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'{{short description|Type of hallucinogen}} [[File:Trichocereus Pachanoi & Ecuador (2) (11981997585).jpg|thumb|''Trichocereus peruvianus'', the key ingredient in the cimora brew. ]]<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE --> Cimora is a Peruvian term used to describe a brew with hallucinogenic properties made from the “San Pedro” cacti ([[Echinopsis pachanoi|''Trichocereus pachanoi'']]) and other plants such as chamico (''[[Datura stramonium]]'') in South America,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Entheology.org - Preserving Ancient Knowledge|url=http://www.entheology.org/edoto/anmviewer.asp?a=92|website=www.entheology.org|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Cruz Sánchez |first=Guillermo |date=1945 |title=Farmacología de la Isotoma Longiflorum |url=http://www.scielo.org.pe/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1726-46341945000400003&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es |journal=Revista Peruana de Medicina Experimental y Salud Publica |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=284–318 |issn=1726-4634}}</ref> used traditionally for [[Shamanism|shamanic]] purposes and healing in Peru and Bolivia. The name is also used to describe a number of both [[Hallucinogen|hallucinogenic]] and non-hallucinogenic plants in the region, some of which are used in traditional medicines. Which plants go by the name ''cimora'' is an ethnobotanical problem that has been debated at great length by [[Ethnobotany|ethnobotanists]] in many different journals. The term ''cimora'' is said to refer to ''algo malo'', meaning something bad.<ref name=":2" /> San Pedro goes by many names including pachanoi, aguacolla, elremedio, gigantón, and cactus of the four winds.<ref name=":1" /> The ritualistic use of the brew is similar to [[ayahuasca]], which is a South American used as a traditional spirit medicine in Brazil, although while the active ingredient in ayahuasca is [[N,N-Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]],<ref>{{Cite journal|display-authors=etal|author=Riba|s2cid=6147566|date=July 2003|title=Human Pharmacology of Ayahuasca: Subjective and Cardiovascular Effects, Monoamine Metabolite Excretion, and Pharmacokinetics|journal=The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics|volume=306|issue=1|pages=73–85|doi=10.1124/jpet.103.049882|pmid=12660312}}</ref> the active ingredient in cimora is hordenine<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hordenine}}</ref>. The use of cimora and the rituals involved have evolved throughout history due to the influence of those who controlled Peru at different stages, although it has almost always involved the use of the San Pedro cactus and its mescaline content. == Cimora (drink) == === Plants and admixtures in the cimora brew === The main ingredient in the brew is the cactus ''Trichocereus pachanoi'', also known as San Pedro, which contains [[Mescaline]], which is responsible for the hallucinogenic effects of cimora. Other plants are commonly included in the mixture such as ''[[Neoraimondia arequipensis]]'' (syn. ''N.&nbsp;macrostibas''), ''Brugmansia arborea'', ''Pedilanthus tithymaloides'', ''Datura stramonium'' and ''Isotoma longiflora''.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schultes|first=Richard Evans|date=1981|title=Iconography of New World Plant Hallucinogens|journal=Arnoldia|volume=41|pages=80–125}}</ref> Other ingredients such as powdered bones, archaeological dust from sacred sites or cemetery dust are added if the illness is thought to be caused by black magic.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=La Barre|first=Weston|date=1979|title=Peyotl and Mescaline|journal=Journal of Psychedelic Drugs|volume=11|issue=1–2|pages=33–34|doi=10.1080/02791072.1979.10472090|pmid=392117}}</ref> === Effects of the brew === ''Trichocereus pachanoi'' is the main ingredient in cimora, which contains concentrations of mescaline. This ingredient causes a number of effects, which can include euphoria, hallucinations, depersonalization and psychoses.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Aspects of Peyote and Mescaline: Clinical and Forensic Repercussions|url=http://www.eurekaselect.com/166140/article|last1=Dinis-Oliveira*|first1=Ricardo Jorge|last2=Silva|first2=Carolina Lança Pereira and Diana Dias da|date=2019-07-31|journal=Current Molecular Pharmacology|volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=184–194 |doi=10.2174/1874467211666181010154139 |pmid=30318013 |pmc=6864602 |language=en|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> Mescaline binds to serotonin and dopamine receptors, causing increased levels of [[serotonin]] and [[dopamine]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=6-Hydroxydopamine Inhibits Some Effects of Mescaline Centrally Administered to Rabbits|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/414273/?from_single_result=6-Hydroxydopamine+Inhibits+Some+Effects+of+Mescaline+Centrally+Administered+to+Rabbits&expanded_search_query=6-Hydroxydopamine+Inhibits+Some+Effects+of+Mescaline+Centrally+Administered+to+Rabbits|last1=S|first1=Ferri|last2=Ra|first2=Reina|date=1977-12-19|journal=Psychopharmacology|language=en|pmid=414273|access-date=2020-05-28|last3=P|first3=Braga|volume = 55|issue = 2|pages = 147–9|doi = 10.1007/BF01457850|s2cid = 6326787}}</ref> which could explain the euphoria response to the brew. Additional admixtures can increase and/or alter the effects depending on which plants are added. == Cimora (plant species) == The term cimora, as well as variants such as cimorilla, have been used to describe many different types of plants in the Peruvian region. This has led to an ethnobotanical problem surrounding the correct identification of the plants, as discussed below. === Types of plants === The term ''cimora'' and its variations are used to describe many different plant species. The reason given for this by Bussmann and Sharon are that the many species names have come from indigenous names, and have been altered due to different dialects and different regions.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|author1-link=Rainer W. Bussmann|last1=Bussmann|first1=Rainer W|last2=Sharon|first2=Douglas|date=2006-11-07|title=Traditional medicinal plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=2|pages=47|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-2-47|issn=1746-4269|pmc=1637095|pmid=17090303}}</ref> The following are a number of different plants going by the name or similar names as cimora in the Peruvian region, as well their use in traditional healing practices, if they have one. *Cimora señorita, also known as ''[[Iresine herbstii]]''. This plant is traditionally used for the treatment of skin conditions, such as eczemas.<ref name=":5" /> *Cimorilla or timorilla, also known as ''Coleus blumei'' (now ''[[Coleus scutellarioides]]''). This plant is used externally on inflammation. *Cimora macanche, also known as ''[[Sanchezia]]''. *Cimora lanza, also known as ''[[Iresine]]''. *Cimora León also known as ''[[Acalypha macrostachya]]''. *Cimora oso also known as ''Coleus''. There are also two unidentified species called "cimorilla dominadora" and "cimora colambu". == Use == === History === [[File:Fig. 10 – Mesa de Ysabel donde se ve el disco entre otros artes.jpg|thumb|A healers mesa, with objects of power that are said to be instrumental in the healing process as they represent both sides, light and dark, good and evil. ]] Cimora has been used extensively throughout history, with historical references to the San Pedro Cactus in early [[Chavín culture|Chavín]] culture dating as far back as 200 BC.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stirrup-Spout Vessel with Feline and Cactus|url=https://www.artic.edu/artworks/155964/stirrup-spout-vessel-with-feline-and-cactus|website=The Art Institute of Chicago|language=en|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> In fact, Dobkin De Rios argues that the use of psychedelics such as cimora shaped these people and their religion, which has in turn shaped the importance of cimora in modern day ritualistic healing.<ref name=":4" /> The Spanish colonisation of South America involved the widespread suppression of local culture, medicine and religion by the conquistadors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hennessy|first=Alistair|date=1993|title=The Nature of the Conquest and the Conquistadors|url=https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/pubs/proc/files/81p005.pdf|journal=Centre for Caribbean Studies, University of Warwick}}</ref> Despite this, the traditions of San Pedro survived in the form of cimora, though the ritual picked up elements of Catholicism as well as the traditional Mochican religion.<ref name=":2" /> The first attempt to document the use of hallucinogens in traditional shamanistic rituals in Peru was made by Chiappe and Millones.<ref name=":7" /> === Preparation === Traditionally, the preparation of the cimora brew involves the collecting of four of the San Pedro Cacti, and slicing these into cross sections, similar to a loaf of bread.<ref name=":3" /> These slices are then boiled for several hours, creating the brew which can then either be consumed on its own, or with other boiled plants which can added to the mixture. While most of the San Pedro cactus used are the seven ribbed species, the rarer four ribbed cactus is often used for particularly difficult healing cases, as the four ribs are seen to symbolise what is known as the “four winds” and “four roads”, which are symbolic as they are said to have supernatural powers.<ref name=":3" /> In preparation for the healing ceremony, the patients must bring offerings such as a bottle of alcohol, a bag of sugar, scented water and red perfume.<ref name=":2" /> === Traditional === Traditionally, cimora is used by Peruvian medicine men and women, or herbalists, known as curanderos, for the treatment of illnesses.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=De Feo|first=Vincenzo|date=2002|title=Ethnomedical field study in northern Peruvian Andes with particular reference to divination practices|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378874103000175|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=85|issue=2–3|pages=243–256|doi=10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00017-5|pmid=12639748}}</ref> This cult-like religion has elements of the ancient Mochican religion, combined with elements of the more modern Catholicism.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Davis|first=E. Wade|date=1983|title=Sacred Plants of the San Pedro Cult|journal=Botanical Museum Leaflets|volume=29|issue=4|pages=367–381|doi=10.5962/p.168667 |jstor=41762855|s2cid=193428323 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This is seen, for instance, in their use of Christian elements such as crosses in the mesas of curanderos.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Furst|first=Peter T.|date=1972|title=The San Pedro Cactus in Peruvian Folk Healing|url=https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/sz/sharon.pdf|journal=Flesh of the Gods. The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens|pages=114–135}}</ref> The mesa is an altar-like table adorned with numerous “power objects” such as crosses, pictures of saints stones, swords and other such objects,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=The Ultimate Guide to San Pedro|url=https://thethirdwave.co/psychedelics/san-pedro/|date=2019-09-08|website=The Third Wave|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> which are said to have either a positive or negative nature, said to represent good and evil.<ref name=":0" /> The use of guinea pigs by healers as a tool to diagnose ailments has also been noted in Peruvian ceremonies.<ref name=":7" /> There are also a number of traditional elements involving the usage of cimora by the South American Shamans.<ref name=":2" /> These elements include: # A belief in 'spirit guardians'. # The geographical significance, given supernatural power by animal features, such as a serpent. # The disease or illness being engaged in physical combat. # The use of magical plants with spiritual power. # The belief that the cause of the illness is due to spiritual or supernatural causes. === Modern Use === Currently, the most common use of cimora and San Pedro is to treat ailments that are thought to have been caused by witchcraft.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Dobkin De Rios|first=Marlene|date=1977|title=Plant Hallucinogens and the Religion of the Mochicaman Ancient Peruvian People|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF02866590.pdf|journal=Economic Botany|volume=31|issue=2|pages=189–203|doi=10.1007/BF02866590|s2cid=46422331}}</ref> However there are also recreational users of the brew, for the psychedelic effect of the mescaline found in the Trichocereus pachanoi cactus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sacred Plants and Mental Health in Latin America|url=https://knowmadinstitut.org/2019/05/sacred-plants-and-mental-health-in-latin-america/|last=Espin|first=Oscar|website=Knowmad Institut}}</ref> While the growth of San Pedro is legal, the use of San Pedro for its mescaline is illegal in some countries, and decriminalised in others.<ref name=":1" /> Cimora and its healing properties have been attributed as the inspiration behind Tomás Tello’s album ''Cimora'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tomás Tello - Cimora|url=https://soundsandcolours.com/articles/peru/tomas-tello-cimora-51642/|date=2020-05-06|website=Sounds and Colours|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> showing how influential the brew is still up until today. == Ethnobotanical problems == Many ethnobotanists have sought to define what species of plants that go by the term cimora. Differing opinions have been the subject of discussion and journals, and Schultes has described accurately identifying what goes by the name of cimora as “one of the most challenging problems in the ethnobotany of hallucinogenic plants”.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Schultes|first=R. E.|date=1967|title=The place of ethnobotany in the ethnopharmacological search for psychotomimetic drugs|journal=Public Health Serv.|volume=1645|pages=291–306}}</ref> The main source of the problem is differing uses of the word ''cimora'' to describe multiple things, both the brew as well as a range of other plants. For instance, Cruz-Sanchez used the term ''cimora'' to describe a way of blending plants to brew an intoxicating broth, made from the San Pedro cactus amongst other things,<ref name=":2" /> as well as referring to a number of unidentified plants in the region by their Peruvian name that sounded similar to cimora. Friedberg suggested instead that it was not a brew made from cactus but instead labelled it as a Amaranthaceae plant of the Iresine genus.<ref name=":4" /> Later, Schultes questioned earlier work by Friedberg, in particular the use of the word 'timora' to describe a "magic and dangerous herb", and postulated that 'cimora' and 'timora' might instead be two versions of the same word.<ref name=":6" /> ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens]] [[Category:Plant common names]] [[Category:Chavin culture]]'