
* {{cite book|first=G. F. |last=Krivosheev|title=Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=CTTfAAAAMAAJ}}|year=1997|location=London|publisher=Greenhill Books|isbn=978-1-85367-280-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Mawdsley|first=Evan|title=The Russian Civil War|location=New York|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2007|isbn=978-1681770093|url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Overy|first=Richard|title=The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia|location=New York|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=2004|isbn=978-0-393-02030-4|url=https://archive.org/details/dictators00rich|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|first=Teresa|last=Rakowska-Harmstone|author-link=Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone|title=Russia and Nationalism in Central Asia: The Case of Tadzhikistan|url=https://archive.org/details/russianationalis0000rako|url-access=registration|location=Baltimore|publisher=Johns Hopkins Press|year=1970|isbn=978-0801810213}}
* {{cite book|last=Read|first=Christopher|title=From Tsar to Soviets|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0195212419}}
* {{cite book|last=Rosenthal|first=Reigo|title=Loodearmee|language=et |trans-title=Northwestern Army|year=2006|publisher=Argo|location=Tallinn|isbn=9949-415-45-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Ryan|first=James|year=2012|url=https://www.routledge.com/Lenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence/Ryan/p/book/9781138815681|title=Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence|location=London|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-81568-1|access-date=15 May 2017|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111070149/https://www.routledge.com/Lenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence/Ryan/p/book/9781138815681|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|first=George|last=Stewart|title=The White Armies of Russia A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention|year=2009|isbn= 978-1847349767}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|title=Faustschlag, Operation|encyclopedia=World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ|last1=Smith|first1=David A.|date=2014|pages=554–555|isbn=978-1851099658|first2=Spencer C.|last2=Tucker|access-date=27 December 2017|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215195340/https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|first=John M.|last=Thompson|title=A Vision Unfulfilled. Russia and the Soviet Union in the Twentieth Century|url=https://archive.org/details/visionunfulfille00thom|url-access=registration|location=Lexington, MA|year=1996|isbn=978-0669282917}}
* {{cite book|first=Dmitri|last=Volkogonov|title=Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary|others=Translated and edited by Harold Shukman|location=London|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|year=1996|isbn= 978-0002552721}}
* {{cite book|first=Geoffrey|last=Wheeler|title=The Modern History of Soviet Central Asia|location=New York|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger|year=1964|oclc=865924756 }}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Acton, Edward, V. et al. eds. ''Critical companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914–1921'' (Indiana UP, 1997).
* Brovkin, Vladimir N. (1994). ''Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War: Political Parties and Social Movements in Russia, 1918–1922''. Princeton UP. [https://www.amazon.comdp/0691633770/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140214/https://www.amazon.com/Behind-Front-Lines-Civil-War/dp/0691633770/ |date=28 July 2020 }}
* Dupuy, T. N. ''The Encyclopedia of Military History'' (many editions) Harper & Row Publishers.
* Ford, Chris. "Reconsidering the Ukrainian Revolution 1917–1921: The Dialectics of National Liberation and Social Emancipation." ''Debatte'' 15.3 (2007): 279–306.
* [[Peter Kenez]]. ''Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army'' (U of California Press, 1971).
* Lincoln, W. Bruce. ''Red victory: A history of the Russian Civil War'' (1989).
* Luckett, Richard. ''The White Generals: An Account of the White Movement and the Russian Civil War'' (Routledge, 2017).
* Marples, David R. ''Lenin's Revolution: Russia, 1917–1921'' (Routledge, 2014).
* Moffat, Ian, ed. ''The Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918–1920: The Diplomacy of Chaos'' (2015)
* Polyakov, Yuri. ''[https://archive.org/details/civilwarrussia The Civil War in Russia: Its Causes and Significance]'' (Novosti, 1981).
* Serge, Victor. ''Year One of the Russian Revolution'' (Haymarket, 2015).
* Smele, Jonathan D. {{"'}}If Grandma had Whiskers...': Could the Anti-Bolsheviks have won the Russian Revolutions and Civil Wars? Or, the Constraints and Conceits of Counterfactual History." ''Revolutionary Russia'' (2020): 1–32. {{doi|10.1080/09546545.2019.1675961}}. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140215/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546545.2019.1675961 |date=28 July 2020 }}
* Smele, Jonathan. ''The 'Russian' Civil Wars, 1916–1926: Ten Years That Shook the World'' (Oxford UP, 2016).
* Smele, Jonathan D. ''Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926'' (2 Vol. Rowman & Littlefield, 2015).
* Stewart, George. ''The White Armies of Russia: A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Armies-Russia-Chronicle-Counter-Revolution-Intervention/dp/1847349765/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627113844/http://www.amazon.com/Armies-Russia-Chronicle-Counter-Revolution-Intervention/dp/1847349765 |date=27 June 2015 }}
* Stone, David R. "The Russian Civil War, 1917–1921," in ''The Military History of the Soviet Union''.
* Swain, Geoffrey (2015). ''The Origins of the Russian Civil War'' [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1138837458/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140217/https://www.amazon.com/Origins-Russian-Civil-Modern-Wars/dp/1138837458/ |date=28 July 2020 }}
** Smele, Jonathan D. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668136.2016.1257094 "Still Searching for the 'Third Way': Geoffrey Swain's Interventions in the Russian Civil Wars"]. ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 68.10 (2016): 1793–1812.
===Primary sources===
* Butt, V. P., et al., eds. ''The Russian Civil War: Documents from the Soviet Archives'' (Springer, 2016).
* McCauley, Martin, ed. ''The Russian Revolution and the Soviet State 1917–1921: Documents'' (Springer, 1980).
* Murphy, A. Brian, ed. ''The Russian Civil War: Primary Sources'' (Springer, 2000) [https://journals.openedition.org/monderusse/4022 online review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627165622/https://journals.openedition.org/monderusse/4022 |date=27 June 2020 }}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Library resources box}}
{{Commons category|Civil war of Russia}}
{{Wikiquote}}
*[https://www.net-film.ru/en/found-page-1/?search=1917-1935qcivil+war+in+Russia Newsreels about Russian Civil War // Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive]
*Sumpf, Alexandre: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/russian_civil_war Russian Civil War], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Mawdsley, Evan: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/international_responses_to_the_russian_civil_war_russian_empire International Responses to the Russian Civil War (Russian Empire)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Read, Christopher: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/revolutions_russian_empire Revolutions (Russian Empire)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Peeling, Siobhan: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/war_communism War Communism], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Beyrau, Dietrich: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/post-war_societies_russian_empire Post-war Societies (Russian Empire)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Brudek, Pawe³: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/revolutions_east_central_europe Revolutions (East Central Europe)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Melancon, Michael S.: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/social_conflict_and_control_protest_and_repression_russian_empire Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Russian Empire)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* [http://libcom.org/library/russian-revolution Russian Revolution and Civil War archive at libcom.org/library]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/eastern_front_01.shtml "BBC History of the Russian Revolution"] (3 February 2007)
* [http://www.spartacus-educational.com/RUScivilwar.htm "Russian Civil War"] (Spartacus History, downloaded 3 January 2006)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051221100007/http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/romeo/russia1918.htm "Russian Civil War 1918–1920"] (On War website, downloaded 4 January 2006)
* [http://www.answers.com/topic/civil-war-of-1917-1922 "Civil War of 1917–1922 at Encyclopedia of Russian History] (3 February 2007)
{{World War I}}
{{Russian Civil War|collapsed}}
{{Russian Revolution 1917}}
{{Russian Conflicts}}
{{Soviet Union topics}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Russian Civil War| ]]
[[Category:1910s in Russia]]
[[Category:1920s in Russia]]
[[Category:1920s in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Europe]]
[[Category:Civil wars of the Industrial era]]
[[Category:Revolution-based civil wars]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution|Civil War]]
[[Category:Wars involving Chechnya]]
[[Category:Wars involving Russia]]
[[Category:Wars involving Soviet Russia (1917–1922)]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:1910s conflicts]]
[[Category:1920s conflicts]]
[[Category:Communism-based civil wars]]
[[Category:Wars involving Ukraine]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Ottoman Empire]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|1917–23 armed conflict in the former Russian Empire}}
{{Other uses|Russian Civil War (disambiguation)}}
{{POV|date=May 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Russian Civil War
| partof = the [[Russian Revolution]] and the [[aftermath of World War I]]
| image = [[File:Russian Civil War montage.png|370px]]
| caption = '''Clockwise from top left:'''
{{flatlist|
*Soldiers of the [[Don Army]]
*Soldiers of the [[Siberian Army]]
*Bolshevik suppression of the [[Kronstadt rebellion]]
*American troops in Vladivostok during the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Allied intervention]]
*Victims of the [[Red Terror]] in [[Crimea]]
*Hanging of workers in [[Dnipro|Yekaterinoslav]] by the [[Austro-Hungarian Army|Austrians]]
*A review of Red Army troops in Moscow.
}}
| date = [[October Revolution|7 November 1917]] – [[Yakut revolt|16 June 1923]]{{Efn|The main phase ended on 25 October 1922. Revolt against the Bolsheviks continued [[Basmachi movement|in Central Asia]] and [[Tungus Republic|the Far East]] through the 1920s and 1930s.}}<ref name=Mapolwdsley2007>{{cite book|last=Mawdsley|first=Evan|title=The Russian Civil War|location=New York|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2007|isbn=9781681770093|url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan|url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|3,230}}<ref>Последние бои на Дальнем Востоке. М., Центрполиграф, 2005.</ref><br>(5 years, 7 months and 9 days)
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = yes
| title = Peace treaties
|'''[[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]'''<br>Signed 3 March 1918<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=3|day2=3|year2=1918}})
|'''[[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)]]'''<br>Signed 2 February 1920<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=2|day2=2|year2=1920}})
|'''[[Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty]]'''<br>Signed 12 July 1920<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=7|day2=12|year2=1920}})
|'''[[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Finnish)]]'''<br>Signed 14 October 1920<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=10|day2=14|year2=1920}})
|'''[[Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty]]'''<br>Signed 11 August 1920<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=8|day2=11|year2=1920}})
|'''[[Peace of Riga]]'''<br>Signed 17 September 1921<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=9|day2=17|year2=1921}})
|'''[[Treaty of Kars]]'''<br>Signed 13 October 1921<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=7|year1=1917|month2=9|day2=13|year2=1921}})
}}
| place = '''Former [[Russian Empire]]''', [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]], [[Bogd Khanate of Mongolia|Mongolia]], [[Uryankhay Krai|Tuva]], [[Qajar Iran|Persia]]
| result = '''[[Bolshevik]] victory''':
* Collapse of the [[Russian Republic]] and [[Russian State (1918–1920)|Russian State]]
* [[Execution of the Romanov family|Execution]] of the [[House of Romanov|Russian Imperial family]]
* Defeat of the [[White movement]] and [[White émigré|its exodus]]
* Creation of the [[Soviet Union]] in most of the former Empire
* Creation of Bolshevist [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolian]] and [[Tuvan People's Republic|Tuvan]] states
* [[Philosophers' ships|Expulsion]] of many prominent Russian intellectuals and activists
* Beginning of [[Anti-Soviet partisans|anti-Bolshevik resistance]]
{{Ubl
| '''Partial victory by [[Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War|independence movements]]''':<ref name=Bullock2008>{{cite book|last=Bullock|first=David|title=The Russian Civil War 1918–22.|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84603-271-4|location=Oxford|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ|access-date=26 December 2017|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140213/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|7}}}}
* [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], and [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] gain independence
* [[Ukrainian People's Republic|Ukraine]], [[Belarusian People's Republic|Belarus]], [[Georgian Democratic Republic|Georgia]], [[First Armenian Republic|Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]], [[Moldavian Democratic Republic|Moldavia]] and many other nations of the former Russian Empire are either annexed by the Bolsheviks or by other nations
* Socialist movements or Bolshevik puppet states in [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic|Finland]], [[Commune of the Working People of Estonia|Estonia]], [[Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic|Latvia]], [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–19)|Lithuania]] and [[Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee|Poland]] defeated
| territory = {{Collapsible list
| bullets = yes
| title = Cessions to [[Bolshevik]] states
| Establishment of the [[Soviet Union]]
| Establishment of [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolian]] and [[Tanna Tuva|Tuvan]] republics
| Cession of [[Central Russia|Russia proper]], [[Kuban]], [[Don (river)|Don]], [[Eastern Karelia]], [[Siberia]] and [[Russian Far East|Far East]]; [[Central Ukraine|Central]], [[Southern Ukraine|Southern]], and [[Eastern Ukraine]]; [[Eastern Belorussia|Eastern Belarus]], [[Northern Caucasus]], [[South Caucasus|Transcaucasia]] and [[Central Asia]] to the Soviet Union
| Joint Sino-Soviet administration of the [[Chinese Eastern Railway]] [[Return of the Chinese Eastern Railway|until 1952]]
| Cession of [[Uryankhay Krai]] to Tuva
| Cession of [[Bogd Khanate of Mongolia|Bogd Khanate]] to Mongolia
}}
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = yes
| title = Cessions to [[Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War|national separatists]]
| Independence of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland
| Cession of [[Vistula Land|Vistula]], [[Western Belorussia|Western Belarus]] and [[Western Ukraine]] to Poland
| Cession of [[Grand Duchy of Finland|Grand Duchy]] and [[Pechengsky District|Petsamo]] to Finland
| Cession of [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia|Autonomous Governorate]] to Estonia
| Cession of [[Governorate of Livonia|Southern Livonia]] and [[Courland Governorate|Courland]] to Latvia
| Cession of [[Vilna Governorate|Northern Vilna]] and [[Kovno Governorate]] to Lithuania
}}
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = yes
| title = Cessions to other nations
| Cession of [[Bessarabian Governorate|Bessarabia]] to [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]]
| Cession of [[Kars Oblast|Kars]] to [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|Turkey]]
| Cession of concessions in [[Russian concession of Tianjin|Tianjin]] and [[Hankou]] to [[Beiyang government|China]]
}}
| combatants_header= Main belligerents
| combatant1 = {{Ubl
|'''[[Bolshevik Party|Bolsheviks]]''':
| '''{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Russian SFSR]]'''<br>{{small|(1917–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919-1929).svg}} [[Ukrainian SSR]]<br>{{small|({{flagicon image|Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic of the Soviets.svg|size=15px}} [[Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets|1917–18]]; [[Ukrainian Soviet Republic|1918]]; 1919–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919-1927).svg}} [[Byelorussian SSR|Belarusian SSR]]<br>{{small|({{flagicon image|Flag_of_Byelorussian_SSR_(1919-1927).png|size=15px}} [[Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia|1919]]; {{flagicon image|Flag of the Lithuanian-Byelorussian SSR.svg|size=15px}} [[Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia|1919–20]];<br>1920–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Ru transcaucasia1922.png}} [[Transcaucasian SFSR]] {{small|(1922)}}
| '''{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Soviet Union]]'''<br>{{small|(after 1922)}}
}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
| {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic|Bessarabian SSR]]<br>({{small|1919}})
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic|Finnish SWR]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Donets-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic|D-KRSR]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Odessa Soviet Republic|Odessa SR]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic|Taurida SSR]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[26 Baku Commissars|Baku Commune]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Commune of the Working People of Estonia.svg}} [[Commune of the Working People of Estonia|Estonian Commune]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic (1918–1920).svg}} [[Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic|Latvian SSR]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Lithuanian-Byelorussian SSR.svg}} [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–19)|Lithuanian SSR]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flagdeco|Far Eastern Republic}} [[Far Eastern Republic]]<br>{{small|(1920–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Galician SSR.svg}} [[Galician Soviet Socialist Republic|Galician SSR]]<br>{{small|(1920)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Polrewkom]]<br>{{small|(1920)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Persian Socialist Soviet Republic.svg}} [[Persian SSR]]<br>{{small|(1920–21)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922).svg}} [[Armenian SSR]]<br>{{small|(1920–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1920).svg}} [[Azerbaijan SSR]]<br>{{small|(1920–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1922).svg}} [[Georgian SSR]]<br>{{small|(1921–22)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Khiva 1920-1923.svg}} [[Khorezm People's Soviet Republic|Khorezm PSR]]<br>{{small|(after 1920)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic.svg}} [[Bukharan People's Soviet Republic|Bukharan PSR]]<br>{{small|(after 1920)}}
}}
----
{{ubl
| '''Supported by''':
| {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Chinese Communist Party (Pre-1996).svg}} [[Chinese in the Russian Revolution and in the Russian Civil War|Chinese communists]]<br>{{small|(1917–23)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Latvian Riflemen#Red Latvian Riflemen|Red Latvian Riflemen]]<br>{{small|(1917–20)}}
| {{flag|Lithuania}}{{Efn|[[Soviet-Polish War]].}}<br>{{small|(1919–20)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the People's Republic of Mongolia (1921-1924).svg}} [[Mongolian People's Party|MPP]]<br>{{small|(1920–23)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of United Kingdom.svg}} [[Murmansk Legion]]{{efn|[[Viena expedition#British Intervention]]}}<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}}}
| combatant2 = {{Ubl
|{{nowrap|'''{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Russian Republic (1917–1918)|Russian Republic]]'''{{Efn|''De facto'' deposed after the [[Bolshevik Coup]] of November 1917; formally abolished in January 1918 after the dissolution of the [[Russian Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]].}}}}<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}}}
----
{{Ubl
|'''[[White movement|White Guards]]'''{{nobold|:}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[General Command of the Armed Forces of South Russia|South Russia]]<br>{{small|(1917–19; [[South Russian Government|Mar–Apr]],<br>[[Government of South Russia|Apr–Nov 1920]])}}
| '''{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Russian State]]'''<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Eastern Okraina]]<br>{{small|(1920)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Provisional Priamurye Government]]<br>{{small|(after 1921)}}
}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = {{nowrap|Also{{nobold|:}}}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Ural_government_(1918).svg}} [[Provisional Regional Government of the Urals]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Provisional Siberian Government.svg}} [[Provisional Siberian Government (Omsk)|Omsk Siberian Government]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Provisional Siberian Government.svg}} [[Provisional Siberian Government (Vladivostok)|Vladivostok Siberian Government]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly|Komuch]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Supreme Administration of the Northern Region|North Russia]]<br>{{small|(1918, [[Provisional Government of the Northern Region|1918–20]])}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Regional Government of Northwest Russia|Northwest Russia]] {{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Crimean Regional_Government.svg}} [[Crimean Regional Government|Crimea]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flagicon|Don Republic}} [[Don Republic]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Kuban People's Republic.svg}} [[Kuban People's Republic|Kuban Republic]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
}}
----
{{ubl
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
|'''Supported by''':
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Alash Autonomy.svg}} [[Alash Autonomy|Alash-Orda]]<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
|[[File:Flag of Bogd Khaanate Mongolia.svg|23px]] [[Bogd Khanate|Mongolia]]<br>{{small|(1921)}}
|{{flagicon image|State flag of Persia (1907–1933).svg|23px}} [[Qajar Iran|Persia]]<br>{{small|(1919–20)}}}}
| combatant3 = {{ubl
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
|'''[[Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War|Separatists]]''':
|{{flagdeco|Poland|1919}} [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]<br>{{small|(1918–21)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Finland (1918–1920).svg}} [[Finland]]<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic 1917.svg}} [[Ukrainian People's Republic|Ukraine]]<br>{{small|(1917–18; 1918–20)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Belarus (1918, 1991–1995).svg}} [[Belarusian People's Republic|Belarus]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
|{{flag|Estonia}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
|{{flag|Latvia}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
|{{flag|Lithuania}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
| 5={{flagicon image|Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic 1917.svg}} [[West Ukrainian People's Republic|West Ukraine]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| 6={{flagicon image|Flaga Litwy Środkowej.svg|23px}} [[Republic of Central Lithuania|Central Lithuania]]<br>{{small|(1920–22)}}
| 7={{flagicon image|Flag of the Moldavian Democratic Republic.svg|23px}} [[Moldavian Democratic Republic|Moldavia]]<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
| 8=[[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic|Transcaucasia]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| 9={{flagicon|Democratic Republic of Georgia}} [[Democratic Republic of Georgia|Georgia]]<br>{{small|(1918–21)}}
| 10={{flagicon image|Flag of the First Republic of Armenia.svg}} [[First Republic of Armenia|Armenia]]<br>{{small|(1918–20; [[Republic of Mountainous Armenia|1921]])}}
| 11={{flagicon image|Flag of the Turkestan (Kokand) Autonomy.svg}} [[Turkestan Autonomy|Turkestan]]<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
| 12={{flagicon image|Flag of the Centrocaspian Dictatorship.svg}} [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship|Centrocaspia]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| 13={{flagicon image|Flag of the Republic of Aras.svg}} [[Republic of Aras|Aras]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| 14={{flagicon image|Flag of North Caucasian Emirate.svg}} [[North Caucasian Emirate|Caucasian Emirate]]<br>{{small|(1919–20)}}
| 15={{flagicon image|Flag of Azerbaijan 1918.svg}} [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| 16={{flagicon image|Flag of the Mountain Republic.svg}} [[Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus|Northern Caucasus]]<br>{{small|(1917–21)}}
| 17={{flagicon image|Flag of Green Ukraine.svg}} [[Green Ukraine]]<br>{{small|(1918–22)}}
| 18=[[State of Buryat-Mongolia|Buryat-Mongolia]]<br>{{small|(1917–21)}}
| 19={{flagicon image|flag of the German Empire.svg}} [[Yakutia (1918)|Yakutia]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| 20={{flagicon image|Confederated Republic of Altai Flag.svg}} [[Karakorum Government|Altai]]<br>{{small|(1917–20; 1921–22)}}
| 23={{flagicon image|Karelian National Flag.svg}} [[Republic of Uhtua|Karelia]]<br>{{small|(1918–20; [[Olonets Government of Southern Karelia|1920]]; [[Karelian United Government|1920–23]])}}
| 24={{flagicon image|Ingrian people.svg}} [[North Ingria]]<br>{{small|(1919–20)}}
| 27=[[File:Bandera del Turquestan.svg|23px]] [[Basmachi movement|Basmachi]]<br>{{small|(1918–22)}}
| 28=[[File:Flag of the Emirate of Bukhara.svg|23px]] [[Emirate of Bukhara|Bukhara]]<br>{{small|(1920)}}
| 29={{flagicon image|Flag of the Khanate of Khiva.svg}} [[Khanate of Khiva|Khiva]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}}}
----
{{Ubl
|'''Supported by''':
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Sweden.svg}} [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]]{{efn|[[Finnish Civil War]]}}<br>{{small|(1918)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Hungary (1918-1919).svg}} [[First Hungarian Republic|Hungary]]{{efn|[[Polish-Soviet War]]}}<br>{{small|(1919–20)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1919–1921).svg}} [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]{{efn|[[Basmachi movement]]}}<br>{{small|(until 1922)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Finland.svg}} [[Republic of Finland|Finland]]{{efn|[[Heimosodat]]}}<br>{{small|(1918–20; 1921–22)}}
}}
| combatant1a = {{Ubl
|'''Anti-Bolshevik Left''':
| {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries|Left SRs]]{{Efn|Aligned with the Bolsheviks until March 1918, when they fell out over the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. Most Left SRs opposed the Bolsheviks afterward, but a minority of Left SRs remained allied to the Bolsheviks for years after.}}<br>{{small|(1917–21)}}
| {{flagicon image|Darker green and Black flag.svg}} [[Green armies|Green Army]]{{Efn|Aligned with the Bolsheviks until 1919; opposed after.}}<br>{{small|(1918–21)}}
| {{flagicon image|Махновское знамя.svg}} [[Makhnovshchina]]{{Efn|Aligned with the Bolsheviks until 1920; opposed after.}}<br>{{small|(1918–21)}}
| {{flagicon image|Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt flag.svg}} [[Kronstadt rebels]]<br>{{small|(1921)}}
}}
| combatant2a = {{Ubl
|'''[[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Allied Powers]]''':
| {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}{{Efn|Japan also stayed in North [[Sakhalin]] [[Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention|until 1925]].}}<br>{{small|(1918–22)}}
| {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flag|United States|1912}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| {{flagcountry|First Czechoslovak Republic|1918}}<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Greece|state}}
| {{flagicon|Kingdom of Serbia}} [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]]<br>{{small|({{flagicon|Kingdom of Yugoslavia|size=15px}} [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes|after 1918]])}}
| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}}
| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}}
| {{flagdeco|Republic of China (1912–1949)|1912}} [[Beiyang government|China]]
| {{flag|Canada|1868}}<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flag|Australia}}<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flag|British Raj|name=India}}
| {{flag|Union of South Africa|name=South Africa|1912}}}}
| combatant3a = {{Ubl
|{{nowrap|'''[[Central Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War|Central Powers]]''':}}
| {{nowrap|{{flagcountry|German Empire|name=Germany}}}}<br>{{small|(1917–18; {{flagicon|Weimar Republic|size=15px}} [[Weimar Republic|1919]])}}
| {{nowrap|{{flagcountry|Austria-Hungary}}}}<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
| {{nowrap|{{flagcountry|Ottoman Empire}}}}<br>{{small|(1917–18; {{flagicon|Turkey|size=15px}} [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|1920–21]])}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Iron Division Freikorps.svg}} [[Freikorps in the Baltic|Freikorps]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Collaborators{{nobold|:}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Poland.svg}} [[Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)|Kingdom of Poland]]<br>{{small|(1917–18)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Finland (1918–1920).svg}} [[Kingdom of Finland (1918)|Kingdom of Finland]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Lithuania (1918–1940).svg}} [[Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)|Kingdom of Lithuania]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Belarus (1918, 1991–1995).svg}} [[Belarusian People's Republic|Belarus]]<br>{{small|(1918–19)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukranian State.svg}} [[Ukrainian State]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of Georgia}} [[Democratic Republic of Georgia|Georgia]]<br>{{small|(1918)}}
| {{flagicon image|Baltic German.svg}} [[Baltische Landeswehr|Landeswehr]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}
| {{flagicon image|WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg|size=23px}} [[West Russian Volunteer Army|Bermontians]]<br>{{small|(1918–20)}}{{efn|Official allegiance to the [[Russian State]]<br>Unofficial allegiance to the [[German Empire]]}}
}}
| commander1 = {{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Vladimir Lenin]]<br>{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Leon Trotsky]]<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Jukums Vācietis]]<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Yakov Sverdlov]]<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Sergey Kamenev|S. Kamenev]]<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Nikolai Podvoisky|N. Podvoisky]]<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR|1918}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Joseph Stalin]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919-1929).svg}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Yukhym Medvedev|Y. Medvedev]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1919-1927).svg}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Union (1922–1923).svg}} [[Vilhelm Knorin]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Far Eastern Republic.svg}} [[Alexander Krasnoshchyokov|A. Krasnoshchyokov]]
| commander2 = {{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Alexander Kerensky|A. Kerensky]]{{Surrendered}}}}<br>{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Alexander Kolchak]]{{Executed}}}} <br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Lavr Kornilov]]{{KIA}} <br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Anton Denikin]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Pyotr Wrangel]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Nikolai Yudenich]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov|Grigory Semyonov]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Yevgeny Miller]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}}{{flagicon|Don Republic}} [[Pyotr Krasnov]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}}[[File:Flag of Bogd Khaanate Mongolia.svg|12px]] [[Roman von Ungern-Sternberg|R. von Ungern]]{{Executed}}
| commander3 = {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Poland|1919}} [[Józef Piłsudski]]}}<br>{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of Finland (1918–1920).svg}} [[C.G.E. Mannerheim]]}}<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic 1917.svg}} [[Symon Petliura]]<br>{{flagdeco|Estonia}} [[Konstantin Päts]]<br>{{flagdeco|Latvia}} [[Jānis Čakste]]<br>{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|Lithuania}} [[Antanas Smetona]]}}<br>{{flagicon image|Karelian National Flag.svg}} [[S. Tikhonov]]<br>{{flagicon|Democratic Republic of Georgia}} [[Noe Zhordania]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the First Republic of Armenia.svg}} [[Alexander Khatisian|A. Khatisian]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Azerbaijan 1918.svg}} [[Nasib bey Yusifbeyli|Nasib Yusifbeyli]]
| commander1a = {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Vladimir Vol'skii|Vladimir Volsky]]<br>{{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Maria Spiridonova]]<br>{{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Nykyfor Hryhoriv]]{{KIA|Killed in Action}}<br>{{flagicon image|Махновское знамя.svg}} [[Nestor Makhno]]<br>{{flagicon image|Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt flag.svg}} [[Stepan Maximovich Petrichenko|Stepan Petrichenko]]<br>{{small|[[Leaders of the Russian Civil War|…''and others'']]}}
| commander2a = {{flagdeco|Empire of Japan}} [[Otani Kikuzo]]<br>{{flagdeco|United Kingdom}} [[Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside|Edmund Ironside]]<br>{{flagdeco|United States|1912}} [[William S. Graves]]<br>{{flagicon|Czechoslovakia|1918}} [[Radola Gajda]]<br>{{flagdeco|France|1830}} [[Maurice Janin]]<br>{{small|…''and others''}}
| commander3a = {{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Hermann von Eichhorn|H. von Eichhorn]]{{KIA}}<br>{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Nuri Killigil|Nuri Pasha]]<br>{{flagdeco|Belarus|1991|link=no}} [[Jan Sierada]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukranian State.svg}} [[Pavlo Skoropadskyi]]<br>{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg|size=23px}} [[Pavel Bermondt-Avalov|P. Bermondt-Avalov]]}}<br>{{small|…''and others''}}
| strength1 = {{Ubl
|[[File:Soviet Red Army Hammer and Plough.svg|15px]] [[Red Army]]:<br>5,498,000 {{small|(peak)}}{{sfn|Erickson|1984|p=763}}{{efn|The Red Army peaked in October 1920 with 5,498,000: 2,587,000 in reserves, 391,000 in labor armies, 159,000 on the front and 1,780,000 drawing rations}}}}
----
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon image|Death to oppressors of workers.svg}} [[Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine|Makhnovtsi]]:<br>103,000 {{small|(peak)}}<ref>Belash, Victor & Belash, Aleksandr, ''Dorogi Nestora Makhno'', p. 340</ref>
|{{flagicon image|Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg}} [[Green armies|Green Army]]:<br>70,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt flag.svg}} [[Kronstadt rebellion|Kronstadt Mutineers]]:<br>17,961}}
| strength2 = {{Ubl
|[[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[White Army]]:<br>1,023,000 {{small|(peak)}}{{efn|683,000 active<br>340,000 reserve}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = no
| title = Local forces{{nobold|:}}
| [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[Armed Forces of South Russia|AFSR]]: 270,000 {{small|(peak)}}
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Siberia.svg}} [[Siberian Army]]: 60,000 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:Flag of the Ural government (1918).svg|23px]] [[People's Army of Komuch|Komuch Army]]: 30,000 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:СЗА нарукавный знак.JPG|15px]] [[Northwestern Army (Russia)|Northwestern Army]]: 18,500 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[Northern Army (Russia)|Northern Army]]: 54,700 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[Western Army of the White Movement|Western Army]]: 48,000 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[Orenburg Independent Army|Orenburg Army]]: 25,000 {{small|(peak)}}
| [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|15px]] [[Ural Army]]: 17,200 {{small|(peak)}}}}
----
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon image|War flag of the Imperial Japanese Army (1868–1945).svg}} [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese Army]]: 70,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|[[File:Coat of arms of the Czechoslovak Legion.svg|15px]] [[Czechoslovak Legion]]: 50,000 {{small|(peak)}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
|{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[American Expeditionary Force, Siberia|AEF, Siberia]]:<br>7,950
|{{flagicon|United Kingdom|1801}} [[British Army]]:<br>57,636<ref>Damien Wright, ''Churchill's Secret War with Lenin: British and Commonwealth Military Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1918–20'', Solihull, UK, 2017, pp. 394, 526–528, 530–535; Clifford Kinvig, ''Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia 1918–1920'', London 2006, {{ISBN|1-85285-477-4}}, p. 297; Timothy Winegard, ''The First World Oil War'', University of Toronto Press (2016), p. 229</ref>
|{{flagicon|Kingdom of Romania}} [[Romanian Army]]:<br>50,000
|{{flagicon|France|1830}} [[French Army]]:<br>15,600
|{{army|Greece}}:<br>23,000
|{{flagicon|Canada|1868}} [[Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force|CSEF]]:<br>~5,000
|{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[American Expeditionary Force, North Russia|AEF, North Russia]]:<br>5,000
|{{flagicon image|Flag_of_Italy_(1860).svg}} [[Legione Redenta]]:<br>2,500
|[[File:Beiyang star.svg|15px]] [[Beiyang Army]]:<br>2,300
|{{flagicon|Kingdom of Serbia}} [[Serbian Army]]:<br>2,000
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Royal Indian Army.svg}} [[British Indian Army]]:<br>950
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Australia (converted).svg}} [[Australian Army]]:<br>150}}
| strength3 = {{Ubl
|[[File:Orzełek II RP.svg|12px]] [[Polish Armed Forces (Second Polish Republic)|Polish Army]]: ~1,000,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|[[File:Coat of arms of Finland.svg|12px]] [[Finnish Army]]:<br>90,000 {{small|(peak)}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
|[[File:Coat of Arms of UNR.svg|15px]] [[Ukrainian People's Army|Ukrainian Army]]: 100,000 {{small|(peak)}}
----
'''Supported by''':
|[[File:Infantry_Colour_of_the_Royal_Hungarian_Defence_Forces_(1939-1945).svg|15px]] [[Royal Hungarian Army|Hungarian Army]]:<br>30,000 {{small|(peak)}}
----
|[[File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Latvian_National_Armed_Forces.svg|15px]] [[Latvian National Armed Forces|Latvian Army]]:<br>69,232 {{small|(peak)}}
|[[File:Maavagi_crest.svg|15px]] [[Estonian Defence Forces|Estonian Army]]:<br>86,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|[[File:Insignia_of_the_Lithuanian_Armed_Forces.svg|15px]] [[Lithuanian Armed Forces|Lithuanian Army]]:<br>20,000 {{small|(peak)}}
----
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Finland (1918–1920).svg}} [[White Guard (Finland)|Finnish Volunteers]]:<br>8,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Karel.svg}} [[Forest Guerrillas]]:<br>2,000 {{small|(peak)}}
----
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Swedish Brigade (Ruotsalainen prikaati).svg}} [[Swedish Brigade]]:<br>1,000 {{small|(peak)}}}}
----
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon image|Kaiserstandarte.svg}} [[German Army (German Empire)|German Army]]:<br>~547,000 {{small|(peak)}}}}
{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
| title = Also{{nobold|:}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag_of_Germany_(3-2_aspect_ratio).svg}} [[Weimar Republic|Saxon Volunteers]]:<br>10,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ottoman Empire.svg}} [[Islamic Army of the Caucasus|Caucasus Army]]:<br>20,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Turkey.svg}} [[Turkish Land Forces|Turkish Army]]:<br>20,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Iron Division Freikorps.svg}} [[Freikorps in the Baltic|Iron Division]]:<br>14,000 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|Baltic German.svg}} [[Baltische Landeswehr|Landeswehr]]:<br>10,500 {{small|(peak)}}
|{{flagicon image|WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg}} [[West Russian Volunteer Army|Bermontians]]:<br>50,000 {{small|(peak)}}}}
| casualties1 = {{Ubl
|{{flagicon image|Red Army flag.svg}} ~1,500,000<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last1=Smele |first1=Jon |title=The "Russian" Civil Wars, 1916–1926 : ten years that shook the world |date=2015 |location=New York |isbn=9780190613211 |page=160}}</ref>}}
* 259,213 killed<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 60,059 missing<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 616,605 died of disease/wounds<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 3,878 died in accidents/suicides<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 548,857 wounded/frostbitten{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=7-38}}{{efn|There were an additional 6,242,926 hospitalizations from sickness.}}
| casualties2 = {{ubl
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} ~1,500,000<ref name="auto"/>}}
* 127,000 killed<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 784,000 executed/dead<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
* 450,000 wounded/sick<br>{{citation needed |date=October 2020}}
----
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon|Czechoslovakia|1918}} 13,000 killed
|{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan}} 6,500 killed
|{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} 938+ killed<ref>Damien Wright, ''Churchill's Secret War with Lenin: British and Commonwealth Military Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1918–20'', Solihull, UK, 2017, pp. 490–492, 498–500, 504; Clifford Kinvig, ''Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia 1918–1920'', London 2006, {{ISBN|1-85285-477-4}}, pp. 289, 315; Timothy Winegard, ''The First World Oil War'', University of Toronto Press (2016), p. 208; [[Malleson mission#Casualties|Malleson Mission – Casualties]]</ref>
|{{flagicon|United States|1912}} 596 killed
|{{flagicon|Romania}} 350 killed
| {{flagicon|Kingdom of Greece|state}} 179 killed}}
| casualties3 = {{Ubl
|{{flagicon|Poland|1919}} ~250,000}}
* 57,000 killed
* 113,000 wounded
* 50,000 POWs
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon|Ukraine}} ~125,000}}
* 15,000 killed
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Finland (1918–1920).svg}} ~5,000}}
* 3,500 killed
* 1,650 executed/dead
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon|Estonia}} 3,888 killed
|{{flagicon|Latvia}} 3,046 killed
|{{flagicon|Lithuania}} 1,444 killed<ref>{{harvnb|Eidintas|Žalys|Senn|1999|p=30}}</ref>
|{{flagicon|Sweden}} 55 killed}}
----
{{Ubl
|{{flagicon|German Empire}} 500 killed}}
| casualties4 = '''7,000,000–12,000,000 total casualties, including<br>civilians and non-combatants'''<br>
1–2 million [[White émigré|refugees]] outside Russia
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Russian Civil War}}
}}
The '''Russian Civil War''' ({{lang-rus|links=no|Гражданская война в России|Grazhdanskaya voyna v Rossii}}; 7 November 1917 — 16 June 1923)<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" /> was a multi-party [[civil war]] in the [[Russian Empire]] sparked by the overthrowing of the social-democratic [[Russian Provisional Government]] in the [[October Revolution]], as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. It resulted in the formation of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic]] and later the [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] in most of its territory. Its finale marked the end of the [[Russian Revolution]], which was one of the [[key events of the 20th century]].
The [[List of Russian monarchs|Russian monarchy]] ended with the abdication of Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] during the [[February Revolution]], and Russia was in a state of political flux. A tense summer culminated in the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]]-led [[October Revolution]], overthrowing the [[Russian Provisional Government|Provisional Government]] of the new [[Russian Republic]]. Bolshevik seizure of power was not universally accepted, and the country descended into civil war. The two largest combatants were the [[Red Army]], fighting for the establishment of a [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Bolshevik-led]] [[socialist state]] headed by [[Vladimir Lenin]], and the loosely allied forces known as the [[White movement|White Army]], which functioned as a political [[big tent]] for [[right-wing politics|right]]- and [[left-wing politics|left-wing]] opposition to Bolshevik rule. In addition, rival militant socialists, notably the [[Anarchism in Ukraine|Ukrainian anarchists]] of the [[Makhnovshchina]] and [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries]], were involved in conflict against the Bolsheviks. They, as well as non-ideological [[green armies]], opposed the Bolsheviks, the Whites and the foreign interventionists.<ref name="britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513737/Russian-Civil-War Russian Civil War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826234907/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513737/Russian-Civil-War |date=26 August 2009 }} [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online 2012</ref> Thirteen foreign nations intervened against the Red Army, notably the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Allied intervention]], whose primary goal was re-establishing the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War I]]. Three foreign nations of the [[Central Powers]] also intervened, rivaling the Allied intervention with the main goal of retaining the territory they had received in the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] with Soviet Russia.
The Bolsheviks initially consolidated control over most of the former empire. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was an emergency peace with the [[German Empire]], who had captured vast swathes of the Russian territory during the chaos of the revolution. In May 1918, [[Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion|the Czechoslovak Legion in Russia revolted]] in Siberia. In reaction, the Allies began their [[North Russia intervention|North Russian]] and [[Siberian intervention]]s. That, combined with the creation of the [[Provisional All-Russian Government]], saw the reduction of Bolshevik-controlled territory to most of [[European Russia]] and parts of [[Central Asia]]. In 1919, the White Army launched several offensives from [[Spring offensive of the White Army|the east]] in March, [[Advance on Moscow (1919)|the south]] in July, and [[Battle of Petrograd|west]] in October. The advances were later checked by the [[Eastern Front counteroffensive]], the [[Southern Front counteroffensive]], and the defeat of the [[Northwestern Army (Russia)|Northwestern Army]].
By 1919, the White armies were in retreat and by the start of 1920 were defeated on all three fronts.{{sfnm|1a1=Leggett|1y=1981|1p=184|2a1=Service|2y=2000|2p=402|3a1=Read|3y=2005|3p=206}} Although the Bolsheviks were victorious, the territorial extent of the Russian state had been reduced, for many non-Russian ethnic groups had used the disarray to push for national independence.{{sfn|Hall|2015|p=83}} In March 1921, during [[Polish–Soviet War|a related war against Poland]], the [[Peace of Riga]] was signed, splitting disputed territories in [[Belarusian Democratic Republic|Belarus]] and [[Ukrainian People's Republic|Ukraine]] between the [[Second Polish Republic|Republic of Poland]] and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia sought to re-conquer all newly [[Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War|independent nations]] of the former Empire, although their success was limited. [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonia]], [[Finnish Civil War|Finland]], [[Latvian War of Independence|Latvia]], and [[Lithuanian–Soviet War|Lithuania]] all repelled Soviet invasions, while [[Ukrainian–Soviet War|Ukraine]], Belarus (as a result of the [[Polish–Soviet War]]), [[Red Army invasion of Armenia|Armenia]], [[Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] and [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|Georgia]] were occupied by the Red Army.{{sfn|Lee|2003|pp=84, 88}}{{sfn|Goldstein|2013|p=50}} By 1921, Soviet Russia had defeated the Ukrainian national movements and occupied the [[Caucasus]], although [[Basmachi movement|anti-Bolshevik uprisings]] in [[Central Asia]] lasted until the late 1920s.{{sfn|Hall|2015|p=84}}
The armies under Kolchak were eventually forced on a [[Great Siberian Ice March|mass retreat eastward]]. Bolshevik forces advanced east, despite encountering resistance in [[Chita Operations|Chita]], [[Yakut revolt|Yakut]] and [[Soviet intervention in Mongolia|Mongolia]]. Soon the Red Army split the [[Don Army|Don]] and [[Volunteer Army|Volunteer armies]], forcing evacuations in [[Evacuation of Novorossiysk (1920)|Novorossiysk]] in March and [[Evacuation of the Crimea (1920)|Crimea]] in November 1920. After that, anti-Bolshevik resistance was sporadic for several years until the collapse of the White Army in [[Yakutia]] in June 1923, but continued on with the Muslim [[Basmachi movement]] in Central Asia and [[Tungus Republic|Khabarovsk Krai]] until 1934. There were an estimated 7 to 12 million casualties during the war, mostly civilians.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|287}}
==Background==
===World War I===
{{Main|World War I}}
The [[Russian Empire]] fought in World War I from 1914 alongside [[French Third Republic|France]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] ([[Triple Entente]]) against [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Austria-Hungary]] and later the [[Ottoman Empire]] ([[Central Powers]]).
===February Revolution===
{{Main|February Revolution}}
The February Revolution of 1917 resulted in the abdication of Emperor [[Nicholas II of Russia]]. As a result, the social-democratic [[Russian Provisional Government]] was established, and [[Soviet (council)|soviets]], elected councils of workers, soldiers, and peasants, were organized throughout the country, leading to a situation of [[dual power]]. Russia was proclaimed a [[Russian Republic|republic]] in September of the same year.
===October Revolution===
{{Main|October Revolution}}
The Provisional Government, led by [[Socialist Revolutionary Party]] politician [[Alexander Kerensky]], was unable to solve the most pressing issues of the country, most importantly to end the war with the Central Powers. A [[Kornilov affair|failed military coup]] by General [[Lavr Kornilov]] in September 1917 led to a surge in support for the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik party]], who [[Bolshevization of the Soviets|bolshevized the soviets]], which until then had been controlled by the Socialist Revolutionaries. Promising an end to the war and "all power to the Soviets", the Bolsheviks then ended dual power by overthrowing the Provisional Government in late October, on the eve of the [[Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies|Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets]], in what would be the second Revolution of 1917. Despite the Bolsheviks' seizure of power, they lost to the Socialist Revolutionary Party in the [[1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election]], and the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the Bolsheviks in retaliation. The Bolsheviks soon lost the support of other [[Far-left politics|far-left]] allies, such as the [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries]], after their acceptance of the terms of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] presented by the German Empire.<ref name="Stone-2011">{{Cite encyclopedia|author1-link=David R. Stone|last=Stone|first=David R.|title=Russian Civil War (1917–1920)|year=2011|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of War|editor-last=Martel|editor-first=Gordon|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781444338232.wbeow533|isbn=978-1-4051-9037-4|s2cid=153317860 }}</ref>
===Formation of the Red Army===
{{Main|Red Army}}
From mid-1917 onwards, the [[Russian Army (1917)|Russian Army]], the successor-organisation of the old [[Imperial Russian Army]], started to disintegrate;<ref>{{harvnb|Calder|1976|p=166}} "[...] the Russian Army disintegrated after the failure of the Galician offensive in July 1917."</ref> the Bolsheviks used the volunteer-based [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guards]] as their main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the [[Cheka]] (the Bolshevik state [[Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies|secret police]]). In January 1918, after significant Bolshevik reverses in combat, the future [[People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Russian SFSR|Russian People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs]] [[Leon Trotsky]] headed the reorganization of the Red Guards into a ''Workers' and Peasants' Red Army'' in order to create a more effective fighting force. The Bolsheviks appointed [[political commissars]] to each unit of the Red Army to maintain morale and to ensure loyalty.
In June 1918, when it had become apparent that a revolutionary army composed solely of workers would not suffice, Trotsky instituted mandatory [[Conscription in the Soviet Union|conscription]] of the rural peasantry into the Red Army.<ref>{{harvnb|Read|1996|p=237}} By 1920, 77% of the Red Army's enlisted ranks were peasant conscripts.</ref> The Bolsheviks overcame opposition of rural Russians to Red Army conscription units by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary in order to force compliance.<ref>Williams, Beryl, ''[[iarchive:russianrevolutio0000will|The Russian Revolution 1917–1921]]'', Blackwell Publishing Ltd. (1987), {{ISBN|978-0-631-15083-1}}: Typically, men of conscriptible age (17 to 40 years old) in a village would vanish when Red Army draft-units approached. The taking of hostages and a few summary executions usually brought the men back.</ref> The forced conscription drive had mixed results, successfully creating a larger army than the Whites, but with members indifferent towards [[Communism|communist ideology]].<ref name="Stone-2011" />
The Red Army also utilized former Tsarist officers as "military specialists" (''voenspetsy'');<ref name="Overy 2004">{{harvnb|Overy|2004|p=446}} By the end of the civil war, one-third of all Red Army officers were ex-Tsarist ''voenspetsy''"</ref> sometimes their families were taken hostage in order to ensure their loyalty.<ref name="Williams, Beryl 1921">Williams, Beryl, ''The Russian Revolution 1917–1921'', Blackwell Publishing Ltd. (1987), {{ISBN|978-0-631-15083-1}}</ref> At the start of the civil war, former Tsarist officers formed three-quarters of the Red Army officer-corps.<ref name="Williams, Beryl 1921"/> By its end, 83% of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers.<ref name="Overy 2004" />
===Anti-Bolshevik movement===
{{Main|White movement|Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine|Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War}}
[[File:Колчак, Нокс и английские офицеры восточного фронта.jpg|thumb|left|Admiral [[Alexander Kolchak]] (seated) and General [[Alfred Knox]] (behind Kolchak) observing military exercise, 1919]]
The [[White movement]] ({{lang-rus|[[Reforms of Russian orthography#Post-revolution reform|pre–1918]] Бѣлое движеніе / post–1918 Белое движение|r= Beloye dvizheniye|p= ˈbʲɛləɪ dvʲɪˈʐenʲɪɪ}}){{efn|The old spelling was retained by the Whites to differentiate from the Reds.}} also known as the '''Whites''' (Бѣлые / Белые, ''Beliye''), was a loose confederation of [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] forces that fought the [[Communism|communist]] [[Bolsheviks]], also known as the ''Reds'', in the Russian Civil War and that to a lesser extent continued operating as militarized associations of rebels both outside and within Russian borders in [[Siberia]] until roughly [[World War II]] (1939–1945). The movement's military arm was the [[White Army]] (Бѣлая армія / Белая армия, ''Belaya armiya''), also known as the White Guard (Бѣлая гвардія / Белая гвардия, ''Belaya gvardiya'') or White Guardsmen (Бѣлогвардейцы / Белогвардейцы, ''Belogvardeytsi'').
When the White Army was created, the structure of the [[Russian Army (1917)|Russian Army of the Provisional Government period]] was used, while almost every individual formation had its own characteristics. The military art of the White Army was based on the experience of the [[World War I|First World War]], which, however, left a strong imprint on the specifics of the Civil War.<ref>Military Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editorial Board: Alexander Gorkin, Vladimir Zolotarev et al. – Moscow: Great Russian Encyclopedia, RIPOL Classic, 2002 – 1664 Pages</ref>
During the Russian Civil War, the White movement functioned as a [[Big tent|big-tent]] political movement representing an array of political opinions in Russia united in their opposition to the Bolsheviks—from the republican-minded liberals and [[Alexander Kerensky|Kerenskyite]] social-democrats on the left through monarchists and supporters of a united multinational Russia to the ultra-nationalist [[Black Hundreds]] on the right.
====Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, early Constituent Assembly rebellions====
The [[Russian Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]] had been a demand of the Bolsheviks against the Provisional Government, which kept delaying it. After the October Revolution the elections were run by the body appointed by the previous Provisional Government. It was based on universal suffrage, but used party lists from before the Left-Right SR split. The anti-Bolshevik Right SRs [[1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election|won the elections]] with the majority of the seats,{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=111–112}} after which Lenin's ''Theses on the Constituent Assembly'' argued in ''[[Pravda]]'' that formal democracy was impossible because of class conflicts, conflicts with Ukraine and the Kadet-Kaledin uprising. He argued the Constituent Assembly must unconditionally accept sovereignty of the soviet government or it would be dealt with "by revolutionary means".{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=113–115}}
On December 30, 1917, the SR [[Nikolai Avksentiev]] and some followers were arrested for organizing a conspiracy. This was the first time Bolsheviks used this kind of repression against a socialist party. ''[[Izvestia]]'' said the arrest was not related to his membership in the Constituent Assembly.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|page=115}}
On January 4, 1918, the [[All-Russian Central Executive Committee|VTsIK]] made a resolution saying the slogan "all power to the constituent assembly" was counterrevolutionary and equivalent to "down with the soviets".{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=115–116}}
[[File:Maria Spiridonova.jpg|thumb|left|[[Maria Spiridonova]]]]
[[File:Viktor Chernov (1873-1952), Russian revolutionary (small).jpg|thumb|right|[[Viktor Chernov]]]]
The Constituent Assembly met on January 18, 1918. The Right SR Chernov was elected president defeating the Bolshevik supported candidate, the Left SR [[Maria Spiridonova]] (she would later break with the Bolsheviks and after the decades of [[gulag]], she was shot on Stalin's orders in 1941). The Bolsheviks subsequently disbanded the Constituent Assembly and proceeded to rule the country as a [[one-party state]] with all opposition parties outlawed.<ref>[https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/kontseptsiya-sotsialisticheskoy-demokratii-opyt-realizatsii-v-sssr-i-sovremennye-perspektivy-v-sng Концепция социалистической демократии: опыт реализации в СССР и современные перспективы в СНГ]</ref><ref>The Bolsheviks: the intellectual and political history of the triumph of communism in Russia : with a new preface. Adam Bruno Ulam. Harvard University Press. p. 397.</ref> A simultaneous demonstration in favor of the Constituent Assembly was dispersed with force, but there was little protest afterwards.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=120–121}}
The first large [[Cheka]] repression with some killings began against the [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]]s of Petrograd in mid-April 1918. On May 1, 1918, a pitched battle took place in Moscow between the anarchists and the police. (P.Avrich. G Maximoff)
====Constituent Assembly uprising====
The Union of Regeneration was founded in Moscow in April 1918 as an underground agency organizing democratic resistance to the Bolshevik dictatorship, composed of the Popular Socialists, Right Socialist Revolutionaries, and Defensists, among others. They were tasked with propping up anti-Bolshevik forces and to create a Russian state system based on civil liberties, patriotism, and state-consciousness with the goal to liberate the country from the "Germano-Bolshevik" yoke.<ref name=WS>[https://books.google.com/books?id=73lLeNeICXUC "White Siberia: the politics of civil war"], Norman G. O. Pereira. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, 1996. {{ISBN|0-7735-1349-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7735-1349-5}}. p. 65</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2gd7F6t2lCcC "The lost opportunity: attempts at unification of the anti-Bolsheviks, 1917–1919 : Moscow, Kiev, Jassy, Odessa"], Christopher Lazarski. {{ISBN|0-7618-4120-2}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7618-4120-3}}. p. 42-43</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mt9qzSvBrI4C "Dear comrades: Menshevik reports on the Bolshevik revolution and the civil war"], Vladimir N. Brovkin. Hoover Press, 1991. {{ISBN|0-8179-8981-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8179-8981-1}}. p. 135</ref>
On May 7, 1918, the Eighth Party Council of the [[Socialist Revolutionary Party|Party of Socialist Revolutionaries]] commenced in [[Moscow]] and recognized the Union's leading role, putting aside political ideology and class for the purpose of Russia's salvation. They decided to start an uprising against the Bolsheviks with the goal of reconvening the Russian Constituent Assembly.<ref name=WS /> While preparations were under way, the [[Czechoslovak Legion]]s overthrew Bolshevik rule in [[Siberia]], the [[Ural Mountains|Urals]] and the [[Volga River|Volga]] region in late May-early June 1918 and the center of SR activity shifted there. On June 8, 1918, five Constituent Assembly members formed the All-Russian [[Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly]] (''Komuch'') in [[Samara]] and declared it the new supreme authority in the country.<ref name="komuch">See Jonathan D. Smele. Op. cit., p.32 ("Op. cit." means to refer to a work cited earlier in the citations. this means you copied it from a citation list, and are citing something that you have not read. instead you should cite what you read and say it refers to this, or if you can get the original work and look at it then you can cite it directly.)</ref> The Social Revolutionary [[Provisional Siberian Government (Vladivostok)|Provisional Government of Autonomous Siberia]] came to power on June 29, 1918, after the uprising in [[Vladivostok]].
====Mensheviks and SRs excluded from soviets====
At the [[5th All-Russia Congress of Soviets]] of July 4, 1918, the [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries]] had 352 delegates compared to 745 Bolsheviks out of 1132 total. The Left SRs raised disagreements on the suppression of rival parties, the death penalty, and mainly, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The Bolsheviks excluded the Right SRs and Mensheviks from the government on 14 June for associating with counterrevolutionaries and seeking to "organize armed attacks against the workers and peasants" (though Mensheviks had not supported them), while the Left SRs advocated forming a government of all socialist parties. The Left SRs agreed with extrajudicial execution of political opponents to stop the counterrevolution, but opposed having the government legally pronouncing death sentences, an unusual position that is best understood within the context of the group's terrorist past. The Left SRs strongly opposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and opposed Trotsky's insistence that no one try to attack German troops in Ukraine.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=161–164}}
====Repression====
In December 1917, [[Felix Dzerzhinsky]] was appointed to the duty of rooting out [[Counter-revolutionary|counterrevolutionary]] threats to the [[Government of the Soviet Union|Soviet government]]. He was the director of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (aka [[Cheka]]), a predecessor of the KGB that served as the [[secret police]] for the Soviets.<ref name="Bird-2018" />
From early 1918, the Bolsheviks started physical elimination of opposition, other socialist and revolutionary fractions. [[Anarchism|Anarchists]] were among the first:
{{Blockquote|text=Of all the revolutionary elements in Russia it is the Anarchists who now suffer the most ruthless and systematic persecution. Their suppression by the Bolsheviki began already in 1918, when — in the month of April of that year — the Communist Government attacked, without provocation or warning, the Anarchist Club of Moscow and by the use of machine guns and artillery "liquidated" the whole organisation. It was the beginning of Anarchist hounding, but it was sporadic in character, breaking out now and then, quite planless, and frequently self-contradictory.|author=[[Alexander Berkman]], [[Emma Goldman]]|title="Bolsheviks Shooting Anarchists"<ref name="Berkman">{{cite journal |last1=Berkman |first1=Alexander |author-link1=Alexander Berkman |last2=Goldman |first2=Emma |author-link2=Emma Goldman |date=January 1922 |title=Bolsheviks Shooting Anarchists |url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman-alexander-berkman-bolsheviks-shooting-anarchists |journal=Freedom |volume=36 |issue=391 |page=4 |doi= |access-date=9 May 2023}}</ref>}}
On 11 August 1918, prior to the events that would officially catalyze the [[Red Terror]], [[Vladimir Lenin]] had [[Lenin's Hanging Order|sent telegrams]] "to introduce mass terror" in [[Nizhny Novgorod]] in response to a suspected civilian uprising there, and to "crush" landowners in [[Penza]] who resisted, sometimes violently, the requisitioning of their grain by military detachments:<ref name=BlackBook_chptr4>{{harvp|Werth, Bartosek et al.|1999|loc=Chapter 4: The Red Terror.}}
</ref>
{{blockquote|Comrades! The [[kulak]] uprising in your five districts must be crushed without pity ... You must make example of these people.
: (1) Hang (I mean hang publicly, so that people see it) at least 100 kulaks, rich bastards, and known bloodsuckers.
: (2) Publish their names.
: (3) Seize all their grain.
: (4) Single out the hostages per my instructions in yesterday's telegram.
Do all this so that for miles (versts) around people see it all, understand it, tremble, and tell themselves that we are killing the bloodthirsty kulaks and that we will continue to do so ...
Yours, Lenin.
P.S. Find tougher people.|source=[[Lenin's Hanging Order]]}}
In a mid-August 1920 letter, having received information that in Estonia and Latvia, with which Soviet Russia had concluded peace treaties, volunteers were being enrolled in anti-Bolshevik detachments, Lenin wrote to E. M. Sklyansky, deputy chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic:<ref name="litvinalkbterror">{{ill|Alter Litvin|ru|Литвин, Алтер Львович}} «Красный и Белый террор в России в 1917—1922 годах» ISBN 5-87849-164-8</ref>
{{blockquote|Great plan! Finish it with Dzerzhinsky. While pretending to be the "greens" (we will blame them later), we will advance by 10–20 miles (versts) and hang kulaks, priests, landowners. Prize: 100.000 rubles for each hanged man.}}
[[Leonid Kannegisser]], a young [[military cadet]] of the [[Imperial Russian Army]], assassinated [[Moisey Uritsky]] on August 17, 1918, outside the [[Petrograd]] Cheka headquarters in retaliation for the execution of his friend and other officers.<ref>[http://www.lib.ru/POLITOLOG/MELGUNOW/terror.txt Melgunov, S.P. ''Red Terror'' in Russia] {{in lang|ru}}</ref>
[[File:Lenin attempt.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Vladimir Pchelin's depiction of the assassination attempt on Lenin]]
On August 30, [[Socialist Revolutionary Party|Socialist Revolutionary]] [[Fanny Kaplan]] unsuccessfully [[Assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin|attempted to assassinate]] [[Vladimir Lenin]].<ref name=":11">Wilde, Robert. 2019 February 20. "[https://www.thoughtco.com/the-red-terror-1221808 The Red Terror]." ''ThoughtCo''. Retrieved March 24, 2021.</ref> and sought to eliminate [[political dissent]], opposition, and any other threat to Bolshevik power.<ref>Llewellyn, Jennifer; McConnell, Michael; Thompson, Steve (11 August 2019). [https://alphahistory.com/russianrevolution/red-terror/ "The Red Terror"]. ''Russian Revolution''. Alpha History. Retrieved 4 August 2021.</ref> More broadly, the term is usually applied to [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|Bolshevik political repression]] throughout the Civil War (1917–1922),<ref>Melgunov, Sergey [1925] 1975. ''The Red Terror in Russia''. Hyperions. {{ISBN|0-88355-187-X}}.</ref><ref>[[Sergei Melgunov|Melgunov, Sergei]]. 1927. "[http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/redterror.pdf The Record of the Red Terror]." ''[[Current History]]'' (November 1927):198–205.</ref><ref name="Bird-2018" />
During interrogation by the [[Cheka]], she made the following statement:
{{Blockquote|"My name is Fanya Kaplan. Today I shot Lenin. I did it on my own. I will not say from whom I obtained my revolver. I will give no details. I had resolved to kill Lenin long ago. I consider him a traitor to the Revolution. I was exiled to Akatui for participating in an assassination attempt against a Tsarist official in Kiev [now Kyiv]. I spent 11 years at hard labour. After the Revolution, I was freed. I favoured the [[Russian Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]] and am still for it".<ref name="spartacus">{{cite web|url=http://spartacus-educational.com/RUSkaplan.htm|title=Fanya Kaplan|work=Spartacus Educational}}</ref>}}
Kaplan referenced the Bolsheviks' growing authoritarianism, citing their forcible shutdown of the Constituent Assembly in January 1918, the [[1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election|elections]] to which they had lost. When it became clear that Kaplan would not implicate any accomplices, she was executed in [[Alexander Garden]]. The order was carried out by the commander of the Kremlin, the former Baltic sailor P. D. Malkov and a group of Latvian Bolsheviks<ref>{{Cite book|title=Malkov P. Notes of the Kremlin commandant. – M.: Molodaya gvardiya, 1968.S. 148–149.|pages=}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2021}}{{primary source inline|date=August 2021}} on September 3, 1918, with a bullet to the back of the head.<ref name="how">{{cite book |title=How Did They Die? |first1=Norman |last1=Donaldson |first2=Betty |last2=Donaldson |isbn=9780517403020 |page=221 |publisher=Greenwich House |date=January 1, 1983}}</ref> Her corpse was bundled into a barrel and set alight. The order came from [[Yakov Sverdlov]], who only six weeks earlier had ordered the [[Murder of the Romanov family|murder]] of the Tsar and his family.<ref>{{Citation|last=Slezkine |first=Yuri |title=The house of government: a saga of the Russian Revolution |isbn=978-1-5384-7835-6|oclc=1003859221 |page=158}}</ref><ref name="Lyandres">{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/2498997 |jstor=2498997 |title=The 1918 Attempt on the Life of Lenin: A New Look at the Evidence |first=Semion |last=Lyandres |journal=Slavic Review |volume=48 |issue=3 |date=Autumn 1989 |pages=432–448 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|s2cid=155228899 }}</ref>{{rp|442}}
These events persuaded the government to heed Dzerzhinsky's lobbying for greater terror against opposition. The campaign of mass repressions would officially begin thereafter.<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Bird-2018" /> The Red Terror is considered to have officially begun between 17 and 30 August 1918.<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Bird-2018">{{Cite magazine|last=Bird|first=Danny|date=September 5, 2018|title=How the 'Red Terror' Exposed the True Turmoil of Soviet Russia 100 Years Ago|url=https://time.com/5386789/red-terror-soviet-history/ |access-date=2021-03-24|magazine=Time}}</ref>
====Revolts against grain requisitioning====
Protests against grain requisitioning of the peasantry were a major component of the [[Tambov Rebellion|Tambov rebellion]] and similar uprisings; Lenin's [[New Economic Policy]] was introduced as a concession.
The policies of "food dictatorship" proclaimed by the Bolsheviks in May 1918 sparked violent resistance in numerous districts of [[European Russia]]: revolts and clashes between the peasants and the [[Red Army]] were reported in [[Voronezh]], [[Tambov]], [[Penza]], [[Saratov]] and in the districts of [[Kostroma Oblast|Kostroma]], [[Moscow Oblast|Moscow]], [[Novgorod Oblast|Novgorod]], [[Leningrad Oblast|Petrograd]], [[Pskov Oblast|Pskov]] and [[Smolensk Oblast|Smolensk]]. The revolts were bloodily crushed by the Bolsheviks: in the Voronezh Oblast, the Red Guards killed sixteen peasants during the pacification of the village, while another village was shelled with artillery in order to force the peasants to surrender and in the Novgorod Oblast the rebelling peasants were dispersed with machine-gun fire from a train sent by a detachment of Latvian Red Army soldiers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Scott Baldwin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ueUEE8jVRsC |title=Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923 |date=2011-04-15 |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh Press]] |isbn=978-0-8229-7779-7 |pages=68–70 |language=en}}</ref> While the Bolsheviks immediately denounced the rebellion as orchestrated by the SRs, there is actually no evidence that they were involved into peasant violence, which they deemed as counterproductive.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Scott Baldwin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ueUEE8jVRsC |title=Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923 |date=2011-04-15 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0-8229-7779-7 |pages=68 |language=en}}</ref>
===Allied intervention===
{{Main|Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War}}
The Western Allies armed and supported opponents of the Bolsheviks. They were worried about a possible Russo-German alliance, the prospect of the Bolsheviks making good on their threats to default on Imperial Russia's massive [[External debt|foreign loans]] and the possibility that Communist revolutionary ideas would spread (a concern shared by many Central Powers). Hence, many of the countries expressed their support for the Whites, including the provision of troops and supplies. [[Winston Churchill]] declared that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle".<ref>[http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=282 Cover Story: Churchill's Greatness.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004110408/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=282 |date=2006-10-04}} Interview with Jeffrey Wallin. (The Churchill Centre)</ref> The British and French had supported [[Russia during World War I]] on a massive scale with war materials.
After the treaty, it looked like much of that material would fall into the hands of the Germans. To meet that danger, the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Allies intervened]] with Great Britain and France sending troops into Russian ports. There were violent clashes with the Bolsheviks. Britain intervened in support of the White forces to defeat the Bolsheviks and prevent the spread of communism across Europe.<ref>Howard Fuller, "Great Britain and Russia's Civil War: The Necessity for a Definite and Coherent Policy". ''Journal of Slavic Military Studies'' 32.4 (2019): 553–559.</ref>
===Buffer states===
[[File:Trotsky_on_a_Polish_poster_of_1920.jpg|thumb|Polish anti-Soviet poster depicting [[Leon Trotsky|Lev Trotsky]]. Small caption in the lower right corner reads:<br>
The [[Bolsheviks]] promised:<br>
We'll give you peace<br>
We'll give you freedom<br>
We'll give you land<br>
Work and bread<br>
Despicably they cheated<br>
They started a [[Soviet-Polish war|war<br>
With Poland]]<br>
Instead of freedom they brought<br>
The fist<br>
Instead of land – confiscation<br>
Instead of work – misery<br>
Instead of bread – famine.<br>
]]
The German Empire created several short-lived [[satellite state|satellite]] [[buffer state]]s within its sphere of influence after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: the [[United Baltic Duchy]], [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918)|Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]], [[Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)|Kingdom of Lithuania]], [[Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918)|Kingdom of Poland]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identity and Cultural Differences|last=Keith Bullivant, Geoffrey J. Giles and Walter Pape|publisher=Rodopi|year=1999|isbn=90-420-0678-1|pages=28–29}}</ref> the [[Belarusian People's Republic]], and the [[Ukrainian State]]. Following Germany's Armistice in World War I in November 1918, the states were abolished.<ref>Mieczysław B. Biskupski, "War and the Diplomacy of Polish Independence, 1914–18." ''Polish Review'' (1990): 5–17. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25778473 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127202015/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25778473 |date=27 January 2020 }}</ref><ref>Timothy Snyder, ''The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999'' (Yale UP, 2004)</ref>
[[History of Finland|Finland]] was the first republic that [[Finnish Declaration of Independence|declared]] its [[Pro-independence movements in Russian Civil War|independence from Russia]] in December 1917 and established itself in the ensuing [[Finnish Civil War]] between pro-independence [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guards]] and pro-Russian Bolshevik [[Red Guards (Finland)|Red Guards]] from January–May 1918.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1080/03585522.1978.10407894|title = Revolutionary ferment in Finland and the origins of the civil war 1917–1918|year = 1978|last1 = Kirby|first1 = D. G.|journal = Scandinavian Economic History Review|volume = 26|pages = 15–35|doi-access = free}}</ref> The [[Second Polish Republic]], [[History of Lithuania|Lithuania]], [[History of Latvia|Latvia]] and [[History of Estonia|Estonia]] formed their own armies immediately after the abolition of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and the start of the [[Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919|Soviet westward offensive]] and subsequent [[Polish-Soviet War]] in November 1918.<ref>Anatol Lieven, ''The Baltic revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the path to independence'' (Yale UP, 1993) pp. 54–61. [https://www.amazon.com/Baltic-Revolution-Estonia-Lithuania-Independence/dp/0300055528/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316223710/https://www.amazon.com/Baltic-Revolution-Estonia-Lithuania-Independence/dp/0300055528/ |date=16 March 2021 }}</ref>
==Geography and chronology==
{{Main|Southern Front of the Russian Civil War|North Russia Campaign|Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War|Yakut Revolt|Finnish Civil War}}
In the European part of Russia the war was fought across three main fronts: the eastern, the southern and the northwestern. It can also be roughly split into the following periods.
[[File:Volunteer Army infantry company.jpg|thumb|Anti-Bolshevik [[Volunteer Army]] in South Russia, January 1918]]
The first period lasted from the Revolution until the Armistice. Already on the date of the Revolution, [[Cossack]] General [[Alexey Kaledin]] refused to recognize it and assumed full governmental authority in the [[Don River, Russia|Don]] region,<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.hrono.info/biograf/kaledina.html| title = Каледин, Алексей Максимович. A biography of Kaledin (in Russian)| access-date = 24 February 2008| archive-date = 8 November 2017| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171108100553/http://www.hrono.info/biograf/kaledina.html| url-status = live}}</ref> where the [[Volunteer Army]] began amassing support. The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk also resulted in direct Allied intervention in Russia and the arming of military forces opposed to the Bolshevik government. There were also many German commanders who offered support against the Bolsheviks, fearing a confrontation with them was impending as well.
During the first period, the Bolsheviks took control of [[Central Asia]] out of the hands of the Provisional Government and White Army, setting up a base for the Communist Party in the [[Eurasian Steppe|Steppe]] and [[Russian Turkestan|Turkestan]], where nearly two million Russian settlers were located.{{sfn|Wheeler|1964|p=103}}
[[File:Uniformes (koltchak) 001.jpg|thumb|left|Russian soldiers of the anti-Bolshevik [[Siberian Army]] in 1919]]
Most of the fighting in the first period was sporadic, involved only small groups and had a fluid and rapidly-shifting strategic situation. Among the antagonists were the Czechoslovak Legion,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://h2g2.com/edited_entry/A4241062|title=h2g2 – The Czech Legion – Edited Entry|first=Not Panicking|last=Ltd|website=h2g2.com|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=19 July 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120719122821/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4241062|url-status=live}}</ref> the Poles of the [[4th Rifle Division (Poland)|4th]] and [[5th Rifle Division (Poland)|5th Rifle Divisions]] and the pro-Bolshevik [[Latvian riflemen|Red Latvian riflemen]].
The second period of the war lasted from January to November 1919. At first the White armies' advances from the south (under Denikin), the east (under Kolchak) and the northwest (under Yudenich) were successful, forcing the Red Army and its allies back on all three fronts. In July 1919 the Red Army suffered another reverse after a mass defection of units in the Crimea to the anarchist Insurgent Army under Nestor Makhno, enabling anarchist forces to consolidate power in Ukraine. Leon Trotsky soon reformed the Red Army, concluding the first of two military alliances with the anarchists. In June the Red Army first checked Kolchak's advance. After a series of engagements, assisted by an Insurgent Army offensive against White supply lines, the Red Army defeated Denikin's and Yudenich's armies in October and November.
The third period of the war was the extended siege of the last White forces in the [[Crimea]]. General [[Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel|Wrangel]] had gathered the remnants of Denikin's armies, occupying much of the Crimea. An attempted invasion of southern Ukraine was rebuffed by the Insurgent Army under Makhno's command. Pursued into Crimea by Makhno's troops, Wrangel went over to the defensive in the Crimea. After an abortive move north against the Red Army, Wrangel's troops were forced south by Red Army and Insurgent Army forces; Wrangel and the remains of his army were evacuated to [[Istanbul|Constantinople]] in November 1920.
==Warfare==
===October Revolution===
{{Main|October Revolution}}
[[File:Russian civil war in the west.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|European theatre of the Russian Civil War]]
In the October Revolution, the Bolshevik Party directed the Red Guard (armed groups of workers and Imperial army deserters) to seize control of [[Saint Petersburg|Petrograd]] (Saint Petersburg) and immediately began the armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former Russian Empire. In January 1918 the Bolsheviks dissolved the [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] and proclaimed the Soviets (workers' councils) as the new government of Russia.
===Initial anti-Bolshevik uprisings===
{{Main|Kerensky-Krasnov uprising|Junker mutiny|Volunteer Army}}
The first attempt to regain power from the Bolsheviks was made by the Kerensky-Krasnov uprising in October 1917. It was supported by the Junker Mutiny in Petrograd but was quickly put down by the Red Guard, notably including the Latvian Rifle Division.
The initial groups that fought against the Communists were local Cossack armies that had declared their loyalty to the Provisional Government. Kaledin of the [[Don Cossacks]] and General [[Grigory Mikhailovich Semenov|Grigory Semenov]] of the [[Siberian Cossacks]] were prominent among them. The leading Tsarist officers of the Imperial Russian Army also started to resist. In November, General [[Mikhail Vasilevich Alekseev|Mikhail Alekseev]], the Tsar's Chief of Staff during the First World War, began to organize the Volunteer Army in [[Novocherkassk]]. Volunteers of the small army were mostly officers of the old Russian army, military cadets and students. In December 1917, Alekseev was joined by General Lavr Kornilov, Denikin and other Tsarist officers who had escaped from the jail, where they had been imprisoned following the abortive Kornilov affair just before the Revolution.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|27}} On 9 December, the [[Military Revolutionary Committee]] in [[Rostov-on-Don|Rostov]] rebelled, with the Bolsheviks controlling the city for five days until the Alekseev Organization supported Kaledin in recapturing the city. According to [[Peter Kenez]], "The operation, begun on December 9, can be regarded as the beginning of the Civil War."<ref name="pk">{{cite book |last1=Kenez |first1=Peter |title=Red Attack, White Resistance; Civil War in South Russia 1918 |date=2004 |publisher=New Academia Publishing |location=Washington, DC |isbn=9780974493442 |pages=64–67}}</ref>
Having stated in the November 1917 "[[Declaration of Rights of Peoples of Russia|Declaration of Rights of Nations of Russia]]" that any nation under imperial Russian rule should be immediately given the power of self-determination, the Bolsheviks had begun to usurp the power of the Provisional Government in the territories of Central Asia soon after the establishment of the Turkestan Committee in Tashkent.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=72}} In April 1917 the Provisional Government set up the committee, which was mostly made up of former Tsarist officials.{{sfn|Wheeler|1964|p=104}} The Bolsheviks attempted to take control of the Committee in Tashkent on 12 September 1917 but it was unsuccessful, and many leaders were arrested. However, because the Committee lacked representation of the native population and poor Russian settlers, they had to release the Bolshevik prisoners almost immediately because of a public outcry, and a successful takeover of that government body took place two months later in November.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=70}} The Leagues of Mohammedam Working People (which Russian settlers and natives who had been sent to work behind the lines for the Tsarist government in 1916 formed in March 1917) had led numerous strikes in the industrial centers throughout September 1917.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|pp=68–69}} However, after the Bolshevik destruction of the Provisional Government in [[Tashkent]], Muslim elites formed an autonomous government in Turkestan, commonly called the "Kokand autonomy" (or simply [[Kokand]]).{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=74}} The White Russians supported that government body, which lasted several months because of Bolshevik troop isolation from Moscow.{{sfn|Allworth|1967|p=226}} In January 1918 the Soviet forces, under Lt. Col. [[Mikhail Artemyevich Muravyov|Muravyov]], invaded Ukraine and invested [[Kiev]], where the [[Central Council of Ukraine|Central Council]] of the Ukrainian People's Republic held power. With the help of the [[Kiev Arsenal January Uprising|Kiev Arsenal Uprising]], the Bolsheviks [[Battle of Kiev (1918)|captured the city]] on 26 January.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|35}}
===Peace with the Central Powers===
{{Main|Treaty of Brest-Litovsk}}
[[File:Trotzki Deutsche Brest-Litowsk1917.jpg|thumb|Soviet delegation with [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]] greeted by [[German Empire|German]] officers at Brest-Litovsk, 8 January 1918]]
The Bolsheviks decided to immediately make peace with the Central Powers, as they had promised the Russian people before the Revolution.<ref>{{harvnb|Figes|1997|p=258}}quotes such comments from the peasant soldiers during the first weeks of the war: We have talked it over among ourselves; if the Germans want payment, it would be better to pay ten roubles a head than to kill people. Or: Is it not all the same what Tsar we live under? It cannot be worse under the German one. Or: Let them go and fight themselves. Wait a while, we will settle accounts with you. Or: 'What devil has brought this war on us? We are butting into other people's business.'</ref> [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s political enemies attributed that decision to his sponsorship by the Foreign Office of [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor]], offered to Lenin in hope that, with a revolution, Russia would withdraw from [[World War I]]. That suspicion was bolstered by the German Foreign Ministry's sponsorship of Lenin's return to Petrograd.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spartacus-educational.com/RUSlenin.htm|title=Vladimir Lenin|website=Spartacus Educational|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=10 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810163715/https://spartacus-educational.com/RUSlenin.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> However, after the military fiasco of the summer offensive (June 1917) by the Russian Provisional Government had devastated the structure of the Russian Army, it became crucial that Lenin realize the promised peace.<ref>{{harvnb|Figes|1997|p=419}}"It was partly a case of the usual military failings: units had been sent into battle without machine-guns; untrained soldiers had been ordered to engage in complex maneuvers using hand grenades and ended up throwing them without first pulling the pins."</ref> Even before the failed summer offensive the Russian population was very skeptical about the continuation of the war. Western socialists had promptly arrived from France and from the UK to convince the Russians to continue the fight, but could not change the new pacifist mood of Russia.<ref>{{harvnb|Figes|1997|p=412}} "This new civic patriotism did not extend beyond the urban middle classes, although the leaders of the Provisional Government deluded themselves that it did."</ref>
On 16 December 1917 an armistice was signed between Russia and the Central Powers in [[Brest-Litovsk]] and peace talks began.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|42}} As a condition for peace, the proposed treaty by the Central Powers conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting [[nationalist]]s and [[Conservatism|conservatives]]. Leon Trotsky, representing the Bolsheviks, refused at first to sign the treaty while continuing to observe a unilateral cease-fire, following the policy of "No war, no peace".{{sfn|Smith|Tucker|2014|pp=554–555}}
Therefore, on 18 February 1918, the Germans began [[Operation Faustschlag]] on the Eastern Front, encountering virtually no resistance in a campaign that lasted 11 days.{{sfn|Smith|Tucker|2014|pp=554–555}} Signing a formal peace treaty was the only option in the eyes of the Bolsheviks because the Russian Army was demobilized, and the newly formed Red Guard could not stop the advance. They also understood that the impending counterrevolutionary resistance was more dangerous than the concessions of the treaty, which Lenin viewed as temporary in the light of aspirations for a [[world revolution]]. The Soviets acceded to a peace treaty, and the formal agreement, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, was ratified on 3 March. The Soviets viewed the treaty as merely a necessary and expedient means to end the war.
===Ukraine, South Russia, and Caucasus (1918)===
{{Main|Ukrainian People's Republic|Kiev Arsenal January Uprising|Ice March|26 Baku Commissars|German Caucasus Expedition|Battle of Baku|Central Caspian Dictatorship|Romanian military intervention in Bessarabia}}
[[File:Dismembered Russia — Some Fragments (NYT article, Feb. 17, 1918).png|thumb|February 1918 article from ''[[The New York Times]]'' showing a map of the Russian Imperial territories claimed by the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] at the time, before the annexation of the Austro-Hungarian lands of the [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]]]]
In [[Ukraine]] the German-[[Austro-Hungary|Austrian]] Operation Faustschlag had by April 1918 removed the Bolsheviks from Ukraine.<ref name="30076britbrit">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30076/Ukraine |title=Ukraine – World War I and the struggle for independence |access-date=2008-01-30 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |archive-date=15 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615144832/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30076/Ukraine |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="istpravda152320b">{{in lang|uk}} [http://www.istpravda.com.ua/short/2018/04/18/152320/ 100 years ago Bakhmut and the rest of Donbas liberated] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501115243/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/short/2018/04/18/152320/ |date=1 May 2019 }}, [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (18 April 2018)</ref><ref name="UkrainianWeek16042018UwIbbb">{{citation | last = Tynchenko | first = Yaros | title = The Ukrainian Navy and the Crimean Issue in 1917–18 | url = http://ukrainianweek.com/History/105648 | work = [[The Ukrainian Week]] | date = 23 March 2018 | access-date = October 14, 2018 | archive-date = 11 November 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191111180649/https://ukrainianweek.com/History/105648 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="retrospective2014031918b">[https://iht-retrospective.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/1918-germany-takes-control-of-crimea/ Germany Takes Control of Crimea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930205920/https://iht-retrospective.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/1918-germany-takes-control-of-crimea/ |date=30 September 2019 }}, [[New York Herald]] (18 May 1918)</ref><ref name="harvard11181181bbb">[https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/11181181 War Without Fronts: Atamans and Commissars in Ukraine, 1917–1919] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403174842/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/11181181|date=3 April 2019}} by [[Mikhail Akulov]], [[Harvard University]], August 2013 (page 102 and 103)</ref> The German and Austro-Hungarian victories in Ukraine were caused by the apathy of the locals and the inferior fighting skills of Bolsheviks troops to their Austro-Hungarian and German counterparts.<ref name="harvard11181181bbb"/>
Under Soviet pressure, the Volunteer Army embarked on the epic Ice March from [[Krasnodar|Yekaterinodar]] to [[Kuban]] on 22 February 1918, where they joined with the Kuban Cossacks to mount an abortive assault on Yekaterinodar.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|29}} The Soviets recaptured Rostov on the next day.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|29}} Kornilov was killed in the fighting on 13 April, and Denikin took over command. Fighting off its pursuers without respite, the army succeeded in breaking its way through back towards the Don by May, where the Cossack uprising against the Bolsheviks had started.<ref name=pk/>{{rp|115–118}}
The Baku Soviet Commune was established on 13 April. Germany landed its Caucasus Expedition troops in [[Poti]] on 8 June. The Ottoman [[Army of Islam (Ottoman Empire)|Army of Islam]] (in coalition with [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]]) drove them out of Baku on 26 July 1918. Subsequently, the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation|Dashanaks]], Right SRs and [[Menshevik]]s started negotiations with Gen. [[Lionel Dunsterville|Dunsterville]], the commander of the [[British Empire|British]] troops in [[Persia]]. The Bolsheviks and their [[Left SR]] allies were opposed to it, but on 25 July the majority of the Soviets voted to call in the British and the Bolsheviks resigned. The Baku Soviet Commune ended its existence and was replaced by the Central Caspian Dictatorship.
In June 1918 the Volunteer Army, numbering some 9,000 men, started its [[Second Kuban campaign]], capturing Yekaterinodar on 16 August, followed by [[Armavir, Russia|Armavir]] and [[Stavropol]]. By early 1919, they controlled the [[Northern Caucasus]].<ref name=pk/>{{rp|166–174,182,189–190}}
On 8 October, Alekseev died. On 8 January 1919, Denikin became the Supreme Commander of the [[Armed Forces of South Russia]], uniting the Volunteer Army with [[Pyotr Krasnov]]'s [[Don Army]]. [[Pyotr Wrangel]] became Denikin's Chief of Staff.<ref name=pk/>{{rp|195,204,267–270}}
In December, three-fourths of the army was in the Northern Caucasus. That included three thousand of [[Vladimir Liakhov]]'s soldiers around [[Vladikavkaz]], thirteen thousand soldiers under Wrangel and Kazanovich in the center of the front, Stankevich's almost three thousand men with the Don Cossacks, while [[Vladimir May-Mayevsky]]'s three thousand were sent to the [[Donets basin]], and de Bode commanded two thousand in the [[Crimea]].<ref name="pk2">{{cite book |last1=Kenez |first1=Peter |title=Red Advance, White Defeat: Civil War in South Russia 1919–1920 |date=2004 |publisher=New Academia Publishing |location=Washington, DC |isbn=9780974493459 |pages=28–29}}</ref>
===Eastern Russia, Siberia and the Far East (1918)===
{{Main|Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion|Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly|Provisional All-Russian Government}}
The revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion broke out in May 1918, and proceeded to occupy the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]] from [[Ufa]] to [[Vladivostok]]. Uprisings overthrew other Bolshevik towns. On 7 July, the western portion of the legion declared itself to be a new eastern front, anticipating allied intervention. According to [[William Henry Chamberlin]], "Two governments emerged as a result of the first successes of the Czechs: the [[Provisional Siberian Government (Omsk)|West Siberian Commissariat]] and the Government of the [[Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly]] in Samara." On 17 July, shortly before the fall of [[Yekaterinburg]], the former Tsar [[Nicholas II]], and his family were [[Execution of the Romanov family|murdered]].<ref name=wc2/>{{rp|6–12,91}}
[[File:Bolshveki killed at Vladivostok.jpg|thumb|Czechoslovak legionaries of the 8th Regiment at [[Nikolsk-Ussuriysky]] killed by Bolsheviks, 1918. Above them stand also members of the Czechoslovak Legion.]]
The Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries supported [[peasant]]s fighting against Soviet control of food supplies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://isreview.org/issue/107/workers-organizations-russian-revolution|title=Workers' Organizations in the Russian Revolution|last=Muldoon|first=Amy|website=International Socialist Review|access-date=20 February 2018|archive-date=21 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221100132/https://isreview.org/issue/107/workers-organizations-russian-revolution|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 1918, with the support of the Czechoslovak Legion, they took [[Samara Oblast|Samara]] and [[Saratov]], establishing the [[Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly]]—known as the "Komuch". By July the authority of the Komuch extended over much of the area controlled by the Czechoslovak Legion. The Komuch pursued an ambivalent social policy, combining democratic and socialist measures, such as the institution of an [[eight hour day|eight-hour working day]], with "restorative" actions, such as returning both factories and land to their former owners. After the fall of [[Kazan]], Vladimir Lenin called for the dispatch of [[Petrograd]] workers to the Kazan Front: "We must send down the ''maximum'' number of Petrograd workers: (1) a few dozen 'leaders' like [[Benyamin Kayurov|Kayurov]]; (2) a few thousand militants 'from the ranks'".
After a series of reverses at the front, the Bolsheviks' War Commissar, Trotsky, instituted increasingly harsh measures in order to prevent unauthorised withdrawals, desertions, and mutinies in the Red Army. In the field, the Cheka Special Investigations Forces (termed the ''Special Punitive Department of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combat of Counter-Revolution and Sabotage'' or ''Special Punitive Brigades'') followed the Red Army, conducting field tribunals and summary executions of soldiers and officers who deserted, retreated from their positions, or failed to display sufficient offensive zeal.<ref>{{harvnb|Chamberlin|1987|p=31}}Frequently the deserters' families were taken hostage to force a surrender; a portion were customarily executed, as an example to the others.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Daniels|1993|p=70}}</ref> The Cheka Special Investigations Forces were also charged with the detection of sabotage and counter-revolutionary activity by Red Army soldiers and commanders. Trotsky extended the use of the death penalty to the occasional political commissar whose detachment retreated or broke in the face of the enemy.{{sfn|Volkogonov|1996|p=175}} In August, frustrated at continued reports of Red Army troops breaking under fire, Trotsky authorised the formation of [[barrier troops]] – stationed behind unreliable Red Army units and given orders to shoot anyone withdrawing from the battle line without authorisation.{{sfn|Volkogonov|1996|p=180|ps=: By December 1918 Trotsky had ordered the formation of special detachments to serve as blocking units throughout the Red Army.}}
[[File:Kolchak1919troops.jpg|thumb|left|Admiral [[Alexander Kolchak]] reviewing the troops, 1919]]
In September 1918, the Komuch, the Siberian Provisional Government, and other anti-Bolshevik Russians agreed during the [[State Meeting in Ufa]] to form a new [[Provisional All-Russian Government]] in Omsk, headed by a Directory of five: two [[Socialist Revolutionary Party|Socialist-Revolutionaries]]. [[Nikolai Avksentiev]] and [[Vladimir Zenzinov]], the [[Kadet]] lawyer V. A. Vinogradov, Siberian Premier Vologodskii, and General [[Vasily Boldyrev]].<ref name="wc2">{{cite book |last1=Chamberlin |first1=William |title=The Russian Revolution, 1917–1921, Volume Two |date=1935 |publisher=The Macmillan Company |location=New York |pages=20–21}}</ref>
By the fall of 1918, anti-Bolshevik White forces in the east included the People's Army ([[Komuch]]), the Siberian Army (of the Siberian Provisional Government) and insurgent Cossack units of Orenburg, the Urals, Siberia, Semirechye, Baikal, and Amur and Ussuri Cossacks, nominally under the orders of Gen. V.G. Boldyrev, Commander-in-Chief, appointed by the Ufa Directorate.
On the Volga, Col. [[Vladimir Kappel|Kappel]]'s White detachment captured Kazan on 7 August, but Red Forces recaptured the city on 8 September 1918 following a counteroffensive. On the 11th [[Simbirsk]] fell, and on 8 October [[Samara, Russia|Samara]]. The Whites fell back eastwards to Ufa and Orenburg.
In Omsk, the Russian Provisional Government quickly came under the influence and later the dominance of its new War Minister, [[Rear-Admiral]] [[Aleksandr Vasilevich Kolchak|Kolchak]]. On 18 November a [[coup d'état]] established Kolchak as supreme leader. Two members of the Directory were arrested, and subsequently deported, while Kolchak was proclaimed "Supreme Ruler", and "Commander-in-Chief of all Land and Naval Forces of Russia."<ref name=wc2/>{{rp|177–178}} By mid-December 1918, the White armies had to leave Ufa, but they balanced that failure with a successful drive towards [[Perm, Russia|Perm]], which they took on 24 December.
====Barrier troops====
In the [[Red Army]] of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] and later the [[Soviet Union]], the concept of barrier troops first arose in August 1918 with the formation of the заградительные отряды (''zagraditelnye otriady''), translated as "blocking troops" or "anti-retreat detachments" ({{lang-ru| заградотряды, заградительные отряды, отряды заграждения}}).<ref name=volko>Dmitri Volkogonov, ''Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary'', transl. and edited by Harold Shukman, HarperCollins Publishers, London (1996), p. 180</ref> The barrier troops comprised personnel drawn from the [[Cheka]] secret police punitive detachments or from regular Red Army infantry regiments. <!-- The Red Army numbered some 2.9 million troops at the start of World War II.<ref>{{Cite book|title= Stalin and Stalinism|last= McCauley|first= Martin|publisher= Routledge|year= 2013|location= New York, New York|pages= 2099}}</ref> -->
The first use of the barrier troops by the Red Army occurred in the late summer and fall of 1918 in the [[Eastern Front (RSFSR)|Eastern front]] during the Russian Civil War, when [[Minister of Defence (Soviet Union)|People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs]] (War Commissar) [[Leon Trotsky]] of the Communist [[Bolshevik]] government authorized [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]], the commander of the [[1st Army (RSFSR)|1st Army]], to station blocking detachments behind unreliable Red Army infantry regiments in the 1st Red Army, with orders to shoot if front-line troops either deserted or retreated without permission.<ref name=volko/>
In December 1918, Trotsky ordered that detachments of additional barrier troops be raised for attachment to each infantry formation in the Red Army. On December 18 he cabled: <blockquote>How do things stand with the blocking units? As far as I am aware they have not been included in our establishment and it appears they have no personnel. It is absolutely essential that we have at least an embryonic network of blocking units and that we work out a procedure for bringing them up to strength and deploying them.<ref name=volko/></blockquote> The barrier troops were also used to enforce Bolshevik control over food supplies in areas controlled by the Red Army as part of [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]]'s [[war communism]] policies, a role which soon earned them the hatred of the Russian civilian population.<ref>Lih, Lars T., ''Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921'', University of California Press (1990), p. 131</ref> These policies led to the [[Russian famine of 1921–1922]], which killed about five million people.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/War-Communism|title=War Communism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]|author=((The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica))}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mawdsley |first=Evan |url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan |title=The Russian Civil War |date=1 March 2007 |publisher=Pegasus Books |isbn=978-1-933648-15-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan/page/287 287] |author-link=Evan Mawdsley |url-access=registration}}</ref>
===Central Asia (1918)===
[[File:Europe map 1919.jpg|thumb|London Geographical Institute's 1919 map of [[Europe]] after the treaties of [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)|Brest-Litovsk]] and [[Treaty of Batum|Batum]] and before the [[Treaty of Tartu (disambiguation)|treaties of Tartu]], [[Treaty of Kars|Kars]], and [[Peace of Riga|Riga]]]]
In February 1918 the Red Army overthrew the White Russian-supported Kokand Autonomy of Turkestan.{{sfn|Rakowska-Harmstone|1970|p=19}} Although that move seemed to solidify Bolshevik power in Central Asia, more troubles soon arose for the Red Army as the Allied Forces began to intervene. British support of the White Army provided the greatest threat to the Red Army in Central Asia during 1918. Britain sent three prominent military leaders to the area. One was Lieutenant Colonel [[Frederick Marshman Baile]], who recorded a mission to Tashkent, from where the Bolsheviks forced him to flee. Another was General [[Wilfrid Malleson]], leading the [[Malleson Mission]], who assisted the Mensheviks in Ashkhabad (now the capital of Turkmenistan) with a small Anglo-Indian force. However, he failed to gain control of Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva. The third was Major General Dunsterville, who was driven out by the Bolsheviks of Central Asia only a month after his arrival in August 1918.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=75}} Despite setbacks as a result of British invasions during 1918, the Bolsheviks continued to make progress in bringing the Central Asian population under their influence. The first regional congress of the Russian Communist Party convened in the city of Tashkent in June 1918 in order to build support for a local Bolshevik Party.{{sfn|Allworth|1967|p=232}}
===Left SR Uprising===
{{Main|Left SR uprising|Yaroslavl Uprising}}
On 6 July 1918, two [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries]] and [[Cheka]] employees, [[Yakov Blumkin]] and Nikolai Andreyev, assassinated the German ambassador, Count [[Wilhelm Mirbach|Mirbach]]. In Moscow a [[Left SR uprising]] was put down by the Bolsheviks, mass arrests of Socialist-Revolutionaries followed, and executions became more frequent. Chamberlin noted, "The time of relative leniency toward former fellow-revolutionists was over. The Left Socialist Revolutionaries, of course, were no longer tolerated as members of the Soviets; from this time the Soviet regime became a pure and undiluted dictatorship of the Communist Party." Similarly, [[Boris Savinkov]]'s surprise attacks were suppressed, with many of the conspirators being executed, as "Mass Red Terror" became a reality.<ref name=wc2/>{{rp|50–59}}
===Estonia, Latvia and Petrograd===
{{Main|Estonian War of Independence|Latvian War of Independence|Battle of Petrograd}}
Estonia [[Estonian War of Independence|cleared its territory]] of the Red Army by January 1919.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1514725/Baltic-War-of-Liberation Baltic War of Liberation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008052602/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1514725/Baltic-War-of-Liberation |date=8 October 2014 }} Encyclop¿dia Britannica</ref> [[Baltische Landeswehr|Baltic German volunteers]] captured [[Riga]] from the Red [[Latvian Riflemen]] on 22 May, but the Estonian 3rd Division [[Battle of Cēsis (1919)|defeated]] the Baltic Germans a month later, aiding the establishment of the [[Republic of Latvia]].<ref name=axishistory>{{cite web|url=http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=6953|title=Generalkommando VI Reservekorps|publisher=Axis History|access-date=11 April 2012|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090953/http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=6953|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:NikolaiYudenich1916.jpeg|thumb|General [[Nikolai Yudenich]]]]
That rendered possible another threat to the Red Army, from General Yudenich, who had spent the summer organizing the Northwestern Army in Estonia with local and British support. In October 1919, he tried to capture Petrograd in a sudden assault with a force of around 20,000 men. The attack was well-executed, using night attacks and lightning cavalry maneuvers to turn the flanks of the defending Red Army. Yudenich also had six British tanks, which caused panic whenever they appeared. The Allies gave large quantities of aid to Yudenich, but he complained of receiving insufficient support.
By 19 October, Yudenich's troops had reached the outskirts of the city. Some members of the Bolshevik central committee in Moscow were willing to give up Petrograd, but Trotsky refused to accept the loss of the city and personally organized its defenses. Trotsky himself declared, "It is impossible for a little army of 15,000 ex-officers to master a working-class capital of 700,000 inhabitants." He settled on a strategy of urban defense, proclaiming that the city would "defend itself on its own ground" and that the White Army would be lost in a labyrinth of fortified streets and there "meet its grave".<ref>Williams, Beryl, ''The Russian Revolution 1917–1921'', Blackwell Publishing (1987), {{ISBN|978-0-631-15083-1}}, {{ISBN|0-631-15083-8}}</ref>
Trotsky armed all available workers, men and women, and ordered the transfer of military forces from Moscow. Within a few weeks, the Red Army defending Petrograd had tripled in size and outnumbered Yudenich three to one. Yudenich, short of supplies, then decided to call off the siege of the city and withdrew. He repeatedly asked permission to withdraw his army across the border to Estonia. However, units retreating across the border were disarmed and interned by orders of the Estonian government, which had entered into peace negotiations with the Soviet Government on 16 September and had been informed by the Soviet authorities of their 6 November decision that if the White Army was allowed to retreat into Estonia, it would be pursued across the border by the Reds.{{sfn|Rosenthal|2006|p=516}} In fact, the Reds attacked Estonian army positions and fighting continued until a ceasefire went into effect on 3 January 1920. After the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]]. most of Yudenich's soldiers went into exile. Former Imperial Russian and then Finnish General [[Mannerheim]] planned an intervention to help the Whites in Russia capture Petrograd. However, he did not gain the necessary support for the endeavour. Lenin considered it "completely certain, that the slightest aid from Finland would have determined the fate of [the city]".
===Northern Russia (1919)===
{{Main|North Russia intervention}}
The British occupied [[Murmansk]] and, alongside the [[United States|Americans]], seized [[Arkhangelsk]]. With the retreat of Kolchak in Siberia, they pulled their troops out of the cities before the winter trapped them in the port. The remaining White forces under [[Yevgeny Miller]] evacuated the region in February 1920.<ref>Ian C.D. Moffat, "The Allies Act—Murmansk and Archangel." in Ian C. D. Moffat. ed., ''The Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918–1920'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015). 68–82.</ref>
===Siberia (1919)===
At the beginning of March 1919, the general offensive of the Whites on the eastern front began. Ufa was retaken on 13 March; by mid-April, the White Army stopped at the [[Glazov]]–[[Chistopol]]–[[Bugulma]]–[[Buguruslan]]–Sharlyk line. Reds started their [[Eastern Front counteroffensive|counteroffensive against Kolchak's forces]] at the end of April. The Red 5th Army, led by the capable commander [[Tukhachevsky]], captured [[Elabuga]] on 26 May, [[Sarapul]] on 2 June and [[Izevsk]] on the 7th and continued to push forward. Both sides had victories and losses, but by the middle of summer the Red Army was larger than the White Army and had managed to recapture territory previously lost.<ref>Jonathan D. Smele, ''Civil war in Siberia: the anti-Bolshevik government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918–1920'' (Cambridge UP, 2006).</ref>
Following the abortive offensive at Chelyabinsk, the White armies withdrew beyond the [[Tobol]]. In September 1919 a White offensive was launched against the Tobol Front, the last attempt to change the course of events. However, on 14 October the Reds counterattacked, and thus began the uninterrupted [[Great Siberian Ice March|retreat of the Whites to the east]]. On 14 November 1919 the Red Army captured Omsk.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bolsheviki Grain Near Petrograd|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1919-11-15/ed-1/seq-4/|access-date=10 September 2010|newspaper=New York Tribune|date=15 November 1919|agency=[[Library of Congress]]|location=Washington, DC|page=4|archive-date=12 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012044429/http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1919-11-15/ed-1/seq-4/|url-status=live}}</ref> Adm. Kolchak lost control of his government shortly after the defeat; White Army forces in Siberia had essentially ceased to exist by December. Retreat of the eastern front by White armies lasted three months, until mid-February 1920, when the survivors, after crossing Lake Baikal, reached the [[Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai|Chita]] area and joined [[Ataman Semenov]]'s forces.
===South Russia (1919)===
[[File:За единую Россію.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Anti-Bolshevik propaganda poster "For united Russia" representing Soviet Russia as a fallen communist dragon and the White Cause as a crusading knight]]
[[File:Polish-soviet propaganda poster 1920.jpg|thumb|left|210px|[[Anti-Polish sentiment|Polonophobic]] Soviet propaganda poster, 1920]]
The Cossacks had been unable to organise and capitalise on their successes at the end of 1918. By 1919 they had begun to run short of supplies. Consequently, when the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]]'s counteroffensive began in January 1919 under the Bolshevik commander [[Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko|Antonov-Ovseenko]], the Cossack forces rapidly fell apart. The Red Army captured Kiev on 3 February 1919.<ref>Peter Kenez, ''Civil war in South Russia, 1919–1920: The defeat of the whites'' (U of California Press, 1977).</ref>
Denikin's military strength continued to grow in 1919, with significant munitions supplied by the British. In January, Denikin's Armed Forces of South Russia (AFSR) completed the elimination of Red forces in the northern Caucasus and moved north, in an effort to [[Battle for the Donbas (1919)|protect the Don district]].<ref name=pk2/>{{rp|20–35}}
On 18 December 1918, French forces landed in [[Odessa]] (now Odesa) and then the Crimea, but evacuated Odessa on 6 April 1919, and the Crimea by the end of the month. According to Chamberlin, "But France gave far less practical aid to the Whites than did England; its sole independent venture in intervention, at Odessa, ended in a complete fiasco."<ref name=wc2/>{{rp|151,165–167}}
Denikin then reorganized the Armed Forces of South Russia under the leadership of [[Vladimir May-Mayevsky]], [[Vladimir Sidorin]], and [[Pyotr Wrangel]]. On 22 May, Wrangel's Caucasian army defeated the [[10th Army (RSFSR)]] in the battle for [[Velikoknyazheskaya]], and then captured Tsaritsyn on 1 July. Sidorin advanced north toward [[Voronezh]], increasing his army's strength in the process. On 25 June, May–Mayevsky captured [[Kharkov]], and then [[Ekaterinoslav]] on 30 June, which forced the Reds to abandon [[Crimea]]. On 3 July, Denikin issued his [[Advance on Moscow (1919)|Moscow directive]], in which his armies would converge on Moscow.<ref name=pk2/>{{rp|37–41}}
Although Britain had withdrawn its own troops from the theatre, it continued to give significant military aid (money, weapons, food, ammunition and some military advisers) to the White Armies during 1919. Major [[Ewen Cameron Bruce]] of the British Army had volunteered to command a British tank mission assisting the White Army. He was awarded the [[Distinguished Service Order]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/31875/supplements/4693/page.pdf|title=Distinguished Service Order citation for Bruce in the 1920 ''London Gazette''}}</ref> for his bravery during the June 1919 Battle of Tsaritsyn for single-handedly storming and capturing the fortified city of Tsaritsyn, under heavy shell fire in a single tank, which led to the capture of over 40,000 prisoners.{{sfn|Kinvig|2006|p=225}} The fall of Tsaritsyn is viewed "as one of the key battles of the Russian Civil War" and greatly helped the White Russian cause.{{sfn|Kinvig|2006|p=225}} The notable historian [[Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart]] comments that Bruce's tank action during the battle is to be seen as "one of the most remarkable feats in the whole history of the Tank Corps".<ref name="BasilLiddellHart">Liddell Hart, Basil. "The Tanks: The History Of The Royal Tank Regiment And Its Predecessors, Heavy Branch Machine-Gun Corps, Tank Corps And Royal Tank Corps, 1914–1945. Vol I". Cassell: 1959, p. 211.</ref>
On 14 August, the Bolsheviks launched their [[Southern Front counteroffensive]]. After six weeks of heavy fighting the counteroffensive failed, and Denikin was able to capture more territory. By November, White Forces had reached the [[Zbruch]], the Ukrainian-Polish border.<ref name=pk2/>{{rp|43,154}}
[[File:Wrangel after worship Tsaritsyn 1919.jpg|thumb|left|General [[Pyotr Wrangel]] in [[Battle of Tsaritsyn|Tsaritsyn]], 15 October 1919]]
Denikin's forces constituted a real threat and for a time threatened to reach Moscow. The Red Army, stretched thin by fighting on all fronts, was forced out of Kiev on 30 August. [[Kursk]] and [[Oryol|Orel]] were taken, on 20 September and 14 October, respectively. The latter, only {{Convert|205|mi|km}} from Moscow, was the closest the AFSR would come to its target.{{Sfn|Kenez|1977|p=44}} The Cossack [[Don Army]] under the command of General [[Vladimir Sidorin]] continued north towards [[Voronezh]], but [[Semyon Budyonny]]'s cavalrymen defeated them there on 24 October. That allowed the Red Army to cross the [[Don River (Russia)|Don River]], threatening to split the Don and Volunteer Armies. Fierce fighting took place at the key rail junction of Kastornoye, which was taken on 15 November. Kursk was retaken two days later.{{Sfn|Kenez|1977|p=218}}
[[File:Klinom Krasnim by El Lisitskiy (1920).jpg|thumb|[[Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge]], a famous Bolshevik [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivist]] propaganda poster by artist [[El Lissitzky|El Lissitsky]] uses abstract symbolism to depict the defeat of the Whites by the Red Army.]]
Kenez states, "In October Denikin ruled more than forty million people and controlled the economically most valuable parts of the Russian Empire." Yet, "The White armies, which had fought victoriously during the summer and early fall, fell back in disorder in November and December." Denikin's front line was overstretched, while his reserves dealt with Makhno's anarchists in the rear. Between September and October, the Reds mobilized one hundred thousand new soldiers and adopted the Trotsky-[[Jukums Vācietis|Vatsetis]] strategy with the Ninth and Tenth armies forming V. I. Shorin's Southeastern Front between Tsaritsyn and Bobrov, while the Eighth, Twelfth, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth armies formed [[Alexander Yegorov (soldier)|A.I. Egorov]]'s Southern Front between Zhitomir and Bobrov. [[Sergey Kamenev]] was in overall command of the two fronts. On Denikin's left was [[Abram Dragomirov]], while in his center was [[Vladimir May-Mayevsky]]'s Volunteer Army, [[Vladimir Sidorin]]'s Don Cossacks were further east, with [[Pyotr Wrangel]]'s Caucasian army at Tsaritsyn, and an additional was in the Northern Caucasus attempting to capture Astrakhan. On 20 October, May–Mayevsky was forced to evacuate Orel during the [[Orel-Kursk operation]]. On 24 October, [[Semyon Budyonny]] captured Voronezh, and Kursk on 15 November, during the [[Voronezh-Kastornoye operation (1919)]]. On 6 January, the Reds reached the Black Sea at Mariupol and Taganrog, and On 9 January, they reached Rostov. According to Kenez, "The Whites had now lost all the territories which they had captured in 1919, and held approximately the same area in which they had started two years before."<ref name=pk2/>{{rp|213–223}}
===Central Asia (1919)===
By February 1919 the British government had pulled its military forces out of Central Asia.{{sfn|Allworth|1967|p=231}} Despite the success for the Red Army, the White Army's assaults in European Russia and other areas broke communication between Moscow and Tashkent. For a time Central Asia was completely cut off from Red Army forces in Siberia.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=76}} Although the communication failure weakened the Red Army, the Bolsheviks continued their efforts to gain support for the Bolshevik Party in Central Asia by holding a second regional conference in March. During the conference, a regional bureau of Muslim organisations of the Russian Bolshevik Party was formed. The Bolshevik Party continued to try to gain support among the native population by giving it the impression of better representation for the Central Asian population and throughout the end of the year could maintain harmony with the Central Asian people.{{sfn|Allworth|1967|pp=232–233}}
Communication difficulties with Red Army forces in Siberia and European Russia ceased to be a problem by mid-November 1919. Red Army successes north of Central Asia caused communication with Moscow to be re-established and the Bolsheviks to claim victory over the White Army in Turkestan.{{sfn|Coates|Coates|1951|p=76}}
In the Ural-Guryev operation of 1919–1920, the Red [[Turkestan Front]] defeated the [[Ural Army]]. During winter 1920, [[Ural Cossacks]] and their families, totaling about 15,000 people, headed south along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea towards [[Fort-Shevchenko|Fort Alexandrovsk]]. Only a few hundred of them reached Persia in June 1920.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smele|first=Jonathan D.|title=The "Russian" Civil Wars, 1916–1926 |year=2015|publisher=Hurst & Company, London|isbn=978-1-84904-721-0|page=139}}</ref> The [[Orenburg Independent Army]] was formed from [[Orenburg Cossacks]] and others troops who rebelled against the Bolsheviks. During the winter 1919–20, the Orenburg Army retreated to [[Semirechye]] in what is known as the [[Starving March]], as half of the participants perished.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smele|first=Jonathan D.|title=Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwquCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1082|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-5281-3|pages=1082–1083|access-date=23 September 2019|archive-date=19 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719042353/https://books.google.com/books?id=QwquCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1082|url-status=live}}</ref> In March 1920 her remnants crossed the border into the Northwestern region of China.
===South Russia, Ukraine and Kronstadt (1920–21)===
[[File:Victims of Soviet Famine 1922.jpg|thumb| Victims of the [[Russian famine of 1921]]]]
At the beginning of 1920, Denikin was reduced to defending Novorossia, the Crimean peninsula, and the Northern Caucasus. On 26 January, the Caucasian army retreated beyond the [[Manych]]. On 7 February, the Reds occupied Odessa, but then the [[Makhnovshchina]] started fighting the Fourteenth Red Army. On 20 February, Denikin succeeded in recapturing Rostov, his last victory, before giving it up soon after.<ref name=pk2/>{{rp|236–239}}
By the beginning of 1920, the main body of the Armed Forces of South Russia was rapidly retreating towards the Don, to Rostov. Denikin hoped to hold the crossings of the Don, then rest and reform his troops, but the White Army was not able to hold the Don area, and at the end of February 1920 started a retreat across Kuban towards [[Novorossiysk]]. Slipshod [[Evacuation of Novorossiysk (1920)|evacuation of Novorossiysk]] proved to be a dark event for the White Army. Russian and Allied ships evacuated about 40,000 of Denikin's men from Novorossiysk to the Crimea, without horses or any heavy equipment, while about 20,000 men were left behind and either dispersed or were captured by the Red Army. Following the disastrous Novorossiysk evacuation, Denikin stepped down and the military council elected Wrangel as the new Commander-in-Chief of the White Army. He was able to restore order to the dispirited troops and reshape an army that could fight as a regular force again. It remained an organized force in the Crimea throughout 1920.<ref>Viktor G. Bortnevski, "White Administration and White Terror (the Denikin Period)." ''Russian Review'' 52.3 (1993): 354–366 [http://sites.bu.edu/revolutionaryrussia/files/2013/09/White-Propaganda-Efforts-in-the-South-during-the-Russian-Civil-War.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930231435/http://sites.bu.edu/revolutionaryrussia/files/2013/09/White-Propaganda-Efforts-in-the-South-during-the-Russian-Civil-War.pdf |date=30 September 2020 }}.</ref>
[[File:Tambov Rebellion.png|thumb|left|upright|[[Tambov Rebellion]] was one of the largest and best-organised [[List of peasant revolts|peasant rebellion]]s challenging the [[Bolshevik]] regime.]]
After Moscow's Bolshevik government signed a [[Starobilsk agreement|military and political alliance]] with [[Nestor Makhno]] and the [[anarchism in Ukraine|Ukrainian anarchists]], the [[Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine|Insurgent Army]] attacked and defeated several regiments of Wrangel's troops in southern Ukraine, forcing him to retreat before he could capture that year's grain harvest.<ref>Berland, Pierre, "Makhno", ''Le Temps'', 28 August 1934: In addition to supplying White Army forces and their sympathizers with food, a successful seizure of the 1920 Ukrainian grain harvest would have had a devastating effect on food supplies to Bolshevik-held cities, while depriving both Red Army and Ukrainian Insurgent Army troops of their usual bread rations.</ref>
Stymied in his efforts to consolidate his hold, Wrangel then attacked north in an attempt to take advantage of recent Red Army defeats at the close of the [[Polish–Soviet War]] of 1919–1920. The Red Army eventually halted the offensive, and Wrangel's troops had to retreat to [[Siege of Perekop (1920)|Crimea in November 1920]], pursued by both the Red and Black cavalry and infantry. [[Wrangel's fleet]] [[Evacuation of the Crimea (1920)|evacuated him and his army]] to Constantinople on 14 November 1920, ending the struggle of Reds and Whites in Southern Russia.<ref>Kenez, ''Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920'' (1977).</ref>
After the defeat of Wrangel, the Red Army immediately repudiated its 1920 treaty of alliance with Nestor Makhno and attacked the anarchist Insurgent Army; the [[Bolshevik–Makhnovist conflict#Second phase (November 1920–August 1921)|campaign to liquidate Makhno and the Ukrainian anarchists]] began with an attempted assassination of Makhno by Cheka agents. Anger at continued repression by the Bolshevik Communist government and at its liberal use of the Cheka to put down anarchist elements led to a naval mutiny at [[Kronstadt rebellion|Kronstadt]] in March 1921, followed by peasant revolts. Red Army attacks on the anarchist forces and their sympathisers increased in ferocity throughout 1921.<ref>Peter C. Mentzel, "Chaos and Utopia: The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution and Civil War", ''Independent Review'' 22/2 (Fall 2017), 173–181; available at https://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_22_2_03_mentzel.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229193315/https://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_22_2_03_mentzel.pdf |date=29 February 2020 }}; and Alexandre Skirda, ''Nestor Makhno — Anarchy's Cossack: The Struggle for Free Soviets in the Ukraine, 1917–1921'' (Chico CA: AK Press, 2004). {{ISBN|9781902593685}}</ref>
===Siberia and the Far East (1920–22)===
{{Main|Far Eastern Front in the Russian Civil War}}
In Siberia, Admiral Kolchak's army had disintegrated. He himself gave up command after the loss of Omsk and designated Gen. [[Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov|Grigory Semyonov]] as the new leader of the White Army in Siberia. Not long afterward, Kolchak was arrested by the disaffected Czechoslovak Legion as he traveled towards [[Irkutsk]] without the protection of the army and was turned over to the socialist [[Political Centre (Russia)|Political Centre]] in Irkutsk. Six days later, the regime was replaced by a Bolshevik-dominated Military-Revolutionary Committee. On 6–7 February Kolchak and his prime minister Victor Pepelyaev were shot and their bodies were thrown through the ice of the frozen Angara River, just before the arrival of the White Army in the area.<ref name="Mapolwdsley2007" />{{rp|319–21}}
Remnants of Kolchak's army reached [[Transbaikalia]] and joined Semyonov's troops, forming the Far Eastern army. With the support of the Japanese army it was able to hold Chita, but after the withdrawal of Japanese soldiers from Transbaikalia, Semenov's position became untenable, and in November 1920 he was driven by the Red Army from Transbaikalia and took refuge in China. The Japanese, who had plans to annex the [[Amur Krai]], finally pulled their troops out as Bolshevik forces gradually asserted control over the Russian Far East. On 25 October 1922 Vladivostok fell to the Red Army, and the [[Provisional Priamur Government]] was extinguished.
==Aftermath==
===Ensuing rebellion===
In Central Asia, Red Army troops continued to face resistance into 1923, where ''[[Basmachi Revolt|basmachi]]'' (armed bands of Islamic guerrillas) had formed to fight the Bolshevik takeover. The Soviets engaged non-Russian peoples in Central Asia, like [[Magaza Masanchi]], commander of the Dungan Cavalry Regiment, to fight against the Basmachis. The Communist Party did not completely dismantle the group until 1934.{{sfn|Wheeler|1964|p=107}}
General [[Anatoly Pepelyayev]] [[Yakut Revolt|continued armed resistance]] in the [[Ayano-Maysky District]] until June 1923. The regions of [[Kamchatka]] and Northern [[Sakhalin]] remained under Japanese occupation until their [[Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention|treaty]] with the Soviet Union in 1925, when their forces were finally withdrawn.
===Casualties===
{{overly detailed|section|date=June 2023}}
[[File:Streetkids RussianCivilWar.JPG|thumb|Street children during the Russian Civil War]]
{{See also|Red Terror (Russia)|White Terror (Russia)}}
The results of the civil war were momentous. Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that 300,000 men were killed in action during the Civil War and Polish-Soviet War (125,000 in the Red Army, 175,500 White armies and Poles) and the total number of military personnel from both sides dead from disease as 450,000.<ref>Urlanis B. ''Wars and Population''. Moscow, Progress publishers, 1971.</ref> Boris Sennikov estimated the total losses among the population of [[Tambov Oblast|Tambov region]] in 1920 to 1922 resulting from the war, executions, and imprisonment in concentration camps as approximately 240,000.<ref>Sennikov, B.V. (2004). [http://rusk.ru/vst.php?idar=321701 ''Tambov rebellion and liquidation of peasants in Russia''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330141755/https://rusk.ru/vst.php?idar=321701 |date=2019-03-30 }}. Moscow: Posev. In Russian. {{ISBN|5-85824-152-2}}</ref>
[[File:Refugees on flatcars.jpg|thumb|[[Refugee]]s on [[flatcar]]s]]
As many as 10 million lives were lost as a result of the Russian Civil War, and the overwhelming majority of these were civilian casualties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Russian Civil War – Foreign intervention {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Civil-War/Foreign-intervention |access-date=2023-01-31 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> There is no consensus among the Western historians on the number of deaths from the Red Terror. One source gives estimates of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922.{{sfnp|Ryan|2012|p=2}} Estimates for the number of people shot during the initial period of the Red Terror are at least 10,000.{{sfnp|Ryan|2012|p=114}} Estimates for the whole period go for a low of 50,000<ref name="anatomy">Stone, Bailey (2013). ''The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia''. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.</ref> to highs of 140,000<ref name="anatomy"/><ref>Pipes, Richard (2011). ''The Russian Revolution''. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 838.</ref> and 200,000 executed.{{sfnp|Lowe|2002|p=151}} Most estimations for the number of executions in total put the number at about 100,000.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lincoln |first=W. Bruce |author-link=W. Bruce Lincoln |year=1989 |title=Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War |publisher=Simon & Schuster |page=384 |isbn=0671631667 |quote=... the best estimates set the probable number of executions at about a hundred thousand.}}</ref> According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people.<ref>
{{cite book |last=Erlikhman |first=Vadim Viktorovich|author-link= |date=2004 |title=Poteri narodonaseleniya v XX veke. |trans-title=Population losses in the XX century |url=https://www.azstat.org/Kitweb/zipfiles/11553.pdf |location=Moscow |publisher=Russkaya panorama |page= |isbn=5-93165-107-1|language=ru}}</ref> According to [[Robert Conquest]], a total of 140,000 people were shot in 1917–1922, but Jonathan D. Smele estimates they were considerably fewer, "perhaps less than half that many".{{sfnp|Stele|2015|p=934}} Candidate of Historical Sciences Nikolay Zayats states that the number of people shot by the Cheka in 1918–1922 is about 37,300 people, shot in 1918–1921 by the verdicts of the tribunals — 14,200, i.e. about 50,000–55,000 people in total, although executions and atrocities were not limited to the Cheka, having been organized by the [[Red Army]] as well.<ref>[https://scepsis.net/library/id_3807.html К вопросу о масштабах красного террора в годы Гражданской войны]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.svoboda.org/a/29475805.html|title="Красный террор": 1918– ...?|trans-title=The Red Terror: 1918– …?}}</ref> In 1924, an anti-Bolshevik [[Popular Socialists (Russia)|Popular Socialist]] [[Sergei Melgunov]] (1879–1956) published a detailed account on the Red Terror in Russia, where he cited Professor [[Charles Saroléa]]'s estimates of 1,766,188 deaths from the Bolshevik policies. He questioned the accuracy of the figures, but endorsed Saroléa's "chracterisation of terror in Russia", stating it matches reality.<ref>Часть IV. На гражданской войнe. // ''[[Sergei Melgunov]]'' [http://lib.ru/POLITOLOG/MELGUNOW/terror.txt «Красный террор» в России 1918—1923.] — 2-ое изд., доп. — Берлин, 1924</ref><ref>{{cite book |language=de |last=Melgunov |first=Sergei Petrovich |author-link=Sergei Melgunov |date=2008 |orig-date=1924 |title= Der rote Terror in Russland 1918–1923 |type= reprint of the 1924 Olga Diakow edition |edition= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S3FGAQAAIAAJ |location=Berlin |publisher=OEZ |page=186, note 182 |quote= |isbn=9783940452474 }} An online English translation of the second edition of Melgunov's work is accessibile at [https://ia804502.us.archive.org/28/items/RedTerrorInRussia1918-1923/S.P.Melgunov_Red_Terror_In_Russia_1918-1923_En.pdf Internet Archive], whence the following translated text is drawn (p. 85, note n. 128): "Professor [[Charles Saroléa|[Charles] Sarolea]], who published a series of articles about Russia in Edinburgh newspaper “The Scotsman” touched upon the death statistics in an essay on terror (No. 7, November 1923.). He summarized the outcome of the Bolshevik massacre as follows: 28 bishops, 1219 clergy, 6000 professors and teachers, 9000 doctors, 54,000 officers, 260,000 soldiers, 70,000 policemen, 12,950 landowners, 355,250 professionals, 193,290 workers, 815,000 peasants. The author did not provide the sources of that data. Needless to say that the precise counts seem [too] fictional, but the author’s [characterisation] of terror in Russia in general matches reality." The note is somewhat abbreviated in the 1925 English edition indicated in the bibliography: in particular, there is no mention of the imaginative nature of the data (p. 111, note n. 1).</ref> Modern historian Sergei Volkov, assessing the Red Terror as the entire repressive policy of the Bolsheviks during the years of the Civil War (1917–1922), estimates the direct death toll of the Red Terror at 2 million people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iskupitel.info/node/770 |title=Istorik Sergey Volkov: "Geneticheskomu fondu Rossii byl nanesen chudovishchnyy, ne vospolnennyy do sego vremeni, uron" |trans-title=Historian Sergei Volkov: "Russia's genetic pool suffered monstrous damage, so far not repaired" (interview with the famous historian of the Civil War, Doctor of Historical Sciences Sergei Vladimirovich Volkov) |author=Perevozchikov', Artyom |date=9 September 2010 |website=iskupitel.info |publisher=Monarxist |access-date=9 May 2023 }}</ref> Volkov's calculations, however, do not appear to have been confirmed by other major scholars.<ref>In particular, they seem quite at odds with the demographic considerations elaborated by Italian historian and professor {{ill|Andrea Graziosi|it}} in the light of the good quality Tsarist and early Soviet statistics. According to him, the [[Excess mortality|excess deaths]] between 1914 and 1922 were about 16 million, of which 4–5 were military, the rest civilian; the overwhelming majority of the latter resulted from "starvation, typhus, epidemics, the [[Spanish flu]] and the famine of 1921–22", the roughly number of "victims of the various kinds of terror, and red and white repressions" amounting to a few hundred thousand— which is indeed a dreadful number in itself, however (Graziosi, pp. 171 and 570).</ref>
Some 300,000–500,000 [[Cossacks]] were killed or deported during [[Decossackization]], out of a population of around three million.{{sfn|Gellately|2007|pp=70–71}} An estimated 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/131078|first=Peter|author2=Pipe, Richard|last= Kenez|last3=Pipes|first3=Richard|title=The Prosecution of Soviet History: A Critique of Richard Pipes' The Russian Revolution |journal=Russian Review|volume=50| issue=3|year=1991|pages=345–51|jstor=131078}}</ref> Punitive organs of the All Great Don Cossack Host sentenced 25,000 people to death between May 1918 and January 1919.{{sfn|Holquist|2002|p=164}} Kolchak's government shot 25,000 people in Ekaterinburg province alone.<ref>{{cite journal|publisher=Cult Info|place=RU|url=http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/063/073.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20050510090417/http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/063/073.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2005-05-10|script-title=ru:Колчаковщина|language=ru}}</ref> The White Terror, as it would become known, killed about 300,000 people in total.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Потери народонаселения в XX веке.|last=Эрлихман|first=Вадим|publisher=Издательский дом «Русская панорама»|year=2004|isbn=5931651071}}</ref>
At the end of the Civil War the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] was exhausted and near ruin. The droughts of 1920 and 1921, as well as the [[Russian famine of 1921|1921 famine]], worsened the disaster still further, killing roughly 5 million people. Disease had reached [[pandemic]] proportions, with 3,000,000 dying of [[typhus]] throughout the war. Millions more also died of widespread starvation, wholesale massacres by both sides and [[Pogroms of the Russian Civil War|pogroms against Jews in Ukraine and southern Russia]]. By 1922, there were at least 7,000,000 [[street children]] in Russia as a result of nearly ten years of devastation from World War I and the civil war.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130621173456/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_/ai_n8801575 And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918–1930], Thomas J. Hegarty, Canadian Slavonic Papers</ref>
Another one to two million people, known as the [[White émigré]]s, fled Russia, many with General Wrangel, some through the Far East and others west into the newly independent Baltic countries. The émigrés included a large percentage of the educated and skilled population of Russia.
The Russian economy was devastated by the war, with factories and bridges destroyed, cattle and raw materials pillaged, mines flooded and machines damaged. The industrial production value descended to one seventh of the value of 1913 and agriculture to one third. According to ''[[Pravda]]'', "The workers of the towns and some of the villages choke in the throes of hunger. The railways barely crawl. The houses are crumbling. The towns are full of refuse. Epidemics spread and death strikes—industry is ruined."{{citation needed|date=September 2009}} It is estimated that the total output of mines and factories in 1921 had fallen to 20% of the pre-World War level, and many crucial items experienced an even more drastic decline. For example, cotton production fell to 5%, and iron to 2%, of pre-war levels.
[[War communism]] saved the Soviet government during the Civil War, but much of the Russian economy had ground to a standstill. Some peasants responded to [[Prodrazvyorstka|food requisitions]] by refusing to till the land. By 1921, cultivated land had shrunk to 62% of the pre-war area, and the harvest yield was only about 37% of normal. The number of horses declined from 35 million in 1916 to 24 million in 1920 and cattle from 58 to 37 million. The exchange rate with the US dollar declined from two [[roubles]] in 1914 to 1,200 Rbls in 1920.
With the end of the war, the Communist Party no longer faced an acute military threat to its existence and power. However, the perceived threat of continued popular discontent, combined with the failure of socialist revolutions in other countries—most notably the [[German Revolution]]—contributed to the continued militarisation of Soviet society. Although Russia experienced extremely rapid economic growth<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nintil.com/the-soviet-union-gdp-growth/|title=The Soviet Union: GDP growth|date=2016-03-26|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517053259/https://nintil.com/the-soviet-union-gdp-growth/|archive-date=2020-05-17}}</ref> in the 1930s, the combined effect of World War I and the Civil War left a lasting scar on Russian society and had permanent effects on the development of the [[Soviet Union]].
==In fiction==
===Literature===
* ''The Road to Calvary'' (1922–41) by [[Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy]]
* ''[[Chapaev]]'' (1923) by [[Dmitri Furmanov]]
* ''The Iron Flood'' (1924) by [[Alexander Serafimovich]]
* ''[[Red Cavalry]]'' (1926) by [[Isaac Babel]]
* ''The Rout'' (1927) by [[Alexander Alexandrovich Fadeyev|Alexander Fadeyev]]
* ''Conquered City'' (1932) by [[Victor Serge]]
* ''Futility'' (1922) by [[William Gerhardie]]
* ''[[How the Steel Was Tempered]]'' (1934) by [[Nikolai Ostrovsky]]
* ''[[Optimistic Tragedy]]'' (1934) by [[Vsevolod Vishnevsky]]
* ''[[And Quiet Flows the Don]]'' (1928–1940) by [[Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov|Mikhail Sholokhov]]
* ''[[The Don Flows Home to the Sea]]'' (1940) by [[Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov|Mikhail Sholokhov]]
* ''[[Doctor Zhivago (novel)|Doctor Zhivago]]'' (1957) by [[Boris Pasternak]]
* ''[[The White Guard]]'' (1966) by [[Mikhail Bulgakov]]
* ''[[Byzantium Endures]]'' (1981) by [[Michael Moorcock]]
* ''Chevengur'' (written in 1927, first published in 1988 in the USSR) by [[Andrei Platonov]].
* ''[[Fall of Giants]]'' (2010) by [[Ken Follett]]
* ''A Splendid Little War'' (2012) by [[Derek Robinson (novelist)]]
===Film===
* ''[[Arsenal (1929 film)|Arsenal]]'' (1928)
* ''[[Storm Over Asia (1928 film)|Storm Over Asia]]'' (1928)
* ''[[Chapaev (film)|Chapaev]]'' (1934)
* ''Thirteen'' (1936), directed by [[Mikhail Romm]]
* ''We Are from Kronstadt'' (1936), directed by [[Efim Dzigan|Yefim Dzigan]]
* ''[[Knight Without Armour]]'' (1937)
* ''The Year 1919'' (1938), directed by [[Ilya Trauberg]]
* ''The Baltic Marines'' (1939), directed by A. Faintsimmer
* ''[[Shchors (film)|Shchors]]'' (1939), directed by Dovzhenko
* ''[[How the Steel Was Tempered|Pavel Korchagin]]'' (1956), directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov
* ''[[The Forty-First (1956 film)|The Forty-First]]'' (1956), directed by [[Grigori Chukhrai]]
* ''[[The Communist (film)]]'' (1957), directed by [[Yuli Raizman]]
* ''[[And Quiet Flows the Don (film)|And Quiet Flows the Don]]'' (1958), directed by [[Sergei Gerasimov (film director)|Sergei Gerasimov]]
* ''[[Doctor Zhivago (film)|Doctor Zhivago]]'' (1965), directed by [[David Lean]]
* ''[[The Elusive Avengers]]'' (1966)
* ''[[The Red and the White (film)|The Red and the White]]'' (1967)
* ''[[White Sun of the Desert]]'' (1970)
* ''[[The Flight (1970 film)|The Flight]]'' (1970), directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov
* ''[[Reds (film)|Reds]]'' (1981), directed by [[Warren Beatty]]
* ''[[Corto Maltese|Corto Maltese in Siberia]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Nine Lives of Nestor Makhno]]'' (2005/2007)
* ''[[The Admiral (2008 film)|Admiral]]'' (2008)
* ''[[Sunstroke (2014 film)|Sunstroke]]'' (2014), directed by [[Nikita Mikhalkov]]
==See also==
{{Portal|Soviet Union}}
* [[Polish–Soviet War]] (1917–1922)
* [[Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War]]
* [[Index of articles related to the Russian Revolution and Civil War]]
* [[Nikolayevsk incident]]
* [[Revolutionary Mass Festivals]]
* [[Timeline of the Russian Civil War]]
* [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Allied Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}
===Bibliography===
{{See also|Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Allworth|first=Edward|title=Central Asia: A Century of Russian Rule|url=https://archive.org/details/centralasiacentu0000allw|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1967|oclc=396652}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Avrich |first1=Paul |author-link=Paul Avrich |title=[[Kronstadt, 1921]] |date=1970 |language=en |isbn=0-691-08721-0 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J. |oclc=67322 }}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro00andr|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro00andr/page/28 28]|quote=kgb cheka executions probably numbered as many as 250,000.|last1=Andrew|first1=Christopher|last2=Mitrokhin|first2=Vasili|title=The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|year=1999|location=New York|isbn=978-0465003129}}
* {{cite book|last=Bullock|first=David|title=The Russian Civil War 1918–22|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84603-271-4|location=Oxford|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ|access-date=26 December 2017|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140213/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book| last1 = Calder| first1 = Kenneth J.| title = Britain and the Origins of the New Europe 1914–1918| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nME8AAAAIAAJ| series = International Studies| location = Cambridge| publisher = Cambridge University Press| date = 1976| isbn = 978-0521208970| access-date = 2017-10-06}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/34982|title=The Russian Revolution, Volume II: 1918–1921: From the Civil War to the Consolidation of Power|last=Chamberlin|first=William Henry|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1987|isbn=978-1400858705|location=Princeton, NJ|url-access=subscription|via=Project MUSE|access-date=27 December 2017|archive-date=27 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227180409/https://muse.jhu.edu/book/34982|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last1=Coates|first1=W. P.|last2=Coates|first2=Zelda K.|author-link=W. P. Coates|author-link2=Zelda Kahan|title=Soviets in Central Asia|location=New York|publisher=Philosophical Library|year=1951|oclc=1533874|url=https://archive.org/details/SovietsInCentralAsiaCoates}}
* {{cite book|last=Daniels|first=Robert V.|title=A Documentary History of Communism in Russia: From Lenin to Gorbachev|publisher=University Press of New England|year= 1993|location=Hanover, NH|isbn=978-0-87451-616-6}}
* {{citation | first1=Alfonsas | last1=Eidintas | first2=Vytautas | last2=Žalys | first3=Alfred Erich | last3=Senn | title=Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940 | edition=Paperback | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_i8yez8udgC&pg=PA33 | year=1999 | publisher=St. Martin's Press | location=New York | isbn=0-312-22458-3 }}
* {{cite book|last=Erickson|first=John.|title=The Soviet High Command: A Military-Political History, 1918–1941: A Military Political History, 1918–1941 |publisher=Westview Press, Inc.|year= 1984|isbn=978-0-367-29600-1}}
* {{Cite book|title=A People's Tragedy: A History of the Russian Revolution|last=Figes|first=Orlando|publisher=Viking|year=1997|isbn=978-0670859160|location=New York|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestragedyhi00fige}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Robert Gellately|last=Gellately|first=Robert|title=Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe|location=New York|publisher=Knopf|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4000-4005-6}}
* Grebenkin, I.N. "The Disintegration of the Russian Army in 1917: Factors and Actors in the Process." ''Russian Studies in History'' 56.3 (2017): 172–187.
* {{cite book|last1= Haupt|first1= Georges|last2= Marie|first2= Jean-Jacques|name-list-style= amp|title= Makers of the Russian revolution|publisher= George Allen & Unwin|place= London|year= 1974|isbn= 978-0801408090|url-access= registration|url= https://archive.org/details/makersofrussianr0000haup}}
* {{cite book|first=Peter|last=Holquist|title=Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia's Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-674-00907-X}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vREGB60UPWMC|title=Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920: The Defeat of the Whites|last=Kenez|first=Peter|publisher=University of California Press|year=1977|isbn=978-0520033467|location=Berkeley|author-link=Peter Kenez}}
* {{cite book|last=Kinvig|first=Clifford|title=Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia, 1918–1920|publisher=Hambledon Continuum|year=2006|isbn=978-1847250216|location=London}}
* {{cite book|first=G. F. |last=Krivosheev|title=Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=CTTfAAAAMAAJ}}|year=1997|location=London|publisher=Greenhill Books|isbn=978-1-85367-280-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Mawdsley|first=Evan|title=The Russian Civil War|location=New York|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2007|isbn=978-1681770093|url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Overy|first=Richard|title=The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia|location=New York|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=2004|isbn=978-0-393-02030-4|url=https://archive.org/details/dictators00rich|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|first=Teresa|last=Rakowska-Harmstone|author-link=Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone|title=Russia and Nationalism in Central Asia: The Case of Tadzhikistan|url=https://archive.org/details/russianationalis0000rako|url-access=registration|location=Baltimore|publisher=Johns Hopkins Press|year=1970|isbn=978-0801810213}}
* {{cite book|last=Read|first=Christopher|title=From Tsar to Soviets|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0195212419}}
* {{cite book|last=Rosenthal|first=Reigo|title=Loodearmee|language=et |trans-title=Northwestern Army|year=2006|publisher=Argo|location=Tallinn|isbn=9949-415-45-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Ryan|first=James|year=2012|url=https://www.routledge.com/Lenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence/Ryan/p/book/9781138815681|title=Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence|location=London|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-81568-1|access-date=15 May 2017|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111070149/https://www.routledge.com/Lenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence/Ryan/p/book/9781138815681|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|first=George|last=Stewart|title=The White Armies of Russia A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention|year=2009|isbn= 978-1847349767}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|title=Faustschlag, Operation|encyclopedia=World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ|last1=Smith|first1=David A.|date=2014|pages=554–555|isbn=978-1851099658|first2=Spencer C.|last2=Tucker|access-date=27 December 2017|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215195340/https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|first=John M.|last=Thompson|title=A Vision Unfulfilled. Russia and the Soviet Union in the Twentieth Century|url=https://archive.org/details/visionunfulfille00thom|url-access=registration|location=Lexington, MA|year=1996|isbn=978-0669282917}}
* {{cite book|first=Dmitri|last=Volkogonov|title=Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary|others=Translated and edited by Harold Shukman|location=London|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|year=1996|isbn= 978-0002552721}}
* {{cite book|first=Geoffrey|last=Wheeler|title=The Modern History of Soviet Central Asia|location=New York|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger|year=1964|oclc=865924756 }}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Acton, Edward, V. et al. eds. ''Critical companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914–1921'' (Indiana UP, 1997).
* Brovkin, Vladimir N. (1994). ''Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War: Political Parties and Social Movements in Russia, 1918–1922''. Princeton UP. [https://www.amazon.comdp/0691633770/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140214/https://www.amazon.com/Behind-Front-Lines-Civil-War/dp/0691633770/ |date=28 July 2020 }}
* Dupuy, T. N. ''The Encyclopedia of Military History'' (many editions) Harper & Row Publishers.
* Ford, Chris. "Reconsidering the Ukrainian Revolution 1917–1921: The Dialectics of National Liberation and Social Emancipation." ''Debatte'' 15.3 (2007): 279–306.
* [[Peter Kenez]]. ''Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army'' (U of California Press, 1971).
* Lincoln, W. Bruce. ''Red victory: A history of the Russian Civil War'' (1989).
* Luckett, Richard. ''The White Generals: An Account of the White Movement and the Russian Civil War'' (Routledge, 2017).
* Marples, David R. ''Lenin's Revolution: Russia, 1917–1921'' (Routledge, 2014).
* Moffat, Ian, ed. ''The Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918–1920: The Diplomacy of Chaos'' (2015)
* Polyakov, Yuri. ''[https://archive.org/details/civilwarrussia The Civil War in Russia: Its Causes and Significance]'' (Novosti, 1981).
* Serge, Victor. ''Year One of the Russian Revolution'' (Haymarket, 2015).
* Smele, Jonathan D. {{"'}}If Grandma had Whiskers...': Could the Anti-Bolsheviks have won the Russian Revolutions and Civil Wars? Or, the Constraints and Conceits of Counterfactual History." ''Revolutionary Russia'' (2020): 1–32. {{doi|10.1080/09546545.2019.1675961}}. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140215/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546545.2019.1675961 |date=28 July 2020 }}
* Smele, Jonathan. ''The 'Russian' Civil Wars, 1916–1926: Ten Years That Shook the World'' (Oxford UP, 2016).
* Smele, Jonathan D. ''Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926'' (2 Vol. Rowman & Littlefield, 2015).
* Stewart, George. ''The White Armies of Russia: A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Armies-Russia-Chronicle-Counter-Revolution-Intervention/dp/1847349765/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627113844/http://www.amazon.com/Armies-Russia-Chronicle-Counter-Revolution-Intervention/dp/1847349765 |date=27 June 2015 }}
* Stone, David R. "The Russian Civil War, 1917–1921," in ''The Military History of the Soviet Union''.
* Swain, Geoffrey (2015). ''The Origins of the Russian Civil War'' [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1138837458/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140217/https://www.amazon.com/Origins-Russian-Civil-Modern-Wars/dp/1138837458/ |date=28 July 2020 }}
** Smele, Jonathan D. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668136.2016.1257094 "Still Searching for the 'Third Way': Geoffrey Swain's Interventions in the Russian Civil Wars"]. ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 68.10 (2016): 1793–1812.
===Primary sources===
* Butt, V. P., et al., eds. ''The Russian Civil War: Documents from the Soviet Archives'' (Springer, 2016).
* McCauley, Martin, ed. ''The Russian Revolution and the Soviet State 1917–1921: Documents'' (Springer, 1980).
* Murphy, A. Brian, ed. ''The Russian Civil War: Primary Sources'' (Springer, 2000) [https://journals.openedition.org/monderusse/4022 online review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627165622/https://journals.openedition.org/monderusse/4022 |date=27 June 2020 }}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Library resources box}}
{{Commons category|Civil war of Russia}}
{{Wikiquote}}
*[https://www.net-film.ru/en/found-page-1/?search=1917-1935qcivil+war+in+Russia Newsreels about Russian Civil War // Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive]
*Sumpf, Alexandre: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/russian_civil_war Russian Civil War], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Mawdsley, Evan: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/international_responses_to_the_russian_civil_war_russian_empire International Responses to the Russian Civil War (Russian Empire)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Read, Christopher: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/revolutions_russian_empire Revolutions (Russian Empire)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Peeling, Siobhan: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/war_communism War Communism], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Beyrau, Dietrich: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/post-war_societies_russian_empire Post-war Societies (Russian Empire)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Brudek, Pawe³: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/revolutions_east_central_europe Revolutions (East Central Europe)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Melancon, Michael S.: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/social_conflict_and_control_protest_and_repression_russian_empire Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Russian Empire)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* [http://libcom.org/library/russian-revolution Russian Revolution and Civil War archive at libcom.org/library]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/eastern_front_01.shtml "BBC History of the Russian Revolution"] (3 February 2007)
* [http://www.spartacus-educational.com/RUScivilwar.htm "Russian Civil War"] (Spartacus History, downloaded 3 January 2006)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051221100007/http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/romeo/russia1918.htm "Russian Civil War 1918–1920"] (On War website, downloaded 4 January 2006)
* [http://www.answers.com/topic/civil-war-of-1917-1922 "Civil War of 1917–1922 at Encyclopedia of Russian History] (3 February 2007)
{{World War I}}
{{Russian Civil War|collapsed}}
{{Russian Revolution 1917}}
{{Russian Conflicts}}
{{Soviet Union topics}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Russian Civil War| ]]
[[Category:1910s in Russia]]
[[Category:1920s in Russia]]
[[Category:1920s in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Europe]]
[[Category:Civil wars of the Industrial era]]
[[Category:Revolution-based civil wars]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution|Civil War]]
[[Category:Wars involving Chechnya]]
[[Category:Wars involving Russia]]
[[Category:Wars involving Soviet Russia (1917–1922)]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:1910s conflicts]]
[[Category:1920s conflicts]]
[[Category:Communism-based civil wars]]
[[Category:Wars involving Ukraine]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Ottoman Empire]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -397,5 +397,5 @@
[[File:Viktor Chernov (1873-1952), Russian revolutionary (small).jpg|thumb|right|[[Viktor Chernov]]]]
-The Constituent Assembly met on January 18, 1918. The Right SR Chernov was elected president defeating the Bolshevik supported candidate, the Left SR [[Maria Spiridonova]] (she would later break with the Bolsheviks and after the decades of [[gulag]], she was shot on Stalin's orders in 1941). The majority refused to accept sovereignty of the Soviet government, and in response the Bolsheviks and Left SRs walked out. It was dispersed by an armed guard, sailor Zheleznyakov.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=118–120}} A simultaneous demonstration in favor of the Constituent Assembly was dispersed with force, but there was little protest afterwards.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=120–121}}
+The Constituent Assembly met on January 18, 1918. The Right SR Chernov was elected president defeating the Bolshevik supported candidate, the Left SR [[Maria Spiridonova]] (she would later break with the Bolsheviks and after the decades of [[gulag]], she was shot on Stalin's orders in 1941). The Bolsheviks subsequently disbanded the Constituent Assembly and proceeded to rule the country as a [[one-party state]] with all opposition parties outlawed.<ref>[https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/kontseptsiya-sotsialisticheskoy-demokratii-opyt-realizatsii-v-sssr-i-sovremennye-perspektivy-v-sng Концепция социалистической демократии: опыт реализации в СССР и современные перспективы в СНГ]</ref><ref>The Bolsheviks: the intellectual and political history of the triumph of communism in Russia : with a new preface. Adam Bruno Ulam. Harvard University Press. p. 397.</ref> A simultaneous demonstration in favor of the Constituent Assembly was dispersed with force, but there was little protest afterwards.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=120–121}}
The first large [[Cheka]] repression with some killings began against the [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]]s of Petrograd in mid-April 1918. On May 1, 1918, a pitched battle took place in Moscow between the anarchists and the police. (P.Avrich. G Maximoff)
' |
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0 => 'The Constituent Assembly met on January 18, 1918. The Right SR Chernov was elected president defeating the Bolshevik supported candidate, the Left SR [[Maria Spiridonova]] (she would later break with the Bolsheviks and after the decades of [[gulag]], she was shot on Stalin's orders in 1941). The Bolsheviks subsequently disbanded the Constituent Assembly and proceeded to rule the country as a [[one-party state]] with all opposition parties outlawed.<ref>[https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/kontseptsiya-sotsialisticheskoy-demokratii-opyt-realizatsii-v-sssr-i-sovremennye-perspektivy-v-sng Концепция социалистической демократии: опыт реализации в СССР и современные перспективы в СНГ]</ref><ref>The Bolsheviks: the intellectual and political history of the triumph of communism in Russia : with a new preface. Adam Bruno Ulam. Harvard University Press. p. 397.</ref> A simultaneous demonstration in favor of the Constituent Assembly was dispersed with force, but there was little protest afterwards.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=120–121}}'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => 'The Constituent Assembly met on January 18, 1918. The Right SR Chernov was elected president defeating the Bolshevik supported candidate, the Left SR [[Maria Spiridonova]] (she would later break with the Bolsheviks and after the decades of [[gulag]], she was shot on Stalin's orders in 1941). The majority refused to accept sovereignty of the Soviet government, and in response the Bolsheviks and Left SRs walked out. It was dispersed by an armed guard, sailor Zheleznyakov.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=118–120}} A simultaneous demonstration in favor of the Constituent Assembly was dispersed with force, but there was little protest afterwards.{{sfnp|Carr|1985|pages=120–121}}'
] |
All external links added in the edit (added_links) | [
0 => 'https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/kontseptsiya-sotsialisticheskoy-demokratii-opyt-realizatsii-v-sssr-i-sovremennye-perspektivy-v-sng'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1917–23 armed conflict in the former Russian Empire</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Civil_War_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Russian Civil War (disambiguation)">Russian Civil War (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1097763485">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}</style><table class="box-POV plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-POV" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="Unbalanced scales.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> of this article is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV_dispute" title="Wikipedia:NPOV dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Talk:Russian_Civil_War##" title="Talk:Russian Civil War">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Russian Civil War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">aftermath of World War I</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Russian_Civil_War_montage.png" class="image"><img alt="Russian Civil War montage.png" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Russian_Civil_War_montage.png/370px-Russian_Civil_War_montage.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="255" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Russian_Civil_War_montage.png/555px-Russian_Civil_War_montage.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Russian_Civil_War_montage.png/740px-Russian_Civil_War_montage.png 2x" data-file-width="1219" data-file-height="840" /></a><br /><b>Clockwise from top left:</b>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist">
<ul><li>Soldiers of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_Army" title="Don Army">Don Army</a></li>
<li>Soldiers of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberian_Army" title="Siberian Army">Siberian Army</a></li>
<li>Bolshevik suppression of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion" title="Kronstadt rebellion">Kronstadt rebellion</a></li>
<li>American troops in Vladivostok during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention</a></li>
<li>Victims of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a></li>
<li>Hanging of workers in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dnipro" title="Dnipro">Yekaterinoslav</a> by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army" title="Austro-Hungarian Army">Austrians</a></li>
<li>A review of Red Army troops in Moscow.</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td><a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">7 November 1917</a> – <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakut_revolt" title="Yakut revolt">16 June 1923</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[m]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mapolwdsley2007-14">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3, 230">: 3, 230 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[2]</a></sup><br />(5 years, 7 months and 9 days)
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Peace treaties</div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></b><br />Signed 3 March 1918<br />(3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days)
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Tartu_(Russian%E2%80%93Estonian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)">Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)</a></b><br />Signed 2 February 1920<br />(2 years, 2 months, 3 weeks and 5 days)
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Peace_Treaty" title="Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty">Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty</a></b><br />Signed 12 July 1920<br />(2 years, 8 months and 5 days)
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Tartu_(Russian%E2%80%93Finnish)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Finnish)">Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Finnish)</a></b><br />Signed 14 October 1920<br />(2 years, 11 months and 1 week)
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian%E2%80%93Soviet_Peace_Treaty" title="Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty">Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty</a></b><br />Signed 11 August 1920<br />(2 years, 9 months and 4 days)
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peace_of_Riga" title="Peace of Riga">Peace of Riga</a></b><br />Signed 17 September 1921<br />(3 years, 10 months, 1 week and 3 days)
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Kars" title="Treaty of Kars">Treaty of Kars</a></b><br />Signed 13 October 1921<br />(3 years, 10 months and 6 days)
</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><b>Former <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></b>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uryankhay_Krai" title="Uryankhay Krai">Tuva</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Persia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status">
<p><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> victory</b>:
</p>
<ul><li>Collapse of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_State_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Russian State (1918–1920)">Russian State</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Execution_of_the_Romanov_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Execution of the Romanov family">Execution</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_of_Romanov" title="House of Romanov">Russian Imperial family</a></li>
<li>Defeat of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">its exodus</a></li>
<li>Creation of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in most of the former Empire</li>
<li>Creation of Bolshevist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolian</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tuvan_People%27s_Republic" title="Tuvan People's Republic">Tuvan</a> states</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophers%27_ships" title="Philosophers' ships">Expulsion</a> of many prominent Russian intellectuals and activists</li>
<li>Beginning of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Soviet_partisans" title="Anti-Soviet partisans">anti-Bolshevik resistance</a></li></ul>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b>Partial victory by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pro-independence_movements_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War">independence movements</a></b>:<sup id="cite_ref-Bullock2008_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bullock2008-16">[3]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 7">: 7 </span></sup></li></ul></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Poland</a> gain independence</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukraine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belarusian_People%27s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Belarusian People's Republic">Belarus</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgian_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian Democratic Republic">Georgia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Armenian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="First Armenian Republic">Armenia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Democratic Republic">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moldavian_Democratic_Republic" title="Moldavian Democratic Republic">Moldavia</a> and many other nations of the former Russian Empire are either annexed by the Bolsheviks or by other nations</li>
<li>Socialist movements or Bolshevik puppet states in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Socialist_Workers%27_Republic" title="Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic">Finland</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commune_of_the_Working_People_of_Estonia" title="Commune of the Working People of Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic" title="Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic">Latvia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1918%E2%80%9319)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–19)">Lithuania</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Polish_Revolutionary_Committee" title="Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee">Poland</a> defeated</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Cessions to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> states</div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Establishment of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Establishment of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolian</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanna_Tuva" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanna Tuva">Tuvan</a> republics
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Russia" title="Central Russia">Russia proper</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuban" title="Kuban">Kuban</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_(river)" title="Don (river)">Don</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Karelia" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Karelia">Eastern Karelia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Far East</a>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Ukraine" title="Central Ukraine">Central</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Ukraine" title="Southern Ukraine">Southern</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Ukraine" title="Eastern Ukraine">Eastern Ukraine</a>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Belorussia" title="Eastern Belorussia">Eastern Belarus</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Caucasus">Northern Caucasus</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">Transcaucasia</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> to the Soviet Union
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Joint Sino-Soviet administration of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Eastern_Railway" title="Chinese Eastern Railway">Chinese Eastern Railway</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Return_of_the_Chinese_Eastern_Railway" title="Return of the Chinese Eastern Railway">until 1952</a>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uryankhay_Krai" title="Uryankhay Krai">Uryankhay Krai</a> to Tuva
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd Khanate</a> to Mongolia
</li></ul>
</div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Cessions to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pro-independence_movements_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War">national separatists</a></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Independence of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vistula_Land" title="Vistula Land">Vistula</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Belorussia" title="Western Belorussia">Western Belarus</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Ukraine" title="Western Ukraine">Western Ukraine</a> to Poland
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pechengsky_District" title="Pechengsky District">Petsamo</a> to Finland
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autonomous_Governorate_of_Estonia" title="Autonomous Governorate of Estonia">Autonomous Governorate</a> to Estonia
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Governorate_of_Livonia" title="Governorate of Livonia">Southern Livonia</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Courland_Governorate" title="Courland Governorate">Courland</a> to Latvia
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vilna_Governorate" title="Vilna Governorate">Northern Vilna</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kovno_Governorate" title="Kovno Governorate">Kovno Governorate</a> to Lithuania
</li></ul>
</div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Cessions to other nations</div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bessarabian_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bessarabian Governorate">Bessarabia</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kars_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Kars Oblast">Kars</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_the_Grand_National_Assembly" title="Government of the Grand National Assembly">Turkey</a>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Cession of concessions in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_concession_of_Tianjin" title="Russian concession of Tianjin">Tianjin</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hankou" title="Hankou">Hankou</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">China</a>
</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Main belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevik_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Party">Bolsheviks</a></b>:</li><li><b><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–22)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="960" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="344" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_Soviets" title="Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets">1917–18</a>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Republic">1918</a>; 1919–22)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="150" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byelorussian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Byelorussian SSR">Belarusian SSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Byelorussian_SSR_%281919-1927%29.png/15px-Flag_of_Byelorussian_SSR_%281919-1927%29.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Byelorussian_SSR_%281919-1927%29.png/23px-Flag_of_Byelorussian_SSR_%281919-1927%29.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Byelorussian_SSR_%281919-1927%29.png/30px-Flag_of_Byelorussian_SSR_%281919-1927%29.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="150" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Soviet_Republic_of_Byelorussia" title="Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia">1919</a>; <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Soviet_Republic_of_Lithuania_and_Belorussia" title="Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia">1919–20</a>;<br />1920–22)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Ru_transcaucasia1922.png/23px-Ru_transcaucasia1922.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Ru_transcaucasia1922.png/35px-Ru_transcaucasia1922.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Ru_transcaucasia1922.png/46px-Ru_transcaucasia1922.png 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="217" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transcaucasian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasian SFSR">Transcaucasian SFSR</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1922)</span></li><li><b><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(after 1922)</span></li></ul></div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left; border:none; padding:0;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Also<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">:</span></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Socialist_red_flag.svg/23px-Socialist_red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Socialist_red_flag.svg/35px-Socialist_red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Socialist_red_flag.svg/45px-Socialist_red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bessarabian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic">Bessarabian SSR</a><br />(<span style="font-size:85%;">1919</span>)
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Socialist_Workers%27_Republic" title="Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic">Finnish SWR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Donets-Krivoy_Rog_Soviet_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Donets-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic">D-KRSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Odessa_Soviet_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa Soviet Republic">Odessa SR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taurida_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic">Taurida SSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/26_Baku_Commissars" title="26 Baku Commissars">Baku Commune</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_the_Commune_of_the_Working_People_of_Estonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Commune_of_the_Working_People_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_the_Commune_of_the_Working_People_of_Estonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Commune_of_the_Working_People_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_the_Commune_of_the_Working_People_of_Estonia.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Commune_of_the_Working_People_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commune_of_the_Working_People_of_Estonia" title="Commune of the Working People of Estonia">Estonian Commune</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_Latvian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Latvian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_Latvian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Latvian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_Latvian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Latvian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic" title="Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic">Latvian SSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian-Byelorussian_SSR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1918%E2%80%9319)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–19)">Lithuanian SSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Far_Eastern_Republic" title="Far Eastern Republic">Far Eastern Republic</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1920–22)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Galician_SSR.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Galician_SSR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Galician_SSR.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Galician_SSR.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Galician_SSR.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Galician_SSR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="201" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galician_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Galician Soviet Socialist Republic">Galician SSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1920)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polrewkom" class="mw-redirect" title="Polrewkom">Polrewkom</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1920)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flag_of_Persian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_Persian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flag_of_Persian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_Persian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flag_of_Persian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_Persian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian SSR">Persian SSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1920–21)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281922%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281922%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="239" data-file-height="120" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian SSR">Armenian SSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1920–22)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281920%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281920%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281920%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281920%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1200" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijan_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Azerbaijan SSR">Azerbaijan SSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1920–22)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931922%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="400" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian SSR">Georgian SSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1921–22)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Khiva_1920-1923.svg/23px-Flag_of_Khiva_1920-1923.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Khiva_1920-1923.svg/35px-Flag_of_Khiva_1920-1923.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Khiva_1920-1923.svg/46px-Flag_of_Khiva_1920-1923.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khorezm_People%27s_Soviet_Republic" title="Khorezm People's Soviet Republic">Khorezm PSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(after 1920)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Flag_of_the_Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Flag_of_the_Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Flag_of_the_Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic" title="Bukharan People's Soviet Republic">Bukharan PSR</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(after 1920)</span>
</li></ul>
</div>
<hr />
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b>Supported by</b>:</li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_in_the_Russian_Revolution_and_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Chinese in the Russian Revolution and in the Russian Civil War">Chinese communists</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–23)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_Riflemen#Red_Latvian_Riflemen" title="Latvian Riflemen">Red Latvian Riflemen</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–20)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/46px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1919–20)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931924%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931924%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931924%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931924%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931924%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281921%E2%80%931924%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Party" title="Mongolian People's Party">MPP</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1920–23)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murmansk_Legion" title="Murmansk Legion">Murmansk Legion</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[b]</a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><b><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Republic_(1917%E2%80%931918)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Republic (1917–1918)">Russian Republic</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[c]</a></sup></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–18)</span></li></ul></div>
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White Guards</a></b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">:</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Command_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_South_Russia" title="General Command of the Armed Forces of South Russia">South Russia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–19; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Russian_Government" title="South Russian Government">Mar–Apr</a>,<br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_South_Russia" title="Government of South Russia">Apr–Nov 1920</a>)</span></li><li><b><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian State">Russian State</a></b><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Okraina" title="Eastern Okraina">Eastern Okraina</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1920)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Priamurye_Government" title="Provisional Priamurye Government">Provisional Priamurye Government</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(after 1921)</span></li></ul></div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left; border:none; padding:0;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><span class="nowrap">Also<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">:</span></span></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals" title="Provisional Regional Government of the Urals">Provisional Regional Government of the Urals</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg/23px-Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg/35px-Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg/45px-Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Siberian_Government_(Omsk)" title="Provisional Siberian Government (Omsk)">Omsk Siberian Government</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg/23px-Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg/35px-Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg/45px-Flag_of_Provisional_Siberian_Government.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Siberian_Government_(Vladivostok)" title="Provisional Siberian Government (Vladivostok)">Vladivostok Siberian Government</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_Members_of_the_Constituent_Assembly" title="Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly">Komuch</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Administration_of_the_Northern_Region" title="Supreme Administration of the Northern Region">North Russia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Northern_Region" title="Provisional Government of the Northern Region">1918–20</a>)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Regional_Government_of_Northwest_Russia" title="Regional Government of Northwest Russia">Northwest Russia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Flag_of_the_Crimean_Regional_Government.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Crimean_Regional_Government.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Flag_of_the_Crimean_Regional_Government.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Crimean_Regional_Government.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Flag_of_the_Crimean_Regional_Government.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Crimean_Regional_Government.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimean_Regional_Government" title="Crimean Regional Government">Crimea</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_Republic" title="Don Republic"><img alt="Don Republic" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg/23px-Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg/35px-Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg/46px-Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="750" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_Republic" title="Don Republic">Don Republic</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Kuban_People%27s_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kuban_People%27s_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Kuban_People%27s_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kuban_People%27s_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Kuban_People%27s_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_Kuban_People%27s_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuban_People%27s_Republic" title="Kuban People's Republic">Kuban Republic</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span>
</li></ul>
</div>
<hr />
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b>Supported by</b>:</li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_Alash_Autonomy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Alash_Autonomy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_Alash_Autonomy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Alash_Autonomy.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_Alash_Autonomy.svg/46px-Flag_of_Alash_Autonomy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="225" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alash_Autonomy" title="Alash Autonomy">Alash-Orda</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–18)</span></li><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of Bogd Khaanate Mongolia.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="28" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1320" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bogd_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bogd Khanate">Mongolia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/State_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg/23px-State_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/State_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg/35px-State_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/State_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg/46px-State_flag_of_Persia_%281907%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Persia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1919–20)</span></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pro-independence_movements_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War">Separatists</a></b>:</li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Poland</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–21)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–18)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukraine</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–18; 1918–20)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belarusian_People%27s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Belarusian People's Republic">Belarus</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/46px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span></li></ul></div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left; border:none; padding:0;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Also<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">:</span></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="West Ukrainian People's Republic">West Ukraine</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flaga_Litwy_%C5%9Arodkowej.svg/23px-Flaga_Litwy_%C5%9Arodkowej.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flaga_Litwy_%C5%9Arodkowej.svg/35px-Flaga_Litwy_%C5%9Arodkowej.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flaga_Litwy_%C5%9Arodkowej.svg/46px-Flaga_Litwy_%C5%9Arodkowej.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Central_Lithuania" title="Republic of Central Lithuania">Central Lithuania</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1920–22)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Democratic_Republic.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Democratic_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Democratic_Republic.svg/31px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Democratic_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Democratic_Republic.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Democratic_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moldavian_Democratic_Republic" title="Moldavian Democratic Republic">Moldavia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–18)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transcaucasian_Democratic_Federative_Republic" title="Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic">Transcaucasia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia" title="Democratic Republic of Georgia"><img alt="Democratic Republic of Georgia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg/19px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg/29px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia" title="Democratic Republic of Georgia">Georgia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–21)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="432" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia" title="First Republic of Armenia">Armenia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Mountainous_Armenia" title="Republic of Mountainous Armenia">1921</a>)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkestan_Autonomy" title="Turkestan Autonomy">Turkestan</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–18)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Flag_of_the_Centrocaspian_Dictatorship.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Centrocaspian_Dictatorship.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Flag_of_the_Centrocaspian_Dictatorship.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Centrocaspian_Dictatorship.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Flag_of_the_Centrocaspian_Dictatorship.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Centrocaspian_Dictatorship.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Centrocaspian_Dictatorship" title="Centrocaspian Dictatorship">Centrocaspia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Aras.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Aras.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Aras.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Aras.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Aras.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Aras.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Aras" title="Republic of Aras">Aras</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_North_Caucasian_Emirate.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Caucasian_Emirate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_North_Caucasian_Emirate.svg/35px-Flag_of_North_Caucasian_Emirate.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_North_Caucasian_Emirate.svg/46px-Flag_of_North_Caucasian_Emirate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Caucasian_Emirate" title="North Caucasian Emirate">Caucasian Emirate</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1919–20)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg/35px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg/46px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Democratic Republic">Azerbaijan</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_the_Mountain_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Mountain_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_the_Mountain_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Mountain_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_the_Mountain_Republic.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Mountain_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="847" data-file-height="497" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mountainous_Republic_of_the_Northern_Caucasus" title="Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus">Northern Caucasus</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–21)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Flag_of_Green_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Green_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Flag_of_Green_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Green_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Flag_of_Green_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Green_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_Ukraine" title="Green Ukraine">Green Ukraine</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–22)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_of_Buryat-Mongolia" title="State of Buryat-Mongolia">Buryat-Mongolia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–21)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakutia_(1918)" title="Yakutia (1918)">Yakutia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Confederated_Republic_of_Altai_Flag.svg/23px-Confederated_Republic_of_Altai_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Confederated_Republic_of_Altai_Flag.svg/35px-Confederated_Republic_of_Altai_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Confederated_Republic_of_Altai_Flag.svg/45px-Confederated_Republic_of_Altai_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karakorum_Government" title="Karakorum Government">Altai</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–20; 1921–22)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Karelian_National_Flag.svg/23px-Karelian_National_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Karelian_National_Flag.svg/34px-Karelian_National_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Karelian_National_Flag.svg/45px-Karelian_National_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="336" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Uhtua" title="Republic of Uhtua">Karelia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Olonets_Government_of_Southern_Karelia" title="Olonets Government of Southern Karelia">1920</a>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karelian_United_Government" title="Karelian United Government">1920–23</a>)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Flag_of_Ingrian_people.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ingrian_people.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Flag_of_Ingrian_people.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ingrian_people.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Flag_of_Ingrian_people.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ingrian_people.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="550" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Ingria" title="North Ingria">North Ingria</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1919–20)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_Turkestan.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of Turkestan.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Flag_of_Turkestan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkestan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Flag_of_Turkestan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkestan.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Flag_of_Turkestan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Turkestan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="336" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">Basmachi</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–22)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Bukhara.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of the Emirate of Bukhara.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Bukhara.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Bukhara.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="16" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Bukhara.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Bukhara.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Bukhara.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Bukhara.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="272" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara" title="Emirate of Bukhara">Bukhara</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1920)</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_the_Khanate_of_Khiva.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Khanate_of_Khiva.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_the_Khanate_of_Khiva.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Khanate_of_Khiva.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_the_Khanate_of_Khiva.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Khanate_of_Khiva.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khiva</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span></li></ul>
</div>
<hr />
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b>Supported by</b>:</li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Sweden">Sweden</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[d]</a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Hungary_%281918-1919%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281918-1919%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Hungary_%281918-1919%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281918-1919%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Hungary_%281918-1919%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281918-1919%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Hungarian_Republic" title="First Hungarian Republic">Hungary</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[e]</a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1919–20)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[f]</a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1922)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Finland">Finland</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[g]</a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20; 1921–22)</span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b>Anti-Bolshevik Left</b>:</li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_Socialist-Revolutionaries" title="Left Socialist-Revolutionaries">Left SRs</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[h]</a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–21)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg/23px-Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg/35px-Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg/45px-Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_armies" title="Green armies">Green Army</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[i]</a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–21)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg/23px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg/35px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg/46px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[j]</a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–21)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg/20px-Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg/31px-Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg/40px-Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kronstadt_rebels" class="mw-redirect" title="Kronstadt rebels">Kronstadt rebels</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied Powers</a></b>:</li><li><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Japan"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[k]</a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–22)</span></li><li><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="United Kingdom"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span></li><li><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="France"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span></li></ul></div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left; border:none; padding:0;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Also<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">:</span></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Czechoslovakia"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="First Czechoslovak Republic">Czechoslovakia</a></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Greece"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg/23px-State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg/35px-State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg/45px-State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</a></span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia"><img alt="Kingdom of Serbia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="844" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Serbia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(<span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia"><img alt="Kingdom of Yugoslavia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbs,_Croats,_and_Slovenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes">after 1918</a>)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Romania"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a></span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Italy"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a></span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">China</a>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1000" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/23px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/35px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/46px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Red_Ensign_of_South_Africa_%281912%E2%80%931951%29.svg/23px-Red_Ensign_of_South_Africa_%281912%E2%80%931951%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Red_Ensign_of_South_Africa_%281912%E2%80%931951%29.svg/35px-Red_Ensign_of_South_Africa_%281912%E2%80%931951%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Red_Ensign_of_South_Africa_%281912%E2%80%931951%29.svg/46px-Red_Ensign_of_South_Africa_%281912%E2%80%931951%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="400" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Powers_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Central Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War">Central Powers</a></b>:</span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Germany"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–18; <span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic"><img alt="Weimar Republic" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">1919</a>)</span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Austria-Hungary"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867-1918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867-1918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867-1918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867-1918%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867-1918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867-1918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="680" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–18)</span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Ottoman Empire"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–18; <span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/15px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/30px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_the_Grand_National_Assembly" title="Government of the Grand National Assembly">1920–21</a>)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="82" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freikorps_in_the_Baltic" title="Freikorps in the Baltic">Freikorps</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span></li></ul></div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left; border:none; padding:0;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Collaborators<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">:</span></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)">Kingdom of Poland</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–18)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Finland_(1918)" title="Kingdom of Finland (1918)">Kingdom of Finland</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lithuania_(1918)" title="Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)">Kingdom of Lithuania</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belarusian_People%27s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Belarusian People's Republic">Belarus</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–19)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_State" title="Ukrainian State">Ukrainian State</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia" title="Democratic Republic of Georgia"><img alt="Democratic Republic of Georgia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg/19px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg/29px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia" title="Democratic Republic of Georgia">Georgia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Baltic_German.svg/23px-Baltic_German.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Baltic_German.svg/35px-Baltic_German.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Baltic_German.svg/46px-Baltic_German.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="405" data-file-height="216" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baltische_Landeswehr" title="Baltische Landeswehr">Landeswehr</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg/23px-WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="17" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg/35px-WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg/46px-WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Russian_Volunteer_Army" title="West Russian Volunteer Army">Bermontians</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–20)</span><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[l]</a></sup>
</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">
<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jukums_V%C4%81cietis" title="Jukums Vācietis">Jukums Vācietis</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakov_Sverdlov" title="Yakov Sverdlov">Yakov Sverdlov</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sergey_Kamenev" title="Sergey Kamenev">S. Kamenev</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Podvoisky" title="Nikolai Podvoisky">N. Podvoisky</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="960" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yukhym_Medvedev" title="Yukhym Medvedev">Y. Medvedev</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="150" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281922%E2%80%931923%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vilhelm_Knorin" title="Vilhelm Knorin">Vilhelm Knorin</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_Far_Eastern_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Krasnoshchyokov" title="Alexander Krasnoshchyokov">A. Krasnoshchyokov</a></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em">
<span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">A. Kerensky</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Kolchak" title="Alexander Kolchak">Alexander Kolchak</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span> <br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavr_Kornilov" title="Lavr Kornilov">Lavr Kornilov</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a> <br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anton_Denikin" title="Anton Denikin">Anton Denikin</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel" title="Pyotr Wrangel">Pyotr Wrangel</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Yudenich" title="Nikolai Yudenich">Nikolai Yudenich</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grigory_Mikhaylovich_Semyonov" title="Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov">Grigory Semyonov</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yevgeny_Miller" title="Yevgeny Miller">Yevgeny Miller</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_Republic" title="Don Republic"><img alt="Don Republic" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg/23px-Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg/35px-Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg/46px-Flag_of_Don_Cossacks.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="750" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyotr_Krasnov" title="Pyotr Krasnov">Pyotr Krasnov</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of Bogd Khaanate Mongolia.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/12px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="15" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/18px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1320" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_von_Ungern-Sternberg" title="Roman von Ungern-Sternberg">R. von Ungern</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em">
<span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poland" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a></span><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/C.G.E._Mannerheim" class="mw-redirect" title="C.G.E. Mannerheim">C.G.E. Mannerheim</a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Symon_Petliura" title="Symon Petliura">Symon Petliura</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Konstantin_P%C3%A4ts" title="Konstantin Päts">Konstantin Päts</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/J%C4%81nis_%C4%8Cakste" title="Jānis Čakste">Jānis Čakste</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/46px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antanas_Smetona" title="Antanas Smetona">Antanas Smetona</a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Karelian_National_Flag.svg/23px-Karelian_National_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Karelian_National_Flag.svg/34px-Karelian_National_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Karelian_National_Flag.svg/45px-Karelian_National_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="336" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=S._Tikhonov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="S. Tikhonov (page does not exist)">S. Tikhonov</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Georgia" title="Democratic Republic of Georgia"><img alt="Democratic Republic of Georgia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg/19px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg/29px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281918%E2%80%931921%2C_4-5%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Noe_Zhordania" title="Noe Zhordania">Noe Zhordania</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Armenia_%281918%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="432" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Khatisian" title="Alexander Khatisian">A. Khatisian</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg/35px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg/46px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan_1918.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nasib_bey_Yusifbeyli" title="Nasib bey Yusifbeyli">Nasib Yusifbeyli</a></td></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;">
<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Vol%27skii" title="Vladimir Vol'skii">Vladimir Volsky</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maria_Spiridonova" title="Maria Spiridonova">Maria Spiridonova</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/23px-Red_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/35px-Red_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Red_flag.svg/46px-Red_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nykyfor_Hryhoriv" title="Nykyfor Hryhoriv">Nykyfor Hryhoriv</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Killed_in_Action" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in Action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg/23px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg/35px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg/46px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nestor_Makhno" title="Nestor Makhno">Nestor Makhno</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg/20px-Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg/31px-Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg/40px-Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stepan_Maximovich_Petrichenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Stepan Maximovich Petrichenko">Stepan Petrichenko</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Leaders of the Russian Civil War">…<i>and others</i></a></span></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;">
<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Otani_Kikuzo" title="Otani Kikuzo">Otani Kikuzo</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edmund_Ironside,_1st_Baron_Ironside" title="Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside">Edmund Ironside</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_S._Graves" title="William S. Graves">William S. Graves</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia"><img alt="Czechoslovakia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radola_Gajda" title="Radola Gajda">Radola Gajda</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maurice_Janin" title="Maurice Janin">Maurice Janin</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">…<i>and others</i></span></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;">
<span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire"><img alt="German Empire" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hermann_von_Eichhorn" title="Hermann von Eichhorn">H. von Eichhorn</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Ottoman Empire" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuri_Killigil" title="Nuri Killigil">Nuri Pasha</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jan_Sierada" title="Jan Sierada">Jan Sierada</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pavlo_Skoropadskyi" title="Pavlo Skoropadskyi">Pavlo Skoropadskyi</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg/23px-WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="17" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg/35px-WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg/46px-WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pavel_Bermondt-Avalov" title="Pavel Bermondt-Avalov">P. Bermondt-Avalov</a></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">…<i>and others</i></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Soviet_Red_Army_Hammer_and_Plough.svg" class="image"><img alt="Soviet Red Army Hammer and Plough.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Soviet_Red_Army_Hammer_and_Plough.svg/15px-Soviet_Red_Army_Hammer_and_Plough.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Soviet_Red_Army_Hammer_and_Plough.svg/23px-Soviet_Red_Army_Hammer_and_Plough.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Soviet_Red_Army_Hammer_and_Plough.svg/30px-Soviet_Red_Army_Hammer_and_Plough.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>:<br />5,498,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErickson1984763_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErickson1984763-17">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[n]</a></sup></li></ul></div>
<hr />
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Death_to_oppressors_of_workers.svg/23px-Death_to_oppressors_of_workers.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Death_to_oppressors_of_workers.svg/35px-Death_to_oppressors_of_workers.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Death_to_oppressors_of_workers.svg/46px-Death_to_oppressors_of_workers.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutionary_Insurgent_Army_of_Ukraine" title="Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine">Makhnovtsi</a>:<br />103,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[5]</a></sup></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg/23px-Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg/35px-Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg/45px-Darker_green_and_Black_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_armies" title="Green armies">Green Army</a>:<br />70,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg/20px-Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg/31px-Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg/40px-Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion" title="Kronstadt rebellion">Kronstadt Mutineers</a>:<br />17,961</li></ul></div></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg" class="image"><img alt="Volunteer Army Insignia.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/15px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/23px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/30px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a>:<br />1,023,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[o]</a></sup></li></ul></div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Local forces<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">:</span></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg" class="image"><img alt="Volunteer Army Insignia.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/15px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/23px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/30px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_South_Russia" title="Armed Forces of South Russia">AFSR</a>: 270,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Flag_of_Siberia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Siberia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Flag_of_Siberia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Siberia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Flag_of_Siberia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Siberia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberian_Army" title="Siberian Army">Siberian Army</a>: 60,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of the Provisional Regional Government of the Urals.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Provisional_Regional_Government_of_the_Urals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Army_of_Komuch" title="People's Army of Komuch">Komuch Army</a>: 30,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%97%D0%90_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG" class="image"><img alt="СЗА нарукавный знак.JPG" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/%D0%A1%D0%97%D0%90_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG/15px-%D0%A1%D0%97%D0%90_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/%D0%A1%D0%97%D0%90_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG/23px-%D0%A1%D0%97%D0%90_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/%D0%A1%D0%97%D0%90_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG/30px-%D0%A1%D0%97%D0%90_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA.JPG 2x" data-file-width="191" data-file-height="221" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northwestern_Army_(Russia)" title="Northwestern Army (Russia)">Northwestern Army</a>: 18,500 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg" class="image"><img alt="Volunteer Army Insignia.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/15px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/23px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/30px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Army_(Russia)" title="Northern Army (Russia)">Northern Army</a>: 54,700 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg" class="image"><img alt="Volunteer Army Insignia.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/15px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/23px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/30px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Army_of_the_White_Movement" title="Western Army of the White Movement">Western Army</a>: 48,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg" class="image"><img alt="Volunteer Army Insignia.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/15px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/23px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/30px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orenburg_Independent_Army" title="Orenburg Independent Army">Orenburg Army</a>: 25,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg" class="image"><img alt="Volunteer Army Insignia.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/15px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/23px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg/30px-Volunteer_Army_Insignia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ural_Army" title="Ural Army">Ural Army</a>: 17,200 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span></li></ul>
</div>
<hr />
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Japanese Army</a>: 70,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span></li><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion.svg" class="image"><img alt="Coat of arms of the Czechoslovak Legion.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion.svg/15px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion.svg/23px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion.svg/30px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="448" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Czechoslovak_Legion" title="Czechoslovak Legion">Czechoslovak Legion</a>: 50,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span></li></ul></div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left; border:none; padding:0;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Also<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">:</span></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Force,_Siberia" title="American Expeditionary Force, Siberia">AEF, Siberia</a>:<br />7,950
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a>:<br />57,636<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[6]</a></sup>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania"><img alt="Kingdom of Romania" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanian_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Army">Romanian Army</a>:<br />50,000
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%2C_2020%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">French Army</a>:<br />15,600
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/War_flag_of_the_Hellenic_Army.svg/16px-War_flag_of_the_Hellenic_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="17" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/War_flag_of_the_Hellenic_Army.svg/25px-War_flag_of_the_Hellenic_Army.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/War_flag_of_the_Hellenic_Army.svg/33px-War_flag_of_the_Hellenic_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="750" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hellenic_Army" title="Hellenic Army">Hellenic Army</a>:<br />23,000
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canadian_Siberian_Expeditionary_Force" title="Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force">CSEF</a>:<br />~5,000
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Force,_North_Russia" title="American Expeditionary Force, North Russia">AEF, North Russia</a>:<br />5,000
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Flag_of_Italy_%281860%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Italy_%281860%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Flag_of_Italy_%281860%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281860%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Flag_of_Italy_%281860%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Italy_%281860%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1214" data-file-height="1214" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Legione_Redenta" title="Legione Redenta">Legione Redenta</a>:<br />2,500
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Beiyang_star.svg" class="image"><img alt="Beiyang star.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/15px-Beiyang_star.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="14" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/23px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/30px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="571" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>:<br />2,300
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia"><img alt="Kingdom of Serbia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia_%281882%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="844" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serbian_Army" title="Serbian Army">Serbian Army</a>:<br />2,000
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Royal_Indian_Army.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Royal_Indian_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Royal_Indian_Army.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Royal_Indian_Army.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Royal_Indian_Army.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Royal_Indian_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="10896" data-file-height="7264" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">British Indian Army</a>:<br />950
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Australian_Army" title="Australian Army">Australian Army</a>:<br />150</li></ul>
</div></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Orze%C5%82ek_II_RP.svg" class="image"><img alt="Orzełek II RP.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Orze%C5%82ek_II_RP.svg/12px-Orze%C5%82ek_II_RP.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="17" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Orze%C5%82ek_II_RP.svg/18px-Orze%C5%82ek_II_RP.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Orze%C5%82ek_II_RP.svg/24px-Orze%C5%82ek_II_RP.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1043" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_(Second_Polish_Republic)" title="Polish Armed Forces (Second Polish Republic)">Polish Army</a>: ~1,000,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span></li><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Finland.svg" class="image"><img alt="Coat of arms of Finland.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Coat_of_arms_of_Finland.svg/12px-Coat_of_arms_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="15" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Coat_of_arms_of_Finland.svg/18px-Coat_of_arms_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Coat_of_arms_of_Finland.svg/24px-Coat_of_arms_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Army" title="Finnish Army">Finnish Army</a>:<br />90,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span></li></ul></div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left; border:none; padding:0;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Also<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">:</span></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_UNR.svg" class="image"><img alt="Coat of Arms of UNR.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Coat_of_Arms_of_UNR.svg/15px-Coat_of_Arms_of_UNR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Coat_of_Arms_of_UNR.svg/23px-Coat_of_Arms_of_UNR.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Coat_of_Arms_of_UNR.svg/30px-Coat_of_Arms_of_UNR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="475" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Army" title="Ukrainian People's Army">Ukrainian Army</a>: 100,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
<hr />
<p><b>Supported by</b>:
</p>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Infantry_Colour_of_the_Royal_Hungarian_Defence_Forces_(1939-1945).svg" class="image"><img alt="Infantry Colour of the Royal Hungarian Defence Forces (1939-1945).svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Infantry_Colour_of_the_Royal_Hungarian_Defence_Forces_%281939-1945%29.svg/15px-Infantry_Colour_of_the_Royal_Hungarian_Defence_Forces_%281939-1945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="12" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Infantry_Colour_of_the_Royal_Hungarian_Defence_Forces_%281939-1945%29.svg/23px-Infantry_Colour_of_the_Royal_Hungarian_Defence_Forces_%281939-1945%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Infantry_Colour_of_the_Royal_Hungarian_Defence_Forces_%281939-1945%29.svg/30px-Infantry_Colour_of_the_Royal_Hungarian_Defence_Forces_%281939-1945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Hungarian_Army" title="Royal Hungarian Army">Hungarian Army</a>:<br />30,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
<hr />
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Latvian_National_Armed_Forces.svg" class="image"><img alt="Coat of Arms of Latvian National Armed Forces.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Coat_of_Arms_of_Latvian_National_Armed_Forces.svg/15px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Latvian_National_Armed_Forces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Coat_of_Arms_of_Latvian_National_Armed_Forces.svg/23px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Latvian_National_Armed_Forces.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Coat_of_Arms_of_Latvian_National_Armed_Forces.svg/30px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Latvian_National_Armed_Forces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="133" data-file-height="132" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_National_Armed_Forces" title="Latvian National Armed Forces">Latvian Army</a>:<br />69,232 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Maavagi_crest.svg" class="image"><img alt="Maavagi crest.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Maavagi_crest.svg/15px-Maavagi_crest.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Maavagi_crest.svg/23px-Maavagi_crest.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Maavagi_crest.svg/30px-Maavagi_crest.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="727" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_Defence_Forces" title="Estonian Defence Forces">Estonian Army</a>:<br />86,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Insignia_of_the_Lithuanian_Armed_Forces.svg" class="image"><img alt="Insignia of the Lithuanian Armed Forces.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Insignia_of_the_Lithuanian_Armed_Forces.svg/15px-Insignia_of_the_Lithuanian_Armed_Forces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Insignia_of_the_Lithuanian_Armed_Forces.svg/23px-Insignia_of_the_Lithuanian_Armed_Forces.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Insignia_of_the_Lithuanian_Armed_Forces.svg/30px-Insignia_of_the_Lithuanian_Armed_Forces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="822" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian_Armed_Forces" title="Lithuanian Armed Forces">Lithuanian Army</a>:<br />20,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
<hr />
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Guard_(Finland)" title="White Guard (Finland)">Finnish Volunteers</a>:<br />8,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Flag_of_Karel.svg/23px-Flag_of_Karel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Flag_of_Karel.svg/35px-Flag_of_Karel.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Flag_of_Karel.svg/46px-Flag_of_Karel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="550" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forest_Guerrillas" title="Forest Guerrillas">Forest Guerrillas</a>:<br />2,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
<hr />
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_the_Swedish_Brigade_%28Ruotsalainen_prikaati%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Swedish_Brigade_%28Ruotsalainen_prikaati%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_the_Swedish_Brigade_%28Ruotsalainen_prikaati%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Swedish_Brigade_%28Ruotsalainen_prikaati%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_the_Swedish_Brigade_%28Ruotsalainen_prikaati%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Swedish_Brigade_%28Ruotsalainen_prikaati%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2730" data-file-height="1719" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swedish_Brigade" title="Swedish Brigade">Swedish Brigade</a>:<br />1,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span></li></ul>
</div>
<hr />
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Kaiserstandarte.svg/15px-Kaiserstandarte.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Kaiserstandarte.svg/23px-Kaiserstandarte.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Kaiserstandarte.svg/30px-Kaiserstandarte.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Army_(German_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (German Empire)">German Army</a>:<br />~547,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span></li></ul></div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left; border:none; padding:0;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Also<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">:</span></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Saxon Volunteers</a>:<br />10,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_Army_of_the_Caucasus" title="Islamic Army of the Caucasus">Caucasus Army</a>:<br />20,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_Land_Forces" title="Turkish Land Forces">Turkish Army</a>:<br />20,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Iron_Division_Freikorps.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="82" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freikorps_in_the_Baltic" title="Freikorps in the Baltic">Iron Division</a>:<br />14,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Baltic_German.svg/23px-Baltic_German.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Baltic_German.svg/35px-Baltic_German.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Baltic_German.svg/46px-Baltic_German.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="405" data-file-height="216" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baltische_Landeswehr" title="Baltische Landeswehr">Landeswehr</a>:<br />10,500 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span>
</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg/20px-WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg/31px-WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg/40px-WestRussianVolunteerArmy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Russian_Volunteer_Army" title="West Russian Volunteer Army">Bermontians</a>:<br />50,000 <span style="font-size:85%;">(peak)</span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Red_Army_flag.svg/23px-Red_Army_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Red_Army_flag.svg/35px-Red_Army_flag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Red_Army_flag.svg/45px-Red_Army_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></span> ~1,500,000<sup id="cite_ref-auto_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-22">[7]</a></sup></li></ul></div>
<ul><li>259,213 killed<br /><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>60,059 missing<br /><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>616,605 died of disease/wounds<br /><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>3,878 died in accidents/suicides<br /><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>548,857 wounded/frostbitten<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrivosheev19977-38_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrivosheev19977-38-23">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[p]</a></sup></li></ul></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> ~1,500,000<sup id="cite_ref-auto_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-22">[7]</a></sup></li></ul></div>
<ul><li>127,000 killed<br /><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>784,000 executed/dead<br /><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>450,000 wounded/sick<br /><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul>
<hr />
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia"><img alt="Czechoslovakia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> 13,000 killed</li><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span> 6,500 killed</li><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> 938+ killed<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[9]</a></sup></li><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> 596 killed</li><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romania" title="Romania"><img alt="Romania" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> 350 killed</li><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece"><img alt="Kingdom of Greece" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg/23px-State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg/35px-State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg/45px-State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1973%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> 179 killed</li></ul></div></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poland" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> ~250,000</li></ul></div>
<ul><li>57,000 killed</li>
<li>113,000 wounded</li>
<li>50,000 POWs</li></ul>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine"><img alt="Ukraine" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> ~125,000</li></ul></div>
<ul><li>15,000 killed</li></ul>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland_%281918%E2%80%931920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span> ~5,000</li></ul></div>
<ul><li>3,500 killed</li>
<li>1,650 executed/dead</li></ul>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia"><img alt="Estonia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630" /></a></span> 3,888 killed</li><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia"><img alt="Latvia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> 3,046 killed</li><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania"><img alt="Lithuania" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/46px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> 1,444 killed<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[10]</a></sup></li><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden"><img alt="Sweden" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> 55 killed</li></ul></div>
<hr />
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire"><img alt="German Empire" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> 500 killed</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;">
<p><b>7,000,000–12,000,000 total casualties, including<br />civilians and non-combatants</b><br />
</p>
1–2 million <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">refugees</a> outside Russia</td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Theaters_of_theRussian_Civil_War" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Russian_Civil_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Russian Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Russian_Civil_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Russian Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Campaignbox_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Theaters_of_theRussian_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Theaters of the<br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">Russian Civil War</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left-wing_uprisings_against_the_Bolsheviks" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks">Left-wing uprisings</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Northern</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Russia_intervention" title="North Russia intervention">North Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heimosodat" title="Heimosodat">Heimosodat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Karelian_uprising_and_Soviet%E2%80%93Finnish_conflict_of_1921%E2%80%9322" class="mw-redirect" title="East Karelian uprising and Soviet–Finnish conflict of 1921–22">Eastern Karelia</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_westward_offensive_of_1918%E2%80%931919" title="Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919">Western</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian_Wars_of_Independence" title="Lithuanian Wars of Independence">Lithuania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Petrograd" title="Battle of Petrograd">Petrograd</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Poland</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Southern Front of the Russian Civil War">Southern</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_War_of_Independence" title="Ukrainian War of Independence">Ukraine</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian-Soviet_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian-Soviet War">Ukrainian-Soviet War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Western Ukraine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Russia_intervention" title="Southern Russia intervention">South Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanian_military_intervention_in_Bessarabia" title="Romanian military intervention in Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Caucasus_expedition" title="German Caucasus expedition">South Caucasus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict_(1918%E2%80%9320)" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–20)">Ossetia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)">Armenia and Azerbaijan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Azerbaijan" title="Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Armenia" title="Red Army invasion of Armenia">Armenia</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tambov_Rebellion" title="Tambov Rebellion">Tambov</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War">Eastern</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion" title="Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion">Czechoslovak Legionary Revolt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capture_of_Kazan_by_the_White_Army" title="Capture of Kazan by the White Army">1st Kazan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kazan_Operation" title="Kazan Operation">2nd Kazan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perm_Operation_(1918-1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perm Operation (1918-1919)">1st Perm</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spring_offensive_of_the_White_Army" title="Spring offensive of the White Army">Spring 1919 offensive of the White Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_counteroffensive" title="Eastern Front counteroffensive">Spring 1919 counteroffensive of the Red Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Siberian_Ice_March" title="Great Siberian Ice March">Great Siberian Ice March</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chita_Operations" title="Chita Operations">Chita</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakut_revolt" title="Yakut revolt">Yakut revolt</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Central Asian</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bukharan_Revolution" title="Bukharan Revolution">Bukhara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khivan_Revolution" title="Khivan Revolution">Khiva</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">Basmachi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div>
<p>The <b>Russian Civil War</b> (Russian: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Гражданская война в России</span></span>, <small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">tr.</a></small> <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">Grazhdanskaya voyna v Rossii</i></span>; 7 November 1917 — 16 June 1923)<sup id="cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mapolwdsley2007-14">[1]</a></sup> was a multi-party <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> sparked by the overthrowing of the social-democratic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Russian Provisional Government</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. It resulted in the formation of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic</a> and later the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</a> in most of its territory. Its finale marked the end of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>, which was one of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Key_events_of_the_20th_century" title="Key events of the 20th century">key events of the 20th century</a>.
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Russian_monarchs" title="List of Russian monarchs">Russian monarchy</a> ended with the abdication of Tsar <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a> during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a>, and Russia was in a state of political flux. A tense summer culminated in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolshevik</a>-led <a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, overthrowing the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a> of the new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a>. Bolshevik seizure of power was not universally accepted, and the country descended into civil war. The two largest combatants were the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>, fighting for the establishment of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Bolshevik-led</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">socialist state</a> headed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, and the loosely allied forces known as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White Army</a>, which functioned as a political <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Big_tent" title="Big tent">big tent</a> for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">right</a>- and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left-wing</a> opposition to Bolshevik rule. In addition, rival militant socialists, notably the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ukraine" title="Anarchism in Ukraine">Ukrainian anarchists</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_Socialist-Revolutionaries" title="Left Socialist-Revolutionaries">Left Socialist-Revolutionaries</a>, were involved in conflict against the Bolsheviks. They, as well as non-ideological <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_armies" title="Green armies">green armies</a>, opposed the Bolsheviks, the Whites and the foreign interventionists.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-27">[11]</a></sup> Thirteen foreign nations intervened against the Red Army, notably the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention</a>, whose primary goal was re-establishing the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Three foreign nations of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> also intervened, rivaling the Allied intervention with the main goal of retaining the territory they had received in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a> with Soviet Russia.
</p><p>The Bolsheviks initially consolidated control over most of the former empire. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was an emergency peace with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, who had captured vast swathes of the Russian territory during the chaos of the revolution. In May 1918, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion" title="Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion">the Czechoslovak Legion in Russia revolted</a> in Siberia. In reaction, the Allies began their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Russia_intervention" title="North Russia intervention">North Russian</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberian interventions</a>. That, combined with the creation of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_All-Russian_Government" title="Provisional All-Russian Government">Provisional All-Russian Government</a>, saw the reduction of Bolshevik-controlled territory to most of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a> and parts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. In 1919, the White Army launched several offensives from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spring_offensive_of_the_White_Army" title="Spring offensive of the White Army">the east</a> in March, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Advance_on_Moscow_(1919)" title="Advance on Moscow (1919)">the south</a> in July, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Petrograd" title="Battle of Petrograd">west</a> in October. The advances were later checked by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_counteroffensive" title="Eastern Front counteroffensive">Eastern Front counteroffensive</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Front_counteroffensive" title="Southern Front counteroffensive">Southern Front counteroffensive</a>, and the defeat of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northwestern_Army_(Russia)" title="Northwestern Army (Russia)">Northwestern Army</a>.
</p><p>By 1919, the White armies were in retreat and by the start of 1920 were defeated on all three fronts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeggett1981184Service2000402Read2005206_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeggett1981184Service2000402Read2005206-28">[12]</a></sup> Although the Bolsheviks were victorious, the territorial extent of the Russian state had been reduced, for many non-Russian ethnic groups had used the disarray to push for national independence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201583_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall201583-29">[13]</a></sup> In March 1921, during <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">a related war against Poland</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peace_of_Riga" title="Peace of Riga">Peace of Riga</a> was signed, splitting disputed territories in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belarusian_Democratic_Republic" title="Belarusian Democratic Republic">Belarus</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukraine</a> between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Republic of Poland</a> and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia sought to re-conquer all newly <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pro-independence_movements_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War">independent nations</a> of the former Empire, although their success was limited. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finland</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvia</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Lithuanian–Soviet War">Lithuania</a> all repelled Soviet invasions, while <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukraine</a>, Belarus (as a result of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a>), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Armenia" title="Red Army invasion of Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Azerbaijan" title="Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Georgia</a> were occupied by the Red Army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200384,_88_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200384,_88-30">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein201350_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein201350-31">[15]</a></sup> By 1921, Soviet Russia had defeated the Ukrainian national movements and occupied the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, although <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">anti-Bolshevik uprisings</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> lasted until the late 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201584_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall201584-32">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>The armies under Kolchak were eventually forced on a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Siberian_Ice_March" title="Great Siberian Ice March">mass retreat eastward</a>. Bolshevik forces advanced east, despite encountering resistance in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chita_Operations" title="Chita Operations">Chita</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakut_revolt" title="Yakut revolt">Yakut</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_intervention_in_Mongolia" title="Soviet intervention in Mongolia">Mongolia</a>. Soon the Red Army split the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_Army" title="Don Army">Don</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volunteer_Army" title="Volunteer Army">Volunteer armies</a>, forcing evacuations in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evacuation_of_Novorossiysk_(1920)" title="Evacuation of Novorossiysk (1920)">Novorossiysk</a> in March and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evacuation_of_the_Crimea_(1920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Evacuation of the Crimea (1920)">Crimea</a> in November 1920. After that, anti-Bolshevik resistance was sporadic for several years until the collapse of the White Army in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakutia" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakutia">Yakutia</a> in June 1923, but continued on with the Muslim <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">Basmachi movement</a> in Central Asia and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tungus_Republic" title="Tungus Republic">Khabarovsk Krai</a> until 1934. There were an estimated 7 to 12 million casualties during the war, mostly civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mapolwdsley2007-14">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 287">: 287 </span></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#World_War_I"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">World War I</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#February_Revolution"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">February Revolution</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#October_Revolution"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">October Revolution</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Formation_of_the_Red_Army"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Formation of the Red Army</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Anti-Bolshevik_movement"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Anti-Bolshevik movement</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Dissolution_of_the_Constituent_Assembly,_early_Constituent_Assembly_rebellions"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, early Constituent Assembly rebellions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Constituent_Assembly_uprising"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Constituent Assembly uprising</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Mensheviks_and_SRs_excluded_from_soviets"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Mensheviks and SRs excluded from soviets</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Repression"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Repression</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Revolts_against_grain_requisitioning"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Revolts against grain requisitioning</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Allied_intervention"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Allied intervention</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Buffer_states"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Buffer states</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Geography_and_chronology"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Geography and chronology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Warfare"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Warfare</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#October_Revolution_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">October Revolution</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Initial_anti-Bolshevik_uprisings"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Initial anti-Bolshevik uprisings</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Peace_with_the_Central_Powers"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Peace with the Central Powers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Ukraine,_South_Russia,_and_Caucasus_(1918)"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Ukraine, South Russia, and Caucasus (1918)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Eastern_Russia,_Siberia_and_the_Far_East_(1918)"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Eastern Russia, Siberia and the Far East (1918)</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Barrier_troops"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Barrier troops</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Central_Asia_(1918)"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Central Asia (1918)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Left_SR_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">3.7</span> <span class="toctext">Left SR Uprising</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Estonia,_Latvia_and_Petrograd"><span class="tocnumber">3.8</span> <span class="toctext">Estonia, Latvia and Petrograd</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Northern_Russia_(1919)"><span class="tocnumber">3.9</span> <span class="toctext">Northern Russia (1919)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Siberia_(1919)"><span class="tocnumber">3.10</span> <span class="toctext">Siberia (1919)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#South_Russia_(1919)"><span class="tocnumber">3.11</span> <span class="toctext">South Russia (1919)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Central_Asia_(1919)"><span class="tocnumber">3.12</span> <span class="toctext">Central Asia (1919)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#South_Russia,_Ukraine_and_Kronstadt_(1920–21)"><span class="tocnumber">3.13</span> <span class="toctext">South Russia, Ukraine and Kronstadt (1920–21)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Siberia_and_the_Far_East_(1920–22)"><span class="tocnumber">3.14</span> <span class="toctext">Siberia and the Far East (1920–22)</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Aftermath"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Aftermath</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Ensuing_rebellion"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ensuing rebellion</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Casualties"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Casualties</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#In_fiction"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">In fiction</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Literature"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Literature</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Film"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Film</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="#Primary_sources"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Primary sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Background">Background</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="World_War_I">World War I</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: World War I">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></div>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> fought in World War I from 1914 alongside <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a>) against <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> and later the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>).
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="February_Revolution">February Revolution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: February Revolution">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></div>
<p>The February Revolution of 1917 resulted in the abdication of Emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II of Russia</a>. As a result, the social-democratic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Russian Provisional Government</a> was established, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">soviets</a>, elected councils of workers, soldiers, and peasants, were organized throughout the country, leading to a situation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dual_power" title="Dual power">dual power</a>. Russia was proclaimed a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">republic</a> in September of the same year.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="October_Revolution">October Revolution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: October Revolution">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></div>
<p>The Provisional Government, led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionary_Party" title="Socialist Revolutionary Party">Socialist Revolutionary Party</a> politician <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Alexander Kerensky</a>, was unable to solve the most pressing issues of the country, most importantly to end the war with the Central Powers. A <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kornilov_affair" title="Kornilov affair">failed military coup</a> by General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavr_Kornilov" title="Lavr Kornilov">Lavr Kornilov</a> in September 1917 led to a surge in support for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolshevik party</a>, who <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevization_of_the_Soviets" title="Bolshevization of the Soviets">bolshevized the soviets</a>, which until then had been controlled by the Socialist Revolutionaries. Promising an end to the war and "all power to the Soviets", the Bolsheviks then ended dual power by overthrowing the Provisional Government in late October, on the eve of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_All-Russian_Congress_of_Soviets_of_Workers%27_and_Soldiers%27_Deputies" title="Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies">Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets</a>, in what would be the second Revolution of 1917. Despite the Bolsheviks' seizure of power, they lost to the Socialist Revolutionary Party in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election">1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election</a>, and the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the Bolsheviks in retaliation. The Bolsheviks soon lost the support of other <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Far-left_politics" title="Far-left politics">far-left</a> allies, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_Socialist-Revolutionaries" title="Left Socialist-Revolutionaries">Left Socialist-Revolutionaries</a>, after their acceptance of the terms of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a> presented by the German Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Stone-2011_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-2011-33">[17]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Formation_of_the_Red_Army">Formation of the Red Army</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Formation of the Red Army">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a></div>
<p>From mid-1917 onwards, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Army_(1917)" title="Russian Army (1917)">Russian Army</a>, the successor-organisation of the old <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">Imperial Russian Army</a>, started to disintegrate;<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[18]</a></sup> the Bolsheviks used the volunteer-based <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Guards_(Russia)" title="Red Guards (Russia)">Red Guards</a> as their main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a> (the Bolshevik state <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">secret police</a>). In January 1918, after significant Bolshevik reverses in combat, the future <a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Commissar_of_Military_and_Naval_Affairs_of_the_Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs of the Russian SFSR">Russian People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> headed the reorganization of the Red Guards into a <i>Workers' and Peasants' Red Army</i> in order to create a more effective fighting force. The Bolsheviks appointed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_commissars" class="mw-redirect" title="Political commissars">political commissars</a> to each unit of the Red Army to maintain morale and to ensure loyalty.
</p><p>In June 1918, when it had become apparent that a revolutionary army composed solely of workers would not suffice, Trotsky instituted mandatory <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Conscription in the Soviet Union">conscription</a> of the rural peasantry into the Red Army.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[19]</a></sup> The Bolsheviks overcame opposition of rural Russians to Red Army conscription units by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary in order to force compliance.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[20]</a></sup> The forced conscription drive had mixed results, successfully creating a larger army than the Whites, but with members indifferent towards <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist ideology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stone-2011_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-2011-33">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Red Army also utilized former Tsarist officers as "military specialists" (<i>voenspetsy</i>);<sup id="cite_ref-Overy_2004_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Overy_2004-37">[21]</a></sup> sometimes their families were taken hostage in order to ensure their loyalty.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams,_Beryl_1921_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams,_Beryl_1921-38">[22]</a></sup> At the start of the civil war, former Tsarist officers formed three-quarters of the Red Army officer-corps.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams,_Beryl_1921_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams,_Beryl_1921-38">[22]</a></sup> By its end, 83% of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-Overy_2004_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Overy_2004-37">[21]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Anti-Bolshevik_movement">Anti-Bolshevik movement</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Anti-Bolshevik movement">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutionary_Insurgent_Army_of_Ukraine" title="Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine">Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pro-independence_movements_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War">Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War</a></div>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BA,_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BA%2C_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0.jpg/220px-%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BA%2C_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BA%2C_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0.jpg/330px-%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BA%2C_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BA%2C_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0.jpg/440px-%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BA%2C_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1606" data-file-height="1073" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BA,_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Admiral <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Kolchak" title="Alexander Kolchak">Alexander Kolchak</a> (seated) and General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alfred_Knox" title="Alfred Knox">Alfred Knox</a> (behind Kolchak) observing military exercise, 1919</div></div></div>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a> (Russian: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reforms_of_Russian_orthography#Post-revolution_reform" title="Reforms of Russian orthography">pre–1918</a> Бѣлое движеніе / post–1918 Белое движение</span></span>, <small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">tr.</a></small> <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">Beloye dvizheniye</i></span>, <small>IPA: </small><span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[ˈbʲɛləɪ dvʲɪˈʐenʲɪɪ]</a></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[q]</a></sup> also known as the <b>Whites</b> (Бѣлые / Белые, <i>Beliye</i>), was a loose confederation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">anti-communist</a> forces that fought the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a>, also known as the <i>Reds</i>, in the Russian Civil War and that to a lesser extent continued operating as militarized associations of rebels both outside and within Russian borders in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> until roughly <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (1939–1945). The movement's military arm was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a> (Бѣлая армія / Белая армия, <i>Belaya armiya</i>), also known as the White Guard (Бѣлая гвардія / Белая гвардия, <i>Belaya gvardiya</i>) or White Guardsmen (Бѣлогвардейцы / Белогвардейцы, <i>Belogvardeytsi</i>).
</p><p>When the White Army was created, the structure of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Army_(1917)" title="Russian Army (1917)">Russian Army of the Provisional Government period</a> was used, while almost every individual formation had its own characteristics. The military art of the White Army was based on the experience of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>, which, however, left a strong imprint on the specifics of the Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the Russian Civil War, the White movement functioned as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Big_tent" title="Big tent">big-tent</a> political movement representing an array of political opinions in Russia united in their opposition to the Bolsheviks—from the republican-minded liberals and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Kerenskyite</a> social-democrats on the left through monarchists and supporters of a united multinational Russia to the ultra-nationalist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Hundreds" title="Black Hundreds">Black Hundreds</a> on the right.
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<h4><span id="Dissolution_of_the_Constituent_Assembly.2C_early_Constituent_Assembly_rebellions"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Dissolution_of_the_Constituent_Assembly,_early_Constituent_Assembly_rebellions">Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, early Constituent Assembly rebellions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, early Constituent Assembly rebellions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Constituent Assembly</a> had been a demand of the Bolsheviks against the Provisional Government, which kept delaying it. After the October Revolution the elections were run by the body appointed by the previous Provisional Government. It was based on universal suffrage, but used party lists from before the Left-Right SR split. The anti-Bolshevik Right SRs <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election">won the elections</a> with the majority of the seats,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985111–112_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985111–112-41">[24]</a></sup> after which Lenin's <i>Theses on the Constituent Assembly</i> argued in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i> that formal democracy was impossible because of class conflicts, conflicts with Ukraine and the Kadet-Kaledin uprising. He argued the Constituent Assembly must unconditionally accept sovereignty of the soviet government or it would be dealt with "by revolutionary means".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985113–115_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985113–115-42">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>On December 30, 1917, the SR <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Avksentiev" title="Nikolai Avksentiev">Nikolai Avksentiev</a> and some followers were arrested for organizing a conspiracy. This was the first time Bolsheviks used this kind of repression against a socialist party. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i> said the arrest was not related to his membership in the Constituent Assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985115_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985115-43">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>On January 4, 1918, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/All-Russian_Central_Executive_Committee" title="All-Russian Central Executive Committee">VTsIK</a> made a resolution saying the slogan "all power to the constituent assembly" was counterrevolutionary and equivalent to "down with the soviets".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985115–116_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985115–116-44">[27]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Maria_Spiridonova.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Maria_Spiridonova.jpg/220px-Maria_Spiridonova.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Maria_Spiridonova.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="229" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Maria_Spiridonova.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maria_Spiridonova" title="Maria Spiridonova">Maria Spiridonova</a></div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:207px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Viktor_Chernov_(1873-1952),_Russian_revolutionary_(small).jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Viktor_Chernov_%281873-1952%29%2C_Russian_revolutionary_%28small%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="295" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="205" data-file-height="295" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Viktor_Chernov_(1873-1952),_Russian_revolutionary_(small).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viktor_Chernov" title="Viktor Chernov">Viktor Chernov</a></div></div></div>
<p>The Constituent Assembly met on January 18, 1918. The Right SR Chernov was elected president defeating the Bolshevik supported candidate, the Left SR <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maria_Spiridonova" title="Maria Spiridonova">Maria Spiridonova</a> (she would later break with the Bolsheviks and after the decades of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">gulag</a>, she was shot on Stalin's orders in 1941). The Bolsheviks subsequently disbanded the Constituent Assembly and proceeded to rule the country as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> with all opposition parties outlawed.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[29]</a></sup> A simultaneous demonstration in favor of the Constituent Assembly was dispersed with force, but there was little protest afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985120–121_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985120–121-47">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>The first large <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a> repression with some killings began against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">libertarian socialists</a> of Petrograd in mid-April 1918. On May 1, 1918, a pitched battle took place in Moscow between the anarchists and the police. (P.Avrich. G Maximoff)
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Constituent_Assembly_uprising">Constituent Assembly uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Constituent Assembly uprising">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The Union of Regeneration was founded in Moscow in April 1918 as an underground agency organizing democratic resistance to the Bolshevik dictatorship, composed of the Popular Socialists, Right Socialist Revolutionaries, and Defensists, among others. They were tasked with propping up anti-Bolshevik forces and to create a Russian state system based on civil liberties, patriotism, and state-consciousness with the goal to liberate the country from the "Germano-Bolshevik" yoke.<sup id="cite_ref-WS_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WS-48">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>On May 7, 1918, the Eighth Party Council of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionary_Party" title="Socialist Revolutionary Party">Party of Socialist Revolutionaries</a> commenced in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and recognized the Union's leading role, putting aside political ideology and class for the purpose of Russia's salvation. They decided to start an uprising against the Bolsheviks with the goal of reconvening the Russian Constituent Assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-WS_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WS-48">[31]</a></sup> While preparations were under way, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Czechoslovak_Legion" title="Czechoslovak Legion">Czechoslovak Legions</a> overthrew Bolshevik rule in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Urals</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volga_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga River">Volga</a> region in late May-early June 1918 and the center of SR activity shifted there. On June 8, 1918, five Constituent Assembly members formed the All-Russian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_Members_of_the_Constituent_Assembly" title="Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly">Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly</a> (<i>Komuch</i>) in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samara" title="Samara">Samara</a> and declared it the new supreme authority in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-komuch_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-komuch-51">[34]</a></sup> The Social Revolutionary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Siberian_Government_(Vladivostok)" title="Provisional Siberian Government (Vladivostok)">Provisional Government of Autonomous Siberia</a> came to power on June 29, 1918, after the uprising in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a>.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Mensheviks_and_SRs_excluded_from_soviets">Mensheviks and SRs excluded from soviets</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mensheviks and SRs excluded from soviets">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>At the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/5th_All-Russia_Congress_of_Soviets" class="mw-redirect" title="5th All-Russia Congress of Soviets">5th All-Russia Congress of Soviets</a> of July 4, 1918, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_Socialist-Revolutionaries" title="Left Socialist-Revolutionaries">Left Socialist-Revolutionaries</a> had 352 delegates compared to 745 Bolsheviks out of 1132 total. The Left SRs raised disagreements on the suppression of rival parties, the death penalty, and mainly, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The Bolsheviks excluded the Right SRs and Mensheviks from the government on 14 June for associating with counterrevolutionaries and seeking to "organize armed attacks against the workers and peasants" (though Mensheviks had not supported them), while the Left SRs advocated forming a government of all socialist parties. The Left SRs agreed with extrajudicial execution of political opponents to stop the counterrevolution, but opposed having the government legally pronouncing death sentences, an unusual position that is best understood within the context of the group's terrorist past. The Left SRs strongly opposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and opposed Trotsky's insistence that no one try to attack German troops in Ukraine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985161–164_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985161–164-52">[35]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Repression">Repression</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Repression">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In December 1917, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Felix_Dzerzhinsky" title="Felix Dzerzhinsky">Felix Dzerzhinsky</a> was appointed to the duty of rooting out <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">counterrevolutionary</a> threats to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Soviet government</a>. He was the director of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (aka <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a>), a predecessor of the KGB that served as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> for the Soviets.<sup id="cite_ref-Bird-2018_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-2018-53">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>From early 1918, the Bolsheviks started physical elimination of opposition, other socialist and revolutionary fractions. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchists</a> were among the first:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Of all the revolutionary elements in Russia it is the Anarchists who now suffer the most ruthless and systematic persecution. Their suppression by the Bolsheviki began already in 1918, when — in the month of April of that year — the Communist Government attacked, without provocation or warning, the Anarchist Club of Moscow and by the use of machine guns and artillery "liquidated" the whole organisation. It was the beginning of Anarchist hounding, but it was sporadic in character, breaking out now and then, quite planless, and frequently self-contradictory.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Berkman" title="Alexander Berkman">Alexander Berkman</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Emma Goldman</a>, "Bolsheviks Shooting Anarchists"<sup id="cite_ref-Berkman_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berkman-54">[37]</a></sup></cite></div></blockquote>
<p>On 11 August 1918, prior to the events that would officially catalyze the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> had <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lenin%27s_Hanging_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenin's Hanging Order">sent telegrams</a> "to introduce mass terror" in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod" title="Nizhny Novgorod">Nizhny Novgorod</a> in response to a suspected civilian uprising there, and to "crush" landowners in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Penza" title="Penza">Penza</a> who resisted, sometimes violently, the requisitioning of their grain by military detachments:<sup id="cite_ref-BlackBook_chptr4_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlackBook_chptr4-55">[38]</a></sup>
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Comrades! The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">kulak</a> uprising in your five districts must be crushed without pity ... You must make example of these people.
</p><dl><dd>(1) Hang (I mean hang publicly, so that people see it) at least 100 kulaks, rich bastards, and known bloodsuckers.</dd>
<dd>(2) Publish their names.</dd>
<dd>(3) Seize all their grain.</dd>
<dd>(4) Single out the hostages per my instructions in yesterday's telegram.</dd></dl>
<p>Do all this so that for miles (versts) around people see it all, understand it, tremble, and tell themselves that we are killing the bloodthirsty kulaks and that we will continue to do so ...
</p><p>Yours, Lenin.
</p><p>
P.S. Find tougher people.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lenin%27s_Hanging_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenin's Hanging Order">Lenin's Hanging Order</a></cite></div></blockquote>
<p>In a mid-August 1920 letter, having received information that in Estonia and Latvia, with which Soviet Russia had concluded peace treaties, volunteers were being enrolled in anti-Bolshevik detachments, Lenin wrote to E. M. Sklyansky, deputy chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic:<sup id="cite_ref-litvinalkbterror_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-litvinalkbterror-56">[39]</a></sup>
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Great plan! Finish it with Dzerzhinsky. While pretending to be the "greens" (we will blame them later), we will advance by 10–20 miles (versts) and hang kulaks, priests, landowners. Prize: 100.000 rubles for each hanged man.</p></blockquote>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonid_Kannegisser" title="Leonid Kannegisser">Leonid Kannegisser</a>, a young <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_cadet" class="mw-redirect" title="Military cadet">military cadet</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">Imperial Russian Army</a>, assassinated <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moisey_Uritsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Moisey Uritsky">Moisey Uritsky</a> on August 17, 1918, outside the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petrograd" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrograd">Petrograd</a> Cheka headquarters in retaliation for the execution of his friend and other officers.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[40]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Lenin_attempt.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Lenin_attempt.jpg/250px-Lenin_attempt.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="133" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Lenin_attempt.jpg/375px-Lenin_attempt.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Lenin_attempt.jpg/500px-Lenin_attempt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="418" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Lenin_attempt.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Vladimir Pchelin's depiction of the assassination attempt on Lenin</div></div></div>
<p>On August 30, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionary_Party" title="Socialist Revolutionary Party">Socialist Revolutionary</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fanny_Kaplan" title="Fanny Kaplan">Fanny Kaplan</a> unsuccessfully <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assassination_attempts_on_Vladimir_Lenin" title="Assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin">attempted to assassinate</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-58">[41]</a></sup> and sought to eliminate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_dissent" title="Political dissent">political dissent</a>, opposition, and any other threat to Bolshevik power.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[42]</a></sup> More broadly, the term is usually applied to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Bolshevik political repression</a> throughout the Civil War (1917–1922),<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bird-2018_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-2018-53">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>During interrogation by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a>, she made the following statement:
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"My name is Fanya Kaplan. Today I shot Lenin. I did it on my own. I will not say from whom I obtained my revolver. I will give no details. I had resolved to kill Lenin long ago. I consider him a traitor to the Revolution. I was exiled to Akatui for participating in an assassination attempt against a Tsarist official in Kiev [now Kyiv]. I spent 11 years at hard labour. After the Revolution, I was freed. I favoured the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Constituent Assembly</a> and am still for it".<sup id="cite_ref-spartacus_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spartacus-62">[45]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Kaplan referenced the Bolsheviks' growing authoritarianism, citing their forcible shutdown of the Constituent Assembly in January 1918, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election">elections</a> to which they had lost. When it became clear that Kaplan would not implicate any accomplices, she was executed in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Garden" title="Alexander Garden">Alexander Garden</a>. The order was carried out by the commander of the Kremlin, the former Baltic sailor P. D. Malkov and a group of Latvian Bolsheviks<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[46]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (August 2021)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> on September 3, 1918, with a bullet to the back of the head.<sup id="cite_ref-how_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-how-64">[47]</a></sup> Her corpse was bundled into a barrel and set alight. The order came from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakov_Sverdlov" title="Yakov Sverdlov">Yakov Sverdlov</a>, who only six weeks earlier had ordered the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murder_of_the_Romanov_family" title="Murder of the Romanov family">murder</a> of the Tsar and his family.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lyandres_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lyandres-66">[49]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 442">: 442 </span></sup>
</p><p>These events persuaded the government to heed Dzerzhinsky's lobbying for greater terror against opposition. The campaign of mass repressions would officially begin thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-58">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bird-2018_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-2018-53">[36]</a></sup> The Red Terror is considered to have officially begun between 17 and 30 August 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-58">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bird-2018_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-2018-53">[36]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Revolts_against_grain_requisitioning">Revolts against grain requisitioning</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Revolts against grain requisitioning">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Protests against grain requisitioning of the peasantry were a major component of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tambov_Rebellion" title="Tambov Rebellion">Tambov rebellion</a> and similar uprisings; Lenin's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> was introduced as a concession.
</p><p>The policies of "food dictatorship" proclaimed by the Bolsheviks in May 1918 sparked violent resistance in numerous districts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a>: revolts and clashes between the peasants and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> were reported in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voronezh" title="Voronezh">Voronezh</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tambov" title="Tambov">Tambov</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Penza" title="Penza">Penza</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saratov" title="Saratov">Saratov</a> and in the districts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kostroma_Oblast" title="Kostroma Oblast">Kostroma</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moscow_Oblast" title="Moscow Oblast">Moscow</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Novgorod_Oblast" title="Novgorod Oblast">Novgorod</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leningrad_Oblast" title="Leningrad Oblast">Petrograd</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pskov_Oblast" title="Pskov Oblast">Pskov</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Smolensk_Oblast" title="Smolensk Oblast">Smolensk</a>. The revolts were bloodily crushed by the Bolsheviks: in the Voronezh Oblast, the Red Guards killed sixteen peasants during the pacification of the village, while another village was shelled with artillery in order to force the peasants to surrender and in the Novgorod Oblast the rebelling peasants were dispersed with machine-gun fire from a train sent by a detachment of Latvian Red Army soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[50]</a></sup> While the Bolsheviks immediately denounced the rebellion as orchestrated by the SRs, there is actually no evidence that they were involved into peasant violence, which they deemed as counterproductive.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[51]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Allied_intervention">Allied intervention</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Allied intervention">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></div>
<p>The Western Allies armed and supported opponents of the Bolsheviks. They were worried about a possible Russo-German alliance, the prospect of the Bolsheviks making good on their threats to default on Imperial Russia's massive <a href="/enwiki/wiki/External_debt" title="External debt">foreign loans</a> and the possibility that Communist revolutionary ideas would spread (a concern shared by many Central Powers). Hence, many of the countries expressed their support for the Whites, including the provision of troops and supplies. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> declared that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle".<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[52]</a></sup> The British and French had supported <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russia_during_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Russia during World War I">Russia during World War I</a> on a massive scale with war materials.
</p><p>After the treaty, it looked like much of that material would fall into the hands of the Germans. To meet that danger, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allies intervened</a> with Great Britain and France sending troops into Russian ports. There were violent clashes with the Bolsheviks. Britain intervened in support of the White forces to defeat the Bolsheviks and prevent the spread of communism across Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[53]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Buffer_states">Buffer states</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Buffer states">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Trotsky_on_a_Polish_poster_of_1920.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Trotsky_on_a_Polish_poster_of_1920.jpg/220px-Trotsky_on_a_Polish_poster_of_1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Trotsky_on_a_Polish_poster_of_1920.jpg/330px-Trotsky_on_a_Polish_poster_of_1920.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Trotsky_on_a_Polish_poster_of_1920.jpg/440px-Trotsky_on_a_Polish_poster_of_1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1913" data-file-height="2542" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Trotsky_on_a_Polish_poster_of_1920.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Polish anti-Soviet poster depicting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Lev Trotsky</a>. Small caption in the lower right corner reads:<br /> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> promised:<br /> We'll give you peace<br /> We'll give you freedom<br /> We'll give you land<br /> Work and bread<br /> Despicably they cheated<br /> They started a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet-Polish_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Polish war">war<br />
With Poland</a><br /> Instead of freedom they brought<br /> The fist<br /> Instead of land – confiscation<br /> Instead of work – misery<br /> Instead of bread – famine.<br /></div></div></div>
<p>The German Empire created several short-lived <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffer_state" title="Buffer state">buffer states</a> within its sphere of influence after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Baltic_Duchy" title="United Baltic Duchy">United Baltic Duchy</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia_(1918)" title="Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918)">Duchy of Courland and Semigallia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lithuania_(1918)" title="Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)">Kingdom of Lithuania</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1916%E2%80%931918)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918)">Kingdom of Poland</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[54]</a></sup> the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belarusian_People%27s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Belarusian People's Republic">Belarusian People's Republic</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_State" title="Ukrainian State">Ukrainian State</a>. Following Germany's Armistice in World War I in November 1918, the states were abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[56]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Finland" title="History of Finland">Finland</a> was the first republic that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Finnish Declaration of Independence">declared</a> its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pro-independence_movements_in_Russian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-independence movements in Russian Civil War">independence from Russia</a> in December 1917 and established itself in the ensuing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a> between pro-independence <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Guard_(Finland)" title="White Guard (Finland)">White Guards</a> and pro-Russian Bolshevik <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Guards_(Finland)" title="Red Guards (Finland)">Red Guards</a> from January–May 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[57]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Latvia" title="History of Latvia">Latvia</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Estonia" title="History of Estonia">Estonia</a> formed their own armies immediately after the abolition of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and the start of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_westward_offensive_of_1918%E2%80%931919" title="Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919">Soviet westward offensive</a> and subsequent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish-Soviet_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Soviet War">Polish-Soviet War</a> in November 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[58]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Geography_and_chronology">Geography and chronology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Geography and chronology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Southern Front of the Russian Civil War">Southern Front of the Russian Civil War</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Russia_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="North Russia Campaign">North Russia Campaign</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War">Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakut_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakut Revolt">Yakut Revolt</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a></div>
<p>In the European part of Russia the war was fought across three main fronts: the eastern, the southern and the northwestern. It can also be roughly split into the following periods.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Volunteer_Army_infantry_company.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Volunteer_Army_infantry_company.jpg/220px-Volunteer_Army_infantry_company.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Volunteer_Army_infantry_company.jpg/330px-Volunteer_Army_infantry_company.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Volunteer_Army_infantry_company.jpg/440px-Volunteer_Army_infantry_company.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="692" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Volunteer_Army_infantry_company.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Anti-Bolshevik <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volunteer_Army" title="Volunteer Army">Volunteer Army</a> in South Russia, January 1918</div></div></div>
<p>The first period lasted from the Revolution until the Armistice. Already on the date of the Revolution, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossack</a> General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexey_Kaledin" title="Alexey Kaledin">Alexey Kaledin</a> refused to recognize it and assumed full governmental authority in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_River,_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Don River, Russia">Don</a> region,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[59]</a></sup> where the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volunteer_Army" title="Volunteer Army">Volunteer Army</a> began amassing support. The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk also resulted in direct Allied intervention in Russia and the arming of military forces opposed to the Bolshevik government. There were also many German commanders who offered support against the Bolsheviks, fearing a confrontation with them was impending as well.
</p><p>During the first period, the Bolsheviks took control of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> out of the hands of the Provisional Government and White Army, setting up a base for the Communist Party in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" title="Eurasian Steppe">Steppe</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Turkestan</a>, where nearly two million Russian settlers were located.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964103_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964103-77">[60]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Uniformes_(koltchak)_001.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Uniformes_%28koltchak%29_001.jpg/220px-Uniformes_%28koltchak%29_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Uniformes_%28koltchak%29_001.jpg/330px-Uniformes_%28koltchak%29_001.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Uniformes_%28koltchak%29_001.jpg/440px-Uniformes_%28koltchak%29_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1433" data-file-height="1053" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Uniformes_(koltchak)_001.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Russian soldiers of the anti-Bolshevik <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberian_Army" title="Siberian Army">Siberian Army</a> in 1919</div></div></div>
<p>Most of the fighting in the first period was sporadic, involved only small groups and had a fluid and rapidly-shifting strategic situation. Among the antagonists were the Czechoslovak Legion,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[61]</a></sup> the Poles of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/4th_Rifle_Division_(Poland)" title="4th Rifle Division (Poland)">4th</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/5th_Rifle_Division_(Poland)" title="5th Rifle Division (Poland)">5th Rifle Divisions</a> and the pro-Bolshevik <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_riflemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Latvian riflemen">Red Latvian riflemen</a>.
</p><p>The second period of the war lasted from January to November 1919. At first the White armies' advances from the south (under Denikin), the east (under Kolchak) and the northwest (under Yudenich) were successful, forcing the Red Army and its allies back on all three fronts. In July 1919 the Red Army suffered another reverse after a mass defection of units in the Crimea to the anarchist Insurgent Army under Nestor Makhno, enabling anarchist forces to consolidate power in Ukraine. Leon Trotsky soon reformed the Red Army, concluding the first of two military alliances with the anarchists. In June the Red Army first checked Kolchak's advance. After a series of engagements, assisted by an Insurgent Army offensive against White supply lines, the Red Army defeated Denikin's and Yudenich's armies in October and November.
</p><p>The third period of the war was the extended siege of the last White forces in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>. General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyotr_Nikolayevich_Wrangel" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel">Wrangel</a> had gathered the remnants of Denikin's armies, occupying much of the Crimea. An attempted invasion of southern Ukraine was rebuffed by the Insurgent Army under Makhno's command. Pursued into Crimea by Makhno's troops, Wrangel went over to the defensive in the Crimea. After an abortive move north against the Red Army, Wrangel's troops were forced south by Red Army and Insurgent Army forces; Wrangel and the remains of his army were evacuated to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Constantinople</a> in November 1920.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Warfare">Warfare</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Warfare">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="October_Revolution_2">October Revolution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: October Revolution">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg/260px-Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="332" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg/390px-Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg/520px-Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="724" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>European theatre of the Russian Civil War</div></div></div>
<p>In the October Revolution, the Bolshevik Party directed the Red Guard (armed groups of workers and Imperial army deserters) to seize control of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Petrograd</a> (Saint Petersburg) and immediately began the armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former Russian Empire. In January 1918 the Bolsheviks dissolved the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Russian Constituent Assembly</a> and proclaimed the Soviets (workers' councils) as the new government of Russia.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Initial_anti-Bolshevik_uprisings">Initial anti-Bolshevik uprisings</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Initial anti-Bolshevik uprisings">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerensky-Krasnov_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerensky-Krasnov uprising">Kerensky-Krasnov uprising</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Junker_mutiny" title="Junker mutiny">Junker mutiny</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volunteer_Army" title="Volunteer Army">Volunteer Army</a></div>
<p>The first attempt to regain power from the Bolsheviks was made by the Kerensky-Krasnov uprising in October 1917. It was supported by the Junker Mutiny in Petrograd but was quickly put down by the Red Guard, notably including the Latvian Rifle Division.
</p><p>The initial groups that fought against the Communists were local Cossack armies that had declared their loyalty to the Provisional Government. Kaledin of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_Cossacks" title="Don Cossacks">Don Cossacks</a> and General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grigory_Mikhailovich_Semenov" class="mw-redirect" title="Grigory Mikhailovich Semenov">Grigory Semenov</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberian_Cossacks" title="Siberian Cossacks">Siberian Cossacks</a> were prominent among them. The leading Tsarist officers of the Imperial Russian Army also started to resist. In November, General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Vasilevich_Alekseev" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikhail Vasilevich Alekseev">Mikhail Alekseev</a>, the Tsar's Chief of Staff during the First World War, began to organize the Volunteer Army in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Novocherkassk" title="Novocherkassk">Novocherkassk</a>. Volunteers of the small army were mostly officers of the old Russian army, military cadets and students. In December 1917, Alekseev was joined by General Lavr Kornilov, Denikin and other Tsarist officers who had escaped from the jail, where they had been imprisoned following the abortive Kornilov affair just before the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mapolwdsley2007-14">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> On 9 December, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_Revolutionary_Committee" title="Military Revolutionary Committee">Military Revolutionary Committee</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rostov-on-Don" title="Rostov-on-Don">Rostov</a> rebelled, with the Bolsheviks controlling the city for five days until the Alekseev Organization supported Kaledin in recapturing the city. According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Kenez" title="Peter Kenez">Peter Kenez</a>, "The operation, begun on December 9, can be regarded as the beginning of the Civil War."<sup id="cite_ref-pk_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pk-79">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>Having stated in the November 1917 "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Declaration_of_Rights_of_Peoples_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration of Rights of Peoples of Russia">Declaration of Rights of Nations of Russia</a>" that any nation under imperial Russian rule should be immediately given the power of self-determination, the Bolsheviks had begun to usurp the power of the Provisional Government in the territories of Central Asia soon after the establishment of the Turkestan Committee in Tashkent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195172_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195172-80">[63]</a></sup> In April 1917 the Provisional Government set up the committee, which was mostly made up of former Tsarist officials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964104_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964104-81">[64]</a></sup> The Bolsheviks attempted to take control of the Committee in Tashkent on 12 September 1917 but it was unsuccessful, and many leaders were arrested. However, because the Committee lacked representation of the native population and poor Russian settlers, they had to release the Bolshevik prisoners almost immediately because of a public outcry, and a successful takeover of that government body took place two months later in November.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195170_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195170-82">[65]</a></sup> The Leagues of Mohammedam Working People (which Russian settlers and natives who had been sent to work behind the lines for the Tsarist government in 1916 formed in March 1917) had led numerous strikes in the industrial centers throughout September 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195168–69_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195168–69-83">[66]</a></sup> However, after the Bolshevik destruction of the Provisional Government in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a>, Muslim elites formed an autonomous government in Turkestan, commonly called the "Kokand autonomy" (or simply <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kokand" title="Kokand">Kokand</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195174_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195174-84">[67]</a></sup> The White Russians supported that government body, which lasted several months because of Bolshevik troop isolation from Moscow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967226_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967226-85">[68]</a></sup> In January 1918 the Soviet forces, under Lt. Col. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Artemyevich_Muravyov" title="Mikhail Artemyevich Muravyov">Muravyov</a>, invaded Ukraine and invested <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>, where the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Council_of_Ukraine" title="Central Council of Ukraine">Central Council</a> of the Ukrainian People's Republic held power. With the help of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kiev_Arsenal_January_Uprising" title="Kiev Arsenal January Uprising">Kiev Arsenal Uprising</a>, the Bolsheviks <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1918)" title="Battle of Kiev (1918)">captured the city</a> on 26 January.<sup id="cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mapolwdsley2007-14">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 35">: 35 </span></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Peace_with_the_Central_Powers">Peace with the Central Powers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Peace with the Central Powers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Trotzki_Deutsche_Brest-Litowsk1917.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Trotzki_Deutsche_Brest-Litowsk1917.jpg/220px-Trotzki_Deutsche_Brest-Litowsk1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Trotzki_Deutsche_Brest-Litowsk1917.jpg/330px-Trotzki_Deutsche_Brest-Litowsk1917.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Trotzki_Deutsche_Brest-Litowsk1917.jpg/440px-Trotzki_Deutsche_Brest-Litowsk1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="621" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Trotzki_Deutsche_Brest-Litowsk1917.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Soviet delegation with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Trotsky</a> greeted by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German</a> officers at Brest-Litovsk, 8 January 1918</div></div></div>
<p>The Bolsheviks decided to immediately make peace with the Central Powers, as they had promised the Russian people before the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[69]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>'s political enemies attributed that decision to his sponsorship by the Foreign Office of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">Wilhelm II, German Emperor</a>, offered to Lenin in hope that, with a revolution, Russia would withdraw from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. That suspicion was bolstered by the German Foreign Ministry's sponsorship of Lenin's return to Petrograd.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[70]</a></sup> However, after the military fiasco of the summer offensive (June 1917) by the Russian Provisional Government had devastated the structure of the Russian Army, it became crucial that Lenin realize the promised peace.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[71]</a></sup> Even before the failed summer offensive the Russian population was very skeptical about the continuation of the war. Western socialists had promptly arrived from France and from the UK to convince the Russians to continue the fight, but could not change the new pacifist mood of Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[72]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 16 December 1917 an armistice was signed between Russia and the Central Powers in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brest-Litovsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Brest-Litovsk">Brest-Litovsk</a> and peace talks began.<sup id="cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mapolwdsley2007-14">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 42">: 42 </span></sup> As a condition for peace, the proposed treaty by the Central Powers conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist">nationalists</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatives</a>. Leon Trotsky, representing the Bolsheviks, refused at first to sign the treaty while continuing to observe a unilateral cease-fire, following the policy of "No war, no peace".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithTucker2014554–555_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithTucker2014554–555-90">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>Therefore, on 18 February 1918, the Germans began <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Faustschlag" title="Operation Faustschlag">Operation Faustschlag</a> on the Eastern Front, encountering virtually no resistance in a campaign that lasted 11 days.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithTucker2014554–555_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithTucker2014554–555-90">[73]</a></sup> Signing a formal peace treaty was the only option in the eyes of the Bolsheviks because the Russian Army was demobilized, and the newly formed Red Guard could not stop the advance. They also understood that the impending counterrevolutionary resistance was more dangerous than the concessions of the treaty, which Lenin viewed as temporary in the light of aspirations for a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_revolution" title="World revolution">world revolution</a>. The Soviets acceded to a peace treaty, and the formal agreement, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, was ratified on 3 March. The Soviets viewed the treaty as merely a necessary and expedient means to end the war.
</p>
<h3><span id="Ukraine.2C_South_Russia.2C_and_Caucasus_.281918.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Ukraine,_South_Russia,_and_Caucasus_(1918)">Ukraine, South Russia, and Caucasus (1918)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Ukraine, South Russia, and Caucasus (1918)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kiev_Arsenal_January_Uprising" title="Kiev Arsenal January Uprising">Kiev Arsenal January Uprising</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ice_March" title="Ice March">Ice March</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/26_Baku_Commissars" title="26 Baku Commissars">26 Baku Commissars</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Caucasus_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="German Caucasus Expedition">German Caucasus Expedition</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Baku" title="Battle of Baku">Battle of Baku</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Caspian_Dictatorship" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Caspian Dictatorship">Central Caspian Dictatorship</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanian_military_intervention_in_Bessarabia" title="Romanian military intervention in Bessarabia">Romanian military intervention in Bessarabia</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Dismembered_Russia_%E2%80%94_Some_Fragments_(NYT_article,_Feb._17,_1918).png" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Dismembered_Russia_%E2%80%94_Some_Fragments_%28NYT_article%2C_Feb._17%2C_1918%29.png/220px-Dismembered_Russia_%E2%80%94_Some_Fragments_%28NYT_article%2C_Feb._17%2C_1918%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Dismembered_Russia_%E2%80%94_Some_Fragments_%28NYT_article%2C_Feb._17%2C_1918%29.png/330px-Dismembered_Russia_%E2%80%94_Some_Fragments_%28NYT_article%2C_Feb._17%2C_1918%29.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Dismembered_Russia_%E2%80%94_Some_Fragments_%28NYT_article%2C_Feb._17%2C_1918%29.png/440px-Dismembered_Russia_%E2%80%94_Some_Fragments_%28NYT_article%2C_Feb._17%2C_1918%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1500" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Dismembered_Russia_%E2%80%94_Some_Fragments_(NYT_article,_Feb._17,_1918).png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>February 1918 article from <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> showing a map of the Russian Imperial territories claimed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a> at the time, before the annexation of the Austro-Hungarian lands of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="West Ukrainian People's Republic">West Ukrainian People's Republic</a></div></div></div>
<p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> the German-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austro-Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungary">Austrian</a> Operation Faustschlag had by April 1918 removed the Bolsheviks from Ukraine.<sup id="cite_ref-30076britbrit_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30076britbrit-91">[74]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-istpravda152320b_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-istpravda152320b-92">[75]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UkrainianWeek16042018UwIbbb_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UkrainianWeek16042018UwIbbb-93">[76]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-retrospective2014031918b_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-retrospective2014031918b-94">[77]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harvard11181181bbb_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard11181181bbb-95">[78]</a></sup> The German and Austro-Hungarian victories in Ukraine were caused by the apathy of the locals and the inferior fighting skills of Bolsheviks troops to their Austro-Hungarian and German counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-harvard11181181bbb_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard11181181bbb-95">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p>Under Soviet pressure, the Volunteer Army embarked on the epic Ice March from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Krasnodar" title="Krasnodar">Yekaterinodar</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuban" title="Kuban">Kuban</a> on 22 February 1918, where they joined with the Kuban Cossacks to mount an abortive assault on Yekaterinodar.<sup id="cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mapolwdsley2007-14">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 29">: 29 </span></sup> The Soviets recaptured Rostov on the next day.<sup id="cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mapolwdsley2007-14">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 29">: 29 </span></sup> Kornilov was killed in the fighting on 13 April, and Denikin took over command. Fighting off its pursuers without respite, the army succeeded in breaking its way through back towards the Don by May, where the Cossack uprising against the Bolsheviks had started.<sup id="cite_ref-pk_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pk-79">[62]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 115–118">: 115–118 </span></sup>
</p><p>The Baku Soviet Commune was established on 13 April. Germany landed its Caucasus Expedition troops in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poti" title="Poti">Poti</a> on 8 June. The Ottoman <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Army_of_Islam_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Army of Islam (Ottoman Empire)">Army of Islam</a> (in coalition with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Democratic Republic">Azerbaijan</a>) drove them out of Baku on 26 July 1918. Subsequently, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian_Revolutionary_Federation" title="Armenian Revolutionary Federation">Dashanaks</a>, Right SRs and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Menshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Menshevik">Mensheviks</a> started negotiations with Gen. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lionel_Dunsterville" title="Lionel Dunsterville">Dunsterville</a>, the commander of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> troops in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>. The Bolsheviks and their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_SR" class="mw-redirect" title="Left SR">Left SR</a> allies were opposed to it, but on 25 July the majority of the Soviets voted to call in the British and the Bolsheviks resigned. The Baku Soviet Commune ended its existence and was replaced by the Central Caspian Dictatorship.
</p><p>In June 1918 the Volunteer Army, numbering some 9,000 men, started its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Kuban_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuban campaign">Second Kuban campaign</a>, capturing Yekaterinodar on 16 August, followed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armavir,_Russia" title="Armavir, Russia">Armavir</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stavropol" title="Stavropol">Stavropol</a>. By early 1919, they controlled the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Caucasus">Northern Caucasus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pk_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pk-79">[62]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 166–174, 182, 189–190">: 166–174, 182, 189–190 </span></sup>
</p><p>On 8 October, Alekseev died. On 8 January 1919, Denikin became the Supreme Commander of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_South_Russia" title="Armed Forces of South Russia">Armed Forces of South Russia</a>, uniting the Volunteer Army with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyotr_Krasnov" title="Pyotr Krasnov">Pyotr Krasnov</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_Army" title="Don Army">Don Army</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel" title="Pyotr Wrangel">Pyotr Wrangel</a> became Denikin's Chief of Staff.<sup id="cite_ref-pk_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pk-79">[62]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 195, 204, 267–270">: 195, 204, 267–270 </span></sup>
</p><p>In December, three-fourths of the army was in the Northern Caucasus. That included three thousand of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Liakhov" title="Vladimir Liakhov">Vladimir Liakhov</a>'s soldiers around <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladikavkaz" title="Vladikavkaz">Vladikavkaz</a>, thirteen thousand soldiers under Wrangel and Kazanovich in the center of the front, Stankevich's almost three thousand men with the Don Cossacks, while <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_May-Mayevsky" title="Vladimir May-Mayevsky">Vladimir May-Mayevsky</a>'s three thousand were sent to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Donets_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Donets basin">Donets basin</a>, and de Bode commanded two thousand in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pk2_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pk2-96">[79]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Eastern_Russia.2C_Siberia_and_the_Far_East_.281918.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Eastern_Russia,_Siberia_and_the_Far_East_(1918)">Eastern Russia, Siberia and the Far East (1918)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Eastern Russia, Siberia and the Far East (1918)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion" title="Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion">Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_Members_of_the_Constituent_Assembly" title="Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly">Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_All-Russian_Government" title="Provisional All-Russian Government">Provisional All-Russian Government</a></div>
<p>The revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion broke out in May 1918, and proceeded to occupy the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway" title="Trans-Siberian Railway">Trans-Siberian Railway</a> from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ufa" title="Ufa">Ufa</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a>. Uprisings overthrew other Bolshevik towns. On 7 July, the western portion of the legion declared itself to be a new eastern front, anticipating allied intervention. According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Henry_Chamberlin" title="William Henry Chamberlin">William Henry Chamberlin</a>, "Two governments emerged as a result of the first successes of the Czechs: the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Siberian_Government_(Omsk)" title="Provisional Siberian Government (Omsk)">West Siberian Commissariat</a> and the Government of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_Members_of_the_Constituent_Assembly" title="Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly">Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly</a> in Samara." On 17 July, shortly before the fall of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yekaterinburg" title="Yekaterinburg">Yekaterinburg</a>, the former Tsar <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicholas_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II">Nicholas II</a>, and his family were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Execution_of_the_Romanov_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Execution of the Romanov family">murdered</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wc2_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wc2-97">[80]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6–12, 91">: 6–12, 91 </span></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Czechoslovak_victims_of_the_Bolsheviks_near_Vladivostok.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Czechoslovak_victims_of_the_Bolsheviks_near_Vladivostok.jpg/220px-Czechoslovak_victims_of_the_Bolsheviks_near_Vladivostok.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Czechoslovak_victims_of_the_Bolsheviks_near_Vladivostok.jpg/330px-Czechoslovak_victims_of_the_Bolsheviks_near_Vladivostok.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Czechoslovak_victims_of_the_Bolsheviks_near_Vladivostok.jpg/440px-Czechoslovak_victims_of_the_Bolsheviks_near_Vladivostok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="419" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Czechoslovak_victims_of_the_Bolsheviks_near_Vladivostok.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Czechoslovak legionaries of the 8th Regiment at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolsk-Ussuriysky" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolsk-Ussuriysky">Nikolsk-Ussuriysky</a> killed by Bolsheviks, 1918. Above them stand also members of the Czechoslovak Legion.</div></div></div>
<p>The Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries supported <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> fighting against Soviet control of food supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[81]</a></sup> In May 1918, with the support of the Czechoslovak Legion, they took <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samara_Oblast" title="Samara Oblast">Samara</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saratov" title="Saratov">Saratov</a>, establishing the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_Members_of_the_Constituent_Assembly" title="Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly">Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly</a>—known as the "Komuch". By July the authority of the Komuch extended over much of the area controlled by the Czechoslovak Legion. The Komuch pursued an ambivalent social policy, combining democratic and socialist measures, such as the institution of an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eight_hour_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight hour day">eight-hour working day</a>, with "restorative" actions, such as returning both factories and land to their former owners. After the fall of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kazan" title="Kazan">Kazan</a>, Vladimir Lenin called for the dispatch of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petrograd" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrograd">Petrograd</a> workers to the Kazan Front: "We must send down the <i>maximum</i> number of Petrograd workers: (1) a few dozen 'leaders' like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benyamin_Kayurov" title="Benyamin Kayurov">Kayurov</a>; (2) a few thousand militants 'from the ranks'".
</p><p>After a series of reverses at the front, the Bolsheviks' War Commissar, Trotsky, instituted increasingly harsh measures in order to prevent unauthorised withdrawals, desertions, and mutinies in the Red Army. In the field, the Cheka Special Investigations Forces (termed the <i>Special Punitive Department of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combat of Counter-Revolution and Sabotage</i> or <i>Special Punitive Brigades</i>) followed the Red Army, conducting field tribunals and summary executions of soldiers and officers who deserted, retreated from their positions, or failed to display sufficient offensive zeal.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[82]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[83]</a></sup> The Cheka Special Investigations Forces were also charged with the detection of sabotage and counter-revolutionary activity by Red Army soldiers and commanders. Trotsky extended the use of the death penalty to the occasional political commissar whose detachment retreated or broke in the face of the enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVolkogonov1996175_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVolkogonov1996175-101">[84]</a></sup> In August, frustrated at continued reports of Red Army troops breaking under fire, Trotsky authorised the formation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barrier_troops" title="Barrier troops">barrier troops</a> – stationed behind unreliable Red Army units and given orders to shoot anyone withdrawing from the battle line without authorisation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVolkogonov1996180_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVolkogonov1996180-102">[85]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kolchak1919troops.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Kolchak1919troops.jpg/220px-Kolchak1919troops.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Kolchak1919troops.jpg/330px-Kolchak1919troops.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Kolchak1919troops.jpg/440px-Kolchak1919troops.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="1253" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kolchak1919troops.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Admiral <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Kolchak" title="Alexander Kolchak">Alexander Kolchak</a> reviewing the troops, 1919</div></div></div>
<p>In September 1918, the Komuch, the Siberian Provisional Government, and other anti-Bolshevik Russians agreed during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Meeting_in_Ufa" title="State Meeting in Ufa">State Meeting in Ufa</a> to form a new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_All-Russian_Government" title="Provisional All-Russian Government">Provisional All-Russian Government</a> in Omsk, headed by a Directory of five: two <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionary_Party" title="Socialist Revolutionary Party">Socialist-Revolutionaries</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Avksentiev" title="Nikolai Avksentiev">Nikolai Avksentiev</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Zenzinov" title="Vladimir Zenzinov">Vladimir Zenzinov</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kadet" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadet">Kadet</a> lawyer V. A. Vinogradov, Siberian Premier Vologodskii, and General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vasily_Boldyrev" title="Vasily Boldyrev">Vasily Boldyrev</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wc2_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wc2-97">[80]</a></sup>
</p><p>By the fall of 1918, anti-Bolshevik White forces in the east included the People's Army (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Komuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Komuch">Komuch</a>), the Siberian Army (of the Siberian Provisional Government) and insurgent Cossack units of Orenburg, the Urals, Siberia, Semirechye, Baikal, and Amur and Ussuri Cossacks, nominally under the orders of Gen. V.G. Boldyrev, Commander-in-Chief, appointed by the Ufa Directorate.
</p><p>On the Volga, Col. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Kappel" title="Vladimir Kappel">Kappel</a>'s White detachment captured Kazan on 7 August, but Red Forces recaptured the city on 8 September 1918 following a counteroffensive. On the 11th <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Simbirsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Simbirsk">Simbirsk</a> fell, and on 8 October <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samara,_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Samara, Russia">Samara</a>. The Whites fell back eastwards to Ufa and Orenburg.
</p><p>In Omsk, the Russian Provisional Government quickly came under the influence and later the dominance of its new War Minister, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rear-Admiral" class="mw-redirect" title="Rear-Admiral">Rear-Admiral</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aleksandr_Vasilevich_Kolchak" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleksandr Vasilevich Kolchak">Kolchak</a>. On 18 November a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a> established Kolchak as supreme leader. Two members of the Directory were arrested, and subsequently deported, while Kolchak was proclaimed "Supreme Ruler", and "Commander-in-Chief of all Land and Naval Forces of Russia."<sup id="cite_ref-wc2_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wc2-97">[80]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 177–178">: 177–178 </span></sup> By mid-December 1918, the White armies had to leave Ufa, but they balanced that failure with a successful drive towards <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perm,_Russia" title="Perm, Russia">Perm</a>, which they took on 24 December.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Barrier_troops">Barrier troops</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Barrier troops">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a> and later the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, the concept of barrier troops first arose in August 1918 with the formation of the заградительные отряды (<i>zagraditelnye otriady</i>), translated as "blocking troops" or "anti-retreat detachments" (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">заградотряды, заградительные отряды, отряды заграждения</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-volko_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volko-103">[86]</a></sup> The barrier troops comprised personnel drawn from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a> secret police punitive detachments or from regular Red Army infantry regiments.
</p><p>The first use of the barrier troops by the Red Army occurred in the late summer and fall of 1918 in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(RSFSR)" title="Eastern Front (RSFSR)">Eastern front</a> during the Russian Civil War, when <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_(Soviet_Union)" title="Minister of Defence (Soviet Union)">People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs</a> (War Commissar) <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> of the Communist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> government authorized <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Tukhachevsky" title="Mikhail Tukhachevsky">Mikhail Tukhachevsky</a>, the commander of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1st_Army_(RSFSR)" title="1st Army (RSFSR)">1st Army</a>, to station blocking detachments behind unreliable Red Army infantry regiments in the 1st Red Army, with orders to shoot if front-line troops either deserted or retreated without permission.<sup id="cite_ref-volko_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volko-103">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>
In December 1918, Trotsky ordered that detachments of additional barrier troops be raised for attachment to each infantry formation in the Red Army. On December 18 he cabled: </p><blockquote><p>How do things stand with the blocking units? As far as I am aware they have not been included in our establishment and it appears they have no personnel. It is absolutely essential that we have at least an embryonic network of blocking units and that we work out a procedure for bringing them up to strength and deploying them.<sup id="cite_ref-volko_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volko-103">[86]</a></sup></p></blockquote><p> The barrier troops were also used to enforce Bolshevik control over food supplies in areas controlled by the Red Army as part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">war communism</a> policies, a role which soon earned them the hatred of the Russian civilian population.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[87]</a></sup> These policies led to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921%E2%80%931922" title="Russian famine of 1921–1922">Russian famine of 1921–1922</a>, which killed about five million people.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[88]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[89]</a></sup>
</p><h3><span id="Central_Asia_.281918.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Central_Asia_(1918)">Central Asia (1918)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Central Asia (1918)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Europe_map_1919.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Europe_map_1919.jpg/220px-Europe_map_1919.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Europe_map_1919.jpg/330px-Europe_map_1919.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Europe_map_1919.jpg/440px-Europe_map_1919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1996" data-file-height="1506" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Europe_map_1919.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>London Geographical Institute's 1919 map of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> after the treaties of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk_(Russia%E2%80%93Central_Powers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)">Brest-Litovsk</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Batum" title="Treaty of Batum">Batum</a> and before the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Tartu_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Treaty of Tartu (disambiguation)">treaties of Tartu</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Kars" title="Treaty of Kars">Kars</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peace_of_Riga" title="Peace of Riga">Riga</a></div></div></div>
<p>In February 1918 the Red Army overthrew the White Russian-supported Kokand Autonomy of Turkestan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakowska-Harmstone197019_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakowska-Harmstone197019-107">[90]</a></sup> Although that move seemed to solidify Bolshevik power in Central Asia, more troubles soon arose for the Red Army as the Allied Forces began to intervene. British support of the White Army provided the greatest threat to the Red Army in Central Asia during 1918. Britain sent three prominent military leaders to the area. One was Lieutenant Colonel <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Marshman_Baile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frederick Marshman Baile (page does not exist)">Frederick Marshman Baile</a>, who recorded a mission to Tashkent, from where the Bolsheviks forced him to flee. Another was General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wilfrid_Malleson" title="Wilfrid Malleson">Wilfrid Malleson</a>, leading the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malleson_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Malleson Mission">Malleson Mission</a>, who assisted the Mensheviks in Ashkhabad (now the capital of Turkmenistan) with a small Anglo-Indian force. However, he failed to gain control of Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva. The third was Major General Dunsterville, who was driven out by the Bolsheviks of Central Asia only a month after his arrival in August 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195175_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195175-108">[91]</a></sup> Despite setbacks as a result of British invasions during 1918, the Bolsheviks continued to make progress in bringing the Central Asian population under their influence. The first regional congress of the Russian Communist Party convened in the city of Tashkent in June 1918 in order to build support for a local Bolshevik Party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967232_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967232-109">[92]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Left_SR_Uprising">Left SR Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Left SR Uprising">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_SR_uprising" title="Left SR uprising">Left SR uprising</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yaroslavl_Uprising" title="Yaroslavl Uprising">Yaroslavl Uprising</a></div>
<p>On 6 July 1918, two <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_Socialist-Revolutionaries" title="Left Socialist-Revolutionaries">Left Socialist-Revolutionaries</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a> employees, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakov_Blumkin" title="Yakov Blumkin">Yakov Blumkin</a> and Nikolai Andreyev, assassinated the German ambassador, Count <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wilhelm_Mirbach" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Mirbach">Mirbach</a>. In Moscow a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_SR_uprising" title="Left SR uprising">Left SR uprising</a> was put down by the Bolsheviks, mass arrests of Socialist-Revolutionaries followed, and executions became more frequent. Chamberlin noted, "The time of relative leniency toward former fellow-revolutionists was over. The Left Socialist Revolutionaries, of course, were no longer tolerated as members of the Soviets; from this time the Soviet regime became a pure and undiluted dictatorship of the Communist Party." Similarly, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boris_Savinkov" title="Boris Savinkov">Boris Savinkov</a>'s surprise attacks were suppressed, with many of the conspirators being executed, as "Mass Red Terror" became a reality.<sup id="cite_ref-wc2_97-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wc2-97">[80]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 50–59">: 50–59 </span></sup>
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<h3><span id="Estonia.2C_Latvia_and_Petrograd"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Estonia,_Latvia_and_Petrograd">Estonia, Latvia and Petrograd</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Estonia, Latvia and Petrograd">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Petrograd" title="Battle of Petrograd">Battle of Petrograd</a></div>
<p>Estonia <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">cleared its territory</a> of the Red Army by January 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[93]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baltische_Landeswehr" title="Baltische Landeswehr">Baltic German volunteers</a> captured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a> from the Red <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_Riflemen" title="Latvian Riflemen">Latvian Riflemen</a> on 22 May, but the Estonian 3rd Division <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_C%C4%93sis_(1919)" title="Battle of Cēsis (1919)">defeated</a> the Baltic Germans a month later, aiding the establishment of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Latvia" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Latvia">Republic of Latvia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-axishistory_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-axishistory-111">[94]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:NikolaiYudenich1916.jpeg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/NikolaiYudenich1916.jpeg/220px-NikolaiYudenich1916.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/NikolaiYudenich1916.jpeg/330px-NikolaiYudenich1916.jpeg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/NikolaiYudenich1916.jpeg/440px-NikolaiYudenich1916.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="730" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:NikolaiYudenich1916.jpeg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Yudenich" title="Nikolai Yudenich">Nikolai Yudenich</a></div></div></div>
<p>That rendered possible another threat to the Red Army, from General Yudenich, who had spent the summer organizing the Northwestern Army in Estonia with local and British support. In October 1919, he tried to capture Petrograd in a sudden assault with a force of around 20,000 men. The attack was well-executed, using night attacks and lightning cavalry maneuvers to turn the flanks of the defending Red Army. Yudenich also had six British tanks, which caused panic whenever they appeared. The Allies gave large quantities of aid to Yudenich, but he complained of receiving insufficient support.
</p><p>By 19 October, Yudenich's troops had reached the outskirts of the city. Some members of the Bolshevik central committee in Moscow were willing to give up Petrograd, but Trotsky refused to accept the loss of the city and personally organized its defenses. Trotsky himself declared, "It is impossible for a little army of 15,000 ex-officers to master a working-class capital of 700,000 inhabitants." He settled on a strategy of urban defense, proclaiming that the city would "defend itself on its own ground" and that the White Army would be lost in a labyrinth of fortified streets and there "meet its grave".<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[95]</a></sup>
</p><p>Trotsky armed all available workers, men and women, and ordered the transfer of military forces from Moscow. Within a few weeks, the Red Army defending Petrograd had tripled in size and outnumbered Yudenich three to one. Yudenich, short of supplies, then decided to call off the siege of the city and withdrew. He repeatedly asked permission to withdraw his army across the border to Estonia. However, units retreating across the border were disarmed and interned by orders of the Estonian government, which had entered into peace negotiations with the Soviet Government on 16 September and had been informed by the Soviet authorities of their 6 November decision that if the White Army was allowed to retreat into Estonia, it would be pursued across the border by the Reds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2006516_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2006516-113">[96]</a></sup> In fact, the Reds attacked Estonian army positions and fighting continued until a ceasefire went into effect on 3 January 1920. After the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Tartu_(Russian%E2%80%93Estonian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)">Treaty of Tartu</a>. most of Yudenich's soldiers went into exile. Former Imperial Russian and then Finnish General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mannerheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannerheim">Mannerheim</a> planned an intervention to help the Whites in Russia capture Petrograd. However, he did not gain the necessary support for the endeavour. Lenin considered it "completely certain, that the slightest aid from Finland would have determined the fate of [the city]".
</p>
<h3><span id="Northern_Russia_.281919.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Northern_Russia_(1919)">Northern Russia (1919)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Northern Russia (1919)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Russia_intervention" title="North Russia intervention">North Russia intervention</a></div>
<p>The British occupied <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murmansk" title="Murmansk">Murmansk</a> and, alongside the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">Americans</a>, seized <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arkhangelsk" title="Arkhangelsk">Arkhangelsk</a>. With the retreat of Kolchak in Siberia, they pulled their troops out of the cities before the winter trapped them in the port. The remaining White forces under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yevgeny_Miller" title="Yevgeny Miller">Yevgeny Miller</a> evacuated the region in February 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[97]</a></sup>
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<h3><span id="Siberia_.281919.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Siberia_(1919)">Siberia (1919)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Siberia (1919)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>At the beginning of March 1919, the general offensive of the Whites on the eastern front began. Ufa was retaken on 13 March; by mid-April, the White Army stopped at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glazov" title="Glazov">Glazov</a>–<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chistopol" title="Chistopol">Chistopol</a>–<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bugulma" title="Bugulma">Bugulma</a>–<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buguruslan" title="Buguruslan">Buguruslan</a>–Sharlyk line. Reds started their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_counteroffensive" title="Eastern Front counteroffensive">counteroffensive against Kolchak's forces</a> at the end of April. The Red 5th Army, led by the capable commander <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tukhachevsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukhachevsky">Tukhachevsky</a>, captured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elabuga" class="mw-redirect" title="Elabuga">Elabuga</a> on 26 May, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarapul" title="Sarapul">Sarapul</a> on 2 June and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Izevsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Izevsk">Izevsk</a> on the 7th and continued to push forward. Both sides had victories and losses, but by the middle of summer the Red Army was larger than the White Army and had managed to recapture territory previously lost.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[98]</a></sup>
</p><p>Following the abortive offensive at Chelyabinsk, the White armies withdrew beyond the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tobol" title="Tobol">Tobol</a>. In September 1919 a White offensive was launched against the Tobol Front, the last attempt to change the course of events. However, on 14 October the Reds counterattacked, and thus began the uninterrupted <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Siberian_Ice_March" title="Great Siberian Ice March">retreat of the Whites to the east</a>. On 14 November 1919 the Red Army captured Omsk.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[99]</a></sup> Adm. Kolchak lost control of his government shortly after the defeat; White Army forces in Siberia had essentially ceased to exist by December. Retreat of the eastern front by White armies lasted three months, until mid-February 1920, when the survivors, after crossing Lake Baikal, reached the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chita,_Zabaykalsky_Krai" title="Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai">Chita</a> area and joined <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ataman_Semenov" class="mw-redirect" title="Ataman Semenov">Ataman Semenov</a>'s forces.
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<h3><span id="South_Russia_.281919.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="South_Russia_(1919)">South Russia (1919)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: South Russia (1919)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:192px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%D0%97%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8E.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%D0%97%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8E.jpg/190px-%D0%97%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8E.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="305" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%D0%97%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8E.jpg/285px-%D0%97%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8E.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%D0%97%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8E.jpg/380px-%D0%97%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8E.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1486" data-file-height="2386" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%D0%97%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8E.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Anti-Bolshevik propaganda poster "For united Russia" representing Soviet Russia as a fallen communist dragon and the White Cause as a crusading knight</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:212px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Polish-soviet_propaganda_poster_1920.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Polish-soviet_propaganda_poster_1920.jpg/210px-Polish-soviet_propaganda_poster_1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="157" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Polish-soviet_propaganda_poster_1920.jpg/315px-Polish-soviet_propaganda_poster_1920.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Polish-soviet_propaganda_poster_1920.jpg/420px-Polish-soviet_propaganda_poster_1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3952" data-file-height="2960" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Polish-soviet_propaganda_poster_1920.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polonophobic</a> Soviet propaganda poster, 1920</div></div></div>
<p>The Cossacks had been unable to organise and capitalise on their successes at the end of 1918. By 1919 they had begun to run short of supplies. Consequently, when the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Soviet Russia</a>'s counteroffensive began in January 1919 under the Bolshevik commander <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Antonov-Ovseenko" title="Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko">Antonov-Ovseenko</a>, the Cossack forces rapidly fell apart. The Red Army captured Kiev on 3 February 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[100]</a></sup>
</p><p>Denikin's military strength continued to grow in 1919, with significant munitions supplied by the British. In January, Denikin's Armed Forces of South Russia (AFSR) completed the elimination of Red forces in the northern Caucasus and moved north, in an effort to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_for_the_Donbas_(1919)" title="Battle for the Donbas (1919)">protect the Don district</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pk2_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pk2-96">[79]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 20–35">: 20–35 </span></sup>
</p><p>On 18 December 1918, French forces landed in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a> (now Odesa) and then the Crimea, but evacuated Odessa on 6 April 1919, and the Crimea by the end of the month. According to Chamberlin, "But France gave far less practical aid to the Whites than did England; its sole independent venture in intervention, at Odessa, ended in a complete fiasco."<sup id="cite_ref-wc2_97-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wc2-97">[80]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 151, 165–167">: 151, 165–167 </span></sup>
</p><p>Denikin then reorganized the Armed Forces of South Russia under the leadership of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_May-Mayevsky" title="Vladimir May-Mayevsky">Vladimir May-Mayevsky</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Sidorin" title="Vladimir Sidorin">Vladimir Sidorin</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel" title="Pyotr Wrangel">Pyotr Wrangel</a>. On 22 May, Wrangel's Caucasian army defeated the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/10th_Army_(RSFSR)" title="10th Army (RSFSR)">10th Army (RSFSR)</a> in the battle for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Velikoknyazheskaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Velikoknyazheskaya">Velikoknyazheskaya</a>, and then captured Tsaritsyn on 1 July. Sidorin advanced north toward <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voronezh" title="Voronezh">Voronezh</a>, increasing his army's strength in the process. On 25 June, May–Mayevsky captured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kharkov" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharkov">Kharkov</a>, and then <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ekaterinoslav" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekaterinoslav">Ekaterinoslav</a> on 30 June, which forced the Reds to abandon <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>. On 3 July, Denikin issued his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Advance_on_Moscow_(1919)" title="Advance on Moscow (1919)">Moscow directive</a>, in which his armies would converge on Moscow.<sup id="cite_ref-pk2_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pk2-96">[79]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37–41">: 37–41 </span></sup>
</p><p>Although Britain had withdrawn its own troops from the theatre, it continued to give significant military aid (money, weapons, food, ammunition and some military advisers) to the White Armies during 1919. Major <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ewen_Cameron_Bruce" title="Ewen Cameron Bruce">Ewen Cameron Bruce</a> of the British Army had volunteered to command a British tank mission assisting the White Army. He was awarded the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Order" title="Distinguished Service Order">Distinguished Service Order</a><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[101]</a></sup> for his bravery during the June 1919 Battle of Tsaritsyn for single-handedly storming and capturing the fortified city of Tsaritsyn, under heavy shell fire in a single tank, which led to the capture of over 40,000 prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinvig2006225_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinvig2006225-119">[102]</a></sup> The fall of Tsaritsyn is viewed "as one of the key battles of the Russian Civil War" and greatly helped the White Russian cause.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinvig2006225_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinvig2006225-119">[102]</a></sup> The notable historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sir_Basil_Henry_Liddell_Hart" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart">Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart</a> comments that Bruce's tank action during the battle is to be seen as "one of the most remarkable feats in the whole history of the Tank Corps".<sup id="cite_ref-BasilLiddellHart_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BasilLiddellHart-120">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 14 August, the Bolsheviks launched their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Front_counteroffensive" title="Southern Front counteroffensive">Southern Front counteroffensive</a>. After six weeks of heavy fighting the counteroffensive failed, and Denikin was able to capture more territory. By November, White Forces had reached the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zbruch" title="Zbruch">Zbruch</a>, the Ukrainian-Polish border.<sup id="cite_ref-pk2_96-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pk2-96">[79]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 43, 154">: 43, 154 </span></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wrangel_after_worship_Tsaritsyn_1919.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Wrangel_after_worship_Tsaritsyn_1919.jpg/220px-Wrangel_after_worship_Tsaritsyn_1919.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Wrangel_after_worship_Tsaritsyn_1919.jpg/330px-Wrangel_after_worship_Tsaritsyn_1919.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Wrangel_after_worship_Tsaritsyn_1919.jpg/440px-Wrangel_after_worship_Tsaritsyn_1919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2512" data-file-height="1927" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wrangel_after_worship_Tsaritsyn_1919.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel" title="Pyotr Wrangel">Pyotr Wrangel</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Tsaritsyn" title="Battle of Tsaritsyn">Tsaritsyn</a>, 15 October 1919</div></div></div>
<p>Denikin's forces constituted a real threat and for a time threatened to reach Moscow. The Red Army, stretched thin by fighting on all fronts, was forced out of Kiev on 30 August. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kursk" title="Kursk">Kursk</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oryol" title="Oryol">Orel</a> were taken, on 20 September and 14 October, respectively. The latter, only 205 miles (330 km) from Moscow, was the closest the AFSR would come to its target.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenez197744_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenez197744-121">[104]</a></sup> The Cossack <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_Army" title="Don Army">Don Army</a> under the command of General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Sidorin" title="Vladimir Sidorin">Vladimir Sidorin</a> continued north towards <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voronezh" title="Voronezh">Voronezh</a>, but <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semyon_Budyonny" title="Semyon Budyonny">Semyon Budyonny</a>'s cavalrymen defeated them there on 24 October. That allowed the Red Army to cross the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Don_River_(Russia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Don River (Russia)">Don River</a>, threatening to split the Don and Volunteer Armies. Fierce fighting took place at the key rail junction of Kastornoye, which was taken on 15 November. Kursk was retaken two days later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenez1977218_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenez1977218-122">[105]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Klinom_Krasnim_by_El_Lisitskiy_(1920).jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Klinom_Krasnim_by_El_Lisitskiy_%281920%29.jpg/220px-Klinom_Krasnim_by_El_Lisitskiy_%281920%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Klinom_Krasnim_by_El_Lisitskiy_%281920%29.jpg/330px-Klinom_Krasnim_by_El_Lisitskiy_%281920%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Klinom_Krasnim_by_El_Lisitskiy_%281920%29.jpg/440px-Klinom_Krasnim_by_El_Lisitskiy_%281920%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="849" data-file-height="685" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Klinom_Krasnim_by_El_Lisitskiy_(1920).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beat_the_Whites_with_the_Red_Wedge" title="Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge">Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge</a>, a famous Bolshevik <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constructivism_(art)" title="Constructivism (art)">Constructivist</a> propaganda poster by artist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/El_Lissitzky" title="El Lissitzky">El Lissitsky</a> uses abstract symbolism to depict the defeat of the Whites by the Red Army.</div></div></div>
<p>Kenez states, "In October Denikin ruled more than forty million people and controlled the economically most valuable parts of the Russian Empire." Yet, "The White armies, which had fought victoriously during the summer and early fall, fell back in disorder in November and December." Denikin's front line was overstretched, while his reserves dealt with Makhno's anarchists in the rear. Between September and October, the Reds mobilized one hundred thousand new soldiers and adopted the Trotsky-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jukums_V%C4%81cietis" title="Jukums Vācietis">Vatsetis</a> strategy with the Ninth and Tenth armies forming V. I. Shorin's Southeastern Front between Tsaritsyn and Bobrov, while the Eighth, Twelfth, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth armies formed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Yegorov_(soldier)" title="Alexander Yegorov (soldier)">A.I. Egorov</a>'s Southern Front between Zhitomir and Bobrov. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sergey_Kamenev" title="Sergey Kamenev">Sergey Kamenev</a> was in overall command of the two fronts. On Denikin's left was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abram_Dragomirov" title="Abram Dragomirov">Abram Dragomirov</a>, while in his center was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_May-Mayevsky" title="Vladimir May-Mayevsky">Vladimir May-Mayevsky</a>'s Volunteer Army, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Sidorin" title="Vladimir Sidorin">Vladimir Sidorin</a>'s Don Cossacks were further east, with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel" title="Pyotr Wrangel">Pyotr Wrangel</a>'s Caucasian army at Tsaritsyn, and an additional was in the Northern Caucasus attempting to capture Astrakhan. On 20 October, May–Mayevsky was forced to evacuate Orel during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orel-Kursk_operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Orel-Kursk operation">Orel-Kursk operation</a>. On 24 October, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semyon_Budyonny" title="Semyon Budyonny">Semyon Budyonny</a> captured Voronezh, and Kursk on 15 November, during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voronezh-Kastornoye_operation_(1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Voronezh-Kastornoye operation (1919)">Voronezh-Kastornoye operation (1919)</a>. On 6 January, the Reds reached the Black Sea at Mariupol and Taganrog, and On 9 January, they reached Rostov. According to Kenez, "The Whites had now lost all the territories which they had captured in 1919, and held approximately the same area in which they had started two years before."<sup id="cite_ref-pk2_96-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pk2-96">[79]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 213–223">: 213–223 </span></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Central_Asia_.281919.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Central_Asia_(1919)">Central Asia (1919)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Central Asia (1919)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>By February 1919 the British government had pulled its military forces out of Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967231_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967231-123">[106]</a></sup> Despite the success for the Red Army, the White Army's assaults in European Russia and other areas broke communication between Moscow and Tashkent. For a time Central Asia was completely cut off from Red Army forces in Siberia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195176_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195176-124">[107]</a></sup> Although the communication failure weakened the Red Army, the Bolsheviks continued their efforts to gain support for the Bolshevik Party in Central Asia by holding a second regional conference in March. During the conference, a regional bureau of Muslim organisations of the Russian Bolshevik Party was formed. The Bolshevik Party continued to try to gain support among the native population by giving it the impression of better representation for the Central Asian population and throughout the end of the year could maintain harmony with the Central Asian people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967232–233_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967232–233-125">[108]</a></sup>
</p><p>Communication difficulties with Red Army forces in Siberia and European Russia ceased to be a problem by mid-November 1919. Red Army successes north of Central Asia caused communication with Moscow to be re-established and the Bolsheviks to claim victory over the White Army in Turkestan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195176_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195176-124">[107]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the Ural-Guryev operation of 1919–1920, the Red <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkestan_Front" title="Turkestan Front">Turkestan Front</a> defeated the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ural_Army" title="Ural Army">Ural Army</a>. During winter 1920, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ural_Cossacks" title="Ural Cossacks">Ural Cossacks</a> and their families, totaling about 15,000 people, headed south along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea towards <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fort-Shevchenko" title="Fort-Shevchenko">Fort Alexandrovsk</a>. Only a few hundred of them reached Persia in June 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[109]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orenburg_Independent_Army" title="Orenburg Independent Army">Orenburg Independent Army</a> was formed from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orenburg_Cossacks" title="Orenburg Cossacks">Orenburg Cossacks</a> and others troops who rebelled against the Bolsheviks. During the winter 1919–20, the Orenburg Army retreated to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semirechye" class="mw-redirect" title="Semirechye">Semirechye</a> in what is known as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Starving_March" title="Starving March">Starving March</a>, as half of the participants perished.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[110]</a></sup> In March 1920 her remnants crossed the border into the Northwestern region of China.
</p>
<h3><span id="South_Russia.2C_Ukraine_and_Kronstadt_.281920.E2.80.9321.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="South_Russia,_Ukraine_and_Kronstadt_(1920–21)">South Russia, Ukraine and Kronstadt (1920–21)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: South Russia, Ukraine and Kronstadt (1920–21)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Victims_of_Soviet_Famine_1922.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Victims_of_Soviet_Famine_1922.jpg/220px-Victims_of_Soviet_Famine_1922.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Victims_of_Soviet_Famine_1922.jpg/330px-Victims_of_Soviet_Famine_1922.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Victims_of_Soviet_Famine_1922.jpg/440px-Victims_of_Soviet_Famine_1922.jpg 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="336" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Victims_of_Soviet_Famine_1922.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Victims of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian famine of 1921">Russian famine of 1921</a></div></div></div>
<p>At the beginning of 1920, Denikin was reduced to defending Novorossia, the Crimean peninsula, and the Northern Caucasus. On 26 January, the Caucasian army retreated beyond the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manych" title="Manych">Manych</a>. On 7 February, the Reds occupied Odessa, but then the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a> started fighting the Fourteenth Red Army. On 20 February, Denikin succeeded in recapturing Rostov, his last victory, before giving it up soon after.<sup id="cite_ref-pk2_96-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pk2-96">[79]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 236–239">: 236–239 </span></sup>
</p><p>By the beginning of 1920, the main body of the Armed Forces of South Russia was rapidly retreating towards the Don, to Rostov. Denikin hoped to hold the crossings of the Don, then rest and reform his troops, but the White Army was not able to hold the Don area, and at the end of February 1920 started a retreat across Kuban towards <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Novorossiysk" title="Novorossiysk">Novorossiysk</a>. Slipshod <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evacuation_of_Novorossiysk_(1920)" title="Evacuation of Novorossiysk (1920)">evacuation of Novorossiysk</a> proved to be a dark event for the White Army. Russian and Allied ships evacuated about 40,000 of Denikin's men from Novorossiysk to the Crimea, without horses or any heavy equipment, while about 20,000 men were left behind and either dispersed or were captured by the Red Army. Following the disastrous Novorossiysk evacuation, Denikin stepped down and the military council elected Wrangel as the new Commander-in-Chief of the White Army. He was able to restore order to the dispirited troops and reshape an army that could fight as a regular force again. It remained an organized force in the Crimea throughout 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[111]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tambov_Rebellion.png" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Tambov_Rebellion.png/170px-Tambov_Rebellion.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Tambov_Rebellion.png/255px-Tambov_Rebellion.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Tambov_Rebellion.png/340px-Tambov_Rebellion.png 2x" data-file-width="1497" data-file-height="2129" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tambov_Rebellion.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tambov_Rebellion" title="Tambov Rebellion">Tambov Rebellion</a> was one of the largest and best-organised <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_peasant_revolts" title="List of peasant revolts">peasant rebellions</a> challenging the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> regime.</div></div></div>
<p>After Moscow's Bolshevik government signed a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Starobilsk_agreement" title="Starobilsk agreement">military and political alliance</a> with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nestor_Makhno" title="Nestor Makhno">Nestor Makhno</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ukraine" title="Anarchism in Ukraine">Ukrainian anarchists</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutionary_Insurgent_Army_of_Ukraine" title="Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine">Insurgent Army</a> attacked and defeated several regiments of Wrangel's troops in southern Ukraine, forcing him to retreat before he could capture that year's grain harvest.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>Stymied in his efforts to consolidate his hold, Wrangel then attacked north in an attempt to take advantage of recent Red Army defeats at the close of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> of 1919–1920. The Red Army eventually halted the offensive, and Wrangel's troops had to retreat to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Perekop_(1920)" title="Siege of Perekop (1920)">Crimea in November 1920</a>, pursued by both the Red and Black cavalry and infantry. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wrangel%27s_fleet" title="Wrangel's fleet">Wrangel's fleet</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evacuation_of_the_Crimea_(1920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Evacuation of the Crimea (1920)">evacuated him and his army</a> to Constantinople on 14 November 1920, ending the struggle of Reds and Whites in Southern Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[113]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the defeat of Wrangel, the Red Army immediately repudiated its 1920 treaty of alliance with Nestor Makhno and attacked the anarchist Insurgent Army; the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevik%E2%80%93Makhnovist_conflict#Second_phase_(November_1920–August_1921)" title="Bolshevik–Makhnovist conflict">campaign to liquidate Makhno and the Ukrainian anarchists</a> began with an attempted assassination of Makhno by Cheka agents. Anger at continued repression by the Bolshevik Communist government and at its liberal use of the Cheka to put down anarchist elements led to a naval mutiny at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion" title="Kronstadt rebellion">Kronstadt</a> in March 1921, followed by peasant revolts. Red Army attacks on the anarchist forces and their sympathisers increased in ferocity throughout 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[114]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Siberia_and_the_Far_East_.281920.E2.80.9322.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Siberia_and_the_Far_East_(1920–22)">Siberia and the Far East (1920–22)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Siberia and the Far East (1920–22)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Far_Eastern_Front_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Far Eastern Front in the Russian Civil War">Far Eastern Front in the Russian Civil War</a></div>
<p>In Siberia, Admiral Kolchak's army had disintegrated. He himself gave up command after the loss of Omsk and designated Gen. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grigory_Mikhaylovich_Semyonov" title="Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov">Grigory Semyonov</a> as the new leader of the White Army in Siberia. Not long afterward, Kolchak was arrested by the disaffected Czechoslovak Legion as he traveled towards <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irkutsk" title="Irkutsk">Irkutsk</a> without the protection of the army and was turned over to the socialist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_Centre_(Russia)" title="Political Centre (Russia)">Political Centre</a> in Irkutsk. Six days later, the regime was replaced by a Bolshevik-dominated Military-Revolutionary Committee. On 6–7 February Kolchak and his prime minister Victor Pepelyaev were shot and their bodies were thrown through the ice of the frozen Angara River, just before the arrival of the White Army in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mapolwdsley2007-14">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 319–21">: 319–21 </span></sup>
</p><p>Remnants of Kolchak's army reached <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transbaikalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transbaikalia">Transbaikalia</a> and joined Semyonov's troops, forming the Far Eastern army. With the support of the Japanese army it was able to hold Chita, but after the withdrawal of Japanese soldiers from Transbaikalia, Semenov's position became untenable, and in November 1920 he was driven by the Red Army from Transbaikalia and took refuge in China. The Japanese, who had plans to annex the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amur_Krai" class="mw-redirect" title="Amur Krai">Amur Krai</a>, finally pulled their troops out as Bolshevik forces gradually asserted control over the Russian Far East. On 25 October 1922 Vladivostok fell to the Red Army, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Priamur_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Provisional Priamur Government">Provisional Priamur Government</a> was extinguished.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Aftermath">Aftermath</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ensuing_rebellion">Ensuing rebellion</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Ensuing rebellion">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In Central Asia, Red Army troops continued to face resistance into 1923, where <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basmachi_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Basmachi Revolt">basmachi</a></i> (armed bands of Islamic guerrillas) had formed to fight the Bolshevik takeover. The Soviets engaged non-Russian peoples in Central Asia, like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Magaza_Masanchi" title="Magaza Masanchi">Magaza Masanchi</a>, commander of the Dungan Cavalry Regiment, to fight against the Basmachis. The Communist Party did not completely dismantle the group until 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964107_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964107-132">[115]</a></sup>
</p><p>General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anatoly_Pepelyayev" title="Anatoly Pepelyayev">Anatoly Pepelyayev</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakut_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakut Revolt">continued armed resistance</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ayano-Maysky_District" title="Ayano-Maysky District">Ayano-Maysky District</a> until June 1923. The regions of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kamchatka" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamchatka">Kamchatka</a> and Northern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a> remained under Japanese occupation until their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Basic_Convention" title="Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention">treaty</a> with the Soviet Union in 1925, when their forces were finally withdrawn.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Casualties">Casualties</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Casualties">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485"><table class="box-Overly_detailed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-overly_detailed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Content_forking#Article_spinoffs:_.22Summary_style.22_meta-articles_and_summary_sections" title="Wikipedia:Content forking">spinning off</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Handling_trivia#Recommendations_for_handling_trivia" title="Wikipedia:Handling trivia">relocating</a> any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">Wikipedia's inclusion policy</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Streetkids_RussianCivilWar.JPG" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Streetkids_RussianCivilWar.JPG/220px-Streetkids_RussianCivilWar.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Streetkids_RussianCivilWar.JPG/330px-Streetkids_RussianCivilWar.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Streetkids_RussianCivilWar.JPG/440px-Streetkids_RussianCivilWar.JPG 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="395" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Streetkids_RussianCivilWar.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Street children during the Russian Civil War</div></div></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Terror_(Russia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Terror (Russia)">Red Terror (Russia)</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Terror_(Russia)" title="White Terror (Russia)">White Terror (Russia)</a></div>
<p>The results of the civil war were momentous. Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that 300,000 men were killed in action during the Civil War and Polish-Soviet War (125,000 in the Red Army, 175,500 White armies and Poles) and the total number of military personnel from both sides dead from disease as 450,000.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[116]</a></sup> Boris Sennikov estimated the total losses among the population of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tambov_Oblast" title="Tambov Oblast">Tambov region</a> in 1920 to 1922 resulting from the war, executions, and imprisonment in concentration camps as approximately 240,000.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[117]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Refugees_on_flatcars.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Refugees_on_flatcars.jpg/220px-Refugees_on_flatcars.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Refugees_on_flatcars.jpg/330px-Refugees_on_flatcars.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Refugees_on_flatcars.jpg/440px-Refugees_on_flatcars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="417" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Refugees_on_flatcars.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">Refugees</a> on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flatcar" title="Flatcar">flatcars</a></div></div></div>
<p>As many as 10 million lives were lost as a result of the Russian Civil War, and the overwhelming majority of these were civilian casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[118]</a></sup> There is no consensus among the Western historians on the number of deaths from the Red Terror. One source gives estimates of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan20122_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan20122-136">[119]</a></sup> Estimates for the number of people shot during the initial period of the Red Terror are at least 10,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan2012114_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan2012114-137">[120]</a></sup> Estimates for the whole period go for a low of 50,000<sup id="cite_ref-anatomy_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anatomy-138">[121]</a></sup> to highs of 140,000<sup id="cite_ref-anatomy_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anatomy-138">[121]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[122]</a></sup> and 200,000 executed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowe2002151_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELowe2002151-140">[123]</a></sup> Most estimations for the number of executions in total put the number at about 100,000.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[124]</a></sup> According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[125]</a></sup> According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a>, a total of 140,000 people were shot in 1917–1922, but Jonathan D. Smele estimates they were considerably fewer, "perhaps less than half that many".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStele2015934_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStele2015934-143">[126]</a></sup> Candidate of Historical Sciences Nikolay Zayats states that the number of people shot by the Cheka in 1918–1922 is about 37,300 people, shot in 1918–1921 by the verdicts of the tribunals — 14,200, i.e. about 50,000–55,000 people in total, although executions and atrocities were not limited to the Cheka, having been organized by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> as well.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[127]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[128]</a></sup> In 1924, an anti-Bolshevik <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Popular_Socialists_(Russia)" title="Popular Socialists (Russia)">Popular Socialist</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sergei_Melgunov" title="Sergei Melgunov">Sergei Melgunov</a> (1879–1956) published a detailed account on the Red Terror in Russia, where he cited Professor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Sarol%C3%A9a" title="Charles Saroléa">Charles Saroléa</a>'s estimates of 1,766,188 deaths from the Bolshevik policies. He questioned the accuracy of the figures, but endorsed Saroléa's "chracterisation of terror in Russia", stating it matches reality.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[129]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[130]</a></sup> Modern historian Sergei Volkov, assessing the Red Terror as the entire repressive policy of the Bolsheviks during the years of the Civil War (1917–1922), estimates the direct death toll of the Red Terror at 2 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[131]</a></sup> Volkov's calculations, however, do not appear to have been confirmed by other major scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149">[132]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some 300,000–500,000 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a> were killed or deported during <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decossackization" class="mw-redirect" title="Decossackization">Decossackization</a>, out of a population of around three million.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGellately200770–71_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGellately200770–71-150">[133]</a></sup> An estimated 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151">[134]</a></sup> Punitive organs of the All Great Don Cossack Host sentenced 25,000 people to death between May 1918 and January 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolquist2002164_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolquist2002164-152">[135]</a></sup> Kolchak's government shot 25,000 people in Ekaterinburg province alone.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">[136]</a></sup> The White Terror, as it would become known, killed about 300,000 people in total.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[137]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the end of the Civil War the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a> was exhausted and near ruin. The droughts of 1920 and 1921, as well as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian famine of 1921">1921 famine</a>, worsened the disaster still further, killing roughly 5 million people. Disease had reached <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> proportions, with 3,000,000 dying of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> throughout the war. Millions more also died of widespread starvation, wholesale massacres by both sides and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pogroms_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogroms of the Russian Civil War">pogroms against Jews in Ukraine and southern Russia</a>. By 1922, there were at least 7,000,000 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Street_children" title="Street children">street children</a> in Russia as a result of nearly ten years of devastation from World War I and the civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155">[138]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another one to two million people, known as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">White émigrés</a>, fled Russia, many with General Wrangel, some through the Far East and others west into the newly independent Baltic countries. The émigrés included a large percentage of the educated and skilled population of Russia.
</p><p>The Russian economy was devastated by the war, with factories and bridges destroyed, cattle and raw materials pillaged, mines flooded and machines damaged. The industrial production value descended to one seventh of the value of 1913 and agriculture to one third. According to <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i>, "The workers of the towns and some of the villages choke in the throes of hunger. The railways barely crawl. The houses are crumbling. The towns are full of refuse. Epidemics spread and death strikes—industry is ruined."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It is estimated that the total output of mines and factories in 1921 had fallen to 20% of the pre-World War level, and many crucial items experienced an even more drastic decline. For example, cotton production fell to 5%, and iron to 2%, of pre-war levels.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism</a> saved the Soviet government during the Civil War, but much of the Russian economy had ground to a standstill. Some peasants responded to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prodrazvyorstka" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodrazvyorstka">food requisitions</a> by refusing to till the land. By 1921, cultivated land had shrunk to 62% of the pre-war area, and the harvest yield was only about 37% of normal. The number of horses declined from 35 million in 1916 to 24 million in 1920 and cattle from 58 to 37 million. The exchange rate with the US dollar declined from two <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roubles" class="mw-redirect" title="Roubles">roubles</a> in 1914 to 1,200 Rbls in 1920.
</p><p>With the end of the war, the Communist Party no longer faced an acute military threat to its existence and power. However, the perceived threat of continued popular discontent, combined with the failure of socialist revolutions in other countries—most notably the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution">German Revolution</a>—contributed to the continued militarisation of Soviet society. Although Russia experienced extremely rapid economic growth<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156">[139]</a></sup> in the 1930s, the combined effect of World War I and the Civil War left a lasting scar on Russian society and had permanent effects on the development of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="In_fiction">In fiction</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: In fiction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Literature">Literature</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><i>The Road to Calvary</i> (1922–41) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aleksey_Nikolayevich_Tolstoy" title="Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy">Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chapaev" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapaev">Chapaev</a></i> (1923) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dmitri_Furmanov" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitri Furmanov">Dmitri Furmanov</a></li>
<li><i>The Iron Flood</i> (1924) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Serafimovich" title="Alexander Serafimovich">Alexander Serafimovich</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Cavalry" title="Red Cavalry">Red Cavalry</a></i> (1926) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isaac_Babel" title="Isaac Babel">Isaac Babel</a></li>
<li><i>The Rout</i> (1927) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Alexandrovich_Fadeyev" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Alexandrovich Fadeyev">Alexander Fadeyev</a></li>
<li><i>Conquered City</i> (1932) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Victor_Serge" title="Victor Serge">Victor Serge</a></li>
<li><i>Futility</i> (1922) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Gerhardie" title="William Gerhardie">William Gerhardie</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/How_the_Steel_Was_Tempered" title="How the Steel Was Tempered">How the Steel Was Tempered</a></i> (1934) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Ostrovsky" title="Nikolai Ostrovsky">Nikolai Ostrovsky</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Optimistic_Tragedy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimistic Tragedy">Optimistic Tragedy</a></i> (1934) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vsevolod_Vishnevsky" title="Vsevolod Vishnevsky">Vsevolod Vishnevsky</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/And_Quiet_Flows_the_Don" title="And Quiet Flows the Don">And Quiet Flows the Don</a></i> (1928–1940) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michail_Aleksandrovich_Sholokhov" class="mw-redirect" title="Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov">Mikhail Sholokhov</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Don_Flows_Home_to_the_Sea" title="The Don Flows Home to the Sea">The Don Flows Home to the Sea</a></i> (1940) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michail_Aleksandrovich_Sholokhov" class="mw-redirect" title="Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov">Mikhail Sholokhov</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doctor_Zhivago_(novel)" title="Doctor Zhivago (novel)">Doctor Zhivago</a></i> (1957) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boris_Pasternak" title="Boris Pasternak">Boris Pasternak</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_White_Guard" title="The White Guard">The White Guard</a></i> (1966) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Bulgakov" title="Mikhail Bulgakov">Mikhail Bulgakov</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantium_Endures" title="Byzantium Endures">Byzantium Endures</a></i> (1981) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michael_Moorcock" title="Michael Moorcock">Michael Moorcock</a></li>
<li><i>Chevengur</i> (written in 1927, first published in 1988 in the USSR) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Andrei_Platonov" title="Andrei Platonov">Andrei Platonov</a>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fall_of_Giants" title="Fall of Giants">Fall of Giants</a></i> (2010) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ken_Follett" title="Ken Follett">Ken Follett</a></li>
<li><i>A Splendid Little War</i> (2012) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Derek_Robinson_(novelist)" title="Derek Robinson (novelist)">Derek Robinson (novelist)</a></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Film">Film</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Film">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arsenal_(1929_film)" title="Arsenal (1929 film)">Arsenal</a></i> (1928)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Storm_Over_Asia_(1928_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm Over Asia (1928 film)">Storm Over Asia</a></i> (1928)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chapaev_(film)" title="Chapaev (film)">Chapaev</a></i> (1934)</li>
<li><i>Thirteen</i> (1936), directed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Romm" title="Mikhail Romm">Mikhail Romm</a></li>
<li><i>We Are from Kronstadt</i> (1936), directed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Efim_Dzigan" class="mw-redirect" title="Efim Dzigan">Yefim Dzigan</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Knight_Without_Armour" title="Knight Without Armour">Knight Without Armour</a></i> (1937)</li>
<li><i>The Year 1919</i> (1938), directed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ilya_Trauberg" title="Ilya Trauberg">Ilya Trauberg</a></li>
<li><i>The Baltic Marines</i> (1939), directed by A. Faintsimmer</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shchors_(film)" title="Shchors (film)">Shchors</a></i> (1939), directed by Dovzhenko</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/How_the_Steel_Was_Tempered" title="How the Steel Was Tempered">Pavel Korchagin</a></i> (1956), directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Forty-First_(1956_film)" title="The Forty-First (1956 film)">The Forty-First</a></i> (1956), directed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grigori_Chukhrai" class="mw-redirect" title="Grigori Chukhrai">Grigori Chukhrai</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Communist_(film)" title="The Communist (film)">The Communist (film)</a></i> (1957), directed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuli_Raizman" title="Yuli Raizman">Yuli Raizman</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/And_Quiet_Flows_the_Don_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="And Quiet Flows the Don (film)">And Quiet Flows the Don</a></i> (1958), directed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sergei_Gerasimov_(film_director)" title="Sergei Gerasimov (film director)">Sergei Gerasimov</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doctor_Zhivago_(film)" title="Doctor Zhivago (film)">Doctor Zhivago</a></i> (1965), directed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_Lean" title="David Lean">David Lean</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Elusive_Avengers" title="The Elusive Avengers">The Elusive Avengers</a></i> (1966)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Red_and_the_White_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Red and the White (film)">The Red and the White</a></i> (1967)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Sun_of_the_Desert" title="White Sun of the Desert">White Sun of the Desert</a></i> (1970)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Flight_(1970_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Flight (1970 film)">The Flight</a></i> (1970), directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reds_(film)" title="Reds (film)">Reds</a></i> (1981), directed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warren_Beatty" title="Warren Beatty">Warren Beatty</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corto_Maltese" title="Corto Maltese">Corto Maltese in Siberia</a></i> (2002)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nine_Lives_of_Nestor_Makhno" title="Nine Lives of Nestor Makhno">Nine Lives of Nestor Makhno</a></i> (2005/2007)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Admiral_(2008_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Admiral (2008 film)">Admiral</a></i> (2008)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sunstroke_(2014_film)" title="Sunstroke (2014 film)">Sunstroke</a></i> (2014), directed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikita_Mikhalkov" title="Nikita Mikhalkov">Nikita Mikhalkov</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> (1917–1922)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War">Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_the_Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" title="Index of articles related to the Russian Revolution and Civil War">Index of articles related to the Russian Revolution and Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolayevsk_incident" title="Nikolayevsk incident">Nikolayevsk incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutionary_Mass_Festivals" title="Revolutionary Mass Festivals">Revolutionary Mass Festivals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Russian Civil War">Timeline of the Russian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet-Polish_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Polish War">Soviet-Polish War</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viena_expedition#British_Intervention" title="Viena expedition">Viena expedition#British Intervention</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De facto</i> deposed after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevik_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Coup">Bolshevik Coup</a> of November 1917; formally abolished in January 1918 after the dissolution of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Constituent Assembly</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish-Soviet_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Soviet War">Polish-Soviet War</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">Basmachi movement</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heimosodat" title="Heimosodat">Heimosodat</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aligned with the Bolsheviks until March 1918, when they fell out over the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a>. Most Left SRs opposed the Bolsheviks afterward, but a minority of Left SRs remained allied to the Bolsheviks for years after.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aligned with the Bolsheviks until 1919; opposed after.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aligned with the Bolsheviks until 1920; opposed after.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Japan also stayed in North <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Basic_Convention" title="Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention">until 1925</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Official allegiance to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian State">Russian State</a><br />Unofficial allegiance to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The main phase ended on 25 October 1922. Revolt against the Bolsheviks continued <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">in Central Asia</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tungus_Republic" title="Tungus Republic">the Far East</a> through the 1920s and 1930s.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Red Army peaked in October 1920 with 5,498,000: 2,587,000 in reserves, 391,000 in labor armies, 159,000 on the front and 1,780,000 drawing rations</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">683,000 active<br />340,000 reserve</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There were an additional 6,242,926 hospitalizations from sickness.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The old spelling was retained by the Whites to differentiate from the Reds.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Mapolwdsley2007-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mapolwdsley2007_14-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFMawdsley2007" class="citation book cs1">Mawdsley, Evan (2007). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan"><i>The Russian Civil War</i></a></span>. New York: Pegasus Books. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781681770093" title="Special:BookSources/9781681770093"><bdi>9781681770093</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781681770093&rft.aulast=Mawdsley&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiancivilwar00evan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Последние бои на Дальнем Востоке. М., Центрполиграф, 2005.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bullock2008-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bullock2008_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBullock2008" class="citation book cs1">Bullock, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ"><i>The Russian Civil War 1918–22</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-271-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-271-4"><bdi>978-1-84603-271-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140213/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Civil+War+1918%E2%80%9322.&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-271-4&rft.aulast=Bullock&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMk61CwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErickson1984763-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErickson1984763_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErickson1984">Erickson 1984</a>, p. 763.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Belash, Victor & Belash, Aleksandr, <i>Dorogi Nestora Makhno</i>, p. 340</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Damien Wright, <i>Churchill's Secret War with Lenin: British and Commonwealth Military Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1918–20</i>, Solihull, UK, 2017, pp. 394, 526–528, 530–535; Clifford Kinvig, <i>Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia 1918–1920</i>, London 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85285-477-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85285-477-4">1-85285-477-4</a>, p. 297; Timothy Winegard, <i>The First World Oil War</i>, University of Toronto Press (2016), p. 229</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-auto-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSmele2015" class="citation book cs1">Smele, Jon (2015). <i>The "Russian" Civil Wars, 1916–1926 : ten years that shook the world</i>. New York. p. 160. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190613211" title="Special:BookSources/9780190613211"><bdi>9780190613211</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%22Russian%22+Civil+Wars%2C+1916%E2%80%931926+%3A+ten+years+that+shook+the+world&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=160&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780190613211&rft.aulast=Smele&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrivosheev19977-38-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrivosheev19977-38_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrivosheev1997">Krivosheev 1997</a>, p. 7-38.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Damien Wright, <i>Churchill's Secret War with Lenin: British and Commonwealth Military Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1918–20</i>, Solihull, UK, 2017, pp. 490–492, 498–500, 504; Clifford Kinvig, <i>Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia 1918–1920</i>, London 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85285-477-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85285-477-4">1-85285-477-4</a>, pp. 289, 315; Timothy Winegard, <i>The First World Oil War</i>, University of Toronto Press (2016), p. 208; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malleson_mission#Casualties" title="Malleson mission">Malleson Mission – Casualties</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEidintasŽalysSenn1999">Eidintas, Žalys & Senn 1999</a>, p. 30</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-britannica-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-britannica_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513737/Russian-Civil-War">Russian Civil War</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090826234907/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513737/Russian-Civil-War">Archived</a> 26 August 2009 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> Online 2012</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeggett1981184Service2000402Read2005206-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeggett1981184Service2000402Read2005206_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeggett1981">Leggett 1981</a>, p. 184<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFLeggett1981 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFService2000">Service 2000</a>, p. 402<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFService2000 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFRead2005">Read 2005</a>, p. 206<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFRead2005 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall201583-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201583_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHall2015">Hall 2015</a>, p. 83.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFHall2015 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200384,_88-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200384,_88_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2003">Lee 2003</a>, pp. 84, 88.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFLee2003 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein201350-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein201350_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldstein2013">Goldstein 2013</a>, p. 50.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoldstein2013 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall201584-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall201584_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHall2015">Hall 2015</a>, p. 84.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFHall2015 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Stone-2011-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stone-2011_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stone-2011_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFStone2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_R._Stone" title="David R. Stone">Stone, David R.</a> (2011). "Russian Civil War (1917–1920)". In Martel, Gordon (ed.). <i>The Encyclopedia of War</i>. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444338232.wbeow533">10.1002/9781444338232.wbeow533</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9037-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9037-4"><bdi>978-1-4051-9037-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153317860">153317860</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russian+Civil+War+%281917%E2%80%931920%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+War&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153317860%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444338232.wbeow533&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9037-4&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCalder1976">Calder 1976</a>, p. 166 "[...] the Russian Army disintegrated after the failure of the Galician offensive in July 1917."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRead1996">Read 1996</a>, p. 237 By 1920, 77% of the Red Army's enlisted ranks were peasant conscripts.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Beryl, <i><a href="/enwiki//archive.org/details/russianrevolutio0000will" class="extiw" title="iarchive:russianrevolutio0000will">The Russian Revolution 1917–1921</a></i>, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. (1987), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15083-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15083-1">978-0-631-15083-1</a>: Typically, men of conscriptible age (17 to 40 years old) in a village would vanish when Red Army draft-units approached. The taking of hostages and a few summary executions usually brought the men back.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Overy_2004-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Overy_2004_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Overy_2004_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOvery2004">Overy 2004</a>, p. 446 By the end of the civil war, one-third of all Red Army officers were ex-Tsarist <i>voenspetsy</i>"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Williams,_Beryl_1921-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams,_Beryl_1921_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams,_Beryl_1921_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Beryl, <i>The Russian Revolution 1917–1921</i>, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. (1987), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15083-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15083-1">978-0-631-15083-1</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Military Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editorial Board: Alexander Gorkin, Vladimir Zolotarev et al. – Moscow: Great Russian Encyclopedia, RIPOL Classic, 2002 – 1664 Pages</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985111–112-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985111–112_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr1985">Carr (1985)</a>, pp. 111–112.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFCarr1985 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985113–115-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985113–115_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr1985">Carr (1985)</a>, pp. 113–115.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFCarr1985 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985115-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985115_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr1985">Carr (1985)</a>, p. 115.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFCarr1985 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985115–116-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985115–116_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr1985">Carr (1985)</a>, pp. 115–116.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFCarr1985 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/kontseptsiya-sotsialisticheskoy-demokratii-opyt-realizatsii-v-sssr-i-sovremennye-perspektivy-v-sng">Концепция социалистической демократии: опыт реализации в СССР и современные перспективы в СНГ</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Bolsheviks: the intellectual and political history of the triumph of communism in Russia : with a new preface. Adam Bruno Ulam. Harvard University Press. p. 397.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985120–121-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985120–121_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr1985">Carr (1985)</a>, pp. 120–121.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFCarr1985 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-WS-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WS_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WS_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=73lLeNeICXUC">"White Siberia: the politics of civil war"</a>, Norman G. O. Pereira. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7735-1349-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7735-1349-3">0-7735-1349-3</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-1349-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-1349-5">978-0-7735-1349-5</a>. p. 65</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2gd7F6t2lCcC">"The lost opportunity: attempts at unification of the anti-Bolsheviks, 1917–1919 : Moscow, Kiev, Jassy, Odessa"</a>, Christopher Lazarski. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7618-4120-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7618-4120-2">0-7618-4120-2</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-4120-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-4120-3">978-0-7618-4120-3</a>. p. 42-43</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mt9qzSvBrI4C">"Dear comrades: Menshevik reports on the Bolshevik revolution and the civil war"</a>, Vladimir N. Brovkin. Hoover Press, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8179-8981-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8179-8981-1">0-8179-8981-1</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-8981-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-8981-1">978-0-8179-8981-1</a>. p. 135</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-komuch-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-komuch_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Jonathan D. Smele. Op. cit., p.32 ("Op. cit." means to refer to a work cited earlier in the citations. this means you copied it from a citation list, and are citing something that you have not read. instead you should cite what you read and say it refers to this, or if you can get the original work and look at it then you can cite it directly.)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr1985161–164-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr1985161–164_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr1985">Carr (1985)</a>, pp. 161–164.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFCarr1985 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bird-2018-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bird-2018_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bird-2018_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bird-2018_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bird-2018_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBird2018" class="citation magazine cs1">Bird, Danny (5 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/5386789/red-terror-soviet-history/">"How the 'Red Terror' Exposed the True Turmoil of Soviet Russia 100 Years Ago"</a>. <i>Time</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=How+the+%27Red+Terror%27+Exposed+the+True+Turmoil+of+Soviet+Russia+100+Years+Ago&rft.date=2018-09-05&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Danny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F5386789%2Fred-terror-soviet-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Berkman-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Berkman_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBerkmanGoldman1922" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Berkman" title="Alexander Berkman">Berkman, Alexander</a>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman, Emma</a> (January 1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman-alexander-berkman-bolsheviks-shooting-anarchists">"Bolsheviks Shooting Anarchists"</a>. <i>Freedom</i>. <b>36</b> (391): 4<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Freedom&rft.atitle=Bolsheviks+Shooting+Anarchists&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=391&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1922-01&rft.aulast=Berkman&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Goldman%2C+Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheanarchistlibrary.org%2Flibrary%2Femma-goldman-alexander-berkman-bolsheviks-shooting-anarchists&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-BlackBook_chptr4-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BlackBook_chptr4_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWerth,_Bartosek_et_al.1999">Werth, Bartosek et al. (1999)</a>, Chapter 4: The Red Terror.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvp error: no target: CITEREFWerth,_Bartosek_et_al.1999 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-litvinalkbterror-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-litvinalkbterror_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Alter_Litvin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alter Litvin (page does not exist)">Alter Litvin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9B%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" class="extiw" title="ru:Литвин, Алтер Львович">ru</a>]</span> «Красный и Белый террор в России в 1917—1922 годах» ISBN 5-87849-164-8</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.ru/POLITOLOG/MELGUNOW/terror.txt">Melgunov, S.P. <i>Red Terror</i> in Russia</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:11-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilde, Robert. 2019 February 20. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/the-red-terror-1221808">The Red Terror</a>." <i>ThoughtCo</i>. Retrieved March 24, 2021.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Llewellyn, Jennifer; McConnell, Michael; Thompson, Steve (11 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alphahistory.com/russianrevolution/red-terror/">"The Red Terror"</a>. <i>Russian Revolution</i>. Alpha History. Retrieved 4 August 2021.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melgunov, Sergey [1925] 1975. <i>The Red Terror in Russia</i>. Hyperions. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88355-187-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-88355-187-X">0-88355-187-X</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sergei_Melgunov" title="Sergei Melgunov">Melgunov, Sergei</a>. 1927. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/redterror.pdf">The Record of the Red Terror</a>." <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Current_History" title="Current History">Current History</a></i> (November 1927):198–205.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-spartacus-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-spartacus_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spartacus-educational.com/RUSkaplan.htm">"Fanya Kaplan"</a>. <i>Spartacus Educational</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Spartacus+Educational&rft.atitle=Fanya+Kaplan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspartacus-educational.com%2FRUSkaplan.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Malkov P. Notes of the Kremlin commandant. – M.: Molodaya gvardiya, 1968.S. 148–149</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malkov+P.+Notes+of+the+Kremlin+commandant.+%E2%80%93+M.%3A+Molodaya+gvardiya%2C+1968.S.+148%E2%80%93149.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-how-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-how_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDonaldsonDonaldson1983" class="citation book cs1">Donaldson, Norman; Donaldson, Betty (1 January 1983). <i>How Did They Die?</i>. Greenwich House. p. 221. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780517403020" title="Special:BookSources/9780517403020"><bdi>9780517403020</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Did+They+Die%3F&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=Greenwich+House&rft.date=1983-01-01&rft.isbn=9780517403020&rft.aulast=Donaldson&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft.au=Donaldson%2C+Betty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSlezkine" class="citation cs2">Slezkine, Yuri, <i>The house of government: a saga of the Russian Revolution</i>, p. 158, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5384-7835-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5384-7835-6"><bdi>978-1-5384-7835-6</bdi></a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1003859221">1003859221</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+house+of+government%3A+a+saga+of+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.pages=158&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1003859221&rft.isbn=978-1-5384-7835-6&rft.aulast=Slezkine&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lyandres-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lyandres_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLyandres1989" class="citation journal cs1">Lyandres, Semion (Autumn 1989). "The 1918 Attempt on the Life of Lenin: A New Look at the Evidence". <i>Slavic Review</i>. Cambridge University Press. <b>48</b> (3): 432–448. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2498997">10.2307/2498997</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2498997">2498997</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155228899">155228899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=The+1918+Attempt+on+the+Life+of+Lenin%3A+A+New+Look+at+the+Evidence&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=432-448&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155228899%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2498997%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2498997&rft.aulast=Lyandres&rft.aufirst=Semion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2011" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Scott Baldwin (15 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ueUEE8jVRsC"><i>Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923</i></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Press" title="University of Pittsburgh Press">University of Pittsburgh Press</a>. pp. 68–70. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7779-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7779-7"><bdi>978-0-8229-7779-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captives+of+Revolution%3A+The+Socialist+Revolutionaries+and+the+Bolshevik+Dictatorship%2C+1918%E2%80%931923&rft.pages=68-70&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2011-04-15&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-7779-7&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Scott+Baldwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5ueUEE8jVRsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2011" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Scott Baldwin (15 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ueUEE8jVRsC"><i>Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923</i></a>. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 68. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7779-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7779-7"><bdi>978-0-8229-7779-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captives+of+Revolution%3A+The+Socialist+Revolutionaries+and+the+Bolshevik+Dictatorship%2C+1918%E2%80%931923&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2011-04-15&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-7779-7&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Scott+Baldwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5ueUEE8jVRsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=282">Cover Story: Churchill's Greatness.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061004110408/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=282">Archived</a> 2006-10-04 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Interview with Jeffrey Wallin. (The Churchill Centre)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard Fuller, "Great Britain and Russia's Civil War: The Necessity for a Definite and Coherent Policy". <i>Journal of Slavic Military Studies</i> 32.4 (2019): 553–559.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKeith_Bullivant,_Geoffrey_J._Giles_and_Walter_Pape1999" class="citation book cs1">Keith Bullivant, Geoffrey J. Giles and Walter Pape (1999). <i>Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identity and Cultural Differences</i>. Rodopi. pp. 28–29. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-420-0678-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-420-0678-1"><bdi>90-420-0678-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+and+Eastern+Europe%3A+Cultural+Identity+and+Cultural+Differences&rft.pages=28-29&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=90-420-0678-1&rft.au=Keith+Bullivant%2C+Geoffrey+J.+Giles+and+Walter+Pape&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mieczysław B. Biskupski, "War and the Diplomacy of Polish Independence, 1914–18." <i>Polish Review</i> (1990): 5–17. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25778473">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200127202015/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25778473">Archived</a> 27 January 2020 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Timothy Snyder, <i>The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999</i> (Yale UP, 2004)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKirby1978" class="citation journal cs1">Kirby, D. G. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03585522.1978.10407894">"Revolutionary ferment in Finland and the origins of the civil war 1917–1918"</a>. <i>Scandinavian Economic History Review</i>. <b>26</b>: 15–35. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03585522.1978.10407894">10.1080/03585522.1978.10407894</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Revolutionary+ferment+in+Finland+and+the+origins+of+the+civil+war+1917%E2%80%931918&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=15-35&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03585522.1978.10407894&rft.aulast=Kirby&rft.aufirst=D.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F03585522.1978.10407894&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anatol Lieven, <i>The Baltic revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the path to independence</i> (Yale UP, 1993) pp. 54–61. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Baltic-Revolution-Estonia-Lithuania-Independence/dp/0300055528/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210316223710/https://www.amazon.com/Baltic-Revolution-Estonia-Lithuania-Independence/dp/0300055528/">Archived</a> 16 March 2021 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hrono.info/biograf/kaledina.html">"Каледин, Алексей Максимович. A biography of Kaledin (in Russian)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171108100553/http://www.hrono.info/biograf/kaledina.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%2C+%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9+%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87.+A+biography+of+Kaledin+%28in+Russian%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrono.info%2Fbiograf%2Fkaledina.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964103-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964103_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheeler1964">Wheeler 1964</a>, p. 103.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLtd" class="citation web cs1">Ltd, Not Panicking. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://h2g2.com/edited_entry/A4241062">"h2g2 – The Czech Legion – Edited Entry"</a>. <i>h2g2.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120719122821/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4241062">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=h2g2.com&rft.atitle=h2g2+%E2%80%93+The+Czech+Legion+%E2%80%93+Edited+Entry&rft.aulast=Ltd&rft.aufirst=Not+Panicking&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fh2g2.com%2Fedited_entry%2FA4241062&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-pk-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pk_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pk_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pk_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pk_79-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKenez2004" class="citation book cs1">Kenez, Peter (2004). <i>Red Attack, White Resistance; Civil War in South Russia 1918</i>. Washington, DC: New Academia Publishing. pp. 64–67. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780974493442" title="Special:BookSources/9780974493442"><bdi>9780974493442</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Attack%2C+White+Resistance%3B+Civil+War+in+South+Russia+1918&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=64-67&rft.pub=New+Academia+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780974493442&rft.aulast=Kenez&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195172-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195172_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoatesCoates1951">Coates & Coates 1951</a>, p. 72.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964104-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964104_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheeler1964">Wheeler 1964</a>, p. 104.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195170-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195170_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoatesCoates1951">Coates & Coates 1951</a>, p. 70.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195168–69-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195168–69_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoatesCoates1951">Coates & Coates 1951</a>, pp. 68–69.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195174-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195174_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoatesCoates1951">Coates & Coates 1951</a>, p. 74.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967226-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967226_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllworth1967">Allworth 1967</a>, p. 226.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFiges1997">Figes 1997</a>, p. 258quotes such comments from the peasant soldiers during the first weeks of the war: We have talked it over among ourselves; if the Germans want payment, it would be better to pay ten roubles a head than to kill people. Or: Is it not all the same what Tsar we live under? It cannot be worse under the German one. Or: Let them go and fight themselves. Wait a while, we will settle accounts with you. Or: 'What devil has brought this war on us? We are butting into other people's business.'</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spartacus-educational.com/RUSlenin.htm">"Vladimir Lenin"</a>. <i>Spartacus Educational</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200810163715/https://spartacus-educational.com/RUSlenin.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Spartacus+Educational&rft.atitle=Vladimir+Lenin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspartacus-educational.com%2FRUSlenin.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFiges1997">Figes 1997</a>, p. 419"It was partly a case of the usual military failings: units had been sent into battle without machine-guns; untrained soldiers had been ordered to engage in complex maneuvers using hand grenades and ended up throwing them without first pulling the pins."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFiges1997">Figes 1997</a>, p. 412 "This new civic patriotism did not extend beyond the urban middle classes, although the leaders of the Provisional Government deluded themselves that it did."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithTucker2014554–555-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithTucker2014554–555_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithTucker2014554–555_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithTucker2014">Smith & Tucker 2014</a>, pp. 554–555.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30076britbrit-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30076britbrit_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30076/Ukraine">"Ukraine – World War I and the struggle for independence"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080615144832/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30076/Ukraine">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ukraine+%E2%80%93+World+War+I+and+the+struggle+for+independence&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-30076%2FUkraine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-istpravda152320b-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-istpravda152320b_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Ukrainian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.istpravda.com.ua/short/2018/04/18/152320/">100 years ago Bakhmut and the rest of Donbas liberated</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190501115243/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/short/2018/04/18/152320/">Archived</a> 1 May 2019 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrayinska_Pravda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrayinska Pravda">Ukrayinska Pravda</a> (18 April 2018)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-UkrainianWeek16042018UwIbbb-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UkrainianWeek16042018UwIbbb_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFTynchenko2018" class="citation cs2">Tynchenko, Yaros (23 March 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ukrainianweek.com/History/105648">"The Ukrainian Navy and the Crimean Issue in 1917–18"</a>, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Ukrainian_Week" title="The Ukrainian Week">The Ukrainian Week</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191111180649/https://ukrainianweek.com/History/105648">archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2018</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Ukrainian+Week&rft.atitle=The+Ukrainian+Navy+and+the+Crimean+Issue+in+1917%E2%80%9318&rft.date=2018-03-23&rft.aulast=Tynchenko&rft.aufirst=Yaros&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fukrainianweek.com%2FHistory%2F105648&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-retrospective2014031918b-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-retrospective2014031918b_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iht-retrospective.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/1918-germany-takes-control-of-crimea/">Germany Takes Control of Crimea</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190930205920/https://iht-retrospective.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/1918-germany-takes-control-of-crimea/">Archived</a> 30 September 2019 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_Herald" title="New York Herald">New York Herald</a> (18 May 1918)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-harvard11181181bbb-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harvard11181181bbb_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harvard11181181bbb_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/11181181">War Without Fronts: Atamans and Commissars in Ukraine, 1917–1919</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190403174842/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/11181181">Archived</a> 3 April 2019 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Akulov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mikhail Akulov (page does not exist)">Mikhail Akulov</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, August 2013 (page 102 and 103)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-pk2-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pk2_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pk2_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pk2_96-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pk2_96-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pk2_96-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pk2_96-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKenez2004" class="citation book cs1">Kenez, Peter (2004). <i>Red Advance, White Defeat: Civil War in South Russia 1919–1920</i>. Washington, DC: New Academia Publishing. pp. 28–29. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780974493459" title="Special:BookSources/9780974493459"><bdi>9780974493459</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Advance%2C+White+Defeat%3A+Civil+War+in+South+Russia+1919%E2%80%931920&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=28-29&rft.pub=New+Academia+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780974493459&rft.aulast=Kenez&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-wc2-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wc2_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wc2_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wc2_97-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wc2_97-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wc2_97-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlin1935" class="citation book cs1">Chamberlin, William (1935). <i>The Russian Revolution, 1917–1921, Volume Two</i>. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp. 20–21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Revolution%2C+1917%E2%80%931921%2C+Volume+Two&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Chamberlin&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMuldoon" class="citation web cs1">Muldoon, Amy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isreview.org/issue/107/workers-organizations-russian-revolution">"Workers' Organizations in the Russian Revolution"</a>. <i>International Socialist Review</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180221100132/https://isreview.org/issue/107/workers-organizations-russian-revolution">Archived</a> from the original on 21 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Socialist+Review&rft.atitle=Workers%27+Organizations+in+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.aulast=Muldoon&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fisreview.org%2Fissue%2F107%2Fworkers-organizations-russian-revolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChamberlin1987">Chamberlin 1987</a>, p. 31Frequently the deserters' families were taken hostage to force a surrender; a portion were customarily executed, as an example to the others.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniels1993">Daniels 1993</a>, p. 70</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVolkogonov1996175-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVolkogonov1996175_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVolkogonov1996">Volkogonov 1996</a>, p. 175.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVolkogonov1996180-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVolkogonov1996180_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVolkogonov1996">Volkogonov 1996</a>, p. 180: By December 1918 Trotsky had ordered the formation of special detachments to serve as blocking units throughout the Red Army.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-volko-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-volko_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-volko_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-volko_103-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dmitri Volkogonov, <i>Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary</i>, transl. and edited by Harold Shukman, HarperCollins Publishers, London (1996), p. 180</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lih, Lars T., <i>Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921</i>, University of California Press (1990), p. 131</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Editors_of_Encyclopaedia_Britannica" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/War-Communism">"War Communism"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Britannica">Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=War+Communism&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.au=The+Editors+of+Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FWar-Communism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMawdsley2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evan_Mawdsley" title="Evan Mawdsley">Mawdsley, Evan</a> (1 March 2007). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan"><i>The Russian Civil War</i></a></span>. Pegasus Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan/page/287">287</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-933648-15-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-933648-15-6"><bdi>978-1-933648-15-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Civil+War&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2007-03-01&rft.isbn=978-1-933648-15-6&rft.aulast=Mawdsley&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiancivilwar00evan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakowska-Harmstone197019-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakowska-Harmstone197019_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakowska-Harmstone1970">Rakowska-Harmstone 1970</a>, p. 19.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195175-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195175_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoatesCoates1951">Coates & Coates 1951</a>, p. 75.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967232-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967232_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllworth1967">Allworth 1967</a>, p. 232.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1514725/Baltic-War-of-Liberation">Baltic War of Liberation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141008052602/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1514725/Baltic-War-of-Liberation">Archived</a> 8 October 2014 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Encyclop¿dia Britannica</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-axishistory-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-axishistory_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=6953">"Generalkommando VI Reservekorps"</a>. Axis History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090953/http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=6953">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Generalkommando+VI+Reservekorps&rft.pub=Axis+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.axishistory.com%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D6953&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Beryl, <i>The Russian Revolution 1917–1921</i>, Blackwell Publishing (1987), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15083-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15083-1">978-0-631-15083-1</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-15083-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-15083-8">0-631-15083-8</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2006516-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2006516_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenthal2006">Rosenthal 2006</a>, p. 516.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ian C.D. Moffat, "The Allies Act—Murmansk and Archangel." in Ian C. D. Moffat. ed., <i>The Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918–1920</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015). 68–82.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan D. Smele, <i>Civil war in Siberia: the anti-Bolshevik government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918–1920</i> (Cambridge UP, 2006).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-jul-greg-uncertainty"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1919-11-15/ed-1/seq-4/">"Bolsheviki Grain Near Petrograd"</a>. <i>New York Tribune</i>. Washington, DC. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. 15 November 1919. p. 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121012044429/http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1919-11-15/ed-1/seq-4/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Tribune&rft.atitle=Bolsheviki+Grain+Near+Petrograd&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1919-11-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn83030214%2F1919-11-15%2Fed-1%2Fseq-4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Kenez, <i>Civil war in South Russia, 1919–1920: The defeat of the whites</i> (U of California Press, 1977).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/31875/supplements/4693/page.pdf">"Distinguished Service Order citation for Bruce in the 1920 <i>London Gazette</i>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Distinguished+Service+Order+citation+for+Bruce+in+the+1920+London+Gazette&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.london-gazette.co.uk%2Fissues%2F31875%2Fsupplements%2F4693%2Fpage.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinvig2006225-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinvig2006225_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinvig2006225_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKinvig2006">Kinvig 2006</a>, p. 225.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-BasilLiddellHart-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BasilLiddellHart_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddell Hart, Basil. "The Tanks: The History Of The Royal Tank Regiment And Its Predecessors, Heavy Branch Machine-Gun Corps, Tank Corps And Royal Tank Corps, 1914–1945. Vol I". Cassell: 1959, p. 211.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenez197744-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenez197744_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenez1977">Kenez 1977</a>, p. 44.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenez1977218-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenez1977218_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenez1977">Kenez 1977</a>, p. 218.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967231-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967231_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllworth1967">Allworth 1967</a>, p. 231.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195176-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195176_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoatesCoates195176_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoatesCoates1951">Coates & Coates 1951</a>, p. 76.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967232–233-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllworth1967232–233_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllworth1967">Allworth 1967</a>, pp. 232–233.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSmele2015" class="citation book cs1">Smele, Jonathan D. (2015). <i>The "Russian" Civil Wars, 1916–1926</i>. Hurst & Company, London. p. 139. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84904-721-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84904-721-0"><bdi>978-1-84904-721-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%22Russian%22+Civil+Wars%2C+1916%E2%80%931926&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Hurst+%26+Company%2C+London&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-84904-721-0&rft.aulast=Smele&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSmele2015" class="citation book cs1">Smele, Jonathan D. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QwquCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1082"><i>Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 1082–1083. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-5281-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-5281-3"><bdi>978-1-4422-5281-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200719042353/https://books.google.com/books?id=QwquCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1082">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Russian+Civil+Wars%2C+1916%E2%80%931926&rft.pages=1082-1083&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-5281-3&rft.aulast=Smele&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQwquCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Viktor G. Bortnevski, "White Administration and White Terror (the Denikin Period)." <i>Russian Review</i> 52.3 (1993): 354–366 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sites.bu.edu/revolutionaryrussia/files/2013/09/White-Propaganda-Efforts-in-the-South-during-the-Russian-Civil-War.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200930231435/http://sites.bu.edu/revolutionaryrussia/files/2013/09/White-Propaganda-Efforts-in-the-South-during-the-Russian-Civil-War.pdf">Archived</a> 30 September 2020 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berland, Pierre, "Makhno", <i>Le Temps</i>, 28 August 1934: In addition to supplying White Army forces and their sympathizers with food, a successful seizure of the 1920 Ukrainian grain harvest would have had a devastating effect on food supplies to Bolshevik-held cities, while depriving both Red Army and Ukrainian Insurgent Army troops of their usual bread rations.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenez, <i>Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920</i> (1977).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter C. Mentzel, "Chaos and Utopia: The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution and Civil War", <i>Independent Review</i> 22/2 (Fall 2017), 173–181; available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_22_2_03_mentzel.pdf">https://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_22_2_03_mentzel.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200229193315/https://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_22_2_03_mentzel.pdf">Archived</a> 29 February 2020 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; and Alexandre Skirda, <i>Nestor Makhno — Anarchy's Cossack: The Struggle for Free Soviets in the Ukraine, 1917–1921</i> (Chico CA: AK Press, 2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781902593685" title="Special:BookSources/9781902593685">9781902593685</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964107-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler1964107_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheeler1964">Wheeler 1964</a>, p. 107.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Urlanis B. <i>Wars and Population</i>. Moscow, Progress publishers, 1971.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sennikov, B.V. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rusk.ru/vst.php?idar=321701"><i>Tambov rebellion and liquidation of peasants in Russia</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190330141755/https://rusk.ru/vst.php?idar=321701">Archived</a> 2019-03-30 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Moscow: Posev. In Russian. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-85824-152-2" title="Special:BookSources/5-85824-152-2">5-85824-152-2</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Civil-War/Foreign-intervention">"Russian Civil War – Foreign intervention | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Russian+Civil+War+%E2%80%93+Foreign+intervention+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FRussian-Civil-War%2FForeign-intervention&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan20122-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan20122_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRyan2012">Ryan (2012)</a>, p. 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan2012114-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan2012114_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRyan2012">Ryan (2012)</a>, p. 114.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-anatomy-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anatomy_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-anatomy_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stone, Bailey (2013). <i>The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pipes, Richard (2011). <i>The Russian Revolution</i>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 838.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELowe2002151-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowe2002151_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLowe2002">Lowe (2002)</a>, p. 151.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFLowe2002 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLincoln1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/W._Bruce_Lincoln" title="W. Bruce Lincoln">Lincoln, W. Bruce</a> (1989). <i>Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War</i>. Simon & Schuster. p. 384. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0671631667" title="Special:BookSources/0671631667"><bdi>0671631667</bdi></a>. <q>... the best estimates set the probable number of executions at about a hundred thousand.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Victory%3A+A+History+of+the+Russian+Civil+War&rft.pages=384&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0671631667&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=W.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFErlikhman2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Erlikhman, Vadim Viktorovich (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.azstat.org/Kitweb/zipfiles/11553.pdf"><i>Poteri narodonaseleniya v XX veke</i></a> [<i>Population losses in the XX century</i>] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Russian). Moscow: Russkaya panorama. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-93165-107-1" title="Special:BookSources/5-93165-107-1"><bdi>5-93165-107-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poteri+narodonaseleniya+v+XX+veke.&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=Russkaya+panorama&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=5-93165-107-1&rft.aulast=Erlikhman&rft.aufirst=Vadim+Viktorovich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.azstat.org%2FKitweb%2Fzipfiles%2F11553.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStele2015934-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStele2015934_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStele2015">Stele (2015)</a>, p. 934.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFStele2015 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scepsis.net/library/id_3807.html">К вопросу о масштабах красного террора в годы Гражданской войны</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.svoboda.org/a/29475805.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Красный террор": 1918– ...?"</a> [The Red Terror: 1918– …?].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%80%22%3A+1918%E2%80%93+...%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.svoboda.org%2Fa%2F29475805.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Часть IV. На гражданской войнe. // <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sergei_Melgunov" title="Sergei Melgunov">Sergei Melgunov</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.ru/POLITOLOG/MELGUNOW/terror.txt">«Красный террор» в России 1918—1923.</a> — 2-ое изд., доп. — Берлин, 1924</span>
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<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMelgunov2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sergei_Melgunov" title="Sergei Melgunov">Melgunov, Sergei Petrovich</a> (2008) [1924]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S3FGAQAAIAAJ"><i>Der rote Terror in Russland 1918–1923</i></a> (reprint of the 1924 Olga Diakow edition) (in German). Berlin: OEZ. p. 186, note 182. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783940452474" title="Special:BookSources/9783940452474"><bdi>9783940452474</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+rote+Terror+in+Russland+1918%E2%80%931923&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=186%2C+note+182&rft.pub=OEZ&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9783940452474&rft.aulast=Melgunov&rft.aufirst=Sergei+Petrovich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS3FGAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span> An online English translation of the second edition of Melgunov's work is accessibile at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ia804502.us.archive.org/28/items/RedTerrorInRussia1918-1923/S.P.Melgunov_Red_Terror_In_Russia_1918-1923_En.pdf">Internet Archive</a>, whence the following translated text is drawn (p. 85, note n. 128): "Professor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Sarol%C3%A9a" title="Charles Saroléa">[Charles] Sarolea</a>, who published a series of articles about Russia in Edinburgh newspaper “The Scotsman” touched upon the death statistics in an essay on terror (No. 7, November 1923.). He summarized the outcome of the Bolshevik massacre as follows: 28 bishops, 1219 clergy, 6000 professors and teachers, 9000 doctors, 54,000 officers, 260,000 soldiers, 70,000 policemen, 12,950 landowners, 355,250 professionals, 193,290 workers, 815,000 peasants. The author did not provide the sources of that data. Needless to say that the precise counts seem [too] fictional, but the author’s [characterisation] of terror in Russia in general matches reality." The note is somewhat abbreviated in the 1925 English edition indicated in the bibliography: in particular, there is no mention of the imaginative nature of the data (p. 111, note n. 1).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPerevozchikov',_Artyom2010" class="citation web cs1">Perevozchikov', Artyom (9 September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iskupitel.info/node/770">"Istorik Sergey Volkov: "Geneticheskomu fondu Rossii byl nanesen chudovishchnyy, ne vospolnennyy do sego vremeni, uron"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> [Historian Sergei Volkov: "Russia's genetic pool suffered monstrous damage, so far not repaired" (interview with the famous historian of the Civil War, Doctor of Historical Sciences Sergei Vladimirovich Volkov)]. <i>iskupitel.info</i>. Monarxist<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iskupitel.info&rft.atitle=Istorik+Sergey+Volkov%3A+%22Geneticheskomu+fondu+Rossii+byl+nanesen+chudovishchnyy%2C+ne+vospolnennyy+do+sego+vremeni%2C+uron%22&rft.date=2010-09-09&rft.au=Perevozchikov%27%2C+Artyom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iskupitel.info%2Fnode%2F770&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In particular, they seem quite at odds with the demographic considerations elaborated by Italian historian and professor <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andrea_Graziosi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrea Graziosi (page does not exist)">Andrea Graziosi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Graziosi" class="extiw" title="it:Andrea Graziosi">it</a>]</span> in the light of the good quality Tsarist and early Soviet statistics. According to him, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Excess_mortality" title="Excess mortality">excess deaths</a> between 1914 and 1922 were about 16 million, of which 4–5 were military, the rest civilian; the overwhelming majority of the latter resulted from "starvation, typhus, epidemics, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a> and the famine of 1921–22", the roughly number of "victims of the various kinds of terror, and red and white repressions" amounting to a few hundred thousand— which is indeed a dreadful number in itself, however (Graziosi, pp. 171 and 570).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGellately200770–71-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGellately200770–71_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGellately2007">Gellately 2007</a>, pp. 70–71.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKenezPipe,_RichardPipes1991" class="citation journal cs1">Kenez, Peter; Pipe, Richard; Pipes, Richard (1991). "The Prosecution of Soviet History: A Critique of Richard Pipes' The Russian Revolution". <i>Russian Review</i>. <b>50</b> (3): 345–51. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F131078">10.2307/131078</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/131078">131078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Review&rft.atitle=The+Prosecution+of+Soviet+History%3A+A+Critique+of+Richard+Pipes%27+The+Russian+Revolution&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=345-51&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F131078&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F131078%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kenez&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Pipe%2C+Richard&rft.au=Pipes%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolquist2002164-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolquist2002164_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolquist2002">Holquist 2002</a>, p. 164.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20050510090417/http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/063/073.htm"><bdi lang="ru">Колчаковщина</bdi></a> (in Russian). RU: Cult Info. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/063/073.htm">the original</a> on 10 May 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cultinfo.ru%2Ffulltext%2F1%2F001%2F008%2F063%2F073.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFЭрлихман2004" class="citation book cs1">Эрлихман, Вадим (2004). <i>Потери народонаселения в XX веке</i>. Издательский дом «Русская панорама». <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/5931651071" title="Special:BookSources/5931651071"><bdi>5931651071</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B2+XX+%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5.&rft.pub=%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC+%C2%AB%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%C2%BB&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=5931651071&rft.aulast=%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD&rft.aufirst=%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130621173456/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_/ai_n8801575">And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918–1930</a>, Thomas J. Hegarty, Canadian Slavonic Papers</span>
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<li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200517053259/https://nintil.com/the-soviet-union-gdp-growth/">"The Soviet Union: GDP growth"</a>. 26 March 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nintil.com/the-soviet-union-gdp-growth/">the original</a> on 17 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union%3A+GDP+growth&rft.date=2016-03-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnintil.com%2Fthe-soviet-union-gdp-growth%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War">Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War</a></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAllworth1967" class="citation book cs1">Allworth, Edward (1967). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centralasiacentu0000allw"><i>Central Asia: A Century of Russian Rule</i></a></span>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/396652">396652</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Asia%3A+A+Century+of+Russian+Rule&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F396652&rft.aulast=Allworth&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcentralasiacentu0000allw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAvrich1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_Avrich" title="Paul Avrich">Avrich, Paul</a> (1970). <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kronstadt,_1921" title="Kronstadt, 1921">Kronstadt, 1921</a></i>. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08721-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-08721-0"><bdi>0-691-08721-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/67322">67322</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kronstadt%2C+1921&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F67322&rft.isbn=0-691-08721-0&rft.aulast=Avrich&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999" class="citation book cs1">Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (1999). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro00andr"><i>The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro00andr/page/28">28</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465003129" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465003129"><bdi>978-0465003129</bdi></a>. <q>kgb cheka executions probably numbered as many as 250,000.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sword+and+the+Shield%3A+The+Mitrokhin+Archive+and+the+Secret+History+of+the+KGB&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0465003129&rft.aulast=Andrew&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Mitrokhin%2C+Vasili&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fswordshieldmitro00andr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBullock2008" class="citation book cs1">Bullock, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ"><i>The Russian Civil War 1918–22</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-271-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-271-4"><bdi>978-1-84603-271-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140213/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk61CwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Civil+War+1918%E2%80%9322&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-271-4&rft.aulast=Bullock&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMk61CwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCalder1976" class="citation book cs1">Calder, Kenneth J. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nME8AAAAIAAJ"><i>Britain and the Origins of the New Europe 1914–1918</i></a>. International Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521208970" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521208970"><bdi>978-0521208970</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+and+the+Origins+of+the+New+Europe+1914%E2%80%931918&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=International+Studies&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0521208970&rft.aulast=Calder&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnME8AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlin1987" class="citation book cs1">Chamberlin, William Henry (1987). <span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/34982"><i>The Russian Revolution, Volume II: 1918–1921: From the Civil War to the Consolidation of Power</i></a></span>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400858705" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400858705"><bdi>978-1400858705</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171227180409/https://muse.jhu.edu/book/34982">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2017</span> – via Project MUSE.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Revolution%2C+Volume+II%3A+1918%E2%80%931921%3A+From+the+Civil+War+to+the+Consolidation+of+Power&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-1400858705&rft.aulast=Chamberlin&rft.aufirst=William+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fbook%2F34982&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCoatesCoates1951" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/W._P._Coates" title="W. P. Coates">Coates, W. P.</a>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zelda_Kahan" title="Zelda Kahan">Coates, Zelda K.</a> (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/SovietsInCentralAsiaCoates"><i>Soviets in Central Asia</i></a>. New York: Philosophical Library. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1533874">1533874</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviets+in+Central+Asia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Philosophical+Library&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1533874&rft.aulast=Coates&rft.aufirst=W.+P.&rft.au=Coates%2C+Zelda+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FSovietsInCentralAsiaCoates&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels1993" class="citation book cs1">Daniels, Robert V. (1993). <i>A Documentary History of Communism in Russia: From Lenin to Gorbachev</i>. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-616-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-616-6"><bdi>978-0-87451-616-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Documentary+History+of+Communism+in+Russia%3A+From+Lenin+to+Gorbachev&rft.place=Hanover%2C+NH&rft.pub=University+Press+of+New+England&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-87451-616-6&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Robert+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEidintasŽalysSenn1999" class="citation cs2">Eidintas, Alfonsas; Žalys, Vytautas; Senn, Alfred Erich (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0_i8yez8udgC&pg=PA33"><i>Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940</i></a> (Paperback ed.), New York: St. Martin's Press, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-22458-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-22458-3"><bdi>0-312-22458-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lithuania+in+European+Politics%3A+The+Years+of+the+First+Republic%2C+1918%E2%80%931940&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Paperback&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-312-22458-3&rft.aulast=Eidintas&rft.aufirst=Alfonsas&rft.au=%C5%BDalys%2C+Vytautas&rft.au=Senn%2C+Alfred+Erich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0_i8yez8udgC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFErickson1984" class="citation book cs1">Erickson, John. (1984). <i>The Soviet High Command: A Military-Political History, 1918–1941: A Military Political History, 1918–1941</i>. Westview Press, Inc. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-29600-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-29600-1"><bdi>978-0-367-29600-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+High+Command%3A+A+Military-Political+History%2C+1918%E2%80%931941%3A+A+Military+Political+History%2C+1918%E2%80%931941&rft.pub=Westview+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-367-29600-1&rft.aulast=Erickson&rft.aufirst=John.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFiges1997" class="citation book cs1">Figes, Orlando (1997). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peoplestragedyhi00fige"><i>A People's Tragedy: A History of the Russian Revolution</i></a></span>. New York: Viking. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0670859160" title="Special:BookSources/978-0670859160"><bdi>978-0670859160</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+Tragedy%3A+A+History+of+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0670859160&rft.aulast=Figes&rft.aufirst=Orlando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeoplestragedyhi00fige&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGellately2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Gellately" title="Robert Gellately">Gellately, Robert</a> (2007). <i>Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe</i>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4005-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4005-6"><bdi>978-1-4000-4005-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%2C+Stalin%2C+and+Hitler%3A+The+Age+of+Social+Catastrophe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-4005-6&rft.aulast=Gellately&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Grebenkin, I.N. "The Disintegration of the Russian Army in 1917: Factors and Actors in the Process." <i>Russian Studies in History</i> 56.3 (2017): 172–187.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHauptMarie1974" class="citation book cs1">Haupt, Georges & Marie, Jean-Jacques (1974). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makersofrussianr0000haup"><i>Makers of the Russian revolution</i></a></span>. London: George Allen & Unwin. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801408090" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801408090"><bdi>978-0801408090</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Makers+of+the+Russian+revolution&rft.place=London&rft.pub=George+Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0801408090&rft.aulast=Haupt&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft.au=Marie%2C+Jean-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakersofrussianr0000haup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHolquist2002" class="citation book cs1">Holquist, Peter (2002). <i>Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia's Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921</i>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-00907-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-00907-X"><bdi>0-674-00907-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+War%2C+Forging+Revolution%3A+Russia%27s+Continuum+of+Crisis%2C+1914%E2%80%931921&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-674-00907-X&rft.aulast=Holquist&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKenez1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Kenez" title="Peter Kenez">Kenez, Peter</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vREGB60UPWMC"><i>Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920: The Defeat of the Whites</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520033467" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520033467"><bdi>978-0520033467</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+War+in+South+Russia%2C+1919%E2%80%931920%3A+The+Defeat+of+the+Whites&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0520033467&rft.aulast=Kenez&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvREGB60UPWMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKinvig2006" class="citation book cs1">Kinvig, Clifford (2006). <i>Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia, 1918–1920</i>. London: Hambledon Continuum. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1847250216" title="Special:BookSources/978-1847250216"><bdi>978-1847250216</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Churchill%27s+Crusade%3A+The+British+Invasion+of+Russia%2C+1918%E2%80%931920&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hambledon+Continuum&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1847250216&rft.aulast=Kinvig&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKrivosheev1997" class="citation book cs1">Krivosheev, G. F. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CTTfAAAAMAAJ"><i>Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century</i></a>. London: Greenhill Books. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-280-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-280-4"><bdi>978-1-85367-280-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Casualties+and+Combat+Losses+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Greenhill+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-85367-280-4&rft.aulast=Krivosheev&rft.aufirst=G.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCTTfAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMawdsley2007" class="citation book cs1">Mawdsley, Evan (2007). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan"><i>The Russian Civil War</i></a></span>. New York: Pegasus Books. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1681770093" title="Special:BookSources/978-1681770093"><bdi>978-1681770093</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1681770093&rft.aulast=Mawdsley&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiancivilwar00evan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFOvery2004" class="citation book cs1">Overy, Richard (2004). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictators00rich"><i>The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia</i></a></span>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02030-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02030-4"><bdi>978-0-393-02030-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dictators%3A+Hitler%27s+Germany+and+Stalin%27s+Russia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-393-02030-4&rft.aulast=Overy&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictators00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRakowska-Harmstone1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teresa_Rakowska-Harmstone" title="Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone">Rakowska-Harmstone, Teresa</a> (1970). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russianationalis0000rako"><i>Russia and Nationalism in Central Asia: The Case of Tadzhikistan</i></a></span>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801810213" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801810213"><bdi>978-0801810213</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+Nationalism+in+Central+Asia%3A+The+Case+of+Tadzhikistan&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0801810213&rft.aulast=Rakowska-Harmstone&rft.aufirst=Teresa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussianationalis0000rako&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRead1996" class="citation book cs1">Read, Christopher (1996). <i>From Tsar to Soviets</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195212419" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195212419"><bdi>978-0195212419</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Tsar+to+Soviets&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0195212419&rft.aulast=Read&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRosenthal2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rosenthal, Reigo (2006). <i>Loodearmee</i> [<i>Northwestern Army</i>] (in Estonian). Tallinn: Argo. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9949-415-45-4" title="Special:BookSources/9949-415-45-4"><bdi>9949-415-45-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Loodearmee&rft.place=Tallinn&rft.pub=Argo&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9949-415-45-4&rft.aulast=Rosenthal&rft.aufirst=Reigo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRyan2012" class="citation book cs1">Ryan, James (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Lenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence/Ryan/p/book/9781138815681"><i>Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence</i></a>. London: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-81568-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-81568-1"><bdi>978-1-138-81568-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111070149/https://www.routledge.com/Lenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence/Ryan/p/book/9781138815681">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%27s+Terror%3A+The+Ideological+Origins+of+Early+Soviet+State+Violence&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-138-81568-1&rft.aulast=Ryan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FLenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence%2FRyan%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781138815681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2009" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, George (2009). <i>The White Armies of Russia A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1847349767" title="Special:BookSources/978-1847349767"><bdi>978-1847349767</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+White+Armies+of+Russia+A+Chronicle+of+Counter-Revolution+and+Allied+Intervention&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1847349767&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSmithTucker2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Smith, David A.; Tucker, Spencer C. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ">"Faustschlag, Operation"</a>. <i>World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 554–555. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851099658" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851099658"><bdi>978-1851099658</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170215195340/https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Faustschlag%2C+Operation&rft.btitle=World+War+I%3A+The+Definitive+Encyclopedia+and+Document+Collection&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pages=554-555&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1851099658&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft.au=Tucker%2C+Spencer+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDBwTBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1996" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, John M. (1996). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/visionunfulfille00thom"><i>A Vision Unfulfilled. Russia and the Soviet Union in the Twentieth Century</i></a></span>. Lexington, MA. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0669282917" title="Special:BookSources/978-0669282917"><bdi>978-0669282917</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Vision+Unfulfilled.+Russia+and+the+Soviet+Union+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=Lexington%2C+MA&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0669282917&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvisionunfulfille00thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFVolkogonov1996" class="citation book cs1">Volkogonov, Dmitri (1996). <i>Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary</i>. Translated and edited by Harold Shukman. London: HarperCollins Publishers. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0002552721" title="Special:BookSources/978-0002552721"><bdi>978-0002552721</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trotsky%3A+The+Eternal+Revolutionary&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0002552721&rft.aulast=Volkogonov&rft.aufirst=Dmitri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler1964" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, Geoffrey (1964). <i>The Modern History of Soviet Central Asia</i>. New York: Frederick A. Praeger. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/865924756">865924756</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+History+of+Soviet+Central+Asia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Frederick+A.+Praeger&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F865924756&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1054258005"><div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul><li>Acton, Edward, V. et al. eds. <i>Critical companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914–1921</i> (Indiana UP, 1997).</li>
<li>Brovkin, Vladimir N. (1994). <i>Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War: Political Parties and Social Movements in Russia, 1918–1922</i>. Princeton UP. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.comdp/0691633770/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140214/https://www.amazon.com/Behind-Front-Lines-Civil-War/dp/0691633770/">Archived</a> 28 July 2020 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Dupuy, T. N. <i>The Encyclopedia of Military History</i> (many editions) Harper & Row Publishers.</li>
<li>Ford, Chris. "Reconsidering the Ukrainian Revolution 1917–1921: The Dialectics of National Liberation and Social Emancipation." <i>Debatte</i> 15.3 (2007): 279–306.</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Kenez" title="Peter Kenez">Peter Kenez</a>. <i>Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army</i> (U of California Press, 1971).</li>
<li>Lincoln, W. Bruce. <i>Red victory: A history of the Russian Civil War</i> (1989).</li>
<li>Luckett, Richard. <i>The White Generals: An Account of the White Movement and the Russian Civil War</i> (Routledge, 2017).</li>
<li>Marples, David R. <i>Lenin's Revolution: Russia, 1917–1921</i> (Routledge, 2014).</li>
<li>Moffat, Ian, ed. <i>The Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918–1920: The Diplomacy of Chaos</i> (2015)</li>
<li>Polyakov, Yuri. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilwarrussia">The Civil War in Russia: Its Causes and Significance</a></i> (Novosti, 1981).</li>
<li>Serge, Victor. <i>Year One of the Russian Revolution</i> (Haymarket, 2015).</li>
<li>Smele, Jonathan D. <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'If Grandma had Whiskers...': Could the Anti-Bolsheviks have won the Russian Revolutions and Civil Wars? Or, the Constraints and Conceits of Counterfactual History." <i>Revolutionary Russia</i> (2020): 1–32. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09546545.2019.1675961">10.1080/09546545.2019.1675961</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140215/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546545.2019.1675961">Archived</a> 28 July 2020 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Smele, Jonathan. <i>The 'Russian' Civil Wars, 1916–1926: Ten Years That Shook the World</i> (Oxford UP, 2016).</li>
<li>Smele, Jonathan D. <i>Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926</i> (2 Vol. Rowman & Littlefield, 2015).</li>
<li>Stewart, George. <i>The White Armies of Russia: A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention</i> (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Armies-Russia-Chronicle-Counter-Revolution-Intervention/dp/1847349765/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150627113844/http://www.amazon.com/Armies-Russia-Chronicle-Counter-Revolution-Intervention/dp/1847349765">Archived</a> 27 June 2015 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Stone, David R. "The Russian Civil War, 1917–1921," in <i>The Military History of the Soviet Union</i>.</li>
<li>Swain, Geoffrey (2015). <i>The Origins of the Russian Civil War</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1138837458/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140217/https://www.amazon.com/Origins-Russian-Civil-Modern-Wars/dp/1138837458/">Archived</a> 28 July 2020 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
<ul><li>Smele, Jonathan D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668136.2016.1257094">"Still Searching for the 'Third Way': Geoffrey Swain's Interventions in the Russian Civil Wars"</a>. <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i> 68.10 (2016): 1793–1812.</li></ul></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Butt, V. P., et al., eds. <i>The Russian Civil War: Documents from the Soviet Archives</i> (Springer, 2016).</li>
<li>McCauley, Martin, ed. <i>The Russian Revolution and the Soviet State 1917–1921: Documents</i> (Springer, 1980).</li>
<li>Murphy, A. Brian, ed. <i>The Russian Civil War: Primary Sources</i> (Springer, 2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/monderusse/4022">online review</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200627165622/https://journals.openedition.org/monderusse/4022">Archived</a> 27 June 2020 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.net-film.ru/en/found-page-1/?search=1917-1935qcivil+war+in+Russia">Newsreels about Russian Civil War // Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive</a></li>
<li>Sumpf, Alexandre: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/russian_civil_war">Russian Civil War</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li>
<li>Mawdsley, Evan: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/international_responses_to_the_russian_civil_war_russian_empire">International Responses to the Russian Civil War (Russian Empire)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li>
<li>Read, Christopher: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/revolutions_russian_empire">Revolutions (Russian Empire)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li>
<li>Peeling, Siobhan: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/war_communism">War Communism</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li>
<li>Beyrau, Dietrich: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/post-war_societies_russian_empire">Post-war Societies (Russian Empire)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li>
<li>Brudek, Pawe³: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/revolutions_east_central_europe">Revolutions (East Central Europe)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li>
<li>Melancon, Michael S.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/social_conflict_and_control_protest_and_repression_russian_empire">Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Russian Empire)</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html">1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libcom.org/library/russian-revolution">Russian Revolution and Civil War archive at libcom.org/library</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/eastern_front_01.shtml">"BBC History of the Russian Revolution"</a> (3 February 2007)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spartacus-educational.com/RUScivilwar.htm">"Russian Civil War"</a> (Spartacus History, downloaded 3 January 2006)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051221100007/http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/romeo/russia1918.htm">"Russian Civil War 1918–1920"</a> (On War website, downloaded 4 January 2006)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.answers.com/topic/civil-war-of-1917-1922">"Civil War of 1917–1922 at Encyclopedia of Russian History</a> (3 February 2007)</li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_I" title="Outline of World War I">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_World_War_I" title="List of military engagements of World War I">Military engagements</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_I" title="Home front during World War I">Home fronts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_I" title="Technology during World War I">Technology</a></li>
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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:left;">Theatres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="European theatre of World War I">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Balkans_theatre" title="Balkans theatre">Balkans</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serbian_campaign" title="Serbian campaign">Serbia</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_front_(World_War_I)" title="Italian front (World War I)">Italian Front</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign" title="Sinai and Palestine campaign">Sinai and Palestine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caucasus_campaign" title="Caucasus campaign">Caucasus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persian_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="Persian campaign (World War I)">Persia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Arabia_during_World_War_I" title="South Arabia during World War I">South Arabia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="African theatre of World War I">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_West_Africa_campaign" title="South West Africa campaign">South West</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">East</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kamerun_campaign" title="Kamerun campaign">Kamerun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Togoland_campaign" title="Togoland campaign">Togoland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_operations_in_North_Africa_during_World_War_I" title="Military operations in North Africa during World War I">North</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asian_and_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I">Asian and Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Tsingtao</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occupation_of_German_Samoa" title="Occupation of German Samoa">German Samoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Australian_occupation_of_German_New_Guinea" title="Australian occupation of German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare of World War I">Naval warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/U-boat_campaign" title="U-boat campaign">U-boat campaign</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlantic_U-boat_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I">North Atlantic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naval_warfare_in_the_Mediterranean_during_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I">Mediterranean</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Principal<br />participants</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Entente Powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_I" title="Allied leaders of World War I">Leaders</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">Belgium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brazil_during_World_War_I" title="Brazil during World War I">Brazil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_during_World_War_I" title="China during World War I">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">France</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French Empire</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greece_during_World_War_I" title="Greece during World War I">Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Italy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Montenegro#World_War_I" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_I" title="Portugal during World War I">Portuguese Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Russia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1894%E2%80%931917)#Russia_at_war,_1914–1916" title="History of Russia (1894–1917)">Russian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Serbia#Serbia_in_World_War_I_(1914–1918)" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siam_in_World_War_I" title="Siam in World War I">Siam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">United Kingdom</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Central_Powers_of_World_War_I" title="Leaders of the Central Powers of World War I">Leaders</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austria-Hungary#Belligerence_in_World_War_I" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I" title="Bulgaria during World War I">Bulgaria</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:left;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I" title="Timeline of World War I">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">Pre-War conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> (1880–1914)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> (1905)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">Tangier Crisis</a> (1905–06)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a> (1908–09)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> (1911)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> (1911–12)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War</a> (1912–13)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second Balkan War</a> (1913)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">Prelude</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Origins</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Historiography</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" title="Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand">Sarajevo assassination</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Serb_riots_in_Sarajevo" title="Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo">Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">Autumn 1914</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_the_Frontiers" title="Battle of the Frontiers">Battle of the Frontiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Cer" title="Battle of Cer">Battle of Cer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="First Battle of the Marne">First Battle of the Marne</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Grand_Couronn%C3%A9" title="Battle of Grand Couronné">Battle of Grand Couronné</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Siege of Tsingtao</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg" title="Battle of Tannenberg">Battle of Tannenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Galicia" title="Battle of Galicia">Battle of Galicia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="First Battle of the Masurian Lakes">First Battle of the Masurian Lakes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Kolubara" title="Battle of Kolubara">Battle of Kolubara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish" title="Battle of Sarikamish">Battle of Sarikamish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Race_to_the_Sea" title="Race to the Sea">Race to the Sea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres" title="First Battle of Ypres">First Battle of Ypres</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">1915</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes">Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres" title="Second Battle of Ypres">Second Battle of Ypres</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania" title="Sinking of the RMS Lusitania">Sinking of the RMS <i>Lusitania</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Battle of Gallipoli</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Artois" title="Second Battle of Artois">Second Battle of Artois</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battles_of_the_Isonzo" title="Battles of the Isonzo">Battles of the Isonzo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gorlice%E2%80%93Tarn%C3%B3w_offensive" title="Gorlice–Tarnów offensive">Gorlice–Tarnów offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Retreat_(Russian)" title="Great Retreat (Russian)">Great Retreat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Narew_Offensive" title="Bug–Narew Offensive">Bug-Narew Offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Champagne" title="Second Battle of Champagne">Second Battle of Champagne</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kosovo_offensive_(1915)" title="Kosovo offensive (1915)">Kosovo offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">Siege of Kut</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Loos" title="Battle of Loos">Battle of Loos</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">1916</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erzurum_offensive" title="Erzurum offensive">Erzurum offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lake_Naroch_offensive" title="Lake Naroch offensive">Lake Naroch offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Asiago" title="Battle of Asiago">Battle of Asiago</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Jutland" title="Battle of Jutland">Battle of Jutland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme" title="First day on the Somme">first day</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brusilov_offensive" title="Brusilov offensive">Brusilov offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baranovichi_offensive" title="Baranovichi offensive">Baranovichi offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Romani" title="Battle of Romani">Battle of Romani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monastir_offensive" title="Monastir offensive">Monastir offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Transylvania" title="Battle of Transylvania">Battle of Transylvania</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">1917</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fall_of_Baghdad_(1917)" title="Fall of Baghdad (1917)">Capture of Baghdad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zimmermann_Telegram" title="Zimmermann Telegram">Zimmermann Telegram</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_(1917)" title="Battle of Arras (1917)">Second Battle of Arras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Aisne" title="Second Battle of the Aisne">Second Battle of the Aisne</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerensky_offensive" title="Kerensky offensive">Kerensky offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99ti" title="Battle of Mărăști">Battle of Mărăști</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele" title="Battle of Passchendaele">Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99e%C8%99ti" title="Battle of Mărășești">Battle of Mărășești</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Oituz" title="Third Battle of Oituz">Third Battle of Oituz</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Caporetto" title="Battle of Caporetto">Battle of Caporetto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Palestine_offensive" title="Southern Palestine offensive">Southern Palestine offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_La_Malmaison" title="Battle of La Malmaison">Battle of La Malmaison</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_(1917)" title="Battle of Cambrai (1917)">Battle of Cambrai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armistice_of_Foc%C8%99ani" title="Armistice of Focșani">Armistice of Focșani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armistice_between_Russia_and_the_Central_Powers" title="Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers">Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">1918</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Faustschlag" title="Operation Faustschlag">Operation Faustschlag</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_spring_offensive" title="German spring offensive">German spring offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zeebrugge_Raid" title="Zeebrugge Raid">Zeebrugge Raid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1918)">Treaty of Bucharest of 1918</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Goychay" title="Battle of Goychay">Battle of Goychay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Piave_River" title="Second Battle of the Piave River">Second Battle of the Piave River</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="Second Battle of the Marne">Second Battle of the Marne</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive" title="Hundred Days Offensive">Hundred Days Offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vardar_offensive" title="Vardar offensive">Vardar offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Megiddo_(1918)" title="Battle of Megiddo (1918)">Battle of Megiddo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Transjordan_attack" title="Third Transjordan attack">Third Transjordan attack</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meuse%E2%80%93Argonne_offensive" title="Meuse–Argonne offensive">Meuse–Argonne offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Vittorio_Veneto" title="Battle of Vittorio Veneto">Battle of Vittorio Veneto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armistice_of_Salonica" title="Armistice of Salonica">Armistice of Salonica</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros" title="Armistice of Mudros">Armistice of Mudros</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armistice_of_Villa_Giusti" title="Armistice of Villa Giusti">Armistice of Villa Giusti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Romanian_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Second Romanian campaign of World War I">Second Romanian campaign</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice with Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armistice_of_Belgrade" title="Armistice of Belgrade">Armistice of Belgrade</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">Co-belligerent conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somaliland_campaign" title="Somaliland campaign">Somaliland campaign</a> (1900–1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a> (1910–1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maritz_rebellion" title="Maritz rebellion">Maritz rebellion</a> (1914–15)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muscat_rebellion" title="Muscat rebellion">Muscat rebellion</a> (1913–1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">Zaian War</a> (1914–1921)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kurdish_rebellions_during_World_War_I" title="Kurdish rebellions during World War I">Kurdish rebellions</a> (1914–1917)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ovambo_Uprising" title="Ovambo Uprising">Ovambo Uprising</a> (1914-1917)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kelantan_rebellion" title="Kelantan rebellion">Kelantan rebellion</a> (1915)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senussi_campaign" title="Senussi campaign">Senussi campaign</a> (1915–1916)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volta-Bani_War" title="Volta-Bani War">Volta-Bani War</a> (1915–1917)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> (1916-1918)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Central Asian Revolt</a> (1916–17)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Darfur_Expedition" title="Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition">Darfur Expedition</a> (1916)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Easter_Rising" title="Easter Rising">Easter Rising</a> (1916)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaocen_revolt" title="Kaocen revolt">Kaocen revolt</a> (1916–17)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> (1917)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a> (1918)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">Post-War conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1921)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a> (1917–1921)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)">Armenian–Azerbaijani War</a> (1918–1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armeno-Georgian_War" title="Armeno-Georgian War">Armeno-Georgian War</a> (1918)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution</a> (1918–19)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_and_interventions_in_Hungary_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–1920)">Revolutions and interventions in Hungary</a> (1918–1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian%E2%80%93Romanian_War" title="Hungarian–Romanian War">Hungarian–Romanian War</a> (1918–19)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)">Greater Poland Uprising</a> (1918–19)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian_Wars_of_Independence" title="Lithuanian Wars of Independence">Lithuanian Wars of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a> (1918–19)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1919)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1919_Egyptian_Revolution" title="1919 Egyptian Revolution">Egyptian Revolution</a> (1919)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian War">Polish–Lithuanian War</a> (1919–1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> (1919–1921)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">Irish War of Independence</a> (1919–1921)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Franco-Turkish_War" title="Franco-Turkish War">Franco-Turkish War</a> (1918–1921)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919%E2%80%931922)" title="Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)">Greco-Turkish War</a> (1919–1922)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish%E2%80%93Armenian_War" title="Turkish–Armenian War">Turkish–Armenian War</a> (1920)</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a> (1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vlora_War" title="Vlora War">Vlora War</a> (1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Franco-Syrian_War" title="Franco-Syrian War">Franco-Syrian War</a> (1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Soviet–Georgian War</a> (1921)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:left;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">Chemical weapons</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare of World War I">Naval warfare</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convoys_in_World_War_I" title="Convoys in World War I">Convoy system</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I" title="Aviation in World War I">Air warfare</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_I" title="Strategic bombing during World War I">Strategic bombing</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_I_cryptography" title="World War I cryptography">Cryptography</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horses_in_World_War_I" title="Horses in World War I">Horse use</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Atrocities<br />Civilian impact</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany" title="Blockade of Germany">Blockade of Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deportations_from_East_Prussia_during_World_War_I" title="Deportations from East Prussia during World War I">Deportations from East Prussia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Destruction_of_Kalisz" title="Destruction of Kalisz">Destruction of Kalisz</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_casualties_of_World_War_I" title="Ottoman casualties of World War I">Ottoman casualties</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Pontic Greek genocide</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Urkun (Kyrgyzstan)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_occupation_of_Serbia" title="Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia">Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia</a></li>
<li>Bulgarian occupations
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bulgarian_occupation_of_Albania" title="Bulgarian occupation of Albania">Albania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bulgarian_occupation_of_Serbia_(World_War_I)" title="Bulgarian occupation of Serbia (World War I)">Serbia</a></li></ul></li>
<li>German occupations
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belgium_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Belgium during World War I">Belgium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I">Luxembourg</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_occupation_of_north-east_France_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of north-east France during World War I">Northeastern France</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ober_Ost" title="Ober Ost">Ober Ost</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Russian occupations
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Eastern_Galicia_(1914%E2%80%931915)" title="Russian occupation of Eastern Galicia (1914–1915)">Eastern Galicia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occupation_of_Western_Armenia" title="Occupation of Western Armenia">Western Armenia</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Agreements</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constantinople_Agreement" title="Constantinople Agreement">Constantinople Agreement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Damascus_Protocol" title="Damascus Protocol">Damascus Protocol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bulgaria%E2%80%93Germany_treaty_(1915)" title="Bulgaria–Germany treaty (1915)">Bulgaria–Germany treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sazonov%E2%80%93Pal%C3%A9ologue_Agreement" title="Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement">Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paris_Economy_Pact" title="Paris Economy Pact">Paris Economy Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1916)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1916)">Treaty of Bucharest</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agreement_of_Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne" title="Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne">Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Peace treaties</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1918)">Treaty of Bucharest</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)" title="Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)">Treaty of St. Germain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Neuilly-sur-Seine" title="Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine">Treaty of Neuilly</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon" title="Treaty of Trianon">Treaty of Trianon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Golden_Virgin" title="The Golden Virgin">The Golden Virgin</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div>
<ul><li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Fokker_Dr._I_(117710246).jpg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg/16px-Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="noviewer thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg/24px-Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg/32px-Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:World_War_I" title="Portal:World War I">World War I portal</a></b></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></b></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:World_War_I" title="Category:World War I">Category</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Russian_Civil_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Russian_Civil_War" title="Template:Russian Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_Civil_War" title="Template talk:Russian Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Russian_Civil_War&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Russian_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northern Front of the Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Northern</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Western_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Western Front of the Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Southern Front of the Russian Civil War">Southern</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Central_Asian_Theater_of_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Asian Theater of Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Central Asian</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Russian_Civil_War_casualties&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Russian Civil War casualties (page does not exist)">Casualties</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=List_of_military_engagements_of_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of military engagements of Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Military engagements</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Leaders of the Russian Civil War">Commanders</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Participants_in_the_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Participants in the Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Armies_(leaders)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Armies <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Leaders of the Russian Civil War">leaders</a>)</span></span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_armies" title="Green armies">Green armies</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutionary_Insurgent_Army_of_Ukraine" title="Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine">Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Theaters_of_the_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theaters of the Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Causes_of_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Causes of Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Storming_of_the_Winter_Palace" title="The Storming of the Winter Palace">The Storming of the Winter Palace</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left-wing_uprisings_against_the_Bolsheviks" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks">Left-wing uprisings</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerensky%E2%80%93Krasnov_uprising" title="Kerensky–Krasnov uprising">Kerensky–Krasnov uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_SR_uprising" title="Left SR uprising">Left SR uprising</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northern Front of the Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Northern Theater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Arkhangelsk and Murmansk
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Russia_intervention" title="North Russia intervention">North Russia intervention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Shenkursk" title="Battle of Shenkursk">Battle of Shenkursk</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Finland
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heimosodat" title="Heimosodat">Heimosodat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Karelian_uprising" title="East Karelian uprising">Soviet–Finnish war 1921–22</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Anti-Bolshevik Uprisings
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Murom_rebellion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Murom rebellion (page does not exist)">Murom rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Western_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Western Front of the Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Western Theater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Poland
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian War">Polish–Lithuanian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Poland</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Baltic states
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Petrograd" title="Battle of Petrograd">Petrograd</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Lithuanian–Soviet War">Lithuania</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion" title="Kronstadt rebellion">Kronstadt rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_campaign_in_the_Baltic_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="British campaign in the Baltic (1918–1919)">Baltic</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Southern Front of the Russian Civil War">Southern Theater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_War_of_Independence" title="Ukrainian War of Independence">Ukraine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Civil_War_on_Don&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Civil War on Don (page does not exist)">Don</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Tsaritsyn" title="Battle of Tsaritsyn">Tsaritsyn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voronezh-Povorino_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Voronezh-Povorino Campaign">Voronezh and Povorino</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/March_on_Moscow_(1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="March on Moscow (1919)">March on Moscow</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mamantov_Corps_Raid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mamantov Corps Raid (page does not exist)">Mamantov Corps Raid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orel%E2%80%93Kursk_operation" title="Orel–Kursk operation">Orel and Kursk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Voronezh_and_Kastornoye" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Voronezh and Kastornoye">Voronezh and Kastornoye</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Donbas_Operation_(1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Donbas Operation (1919)">Donbas Operation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Tavriya_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Tavriya Campaign">Northern Tavriya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perekop-Chongar_Offensive_(1920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perekop-Chongar Offensive (1920)">Perekop-Chongar</a></li></ul>
<ul><li>Ukraine
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimean_Operation_(1918)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Operation (1918)">Crimea (1918)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_Front_Offensive_(1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian Front Offensive (1919)">Ukrainian Front Offensive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1917%E2%80%9318)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Kiev (1917–18)">Kiev (1917–18)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Winter_Ukrainian_Offensive_(1918%E2%80%9319)" class="mw-redirect" title="Winter Ukrainian Offensive (1918–19)">Ukraine (1918–19)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">West Ukraine (1918-1919)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capture_of_Kiev_by_the_White_Army" title="Capture of Kiev by the White Army">Kiev (1919)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Kharkiv_(1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Kharkiv (1919)">Kharkiv (1919)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Donets_Basin_Offensive_(1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Donets Basin Offensive (1919)">Donets Basin Offensive (1919)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Odessa_(1920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Odessa (1920)">Odessa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slutsk_Defence_Action" class="mw-redirect" title="Slutsk Defence Action">Slutsk Defence Action</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li>North Caucasus
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ice_March" title="Ice March">1st Kuban</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuban_Offensive" title="Kuban Offensive">2nd Kuban</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Caucasus_Campaign_(1918%E2%80%941919)" class="mw-redirect" title="North Caucasus Campaign (1918—1919)">North Caucasus (1918–19)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Rostov_and_Novocherkassk" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Rostov and Novocherkassk">Rostov and Novocherkassk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Caucasus_Operation_(1920)" title="North Caucasus Operation (1920)">North Caucasus (1920)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ulagaev_Landing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulagaev Landing">Ulagaev Landing</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li>Transcaucasia
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Caucasus_expedition" title="German Caucasus expedition">German Caucasus expedition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sochi_conflict" title="Sochi conflict">Sochi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shamkhor_massacre" title="Shamkhor massacre">Shamkhor massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Baku" title="Battle of Baku">Battle of Baku</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–1920)">Ossetia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armeno-Georgian_War" title="Armeno-Georgian War">Armeno-Georgian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)">Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anzali_Operation" title="Anzali Operation">Anzali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1920_Ganja_revolt" title="1920 Ganja revolt">Ganja revolt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish%E2%80%93Armenian_War" title="Turkish–Armenian War">Turkish–Armenian War</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li>Anti-Bolshevik Uprisings
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sheksna_uprising" title="Sheksna uprising">Sheksna uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Peasant_Uprising_in_Penza_Government&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peasant Uprising in Penza Government (page does not exist)">Peasant Uprising in Penza Government</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Livny_Uprising" title="Livny Uprising">Livny Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grigoriev_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Grigoriev Uprising">Grigoriev Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Sapozhkov_Uprising&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sapozhkov Uprising (page does not exist)">Sapozhkov Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tambov_Rebellion" title="Tambov Rebellion">Tambov Peasant Uprising</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li>Uprisings against the White Army
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Bender_Rebellion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bender Rebellion (page does not exist)">Bender Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Bashtanka_Uprising&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bashtanka Uprising (page does not exist)">Bashtanka Uprising</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War">Eastern Theater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Volga and Urals
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Czechoslovak_Legion" title="Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion">Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capture_of_Kazan_by_the_White_Army" title="Capture of Kazan by the White Army">Capture of Kazan by the White Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kazan_Operation" title="Kazan Operation">Kazan Operation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Simbirsk_Operation" title="Simbirsk Operation">Simbirsk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syzran%E2%80%93Samara_Operation" title="Syzran–Samara Operation">Syzran and Samara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spring_Offensive_of_Russian_Army_(1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring Offensive of Russian Army (1919)">Spring Offensive (1919)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Counteroffensive_of_Eastern_Front" class="mw-redirect" title="Counteroffensive of Eastern Front">Counteroffensive of Eastern Front</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Zlatoust_Operation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zlatoust Operation (page does not exist)">Zlatoust</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perm_Operation_(1918%E2%80%9319)" title="Perm Operation (1918–19)">Perm (1918–19)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Perm_Operation_(1919)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Perm Operation (1919) (page does not exist)">Perm (1919)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Yekaterinburg_Operation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yekaterinburg Operation (page does not exist)">Yekaterinburg</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Chelyabinsk_Operation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chelyabinsk Operation (page does not exist)">Chelyabinsk</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li>Siberia
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberian_Intervention" class="mw-redirect" title="Siberian Intervention">Siberian Intervention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Petropavlovsk_Operation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petropavlovsk Operation (page does not exist)">Petropavlovsk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Siberian_Ice_March" title="Great Siberian Ice March">Great Siberian Ice March</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Omsk_Operation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Omsk Operation (page does not exist)">Omsk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Novonikolaevsk_Operation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Novonikolaevsk Operation (page does not exist)">Novonikolaevsk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Krasnoyarsk_Operation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Krasnoyarsk Operation (page does not exist)">Krasnoyarsk</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li>Far East
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chita_Operations" title="Chita Operations">Chita</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongolia_Campaign_(1921)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolia Campaign (1921)">Mongolia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Volochayevka" title="Battle of Volochayevka">Volochayevka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Spassk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Spassk (page does not exist)">Spassk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Primorye_Operation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Primorye Operation (page does not exist)">Primorye</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakut_revolt" title="Yakut revolt">Yakutia</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li>Anti-Bolshevik uprisings
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Izhevsk%E2%80%93Votkinsk_Uprising" title="Izhevsk–Votkinsk Uprising">Izhevsk–Votkinsk Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chapan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapan War">Chapan War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pitchfork_uprising" title="Pitchfork uprising">Pitchfork uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Siberia_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="West Siberia Uprising">West Siberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peasant_rebellion_of_Sorokino" title="Peasant rebellion of Sorokino">Sorokino rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li>Uprisings against the White Army
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minusinsk_Uprising" title="Minusinsk Uprising">Minusinsk Uprising</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Central_Asian_Theater_of_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Asian Theater of Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Central Asian Theater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tashkent_Rebellion_(1917)" title="Tashkent Rebellion (1917)">Tashkent Rebellion (1917)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">Basmachi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kokand_Autonomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Kokand Autonomy">Kokand Autonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tashkent_Rebellion_(1919)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tashkent Rebellion (1919) (page does not exist)">Tashkent Rebellion (1919)</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Aktyubinsk_Front_(Russian_Civil_War)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aktyubinsk Front (Russian Civil War) (page does not exist)">Aktyubinsk Front</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Aktyubinsk_Operation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aktyubinsk Operation (page does not exist)">Aktyubinsk Operation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Fergana_Front_(Russian_Civil_War)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fergana Front (Russian Civil War) (page does not exist)">Fergana Front</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Semirechye_Front_(Russian_Civil_War)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Semirechye Front (Russian Civil War) (page does not exist)">Semirechye Front</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cherkassy_(1918%E2%80%9319)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Cherkassy (1918–19) (page does not exist)">Cherkassy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Belovodskoe_Uprising&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Belovodskoe Uprising (page does not exist)">Belovodskoe Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Verniy_Uprising&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Verniy Uprising (page does not exist)">Verniy Uprising</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Transcaspian_Front_(Russian_Civil_War)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transcaspian Front (Russian Civil War) (page does not exist)">Transcaspian Front </a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Ashgabat_Uprising_(1918)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ashgabat Uprising (1918) (page does not exist)">Ashgabat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Kushka_(1918)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Kushka (1918) (page does not exist)">Kushka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Campaign_in_Central_Asia_(1918%E2%80%9320)" class="mw-redirect" title="British Campaign in Central Asia (1918–20)">British Campaign in Central Asia (1918–20)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Ural_Cossacks_March_from_Fort_Aleksandrovskoe_to_Persia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ural Cossacks March from Fort Aleksandrovskoe to Persia (page does not exist)">Ural Cossacks March from Fort Aleksandrovskoe to Persia</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bukhara_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukhara Revolution">Bukhara Revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kolesov%27s_Campaign" title="Kolesov's Campaign">March of Kolesov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bukhara_operation_(1920)" title="Bukhara operation (1920)">Bukhara operation</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;background-color:#DCDCDC;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=New_States_during_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New States during Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">New States during Russian Civil War</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Aftermath_of_the_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aftermath of the Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Aftermath_of_the_Russian_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aftermath of the Russian Civil War (page does not exist)">Effects</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Army War Crimes during the Russian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Terror_(Russia)" title="White Terror (Russia)">White Army War Crimes during the Russian Civil War</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Russian_Civil_War" title="Category:Russian Civil War">Category</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo.svg" class="image" title="Wiktionary page"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" /></a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Russian_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Russian Civil War">definition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo.svg" class="image" title="Wikibooks page"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/16px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/24px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/32px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Russian_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Russian Civil War">textbooks</a></li>
<li><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Wikiquote page" width="13" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Russian_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Russian Civil War">quotes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="image" title="Wikisource page"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Russian_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Russian Civil War">source texts</a></li>
<li><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Russian_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Special:Search/Russian Civil War">media</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wikinews-logo.svg" class="image" title="Wikinews page"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/16px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="9" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/24px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Russian_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Russian Civil War">news stories</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Russian_Revolution" title="Template:Russian Revolution"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_Revolution" title="Template talk:Russian Revolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Russian_Revolution&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Revolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/July_Days" title="July Days">July Days</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kornilov_affair" title="Kornilov affair">Kornilov affair</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerensky%E2%80%93Krasnov_uprising" title="Kerensky–Krasnov uprising">Kerensky–Krasnov uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Junker_mutiny" title="Junker mutiny">Junker mutiny</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civil War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_War_of_Independence" title="Ukrainian War of Independence">Ukrainian War of Independence</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kiev_Bolshevik_Uprising" title="Kiev Bolshevik Uprising">Kiev Bolshevik Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Socialist_Workers%27_Republic" title="Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic">Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heimosodat" title="Heimosodat">Heimosodat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian_Wars_of_Independence" title="Lithuanian Wars of Independence">Lithuanian Wars of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Red Army invasion of Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)">Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left-wing_uprisings_against_the_Bolsheviks" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks">Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_SR_uprising" title="Left SR uprising">Left SR uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tambov_Rebellion" title="Tambov Rebellion">Tambov Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Workers%27_Opposition" title="Workers' Opposition">Workers' Opposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion" title="Kronstadt rebellion">Kronstadt rebellion</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Interventions
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Powers_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Central Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War">Central Powers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberian</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Committee_of_the_State_Duma" title="Provisional Committee of the State Duma">Provisional Committee of the State Duma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Russian Provisional Government</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pro-independence_movements_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War">Pro-independence movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petrograd_Soviet" title="Petrograd Soviet">Petrograd Soviet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Council of People's Commissars of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Council of the People's Commissars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_Revolutionary_Committee" title="Military Revolutionary Committee">Military Revolutionary Committee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Russian Constituent Assembly</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election">elections</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Guards" title="Black Guards">Black Guards</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutionary_Insurgent_Army_of_Ukraine" title="Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine">Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_armies" title="Green armies">Green armies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Guards_(Russia)" title="Red Guards (Russia)">Red Guards</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Group_of_forces_in_battle_with_the_counterrevolution_in_the_South_of_Russia" title="Group of forces in battle with the counterrevolution in the South of Russia">Group of forces in battle with the counterrevolution in the South of Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Council_of_Ukraine" title="Central Council of Ukraine">Tsentralna Rada</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitutional_Democratic_Party" title="Constitutional Democratic Party">Kadets</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nabat" title="Nabat">Nabat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Russian Social Democratic Labour Party</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mensheviks" title="Mensheviks">Mensheviks</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionary_Party" title="Socialist Revolutionary Party">Socialist Revolutionary Party</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_Socialist-Revolutionaries" title="Left Socialist-Revolutionaries">Left SRs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Union_of_October_17" title="Union of October 17">Union of October 17</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund" title="General Jewish Labour Bund">General Jewish Labour Bund</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Monarchists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II of Russia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgy_Lvov" title="Georgy Lvov">Georgy Lvov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Pavel Milyukov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Guchkov" title="Alexander Guchkov">Alexander Guchkov</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel" title="Pyotr Wrangel">Pyotr Wrangel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Kolchak" title="Alexander Kolchak">Alexander Kolchak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anton_Denikin" title="Anton Denikin">Anton Denikin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyotr_Krasnov" title="Pyotr Krasnov">Pyotr Krasnov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Yudenich" title="Nikolai Yudenich">Nikolai Yudenich</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lev_Kamenev" title="Lev Kamenev">Lev Kamenev</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Grigory Zinoviev</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Frunze" title="Mikhail Frunze">Mikhail Frunze</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semyon_Budyonny" title="Semyon Budyonny">Semyon Budyonny</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakov_Sverdlov" title="Yakov Sverdlov">Yakov Sverdlov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" title="Nikolai Bukharin">Nikolai Bukharin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Felix_Dzerzhinsky" title="Felix Dzerzhinsky">Felix Dzerzhinsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexei_Rykov" title="Alexei Rykov">Alexei Rykov</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionary_Party" title="Socialist Revolutionary Party">Right SRs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viktor_Chernov" title="Viktor Chernov">Viktor Chernov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Alexander Kerensky</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boris_Savinkov" title="Boris Savinkov">Boris Savinkov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boris_Sokoloff" title="Boris Sokoloff">Boris Sokoloff</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_Socialist-Revolutionaries" title="Left Socialist-Revolutionaries">Left SRs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yakov_Blumkin" title="Yakov Blumkin">Yakov Blumkin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boris_Kamkov" title="Boris Kamkov">Boris Kamkov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mark_Natanson" title="Mark Natanson">Mark Natanson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maria_Spiridonova" title="Maria Spiridonova">Maria Spiridonova</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Antonov_(politician)" title="Alexander Antonov (politician)">Alexander Antonov</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anarchism_in_Russia" title="Anarchism in Russia">Anarchists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nestor_Makhno" title="Nestor Makhno">Nestor Makhno</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maria_Nikiforova" title="Maria Nikiforova">Maria Nikiforova</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stepan_Petrichenko" title="Stepan Petrichenko">Stepan Petrichenko</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lev_Chernyi" title="Lev Chernyi">Lev Chernyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semen_Karetnyk" title="Semen Karetnyk">Semen Karetnyk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fedir_Shchus" title="Fedir Shchus">Fedir Shchus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viktor_Bilash" title="Viktor Bilash">Viktor Bilash</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fanya_Baron" title="Fanya Baron">Fanya Baron</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">Revolutions of 1917–1923</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Bavarian Soviet Republic">Bavarian Soviet Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Hungarian Soviet Republic">Hungarian Soviet Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian%E2%80%93Romanian_War" title="Hungarian–Romanian War">Hungarian–Romanian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Workers%27_Councils_in_Poland" title="Workers' Councils in Poland">Workers' Councils in Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slovak_Soviet_Republic" title="Slovak Soviet Republic">Slovak Soviet Republic</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Armed_conflicts_involving_Russia_(including_Imperial_and_Soviet_times)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Russian_conflicts" title="Template:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_conflicts" title="Template talk:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Russian_conflicts&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Armed_conflicts_involving_Russia_(including_Imperial_and_Soviet_times)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Armed conflicts involving <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> (including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> times)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_history_of_Russia" title="Military history of Russia">Military history of Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Military history of the Russian Empire">Military history of the Russian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military history of the Soviet Union">Military history of the Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Military history of the Russian Federation">Military history of the Russian Federation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Russian Armed Forces">Russian Armed Forces</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists by opponent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (disambiguation)">Rus'–Byzantine Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muscovite%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Wars" title="Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars">Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Crimean_Wars" title="Russo-Crimean Wars">Russo-Crimean Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet-Finnish_wars" title="Soviet-Finnish wars">Soviet-Finnish wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Kazan_Wars" title="Russo-Kazan Wars">Russo-Kazan Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">Russo-Persian Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_armed_conflicts_involving_Poland_against_Russia" title="List of armed conflicts involving Poland against Russia">Russo-Polish Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_wars_between_Russia_and_Sweden" title="List of wars between Russia and Sweden">Russo-Swedish wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Russo-Turkish_wars" title="History of the Russo-Turkish wars">Russo-Turkish wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Russia" title="List of wars involving Russia">List of wars involving Russia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of wars involving the Soviet Union">List of wars involving the Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_battles_involving_the_Russian_Federation" title="List of battles involving the Russian Federation">List of battles involving the Russian Federation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Internal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uprising_of_Bolotnikov" title="Uprising of Bolotnikov">Uprising of Bolotnikov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Razin%27s_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Razin's Rebellion">Razin's Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bulavin_Rebellion" title="Bulavin Rebellion">Bulavin Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion" title="Pugachev's Rebellion">Pugachev's Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decembrist_revolt" title="Decembrist revolt">Decembrist revolt</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">Coup d'état attempt (1991)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis" title="1993 Russian constitutional crisis">1993 Russian constitutional crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_Dagestan" title="War of Dagestan">War of Dagestan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Insurgency_in_the_North_Caucasus" title="Insurgency in the North Caucasus">Insurgency in the North Caucasus</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tsardom of<br />Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Crimean_Wars" title="Russo-Crimean Wars">Russo-Crimean Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Kazan_Wars" title="Russo-Kazan Wars">Russo-Kazan Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1554%E2%80%931557)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)">Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Livonian_War" title="Livonian War">Livonian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Russian Conquest of Siberia (1580–1747)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1568%E2%80%931570)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)">Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1590%E2%80%931595)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)">Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Muscovite_War_(1605%E2%80%931618)" title="Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)">Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ingrian_War" title="Ingrian War">Ingrian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Smolensk_War" title="Smolensk War">Smolensk War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1651%E2%80%931653)" title="Russo-Persian War (1651–1653)">Russo-Persian War (1651–1653)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts (1652–1689)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654%E2%80%931667)" title="Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)">Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deluge_(history)" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Northern_War" title="Second Northern War">Second Northern War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1676%E2%80%931681)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)">Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1686%E2%80%931700)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)">Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th–19th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1710%E2%80%931711)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)">Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722%E2%80%931723)" title="Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)">Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a> (1733–1738)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austro-Russian%E2%80%93Turkish_War_(1735%E2%80%931739)" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)">Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740–1748)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1741%E2%80%931743)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)">Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bar_Confederation" title="Bar Confederation">Bar Confederation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931792)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)">Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1788%E2%80%931790)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)">Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792" title="Polish–Russian War of 1792">Russo-Polish War (1792)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">Russian colonization of North America</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising" title="Kościuszko Uprising">Kościuszko Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persian_Expedition_of_1796" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Expedition of 1796">Russo-Persian War (1796)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1806%E2%80%931812)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)">Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anglo-Russian_War_(1807%E2%80%931812)" title="Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)">Anglo-Russian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_War" title="Finnish War">Finnish War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition" title="War of the Fifth Coalition">War of the Fifth Coalition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">French invasion of Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of the Sixth Coalition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_the_Seventh_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Seventh Coalition">War of the Seventh Coalition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_the_Caucasus" title="Russian conquest of the Caucasus">Russian conquest of the Caucasus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caucasian_War" title="Caucasian War">Caucasian War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Circassian_War" title="Russo-Circassian War">Russo-Circassian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murid_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Murid War">Murid War</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1828%E2%80%931829)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)">Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian Revolution of 1848</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%85land_War" title="Åland War">Åland War</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Central_Asia" title="Russian conquest of Central Asia">Russian conquest of Central Asia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Bukhara" title="Russian conquest of Bukhara">Russian conquest of Bukhara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khivan_campaign_of_1873" title="Khivan campaign of 1873">Khivan campaign of 1873</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Russian invasion of Manchuria">Russian invasion of Manchuria</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Tabriz" title="Russian occupation of Tabriz">Russian occupation of Tabriz</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian Civil War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1919_Soviet_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="1919 Soviet invasion of Ukraine">1919 Soviet invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alash_Autonomy" title="Alash Autonomy">Kazakhstan Campaign</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sochi_conflict" title="Sochi conflict">Sochi conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heimosodat" title="Heimosodat">Heimosodat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_westward_offensive_of_1918%E2%80%931919" title="Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919">Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Lithuanian–Soviet War">Lithuanian–Soviet War</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–1920)">Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–1920)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Azerbaijan" title="Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan">Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Armenia" title="Red Army invasion of Armenia">Red Army invasion of Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Red Army invasion of Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_intervention_in_Mongolia" title="Soviet intervention in Mongolia">Red Army intervention in Mongolia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Karelian_uprising" title="East Karelian uprising">East Karelian uprising</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">Central Asian Revolt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urtatagai_conflict_(1925%E2%80%931926)" title="Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926)">Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_intervention_in_Afghanistan_(1929)" title="Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1929)">Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1929)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_intervention_in_Afghanistan_(1930)" title="Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1930)">Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1930)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Chechen_uprising_of_1932&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chechen uprising of 1932 (page does not exist)">Chechen uprising of 1932</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_1932_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Восстание в Чечне 1932 года">ru</a>]</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_rebellion_in_Xinjiang_(1937)" title="Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)">Xinjiang War (1937)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet invasion of Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)" title="Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)">Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Latvia_in_1940" title="Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940">Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Continuation War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1944)" title="Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)">Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_Latvia_in_1944" title="Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944">Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet–Japanese War</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army#Soviet_Union" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Guerilla war in Ukraine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931953)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)">Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ili_Rebellion" title="Ili Rebellion">Ili Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_attack_on_the_Soviet_naval_presence" class="mw-redirect" title="The attack on the Soviet naval presence">Vlora Incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_OMON_assaults_on_Lithuanian_border_posts" title="Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border posts">Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border posts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgian_Civil_War" title="Georgian Civil War">Georgian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_Dagestan" title="War of Dagestan">War of Dagestan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Russo-Georgian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Outline of the Russo-Ukrainian War">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_in_Donbas_(2014%E2%80%932022)" title="War in Donbas (2014–2022)">War in Donbas (2014–2022)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 invasion</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_military_intervention_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War">Intervention in Syria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Libya_campaign" title="Western Libya campaign">Western Libya campaign</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2020_Nagorno-Karabakh_war" class="mw-redirect" title="2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war">Deployment in Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2022_Kazakh_unrest" title="2022 Kazakh unrest">Deployment in Kazakhstan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Winter" title="Russian Winter">Russian Winter</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">Sphere of influence</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_Union_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template talk:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Soviet_Union_topics&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet_Union_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Soviet Union-related articles">Index of Soviet Union-related articles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on the Creation of the USSR">Creation treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Great Patriotic War</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino%E2%80%93Soviet_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino–Soviet split">Sino–Soviet split</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965 economic reform</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Stagnation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union" title="Nostalgia for the Soviet Union">Nostalgia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Subdivisions of the Soviet Union">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Krais_of_Russia" title="Krais of Russia">Krais</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Oblasts of the Soviet Union">Oblasts</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autonomous_oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Closed_city#Closed_cities_in_post-Soviet_states" title="Closed city">Closed cities</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_closed_cities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of closed cities">List</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elections_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Elections in the Soviet Union">Elections</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">List</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Post-Soviet_states" title="LGBT rights in the Post-Soviet states">LGBT</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Passport_system_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Passport system in the Soviet Union">Passport system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">State ideology</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">organisation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a> (1922–1936)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (1938–1991)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> (1989–1991)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Heads of state</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premier</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_security_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet security services">Security services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Political_Directorate" title="State Political Directorate">GPU</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Destruction_battalions" title="Destruction battalions">Destruction battalions</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Militsiya" title="Militsiya">Militsiya</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Security_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of State Security (Soviet Union)">MGB</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_KGB" title="List of chairmen of the KGB">Chairmen</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spetsnaz" title="Spetsnaz">Spetsnaz</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a>/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Airborne_Forces" title="Soviet Airborne Forces">Soviet Airborne Forces</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">List</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gosbank" title="Gosbank">Central Bank</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Economic planning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Energy policy of the Soviet Union">Energy policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/.su" title=".su">Internet domain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation#Soviet_Union" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Net_material_product" title="Net material product">Net material product</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science and technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">Rouble <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_metro_systems_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of metro systems in the Soviet Union">List of metro systems</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Academy" title="Communist Academy">Communist Academy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics in the Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#In_the_Soviet_Union" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" title="USSR Academy of Medical Sciences">Academy of Medical Sciences</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashkas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naukograd" title="Naukograd">Naukograds</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Naukograds" title="Category:Naukograds">List</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Society of the Soviet Union">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crime_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Crime in the Soviet Union">Crime</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet people</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Working class</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Census_(1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Census (1989)">1989 census</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Linguistics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Linguistics of the Soviet Union">Linguistics</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cinema of the Soviet Union">Cinema</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fashion_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in the Soviet Union">Fashion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_literature#20th_century" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Music of the Soviet Union">Music</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_opera#20th_century" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a> and their groups
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Soviet_opposition_groups" title="Category:Soviet opposition groups">List</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Anthem of the Soviet Union">Anthem</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anthems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Anthems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union">Emblem</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emblems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Emblems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Flag of the Soviet Union">Flag</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flags_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Flags of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hammer_and_sickle" title="Hammer and sickle">Hammer and sickle</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>
<ul><li><b><img alt="flag" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="noviewer thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></b></li>
<li><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Soviet_Union" title="Category:Soviet Union">Category</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1686565129' |