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[[File:One Man One Vote 1964 DNC protest (1).jpg|thumb|"One Man One Vote" protest at the [[Democratic National Convention]] in [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]], 1964, before passage of the [[Voting Rights Act]] and when delegates of the [[Mississippi Freedom Democratic POne man, one vote'''", or "'''one person, one vote'''", expresses the principle of equal representation in voting. This [[slogan]] is used by advocates of [[democracy]] and [[political equality]], especially with regard to [[electoral reform]]s like [[universal suffrage]] and [[proportional representation]]. is yhdi heo
== Indices ==
The violation of equal representation in the various systems of proportional representation can be measured with the [[Loosemore–Hanby index]], the [[Gallagher index]], or the amount of [[wasted vote]]. A [[Gallagher index]] above 5 (%) is seen by many experts as violating the ''One man, one vote'' principle.<ref>[https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/ERRE/report-3/page-408/ December 2016, Canada's 2016 Special Committee On Electoral Reform, Recommendation 1]</ref><ref>[https://ottawacitizen.com/news/politics/read-the-full-electoral-reform-committee-report-plus-liberal-and-ndpgreen-opinions Read the full electoral reform committee report, plus Liberal and NDP/Green opinions]</ref><ref>[https://iscanadafair.ca/gallagher-index/ What is the Gallagher Index? The Gallagher Index measures how unfair a voting system is.]</ref> In case of plurality voting, the [[wasted vote]] can be measured. Additionally, the percentage of [[spoilt vote]] and percentage of [[disfranchisement]] can be measured to detect violations of the equal representation principle.
== History ==
The phrase surged in English-language usage around 1880,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Google Books Ngram Viewer |url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=one+man+one+vote&year_start=1800&year_end=2019&case_insensitive=on&corpus=26&smoothing=3 |access-date=2022-12-16 |website=books.google.com |language=en}}</ref> thanks in part to British [[trade union]]ist [[George Howell (trade unionist)|George Howell]] who used the phrase "one man, one vote" in political pamphlets.<ref>George Howell (1880). "One man, one vote". ''Manchester Selected Pamphlets''. {{JSTOR|60239578}}</ref> During the mid-to-late 20th-century period of [[Decolonization|decolonisation]] and the struggles for national sovereignty, this phrase became widely used in [[developing countries]] where majority populations sought to gain political power in proportion to their numbers.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} The slogan was notably used by the [[Internal resistance to South African apartheid|anti-apartheid]] movement during the 1980s, which sought to end white minority rule in [[South Africa]].<ref name="SouthAfricaHope" /><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bond|first1=Larry|last2=Larkin|first2=Patrick|title=Vortex|location=United States|language=en|publisher=Little, Brown and Warner Books|date=June 1991|isbn=0-446-51566-3|oclc=23286496|page=37|title-link=Vortex (Bond and Larkin novel)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media|first=Jeffrey|last=Boam|title=[[Lethal Weapon 2]]|date=July 1989|publisher=Warner Bros.}}</ref>
In the United States, the "one person, one vote" principle was invoked in a series of cases by the [[Warren Court]] in the 1960s during the height of related civil rights activities.<ref>Richard H. Fallon, Jr. (2013). ''The Dynamic Constitution''. Cambridge University Press, 196.</ref><ref name=Smith2014>Douglas J. Smith (2014). ''On Democracy's Doorstep: The Inside Story of How the Supreme Court Brought "One Person, One Vote" to the United States''. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref><ref>"One person, one vote", in David Andrew Schultz (2010). ''Encyclopedia of the United States Constitution''. Infobase Publishing, 526.</ref><ref name=Ansolabehere/>{{efn|Justice Douglas, ''[[Gray v. Sanders]]'' (1963): "The conception of political equality from the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], to [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]'s [[Gettysburg Address]], to the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifteenth]], [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Seventeenth]], and [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Nineteenth Amendments]] can mean only one thing—one person, one vote."<ref>C. J. Warren, ''Reynolds v. Sims,'' 377 U.S. 533, 558 (1964) (quoting ''Gray v. Sanders'', 372 U.S. 368 (1963)), cited in [https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/quotation/%5Bfield_short_title-raw%5D_185 "One-person, one-vote rule"], Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.</ref>}} Applying the [[Equal Protection Clause]] of the constitution, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] majority opinion (5–4) led by [[Chief Justice]] [[Earl Warren]] in ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964) ruled that state legislatures, unlike the [[U.S. Congress]], needed to have representation in both houses that was based on districts containing roughly equal populations, with redistricting as needed after censuses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1963/23|title=Reynolds v. Sims|website=Oyez|language=en|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref><ref name="governance"/> Some had an upper house based on an equal number of representatives to be elected from each county, which gave undue political power to rural counties. Many states had neglected to redistrict for decades during the 20th century, even as population increased in urban, industrialized areas. In the 1964 ''[[Wesberry v. Sanders]]'' decision, the U.S. Supreme Court declared that equality of voting—one person, one vote—means that "the weight and worth of the citizens' votes as nearly as is practicable must be the same",<ref name=":0" /> and ruled that states must also draw federal congressional districts containing roughly equal represented populations.
=== United Kingdom ===
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2013}}
==== Historical background ====
This phrase was traditionally used in the context of demands for [[suffrage#United Kingdom|suffrage]] reform. Historically the emphasis within the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] was on representing ''areas'': [[United_Kingdom_constituencies#County_constituencies_and_borough_constituencies|counties, boroughs]] and, later on, [[university constituency|universities]]. The entitlement to vote for the [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] representing the constituencies varied widely, with different qualifications over time, such as owning property of a certain value, holding an apprenticeship, qualifying for paying the local-government rates, or holding a degree from the university in question. Those who qualified for the vote in more than one constituency were entitled to vote in each constituency, while many adults did not qualify for the vote at all. [[Plural voting]] was also present in local government, whereby the owners of business property qualified for votes in the relevant [[Ward (country subdivision)|wards]].
Reformers argued that Members of Parliament and other elected officials should represent citizens equally, and that each voter should be entitled to exercise the vote once in an election. Successive [[Reform Act]]s by 1950 had both extended the franchise eventually to almost all adult citizens (barring [[convicts]], [[lunatics]] and members of the [[House of Lords]]), and also reduced and finally eliminated plural voting for Westminster elections. Plural voting for local-government elections outside the City of London was not abolished until the [[Representation of the People Act 1969]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Halsey |first=Albert Henry |date=1988 |title=British Social Trends since 1900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3euCwAAQBAJ&q=%22Representation+of+the+people+act+1969%22+%22business+vote%22&pg=PA298 |publisher=Springer |page=298 |isbn=9781349194667 |author-link=A. H. Halsey}}</ref><ref>{{cite hansard |jurisdiction=United Kingdom |title=City of London (Ward Elections) Bill |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1999/feb/24/city-of-london-ward-elections-bill-by#S6CV0326P0_19990224_HOC_414 |house=House of Commons |date=24 February 1999 |column=452 |speaker=[[Peter Brooke, Baron Brooke of Sutton Mandeville|Peter Brooke]]}}</ref>
But, there were two significant exceptions:
==== City of London ====
The [[City of London]] had never expanded its boundaries. Following the replacement of many residential dwellings by businesses, and the destruction of [[The Blitz]], after the [[World War II|Second World War]], the financial district had barely five thousand residents. The system of [[plural voting]] was retained for electing the [[City of London Corporation#Elections|City of London Corporation]], with some modifications.
==== Northern Ireland ====
When [[Northern Ireland]] was established in 1921, it adopted the same political system then in place for the Westminster Parliament and British local government. But the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]] did not follow Westminster in changes to the [[Elections in the United Kingdom#20th century|franchise from 1945]]. As a result, into the 1960s, plural voting was still allowed not only for local government (as it was for local government in Great Britain), but also for the Parliament of Northern Ireland. This meant that in local council elections (as in Great Britain), ratepayers and their spouses, whether renting or owning the property, could vote. Company directors had an extra vote by virtue of their company's status. However, unlike the situation in Great Britain, non-ratepayers did not have a vote in local government elections. The franchise for elections to the Parliament of Northern Ireland had been extended in 1928 to all adult citizens who were not disqualified, at the same time as the franchise for elections to Westminster. But, university representation and the business vote continued for elections to the House of Commons of Northern Ireland until 1969. They were abolished in 1948 for elections to the UK House of Commons (including Westminster seats in Northern Ireland). Historians and political scholars have debated the extent to which the franchise for local government contributed to [[unionism in Ireland|unionist]] electoral success in controlling councils in [[Irish nationalism|nationalist]]-majority areas.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/discrimination/whyte.htm| title = How much discrimination was there under the unionist regime, 1921-1968? | access-date = 2007-08-30| author = John H. Whyte| author-link = John H. Whyte| publisher = [[Conflict Archive on the Internet]]}}</ref>
Based on a number of inequities, the [[Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association]] was founded in 1967. It had five primary demands, and added the demand that each citizen in Northern Ireland be afforded the same number of votes for local government elections (as stated above, this was not yet the case anywhere in the United Kingdom). The slogan "one man, one vote" became a rallying cry for this campaign.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} The Parliament of Northern Ireland voted to update the voting rules for elections to the Northern Ireland House of Commons, which were implemented for the [[1969 Northern Ireland general election]], and for local government elections, which was done by the [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/apni/1969/26/introduction Electoral Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1969], passed on 25 November 1969.
=== United States ===
==== Historical background ====
[[File:Sncc one man one vote.png|thumb|"One man, one vote" emblem (Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC - New Jersey)]]
The [[United States Constitution]] requires a [[United States census|decennial census]] for the purpose of assuring fair apportionment of seats in the [[United States House of Representatives]] among the states, based on their population. Reapportionment has generally been conducted without incident with the exception of the reapportionment that should have followed the [[1920 United States census|1920 census]], which was effectively skipped pending resolution by the [[Reapportionment Act of 1929]]. [[State legislature (United States)| State legislatures]], however, initially established election of congressional representatives from [[Constituency|districts]] that were often based on traditional counties or parishes that had preceded founding of the new government. The question then arose as to whether the legislatures were required to ensure that House districts were roughly equal in population and to draw new districts to accommodate demographic changes.<ref name=Ansolabehere/><ref name=Smith2014/>
Some U.S. states redrew their House districts every ten years to reflect changes in population patterns; many did not. Some never redrew them, except when it was mandated by reapportionment of Congress and a resulting change in the number of seats to which that state was entitled in the House of Representatives. In many states, both North and South, this inaction resulted in a skewing of influence for voters in some districts over those in others, generally with a bias toward rural districts. For example, if the 2nd congressional district eventually had a population of 1.5 million, but the 3rd had only 500,000, then, in effect – since each district elected the same number of representatives – a voter in the 3rd district had three times the voting power of a 2nd-district voter.
Alabama's state legislature resisted redistricting from 1910 to 1972 (when forced by federal court order). As a result, rural residents retained a wildly disproportionate amount of power in a time when other areas of the state became urbanized and industrialized, attracting greater populations. Such urban areas were under-represented in the state legislature and underserved; their residents had difficulty getting needed funding for infrastructure and services. Such areas paid far more in taxes to the state than they received in benefits in relation to the population.<ref name="governance">[http://www.charlestoncounty.org/MAP/FinalReport/pages219-238.pdf Charlie B. Tyler, "County Government in the Palmetto State"], University of South Carolina, 1998, p. 221</ref>
The [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] incorporates the result of the [[Great Compromise]], which established representation for the U.S. Senate. Each state was equally represented in the Senate with two representatives, without regard to population. The [[Founding Fathers]] considered this principle of such importance{{cn|date=August 2021}} that they included a clause in the Constitution to prohibit any state from being deprived of equal representation in the Senate without its permission; see [[Article V of the United States Constitution]]. For this reason, "one person, one vote" has never been implemented in the U.S. Senate, in terms of representation by states.
When states established their legislatures, they often adopted a bicameral model based on colonial governments or the federal government. Many copied the Senate principle, establishing an upper house based on geography - for instance, a state senate with one representative drawn from each county. By the 20th century, this often resulted in state senators having widely varying amounts of political power, with ones from rural areas having votes equal in power to those of senators representing much greater urban populations.
[[Activism]] in the [[Civil Rights Movement]] to restore the ability of African Americans in the South to register and vote highlighted other voting inequities across the country. In 1964–1965, the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] were passed, in part to enforce the constitutional voting rights of [[African Americans]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/prize.htm|title=We Shall Overcome -- The Players|website=www.nps.gov|access-date=2019-10-05}}</ref> Numerous court challenges were raised, including in Alabama, due to the lack of reapportionment for decades.
==== Court cases ====
In {{ussc|name=Colegrove v. Green|328|549|1946|el=no}} the United States Supreme Court held in a 4-3 plurality decision that [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 4: Congressional elections|Article I, Section 4]] left to the legislature of each state the authority to establish the time, place, and manner of holding elections for representatives.
However, in {{ussc|name=Baker v. Carr|369|186|1962|el=no}} the United States Supreme Court under Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] overturned the previous decision in Colegrove holding that malapportionment claims under the [[Equal Protection Clause]] of the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] were not exempt from judicial review under [[Article Four of the United States Constitution#Section 4: Obligations of the United States|Article IV, Section 4]], as the equal protection issue in this case was separate from any political questions.<ref name=Ansolabehere>Stephen Ansolabehere, James M. Snyder (2008). ''The End of Inequality: One Person, One Vote and the Transformation of American Politics''. Norton.</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/21/nyregion/one-man-one-vote-decades-of-court-decisions.html|title=ONE MAN, ONE VOTE: DECADES OF COURT DECISIONS|website=New York Times|date=21 November 1986|last1=Goldman|first1=Ari L.}}</ref> The "one person, one vote" doctrine, which requires electoral districts to be apportioned according to population, thus making each district roughly equal in population, was further affirmed by the [[Warren Court]] in the landmark cases that followed ''Baker'', including {{ussc|name=Gray v. Sanders|372|368|1963|el=no}}, which concerned the [[County Unit System|county unit system]] in Georgia; {{ussc|name=Reynolds v. Sims|377|533|1964|el=no}} which concerned [[state legislature (United States)|state legislature]] districts; {{ussc|name=Wesberry v. Sanders|376|1|1964|el=no}}, which concerned [[United States Congress|U.S. congressional]] districts; and {{ussc|name=Avery v. Midland County|390|474|1968|el=no}} which concerned [[Local government in the United States|local government]] districts.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1963/23|title=Reynolds v. Sims|website=Oyez|language=en|access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/one-person_one-vote_rule|title=one-person, one-vote rule|last=Anonymous|date=2010-08-19|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref>
The Warren Court's decision was upheld in {{ussc|name=Board of Estimate of City of New York v. Morris|489|688|1989|el=no}}.<ref>{{cite magazine| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838157,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902233322/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838157,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=September 2, 2009 | magazine=Time | title=The Supreme Court: One-Man, One-Vote, Locally | date=1968-04-12 | access-date=2010-05-20}}</ref> {{ussc|name=Evenwel v. Abbott|578|2016|el=no}}, said states may use total population in drawing districts.<ref name=":1" />
==== Other uses ====
* In 1975, a [[Instant-runoff voting#Plural voting|Michigan court ruling]] declared that "majority preferential voting," as Instant Runoff Voting (IRV) was then known, did not violate the one-man, one-vote rule:<ref>[http://archive.fairvote.org/?page=397 ''Stephenson v Ann Arbor Board of Canvassers,'' fairvote.org], accessed 6 November 2013.</ref>
<blockquote>Under the 'M.P.V. System', however, no one person or voter has more than one effective vote for one office. No voter's vote can be counted more than once for the same candidate. In the final analysis, no voter is given greater weight in his or her vote over the vote of another voter, although to understand this does require a conceptual understanding of how the effect of a 'M.P.V. System' is like that of a run-off election. The form of majority preferential voting employed in the City of Ann Arbor's election of its Mayor does not violate the one-man, one-vote mandate nor does it deprive anyone of equal protection rights under the Michigan or United States Constitutions.</blockquote>
* The constitutionality of IRV has been subsequently upheld by several federal courts.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Collins|first1=Steve|last2=Journal|first2=Sun|date=2018-12-13|title=Federal court rules against Bruce Poliquin's challenge of ranked-choice voting|url=https://www.sunjournal.com/2018/12/13/federal-court-rules-against-bruce-poliquins-challenge-of-ranked-choice-voting/|access-date=2018-12-19|website=Lewiston Sun Journal}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=''Dudum v. Arntz'', 640 F. 3d 1098 (2011)|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?q=dudum+v+arntz&hl=en&as_sdt=2003&case=438379963242494061&scilh=0|access-date=2016-04-01|publisher=United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit}}</ref> In 2018, a federal court ruled on the constitutionality of Maine’s use of ranked-choice voting, stating that "'one person, one vote' does not stand in opposition to ranked balloting, so long as all electors are treated equally at the ballot."<ref>{{cite web|author1=U.S. District Judge Lance Walker|date=2018-12-13|title=Read the federal judge's decision on Poliquin's ranked-choice challenge|url=https://bangordailynews.com/2018/12/13/politics/read-the-federal-judges-decision-on-poliquins-ranked-choice-challenge/|access-date=2019-02-10|website=Bangor Daily News|publisher=Bangor Daily News|page=21}}</ref>
*[[Training Wheels for Citizenship]], a failed 2004 initiative in [[California]], attempted to give [[Minor (law)|minor]]s between 14 and 17 years of age (who otherwise cannot vote) a fractional vote in state elections. Among the criticisms leveled at the proposed initiative was that it violated the "one man, one vote" principle.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0312/p01s03-uspo.html "Should 14-year-olds vote? OK, how about a quarter of a vote?"], Daniel B. Wood, ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', Mar. 12, 2004.</ref>
*The courts have found that [[Special district (United States)|special-purpose districts]] must also follow the one person, one vote rule.<ref>''Avery v. Midland County,'' 390 U.S. 474, 88 S. Ct. 1114, 20 L. Ed. 2d 45 (1968)</ref><ref>''Ball v. James,'' 451 U.S. 355, 101 S. Ct. 1811, 68 L. Ed. 2d 150 (1981)</ref><ref>''Bjornestad v. Hulse,'' 229 Cal. App. 3d 1568, 281 Cal. Rptr. 548 (1991)</ref><ref>''Board of Estimate v. Morris'', 489 U.S. 688, 109 S. Ct. 1433, 103 L. Ed. 2d 717 (1989)</ref><ref>''Hadley v. Junior College District,'' 397 U.S. 50, 90 S. Ct. 791, 25 L. Ed. 2d 45 (1970)</ref><ref>''Hellebust v. Brownback,'' 824 F. Supp. 1511 (D. Kan. 1993)</ref><ref>''Kessler v. Grand Central District Management Association,'' 158 F.3d 92. (2d Cir. 1998)</ref><ref>''Reynolds v. Sims'', 377 U.S. 533, 84 S. Ct. 136, 12 L. Ed. 2d 506 (1964)</ref><ref>''Salyer Land Co. v. Tulare Lake Basin Water Storage District,'' 410 U.S. 719 (1973)</ref>
*Due to treaties signed by the United States in 1830 and 1835, two [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[List of federally recognized tribes|tribes]] (the [[Cherokee]] and [[Choctaw]]) each hold the right to a [[Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives|non-voting delegate]] position in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]].<ref>{{cite news|title=The Cherokee Nation Is Entitled to a Delegate in Congress. But Will They Finally Send One?|first=Tristan|last=Ahtone|date=January 4, 2017|work=YES! Magazine|location=Bainbridge Island, Washington|url=https://www.yesmagazine.org/people-power/the-cherokee-nation-is-entitled-to-a-delegate-in-congress-but-will-they-finally-send-one-20170104|access-date=January 4, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Pommersheim|first=Frank|title=Broken Landscape: Indians, Indian Tribes, and the Constitution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbNdwTo2ENEC&pg=PA333|access-date=January 4, 2019|date=September 2, 2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-970659-4|page=333}}</ref> As of 2019, only the Cherokee have attempted to exercise that right.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/politics/the-cherokee-nation-wants-a-representative-in-congress/ar-AAGi9I6?ocid=ob-tw-enus-677|title=The Cherokee Nation wants a representative in Congress|website=www.msn.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Citing treaties, Cherokees call on Congress to seat delegate from tribe|date=August 23, 2019|last=Krehbiel-Burton|first=Lenzy|work=Tulsa World|location=Tulsa, Oklahoma|url=https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/state-and-regional/citing-treaties-cherokees-call-on-congress-to-seat-delegate-from/article_9da9a5d4-69a1-52d8-bad6-beea75a2e17e.html|access-date=August 24, 2019}}</ref> Because all tribal governments related to the two in question exist within present-day state boundaries, it has been suggested that such an arrangement could potentially violate the "one man, one vote" principle by granting a "super-vote"; a Cherokee or Choctaw voter would have two House representatives (state and tribal), whereas any other American would only have one.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosser |first=Ezra |date=7 Nov 2005 |title=The Nature of Representation: The Cherokee Right to a Congressional Delegate |journal=Boston University Public Interest Law Journal |volume=15 |issue=91 |pages=91–152 |ssrn=842647 }}</ref>
=== Developing countries ===
[[File:Nelson Mandela-2008 cropped.jpg|thumb|[[Nelson Mandela]], the first [[President of South Africa]] elected in a [[Universal suffrage|fully representative]] democratic election]]
==== Successful examples ====
The "one man, one vote" election system has been successfully implemented in many developing countries, most notably [[India]] and [[South Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aclu.org/blog/voting-rights/promoting-access-ballot/one-man-one-vote-nelson-mandela-voting-rights|title="One Man, One Vote": Nelson Mandela on Voting Rights|website=American Civil Liberties Union|date=11 December 2013 |language=en|access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8009522.stm|title=One man, one vote in Indian forest|date=2009-04-21|access-date=2019-09-28|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.orfonline.org/research/some-votes-more-equal-than-others-50010/|title=Some votes are more equal than others|last=Ahluwalia|first=Sanjeev|website=ORF|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref>
==== Reforms thwarted ====
The term "One man, one vote, one time" has been applied to [[Zimbabwe]], [[Zambia]], [[Angola]], [[Belarus]] and [[Russia]] where representative elections were successfully held that were relatively free of corruption and violence. In each case, a [[strongman (politics)|strongman]] came to power and effectively ended free and equitable voting.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=9781412815062|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2011|title=A Political History of the Civil War in Angola: 1974-1990|author=W. Martin James III|page=X}}</ref><ref name=SouthAfricaHope>{{cite book|isbn=0817989528|title=Hope for South Africa?|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|year=1991|author=Peter Duignan|author2=Lewis H. Gann|page=[https://archive.org/details/hopeforsouthafri00gann/page/166 166]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/hopeforsouthafri00gann/page/166}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[One vote, one value]]: a similar principle in Australia
*[[Proportional representation]]
*[[Democratization]]
*[[Democracy Index]]
*[[Universal suffrage]]
*[[Electoral college|Electoral College]]
*[[Panachage]]: a system where each voter casts multiple votes, although each voter can still be equally represented
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:One man, one vote}}
[[Category:Suffrage]]
[[Category:Political catchphrases]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:United States One Person, One Vote Legal Doctrine]]
[[Category:Principles]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | 'hi lol so this is um yea so like what u doing rn?? tryna get some information??? well uhuh sorry my dude !!!!!! it happens!!! no information for you stay dumb !!! be proud of who u are !!!! be ur dumbself !!! this information wont give u anything ur useless anyways
== Indices ==
The violation of equal representation in the various systems of proportional representation can be measured with the [[Loosemore–Hanby index]], the [[Gallagher index]], or the amount of [[wasted vote]]. A [[Gallagher index]] above 5 (%) is seen by many experts as violating the ''One man, one vote'' principle.<ref>[https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/ERRE/report-3/page-408/ December 2016, Canada's 2016 Special Committee On Electoral Reform, Recommendation 1]</ref><ref>[https://ottawacitizen.com/news/politics/read-the-full-electoral-reform-committee-report-plus-liberal-and-ndpgreen-opinions Read the full electoral reform committee report, plus Liberal and NDP/Green opinions]</ref><ref>[https://iscanadafair.ca/gallagher-index/ What is the Gallagher Index? The Gallagher Index measures how unfair a voting system is.]</ref> In case of plurality voting, the [[wasted vote]] can be measured. Additionally, the percentage of [[spoilt vote]] and percentage of [[disfranchisement]] can be measured to detect violations of the equal representation principle.
== History ==
The phrase surged in English-language usage around 1880,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Google Books Ngram Viewer |url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=one+man+one+vote&year_start=1800&year_end=2019&case_insensitive=on&corpus=26&smoothing=3 |access-date=2022-12-16 |website=books.google.com |language=en}}</ref> thanks in part to British [[trade union]]ist [[George Howell (trade unionist)|George Howell]] who used the phrase "one man, one vote" in political pamphlets.<ref>George Howell (1880). "One man, one vote". ''Manchester Selected Pamphlets''. {{JSTOR|60239578}}</ref> During the mid-to-late 20th-century period of [[Decolonization|decolonisation]] and the struggles for national sovereignty, this phrase became widely used in [[developing countries]] where majority populations sought to gain political power in proportion to their numbers.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} The slogan was notably used by the [[Internal resistance to South African apartheid|anti-apartheid]] movement during the 1980s, which sought to end white minority rule in [[South Africa]].<ref name="SouthAfricaHope" /><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bond|first1=Larry|last2=Larkin|first2=Patrick|title=Vortex|location=United States|language=en|publisher=Little, Brown and Warner Books|date=June 1991|isbn=0-446-51566-3|oclc=23286496|page=37|title-link=Vortex (Bond and Larkin novel)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media|first=Jeffrey|last=Boam|title=[[Lethal Weapon 2]]|date=July 1989|publisher=Warner Bros.}}</ref>
In the United States, the "one person, one vote" principle was invoked in a series of cases by the [[Warren Court]] in the 1960s during the height of related civil rights activities.<ref>Richard H. Fallon, Jr. (2013). ''The Dynamic Constitution''. Cambridge University Press, 196.</ref><ref name=Smith2014>Douglas J. Smith (2014). ''On Democracy's Doorstep: The Inside Story of How the Supreme Court Brought "One Person, One Vote" to the United States''. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref><ref>"One person, one vote", in David Andrew Schultz (2010). ''Encyclopedia of the United States Constitution''. Infobase Publishing, 526.</ref><ref name=Ansolabehere/>{{efn|Justice Douglas, ''[[Gray v. Sanders]]'' (1963): "The conception of political equality from the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], to [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]'s [[Gettysburg Address]], to the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifteenth]], [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Seventeenth]], and [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Nineteenth Amendments]] can mean only one thing—one person, one vote."<ref>C. J. Warren, ''Reynolds v. Sims,'' 377 U.S. 533, 558 (1964) (quoting ''Gray v. Sanders'', 372 U.S. 368 (1963)), cited in [https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/quotation/%5Bfield_short_title-raw%5D_185 "One-person, one-vote rule"], Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.</ref>}} Applying the [[Equal Protection Clause]] of the constitution, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] majority opinion (5–4) led by [[Chief Justice]] [[Earl Warren]] in ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964) ruled that state legislatures, unlike the [[U.S. Congress]], needed to have representation in both houses that was based on districts containing roughly equal populations, with redistricting as needed after censuses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1963/23|title=Reynolds v. Sims|website=Oyez|language=en|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref><ref name="governance"/> Some had an upper house based on an equal number of representatives to be elected from each county, which gave undue political power to rural counties. Many states had neglected to redistrict for decades during the 20th century, even as population increased in urban, industrialized areas. In the 1964 ''[[Wesberry v. Sanders]]'' decision, the U.S. Supreme Court declared that equality of voting—one person, one vote—means that "the weight and worth of the citizens' votes as nearly as is practicable must be the same",<ref name=":0" /> and ruled that states must also draw federal congressional districts containing roughly equal represented populations.
=== United Kingdom ===
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2013}}
==== Historical background ====
This phrase was traditionally used in the context of demands for [[suffrage#United Kingdom|suffrage]] reform. Historically the emphasis within the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] was on representing ''areas'': [[United_Kingdom_constituencies#County_constituencies_and_borough_constituencies|counties, boroughs]] and, later on, [[university constituency|universities]]. The entitlement to vote for the [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] representing the constituencies varied widely, with different qualifications over time, such as owning property of a certain value, holding an apprenticeship, qualifying for paying the local-government rates, or holding a degree from the university in question. Those who qualified for the vote in more than one constituency were entitled to vote in each constituency, while many adults did not qualify for the vote at all. [[Plural voting]] was also present in local government, whereby the owners of business property qualified for votes in the relevant [[Ward (country subdivision)|wards]].
Reformers argued that Members of Parliament and other elected officials should represent citizens equally, and that each voter should be entitled to exercise the vote once in an election. Successive [[Reform Act]]s by 1950 had both extended the franchise eventually to almost all adult citizens (barring [[convicts]], [[lunatics]] and members of the [[House of Lords]]), and also reduced and finally eliminated plural voting for Westminster elections. Plural voting for local-government elections outside the City of London was not abolished until the [[Representation of the People Act 1969]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Halsey |first=Albert Henry |date=1988 |title=British Social Trends since 1900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3euCwAAQBAJ&q=%22Representation+of+the+people+act+1969%22+%22business+vote%22&pg=PA298 |publisher=Springer |page=298 |isbn=9781349194667 |author-link=A. H. Halsey}}</ref><ref>{{cite hansard |jurisdiction=United Kingdom |title=City of London (Ward Elections) Bill |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1999/feb/24/city-of-london-ward-elections-bill-by#S6CV0326P0_19990224_HOC_414 |house=House of Commons |date=24 February 1999 |column=452 |speaker=[[Peter Brooke, Baron Brooke of Sutton Mandeville|Peter Brooke]]}}</ref>
But, there were two significant exceptions:
==== City of London ====
The [[City of London]] had never expanded its boundaries. Following the replacement of many residential dwellings by businesses, and the destruction of [[The Blitz]], after the [[World War II|Second World War]], the financial district had barely five thousand residents. The system of [[plural voting]] was retained for electing the [[City of London Corporation#Elections|City of London Corporation]], with some modifications.
==== Northern Ireland ====
When [[Northern Ireland]] was established in 1921, it adopted the same political system then in place for the Westminster Parliament and British local government. But the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]] did not follow Westminster in changes to the [[Elections in the United Kingdom#20th century|franchise from 1945]]. As a result, into the 1960s, plural voting was still allowed not only for local government (as it was for local government in Great Britain), but also for the Parliament of Northern Ireland. This meant that in local council elections (as in Great Britain), ratepayers and their spouses, whether renting or owning the property, could vote. Company directors had an extra vote by virtue of their company's status. However, unlike the situation in Great Britain, non-ratepayers did not have a vote in local government elections. The franchise for elections to the Parliament of Northern Ireland had been extended in 1928 to all adult citizens who were not disqualified, at the same time as the franchise for elections to Westminster. But, university representation and the business vote continued for elections to the House of Commons of Northern Ireland until 1969. They were abolished in 1948 for elections to the UK House of Commons (including Westminster seats in Northern Ireland). Historians and political scholars have debated the extent to which the franchise for local government contributed to [[unionism in Ireland|unionist]] electoral success in controlling councils in [[Irish nationalism|nationalist]]-majority areas.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/discrimination/whyte.htm| title = How much discrimination was there under the unionist regime, 1921-1968? | access-date = 2007-08-30| author = John H. Whyte| author-link = John H. Whyte| publisher = [[Conflict Archive on the Internet]]}}</ref>
Based on a number of inequities, the [[Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association]] was founded in 1967. It had five primary demands, and added the demand that each citizen in Northern Ireland be afforded the same number of votes for local government elections (as stated above, this was not yet the case anywhere in the United Kingdom). The slogan "one man, one vote" became a rallying cry for this campaign.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} The Parliament of Northern Ireland voted to update the voting rules for elections to the Northern Ireland House of Commons, which were implemented for the [[1969 Northern Ireland general election]], and for local government elections, which was done by the [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/apni/1969/26/introduction Electoral Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1969], passed on 25 November 1969.
=== United States ===
==== Historical background ====
[[File:Sncc one man one vote.png|thumb|"One man, one vote" emblem (Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC - New Jersey)]]
The [[United States Constitution]] requires a [[United States census|decennial census]] for the purpose of assuring fair apportionment of seats in the [[United States House of Representatives]] among the states, based on their population. Reapportionment has generally been conducted without incident with the exception of the reapportionment that should have followed the [[1920 United States census|1920 census]], which was effectively skipped pending resolution by the [[Reapportionment Act of 1929]]. [[State legislature (United States)| State legislatures]], however, initially established election of congressional representatives from [[Constituency|districts]] that were often based on traditional counties or parishes that had preceded founding of the new government. The question then arose as to whether the legislatures were required to ensure that House districts were roughly equal in population and to draw new districts to accommodate demographic changes.<ref name=Ansolabehere/><ref name=Smith2014/>
Some U.S. states redrew their House districts every ten years to reflect changes in population patterns; many did not. Some never redrew them, except when it was mandated by reapportionment of Congress and a resulting change in the number of seats to which that state was entitled in the House of Representatives. In many states, both North and South, this inaction resulted in a skewing of influence for voters in some districts over those in others, generally with a bias toward rural districts. For example, if the 2nd congressional district eventually had a population of 1.5 million, but the 3rd had only 500,000, then, in effect – since each district elected the same number of representatives – a voter in the 3rd district had three times the voting power of a 2nd-district voter.
Alabama's state legislature resisted redistricting from 1910 to 1972 (when forced by federal court order). As a result, rural residents retained a wildly disproportionate amount of power in a time when other areas of the state became urbanized and industrialized, attracting greater populations. Such urban areas were under-represented in the state legislature and underserved; their residents had difficulty getting needed funding for infrastructure and services. Such areas paid far more in taxes to the state than they received in benefits in relation to the population.<ref name="governance">[http://www.charlestoncounty.org/MAP/FinalReport/pages219-238.pdf Charlie B. Tyler, "County Government in the Palmetto State"], University of South Carolina, 1998, p. 221</ref>
The [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] incorporates the result of the [[Great Compromise]], which established representation for the U.S. Senate. Each state was equally represented in the Senate with two representatives, without regard to population. The [[Founding Fathers]] considered this principle of such importance{{cn|date=August 2021}} that they included a clause in the Constitution to prohibit any state from being deprived of equal representation in the Senate without its permission; see [[Article V of the United States Constitution]]. For this reason, "one person, one vote" has never been implemented in the U.S. Senate, in terms of representation by states.
When states established their legislatures, they often adopted a bicameral model based on colonial governments or the federal government. Many copied the Senate principle, establishing an upper house based on geography - for instance, a state senate with one representative drawn from each county. By the 20th century, this often resulted in state senators having widely varying amounts of political power, with ones from rural areas having votes equal in power to those of senators representing much greater urban populations.
[[Activism]] in the [[Civil Rights Movement]] to restore the ability of African Americans in the South to register and vote highlighted other voting inequities across the country. In 1964–1965, the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] were passed, in part to enforce the constitutional voting rights of [[African Americans]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/prize.htm|title=We Shall Overcome -- The Players|website=www.nps.gov|access-date=2019-10-05}}</ref> Numerous court challenges were raised, including in Alabama, due to the lack of reapportionment for decades.
==== Court cases ====
In {{ussc|name=Colegrove v. Green|328|549|1946|el=no}} the United States Supreme Court held in a 4-3 plurality decision that [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 4: Congressional elections|Article I, Section 4]] left to the legislature of each state the authority to establish the time, place, and manner of holding elections for representatives.
However, in {{ussc|name=Baker v. Carr|369|186|1962|el=no}} the United States Supreme Court under Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] overturned the previous decision in Colegrove holding that malapportionment claims under the [[Equal Protection Clause]] of the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] were not exempt from judicial review under [[Article Four of the United States Constitution#Section 4: Obligations of the United States|Article IV, Section 4]], as the equal protection issue in this case was separate from any political questions.<ref name=Ansolabehere>Stephen Ansolabehere, James M. Snyder (2008). ''The End of Inequality: One Person, One Vote and the Transformation of American Politics''. Norton.</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/21/nyregion/one-man-one-vote-decades-of-court-decisions.html|title=ONE MAN, ONE VOTE: DECADES OF COURT DECISIONS|website=New York Times|date=21 November 1986|last1=Goldman|first1=Ari L.}}</ref> The "one person, one vote" doctrine, which requires electoral districts to be apportioned according to population, thus making each district roughly equal in population, was further affirmed by the [[Warren Court]] in the landmark cases that followed ''Baker'', including {{ussc|name=Gray v. Sanders|372|368|1963|el=no}}, which concerned the [[County Unit System|county unit system]] in Georgia; {{ussc|name=Reynolds v. Sims|377|533|1964|el=no}} which concerned [[state legislature (United States)|state legislature]] districts; {{ussc|name=Wesberry v. Sanders|376|1|1964|el=no}}, which concerned [[United States Congress|U.S. congressional]] districts; and {{ussc|name=Avery v. Midland County|390|474|1968|el=no}} which concerned [[Local government in the United States|local government]] districts.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1963/23|title=Reynolds v. Sims|website=Oyez|language=en|access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/one-person_one-vote_rule|title=one-person, one-vote rule|last=Anonymous|date=2010-08-19|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref>
The Warren Court's decision was upheld in {{ussc|name=Board of Estimate of City of New York v. Morris|489|688|1989|el=no}}.<ref>{{cite magazine| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838157,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902233322/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838157,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=September 2, 2009 | magazine=Time | title=The Supreme Court: One-Man, One-Vote, Locally | date=1968-04-12 | access-date=2010-05-20}}</ref> {{ussc|name=Evenwel v. Abbott|578|2016|el=no}}, said states may use total population in drawing districts.<ref name=":1" />
==== Other uses ====
* In 1975, a [[Instant-runoff voting#Plural voting|Michigan court ruling]] declared that "majority preferential voting," as Instant Runoff Voting (IRV) was then known, did not violate the one-man, one-vote rule:<ref>[http://archive.fairvote.org/?page=397 ''Stephenson v Ann Arbor Board of Canvassers,'' fairvote.org], accessed 6 November 2013.</ref>
<blockquote>Under the 'M.P.V. System', however, no one person or voter has more than one effective vote for one office. No voter's vote can be counted more than once for the same candidate. In the final analysis, no voter is given greater weight in his or her vote over the vote of another voter, although to understand this does require a conceptual understanding of how the effect of a 'M.P.V. System' is like that of a run-off election. The form of majority preferential voting employed in the City of Ann Arbor's election of its Mayor does not violate the one-man, one-vote mandate nor does it deprive anyone of equal protection rights under the Michigan or United States Constitutions.</blockquote>
* The constitutionality of IRV has been subsequently upheld by several federal courts.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Collins|first1=Steve|last2=Journal|first2=Sun|date=2018-12-13|title=Federal court rules against Bruce Poliquin's challenge of ranked-choice voting|url=https://www.sunjournal.com/2018/12/13/federal-court-rules-against-bruce-poliquins-challenge-of-ranked-choice-voting/|access-date=2018-12-19|website=Lewiston Sun Journal}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=''Dudum v. Arntz'', 640 F. 3d 1098 (2011)|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?q=dudum+v+arntz&hl=en&as_sdt=2003&case=438379963242494061&scilh=0|access-date=2016-04-01|publisher=United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit}}</ref> In 2018, a federal court ruled on the constitutionality of Maine’s use of ranked-choice voting, stating that "'one person, one vote' does not stand in opposition to ranked balloting, so long as all electors are treated equally at the ballot."<ref>{{cite web|author1=U.S. District Judge Lance Walker|date=2018-12-13|title=Read the federal judge's decision on Poliquin's ranked-choice challenge|url=https://bangordailynews.com/2018/12/13/politics/read-the-federal-judges-decision-on-poliquins-ranked-choice-challenge/|access-date=2019-02-10|website=Bangor Daily News|publisher=Bangor Daily News|page=21}}</ref>
*[[Training Wheels for Citizenship]], a failed 2004 initiative in [[California]], attempted to give [[Minor (law)|minor]]s between 14 and 17 years of age (who otherwise cannot vote) a fractional vote in state elections. Among the criticisms leveled at the proposed initiative was that it violated the "one man, one vote" principle.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0312/p01s03-uspo.html "Should 14-year-olds vote? OK, how about a quarter of a vote?"], Daniel B. Wood, ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', Mar. 12, 2004.</ref>
*The courts have found that [[Special district (United States)|special-purpose districts]] must also follow the one person, one vote rule.<ref>''Avery v. Midland County,'' 390 U.S. 474, 88 S. Ct. 1114, 20 L. Ed. 2d 45 (1968)</ref><ref>''Ball v. James,'' 451 U.S. 355, 101 S. Ct. 1811, 68 L. Ed. 2d 150 (1981)</ref><ref>''Bjornestad v. Hulse,'' 229 Cal. App. 3d 1568, 281 Cal. Rptr. 548 (1991)</ref><ref>''Board of Estimate v. Morris'', 489 U.S. 688, 109 S. Ct. 1433, 103 L. Ed. 2d 717 (1989)</ref><ref>''Hadley v. Junior College District,'' 397 U.S. 50, 90 S. Ct. 791, 25 L. Ed. 2d 45 (1970)</ref><ref>''Hellebust v. Brownback,'' 824 F. Supp. 1511 (D. Kan. 1993)</ref><ref>''Kessler v. Grand Central District Management Association,'' 158 F.3d 92. (2d Cir. 1998)</ref><ref>''Reynolds v. Sims'', 377 U.S. 533, 84 S. Ct. 136, 12 L. Ed. 2d 506 (1964)</ref><ref>''Salyer Land Co. v. Tulare Lake Basin Water Storage District,'' 410 U.S. 719 (1973)</ref>
*Due to treaties signed by the United States in 1830 and 1835, two [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[List of federally recognized tribes|tribes]] (the [[Cherokee]] and [[Choctaw]]) each hold the right to a [[Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives|non-voting delegate]] position in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]].<ref>{{cite news|title=The Cherokee Nation Is Entitled to a Delegate in Congress. But Will They Finally Send One?|first=Tristan|last=Ahtone|date=January 4, 2017|work=YES! Magazine|location=Bainbridge Island, Washington|url=https://www.yesmagazine.org/people-power/the-cherokee-nation-is-entitled-to-a-delegate-in-congress-but-will-they-finally-send-one-20170104|access-date=January 4, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Pommersheim|first=Frank|title=Broken Landscape: Indians, Indian Tribes, and the Constitution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbNdwTo2ENEC&pg=PA333|access-date=January 4, 2019|date=September 2, 2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-970659-4|page=333}}</ref> As of 2019, only the Cherokee have attempted to exercise that right.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/politics/the-cherokee-nation-wants-a-representative-in-congress/ar-AAGi9I6?ocid=ob-tw-enus-677|title=The Cherokee Nation wants a representative in Congress|website=www.msn.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Citing treaties, Cherokees call on Congress to seat delegate from tribe|date=August 23, 2019|last=Krehbiel-Burton|first=Lenzy|work=Tulsa World|location=Tulsa, Oklahoma|url=https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/state-and-regional/citing-treaties-cherokees-call-on-congress-to-seat-delegate-from/article_9da9a5d4-69a1-52d8-bad6-beea75a2e17e.html|access-date=August 24, 2019}}</ref> Because all tribal governments related to the two in question exist within present-day state boundaries, it has been suggested that such an arrangement could potentially violate the "one man, one vote" principle by granting a "super-vote"; a Cherokee or Choctaw voter would have two House representatives (state and tribal), whereas any other American would only have one.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosser |first=Ezra |date=7 Nov 2005 |title=The Nature of Representation: The Cherokee Right to a Congressional Delegate |journal=Boston University Public Interest Law Journal |volume=15 |issue=91 |pages=91–152 |ssrn=842647 }}</ref>
=== Developing countries ===
[[File:Nelson Mandela-2008 cropped.jpg|thumb|[[Nelson Mandela]], the first [[President of South Africa]] elected in a [[Universal suffrage|fully representative]] democratic election]]
==== Successful examples ====
The "one man, one vote" election system has been successfully implemented in many developing countries, most notably [[India]] and [[South Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aclu.org/blog/voting-rights/promoting-access-ballot/one-man-one-vote-nelson-mandela-voting-rights|title="One Man, One Vote": Nelson Mandela on Voting Rights|website=American Civil Liberties Union|date=11 December 2013 |language=en|access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8009522.stm|title=One man, one vote in Indian forest|date=2009-04-21|access-date=2019-09-28|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.orfonline.org/research/some-votes-more-equal-than-others-50010/|title=Some votes are more equal than others|last=Ahluwalia|first=Sanjeev|website=ORF|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref>
==== Reforms thwarted ====
The term "One man, one vote, one time" has been applied to [[Zimbabwe]], [[Zambia]], [[Angola]], [[Belarus]] and [[Russia]] where representative elections were successfully held that were relatively free of corruption and violence. In each case, a [[strongman (politics)|strongman]] came to power and effectively ended free and equitable voting.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=9781412815062|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2011|title=A Political History of the Civil War in Angola: 1974-1990|author=W. Martin James III|page=X}}</ref><ref name=SouthAfricaHope>{{cite book|isbn=0817989528|title=Hope for South Africa?|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|year=1991|author=Peter Duignan|author2=Lewis H. Gann|page=[https://archive.org/details/hopeforsouthafri00gann/page/166 166]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/hopeforsouthafri00gann/page/166}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[One vote, one value]]: a similar principle in Australia
*[[Proportional representation]]
*[[Democratization]]
*[[Democracy Index]]
*[[Universal suffrage]]
*[[Electoral college|Electoral College]]
*[[Panachage]]: a system where each voter casts multiple votes, although each voter can still be equally represented
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:One man, one vote}}
[[Category:Suffrage]]
[[Category:Political catchphrases]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:United States One Person, One Vote Legal Doctrine]]
[[Category:Principles]]' |
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-{{Short description|Political slogan}}
-[[File:One Man One Vote 1964 DNC protest (1).jpg|thumb|"One Man One Vote" protest at the [[Democratic National Convention]] in [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]], 1964, before passage of the [[Voting Rights Act]] and when delegates of the [[Mississippi Freedom Democratic POne man, one vote'''", or "'''one person, one vote'''", expresses the principle of equal representation in voting. This [[slogan]] is used by advocates of [[democracy]] and [[political equality]], especially with regard to [[electoral reform]]s like [[universal suffrage]] and [[proportional representation]]. is yhdi heo
+hi lol so this is um yea so like what u doing rn?? tryna get some information??? well uhuh sorry my dude !!!!!! it happens!!! no information for you stay dumb !!! be proud of who u are !!!! be ur dumbself !!! this information wont give u anything ur useless anyways
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1 => '[[File:One Man One Vote 1964 DNC protest (1).jpg|thumb|"One Man One Vote" protest at the [[Democratic National Convention]] in [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]], 1964, before passage of the [[Voting Rights Act]] and when delegates of the [[Mississippi Freedom Democratic POne man, one vote'''", or "'''one person, one vote'''", expresses the principle of equal representation in voting. This [[slogan]] is used by advocates of [[democracy]] and [[political equality]], especially with regard to [[electoral reform]]s like [[universal suffrage]] and [[proportional representation]]. is yhdi heo'
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2 => 'https://iscanadafair.ca/gallagher-index/',
3 => 'https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=one+man+one+vote&year_start=1800&year_end=2019&case_insensitive=on&corpus=26&smoothing=3',
4 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/60239578',
5 => 'https://archive.org/details/hopeforsouthafri00gann/page/166',
6 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23286496',
7 => 'https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/quotation/%5Bfield_short_title-raw%5D_185',
8 => 'https://www.oyez.org/cases/1963/23',
9 => 'http://www.charlestoncounty.org/MAP/FinalReport/pages219-238.pdf',
10 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/21/nyregion/one-man-one-vote-decades-of-court-decisions.html',
11 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=x3euCwAAQBAJ&q=%22Representation+of+the+people+act+1969%22+%22business+vote%22&pg=PA298',
12 => 'https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1999/feb/24/city-of-london-ward-elections-bill-by#S6CV0326P0_19990224_HOC_414',
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14 => 'https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/prize.htm',
15 => 'https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/one-person_one-vote_rule',
16 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20090902233322/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838157,00.html',
17 => 'http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838157,00.html',
18 => 'http://archive.fairvote.org/?page=397',
19 => 'https://www.sunjournal.com/2018/12/13/federal-court-rules-against-bruce-poliquins-challenge-of-ranked-choice-voting/',
20 => 'https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?q=dudum+v+arntz&hl=en&as_sdt=2003&case=438379963242494061&scilh=0',
21 => 'https://bangordailynews.com/2018/12/13/politics/read-the-federal-judges-decision-on-poliquins-ranked-choice-challenge/',
22 => 'http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0312/p01s03-uspo.html',
23 => 'https://www.yesmagazine.org/people-power/the-cherokee-nation-is-entitled-to-a-delegate-in-congress-but-will-they-finally-send-one-20170104',
24 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=DbNdwTo2ENEC&pg=PA333',
25 => 'https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/politics/the-cherokee-nation-wants-a-representative-in-congress/ar-AAGi9I6?ocid=ob-tw-enus-677',
26 => 'https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/state-and-regional/citing-treaties-cherokees-call-on-congress-to-seat-delegate-from/article_9da9a5d4-69a1-52d8-bad6-beea75a2e17e.html',
27 => 'https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=842647',
28 => 'https://www.aclu.org/blog/voting-rights/promoting-access-ballot/one-man-one-vote-nelson-mandela-voting-rights',
29 => 'http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8009522.stm',
30 => 'https://www.orfonline.org/research/some-votes-more-equal-than-others-50010/',
31 => 'http://www.legislation.gov.uk/apni/1969/26/introduction'
] |
Links in the page, before the edit (old_links) | [
0 => 'http://www.charlestoncounty.org/MAP/FinalReport/pages219-238.pdf',
1 => 'https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1999/feb/24/city-of-london-ward-elections-bill-by#S6CV0326P0_19990224_HOC_414',
2 => 'http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/discrimination/whyte.htm',
3 => 'https://www.yesmagazine.org/people-power/the-cherokee-nation-is-entitled-to-a-delegate-in-congress-but-will-they-finally-send-one-20170104',
4 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=DbNdwTo2ENEC&pg=PA333',
5 => 'http://www.legislation.gov.uk/apni/1969/26/introduction',
6 => 'https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/state-and-regional/citing-treaties-cherokees-call-on-congress-to-seat-delegate-from/article_9da9a5d4-69a1-52d8-bad6-beea75a2e17e.html',
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8 => 'https://www.aclu.org/blog/voting-rights/promoting-access-ballot/one-man-one-vote-nelson-mandela-voting-rights',
9 => 'http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8009522.stm',
10 => 'https://www.orfonline.org/research/some-votes-more-equal-than-others-50010/',
11 => 'https://archive.org/details/hopeforsouthafri00gann/page/166',
12 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=x3euCwAAQBAJ&q=%22Representation+of+the+people+act+1969%22+%22business+vote%22&pg=PA298',
13 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/60239578',
14 => 'https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/quotation/%5Bfield_short_title-raw%5D_185',
15 => 'https://www.oyez.org/cases/1963/23',
16 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/21/nyregion/one-man-one-vote-decades-of-court-decisions.html',
17 => 'https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/prize.htm',
18 => 'https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/one-person_one-vote_rule',
19 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20090902233322/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838157,00.html',
20 => 'http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838157,00.html',
21 => 'http://archive.fairvote.org/?page=397',
22 => 'https://www.sunjournal.com/2018/12/13/federal-court-rules-against-bruce-poliquins-challenge-of-ranked-choice-voting/',
23 => 'https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?q=dudum+v+arntz&hl=en&as_sdt=2003&case=438379963242494061&scilh=0',
24 => 'https://bangordailynews.com/2018/12/13/politics/read-the-federal-judges-decision-on-poliquins-ranked-choice-challenge/',
25 => 'http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0312/p01s03-uspo.html',
26 => 'https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/ERRE/report-3/page-408/',
27 => 'https://ottawacitizen.com/news/politics/read-the-full-electoral-reform-committee-report-plus-liberal-and-ndpgreen-opinions',
28 => 'https://iscanadafair.ca/gallagher-index/',
29 => 'https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=one+man+one+vote&year_start=1800&year_end=2019&case_insensitive=on&corpus=26&smoothing=3',
30 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23286496',
31 => 'https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=842647'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><p>hi lol so this is um yea so like what u doing rn?? tryna get some information??? well uhuh sorry my dude !!!!!! it happens!!! no information for you stay dumb !!! be proud of who u are !!!! be ur dumbself !!! this information wont give u anything ur useless anyways
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Indices"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Indices</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#United_Kingdom"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">United Kingdom</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Historical_background"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Historical background</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#City_of_London"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">City of London</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Northern_Ireland"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Northern Ireland</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#United_States"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">United States</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Historical_background_2"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Historical background</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Court_cases"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Court cases</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Other_uses"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Other uses</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Developing_countries"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Developing countries</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Successful_examples"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Successful examples</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Reforms_thwarted"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Reforms thwarted</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Indices">Indices</span></h2>
<p>The violation of equal representation in the various systems of proportional representation can be measured with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Loosemore%E2%80%93Hanby_index" title="Loosemore–Hanby index">Loosemore–Hanby index</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gallagher_index" title="Gallagher index">Gallagher index</a>, or the amount of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wasted_vote" title="Wasted vote">wasted vote</a>. A <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gallagher_index" title="Gallagher index">Gallagher index</a> above 5 (%) is seen by many experts as violating the <i>One man, one vote</i> principle.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> In case of plurality voting, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wasted_vote" title="Wasted vote">wasted vote</a> can be measured. Additionally, the percentage of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spoilt_vote" title="Spoilt vote">spoilt vote</a> and percentage of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disfranchisement" title="Disfranchisement">disfranchisement</a> can be measured to detect violations of the equal representation principle.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<p>The phrase surged in English-language usage around 1880,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> thanks in part to British <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unionist</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Howell_(trade_unionist)" title="George Howell (trade unionist)">George Howell</a> who used the phrase "one man, one vote" in political pamphlets.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> During the mid-to-late 20th-century period of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonisation</a> and the struggles for national sovereignty, this phrase became widely used in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a> where majority populations sought to gain political power in proportion to their numbers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The slogan was notably used by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internal_resistance_to_South_African_apartheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal resistance to South African apartheid">anti-apartheid</a> movement during the 1980s, which sought to end white minority rule in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SouthAfricaHope_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SouthAfricaHope-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the United States, the "one person, one vote" principle was invoked in a series of cases by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> in the 1960s during the height of related civil rights activities.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith2014_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith2014-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ansolabehere_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ansolabehere-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[a]</a></sup> Applying the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the constitution, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> majority opinion (5–4) led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chief_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Justice">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a></i> (1964) ruled that state legislatures, unlike the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a>, needed to have representation in both houses that was based on districts containing roughly equal populations, with redistricting as needed after censuses.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-governance_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-governance-16">[15]</a></sup> Some had an upper house based on an equal number of representatives to be elected from each county, which gave undue political power to rural counties. Many states had neglected to redistrict for decades during the 20th century, even as population increased in urban, industrialized areas. In the 1964 <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wesberry_v._Sanders" title="Wesberry v. Sanders">Wesberry v. Sanders</a></i> decision, the U.S. Supreme Court declared that equality of voting—one person, one vote—means that "the weight and worth of the citizens' votes as nearly as is practicable must be the same",<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17">[16]</a></sup> and ruled that states must also draw federal congressional districts containing roughly equal represented populations.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1097763485">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=One_man,_one_vote&action=edit">improve this section</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_background">Historical background</span></h4>
<p>This phrase was traditionally used in the context of demands for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suffrage#United_Kingdom" title="Suffrage">suffrage</a> reform. Historically the emphasis within the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> was on representing <i>areas</i>: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Kingdom_constituencies#County_constituencies_and_borough_constituencies" title="United Kingdom constituencies">counties, boroughs</a> and, later on, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_constituency" title="University constituency">universities</a>. The entitlement to vote for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Member_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of Parliament">Members of Parliament</a> representing the constituencies varied widely, with different qualifications over time, such as owning property of a certain value, holding an apprenticeship, qualifying for paying the local-government rates, or holding a degree from the university in question. Those who qualified for the vote in more than one constituency were entitled to vote in each constituency, while many adults did not qualify for the vote at all. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plural_voting" title="Plural voting">Plural voting</a> was also present in local government, whereby the owners of business property qualified for votes in the relevant <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ward_(country_subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ward (country subdivision)">wards</a>.
</p><p>Reformers argued that Members of Parliament and other elected officials should represent citizens equally, and that each voter should be entitled to exercise the vote once in an election. Successive <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reform_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform Act">Reform Acts</a> by 1950 had both extended the franchise eventually to almost all adult citizens (barring <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Convicts">convicts</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lunatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunatics">lunatics</a> and members of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>), and also reduced and finally eliminated plural voting for Westminster elections. Plural voting for local-government elections outside the City of London was not abolished until the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1969" title="Representation of the People Act 1969">Representation of the People Act 1969</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>But, there were two significant exceptions:
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="City_of_London">City of London</span></h4>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/City_of_London" title="City of London">City of London</a> had never expanded its boundaries. Following the replacement of many residential dwellings by businesses, and the destruction of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">The Blitz</a>, after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, the financial district had barely five thousand residents. The system of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plural_voting" title="Plural voting">plural voting</a> was retained for electing the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/City_of_London_Corporation#Elections" title="City of London Corporation">City of London Corporation</a>, with some modifications.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Northern_Ireland">Northern Ireland</span></h4>
<p>When <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> was established in 1921, it adopted the same political system then in place for the Westminster Parliament and British local government. But the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parliament_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Parliament of Northern Ireland">Parliament of Northern Ireland</a> did not follow Westminster in changes to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_Kingdom#20th_century" title="Elections in the United Kingdom">franchise from 1945</a>. As a result, into the 1960s, plural voting was still allowed not only for local government (as it was for local government in Great Britain), but also for the Parliament of Northern Ireland. This meant that in local council elections (as in Great Britain), ratepayers and their spouses, whether renting or owning the property, could vote. Company directors had an extra vote by virtue of their company's status. However, unlike the situation in Great Britain, non-ratepayers did not have a vote in local government elections. The franchise for elections to the Parliament of Northern Ireland had been extended in 1928 to all adult citizens who were not disqualified, at the same time as the franchise for elections to Westminster. But, university representation and the business vote continued for elections to the House of Commons of Northern Ireland until 1969. They were abolished in 1948 for elections to the UK House of Commons (including Westminster seats in Northern Ireland). Historians and political scholars have debated the extent to which the franchise for local government contributed to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unionism_in_Ireland" title="Unionism in Ireland">unionist</a> electoral success in controlling councils in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">nationalist</a>-majority areas.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>Based on a number of inequities, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Civil_Rights_Association" title="Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association">Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association</a> was founded in 1967. It had five primary demands, and added the demand that each citizen in Northern Ireland be afforded the same number of votes for local government elections (as stated above, this was not yet the case anywhere in the United Kingdom). The slogan "one man, one vote" became a rallying cry for this campaign.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Parliament of Northern Ireland voted to update the voting rules for elections to the Northern Ireland House of Commons, which were implemented for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1969_Northern_Ireland_general_election" title="1969 Northern Ireland general election">1969 Northern Ireland general election</a>, and for local government elections, which was done by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/apni/1969/26/introduction">Electoral Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1969</a>, passed on 25 November 1969.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="United_States">United States</span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_background_2">Historical background</span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sncc_one_man_one_vote.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Sncc_one_man_one_vote.png" decoding="async" width="205" height="206" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="205" data-file-height="206" /></a><figcaption>"One man, one vote" emblem (Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC - New Jersey)</figcaption></figure>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> requires a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_census" title="United States census">decennial census</a> for the purpose of assuring fair apportionment of seats in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a> among the states, based on their population. Reapportionment has generally been conducted without incident with the exception of the reapportionment that should have followed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1920_United_States_census" title="1920 United States census">1920 census</a>, which was effectively skipped pending resolution by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reapportionment_Act_of_1929" title="Reapportionment Act of 1929">Reapportionment Act of 1929</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)"> State legislatures</a>, however, initially established election of congressional representatives from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constituency" class="mw-redirect" title="Constituency">districts</a> that were often based on traditional counties or parishes that had preceded founding of the new government. The question then arose as to whether the legislatures were required to ensure that House districts were roughly equal in population and to draw new districts to accommodate demographic changes.<sup id="cite_ref-Ansolabehere_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ansolabehere-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith2014_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith2014-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some U.S. states redrew their House districts every ten years to reflect changes in population patterns; many did not. Some never redrew them, except when it was mandated by reapportionment of Congress and a resulting change in the number of seats to which that state was entitled in the House of Representatives. In many states, both North and South, this inaction resulted in a skewing of influence for voters in some districts over those in others, generally with a bias toward rural districts. For example, if the 2nd congressional district eventually had a population of 1.5 million, but the 3rd had only 500,000, then, in effect – since each district elected the same number of representatives – a voter in the 3rd district had three times the voting power of a 2nd-district voter.
</p><p>Alabama's state legislature resisted redistricting from 1910 to 1972 (when forced by federal court order). As a result, rural residents retained a wildly disproportionate amount of power in a time when other areas of the state became urbanized and industrialized, attracting greater populations. Such urban areas were under-represented in the state legislature and underserved; their residents had difficulty getting needed funding for infrastructure and services. Such areas paid far more in taxes to the state than they received in benefits in relation to the population.<sup id="cite_ref-governance_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-governance-16">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> incorporates the result of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Compromise">Great Compromise</a>, which established representation for the U.S. Senate. Each state was equally represented in the Senate with two representatives, without regard to population. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Founding_Fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding Fathers">Founding Fathers</a> considered this principle of such importance<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that they included a clause in the Constitution to prohibit any state from being deprived of equal representation in the Senate without its permission; see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_V_of_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Article V of the United States Constitution">Article V of the United States Constitution</a>. For this reason, "one person, one vote" has never been implemented in the U.S. Senate, in terms of representation by states.
</p><p>When states established their legislatures, they often adopted a bicameral model based on colonial governments or the federal government. Many copied the Senate principle, establishing an upper house based on geography - for instance, a state senate with one representative drawn from each county. By the 20th century, this often resulted in state senators having widely varying amounts of political power, with ones from rural areas having votes equal in power to those of senators representing much greater urban populations.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">Activism</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> to restore the ability of African Americans in the South to register and vote highlighted other voting inequities across the country. In 1964–1965, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a> were passed, in part to enforce the constitutional voting rights of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></sup> Numerous court challenges were raised, including in Alabama, due to the lack of reapportionment for decades.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Court_cases">Court cases</span></h4>
<p>In <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colegrove_v._Green" title="Colegrove v. Green">Colegrove v. Green</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_328" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 328">328</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 549 (1946) the United States Supreme Court held in a 4-3 plurality decision that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_4:_Congressional_elections" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I, Section 4</a> left to the legislature of each state the authority to establish the time, place, and manner of holding elections for representatives.
</p><p>However, in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baker_v._Carr" title="Baker v. Carr">Baker v. Carr</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_369" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 369">369</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 186 (1962) the United States Supreme Court under Chief Justice <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> overturned the previous decision in Colegrove holding that malapportionment claims under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> were not exempt from judicial review under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_4:_Obligations_of_the_United_States" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Article IV, Section 4</a>, as the equal protection issue in this case was separate from any political questions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ansolabehere_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ansolabehere-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17">[16]</a></sup> The "one person, one vote" doctrine, which requires electoral districts to be apportioned according to population, thus making each district roughly equal in population, was further affirmed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> in the landmark cases that followed <i>Baker</i>, including <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gray_v._Sanders" title="Gray v. Sanders">Gray v. Sanders</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_372" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 372">372</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 368 (1963), which concerned the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/County_Unit_System" class="mw-redirect" title="County Unit System">county unit system</a> in Georgia; <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_377" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 377">377</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 533 (1964) which concerned <a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislature</a> districts; <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wesberry_v._Sanders" title="Wesberry v. Sanders">Wesberry v. Sanders</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_376" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 376">376</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 1 (1964), which concerned <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. congressional</a> districts; and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Avery_v._Midland_County" title="Avery v. Midland County">Avery v. Midland County</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_390" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 390">390</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 474 (1968) which concerned <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">local government</a> districts.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Warren Court's decision was upheld in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Board_of_Estimate_of_City_of_New_York_v._Morris" title="Board of Estimate of City of New York v. Morris">Board of Estimate of City of New York v. Morris</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_489" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 489">489</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 688 (1989).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a></sup> <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evenwel_v._Abbott" title="Evenwel v. Abbott">Evenwel v. Abbott</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_578" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 578">578</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 2016, said states may use total population in drawing districts.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_uses">Other uses</span></h4>
<ul><li>In 1975, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting#Plural_voting" title="Instant-runoff voting">Michigan court ruling</a> declared that "majority preferential voting," as Instant Runoff Voting (IRV) was then known, did not violate the one-man, one-vote rule:<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup></li></ul>
<blockquote><p>Under the 'M.P.V. System', however, no one person or voter has more than one effective vote for one office. No voter's vote can be counted more than once for the same candidate. In the final analysis, no voter is given greater weight in his or her vote over the vote of another voter, although to understand this does require a conceptual understanding of how the effect of a 'M.P.V. System' is like that of a run-off election. The form of majority preferential voting employed in the City of Ann Arbor's election of its Mayor does not violate the one-man, one-vote mandate nor does it deprive anyone of equal protection rights under the Michigan or United States Constitutions.</p></blockquote>
<ul><li>The constitutionality of IRV has been subsequently upheld by several federal courts.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a></sup> In 2018, a federal court ruled on the constitutionality of Maine’s use of ranked-choice voting, stating that "'one person, one vote' does not stand in opposition to ranked balloting, so long as all electors are treated equally at the ballot."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Training_Wheels_for_Citizenship" title="Training Wheels for Citizenship">Training Wheels for Citizenship</a>, a failed 2004 initiative in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, attempted to give <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minor_(law)" title="Minor (law)">minors</a> between 14 and 17 years of age (who otherwise cannot vote) a fractional vote in state elections. Among the criticisms leveled at the proposed initiative was that it violated the "one man, one vote" principle.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a></sup></li>
<li>The courts have found that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">special-purpose districts</a> must also follow the one person, one vote rule.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a></sup></li>
<li>Due to treaties signed by the United States in 1830 and 1835, two <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">tribes</a> (the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a>) each hold the right to a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Non-voting_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives">non-voting delegate</a> position in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a></sup> As of 2019, only the Cherokee have attempted to exercise that right.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a></sup> Because all tribal governments related to the two in question exist within present-day state boundaries, it has been suggested that such an arrangement could potentially violate the "one man, one vote" principle by granting a "super-vote"; a Cherokee or Choctaw voter would have two House representatives (state and tribal), whereas any other American would only have one.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Developing_countries">Developing countries</span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Nelson_Mandela-2008_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Nelson_Mandela-2008_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="189" height="244" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="189" data-file-height="244" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a>, the first <a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_South_Africa" title="President of South Africa">President of South Africa</a> elected in a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">fully representative</a> democratic election</figcaption></figure>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Successful_examples">Successful examples</span></h4>
<p>The "one man, one vote" election system has been successfully implemented in many developing countries, most notably <a href="/enwiki/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Reforms_thwarted">Reforms thwarted</span></h4>
<p>The term "One man, one vote, one time" has been applied to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> where representative elections were successfully held that were relatively free of corruption and violence. In each case, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strongman_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strongman (politics)">strongman</a> came to power and effectively ended free and equitable voting.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SouthAfricaHope_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SouthAfricaHope-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/One_vote,_one_value" title="One vote, one value">One vote, one value</a>: a similar principle in Australia</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">Proportional representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democracy_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Democracy Index">Democracy Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electoral_college" title="Electoral college">Electoral College</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Panachage" title="Panachage">Panachage</a>: a system where each voter casts multiple votes, although each voter can still be equally represented</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Justice Douglas, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gray_v._Sanders" title="Gray v. Sanders">Gray v. Sanders</a></i> (1963): "The conception of political equality from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gettysburg_Address" title="Gettysburg Address">Gettysburg Address</a>, to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Seventeenth</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendments</a> can mean only one thing—one person, one vote."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/ERRE/report-3/page-408/">December 2016, Canada's 2016 Special Committee On Electoral Reform, Recommendation 1</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ottawacitizen.com/news/politics/read-the-full-electoral-reform-committee-report-plus-liberal-and-ndpgreen-opinions">Read the full electoral reform committee report, plus Liberal and NDP/Green opinions</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iscanadafair.ca/gallagher-index/">What is the Gallagher Index? The Gallagher Index measures how unfair a voting system is.</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=one+man+one+vote&year_start=1800&year_end=2019&case_insensitive=on&corpus=26&smoothing=3">"Google Books Ngram Viewer"</a>. <i>books.google.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-12-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=books.google.com&rft.atitle=Google+Books+Ngram+Viewer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fngrams%2Fgraph%3Fcontent%3Done%2Bman%2Bone%2Bvote%26year_start%3D1800%26year_end%3D2019%26case_insensitive%3Don%26corpus%3D26%26smoothing%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Howell (1880). "One man, one vote". <i>Manchester Selected Pamphlets</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/60239578">60239578</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-SouthAfricaHope-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SouthAfricaHope_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SouthAfricaHope_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_DuignanLewis_H._Gann1991" class="citation book cs1">Peter Duignan; Lewis H. Gann (1991). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hopeforsouthafri00gann/page/166"><i>Hope for South Africa?</i></a></span>. Hoover Institution Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hopeforsouthafri00gann/page/166">166</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0817989528" title="Special:BookSources/0817989528"><bdi>0817989528</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hope+for+South+Africa%3F&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Hoover+Institution+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0817989528&rft.au=Peter+Duignan&rft.au=Lewis+H.+Gann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhopeforsouthafri00gann%2Fpage%2F166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBondLarkin1991" class="citation book cs1">Bond, Larry; Larkin, Patrick (June 1991). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vortex_(Bond_and_Larkin_novel)" title="Vortex (Bond and Larkin novel)"><i>Vortex</i></a>. United States: Little, Brown and Warner Books. p. 37. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-446-51566-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-446-51566-3"><bdi>0-446-51566-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23286496">23286496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vortex&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Warner+Books&rft.date=1991-06&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F23286496&rft.isbn=0-446-51566-3&rft.aulast=Bond&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.au=Larkin%2C+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBoam1989" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Boam, Jeffrey (July 1989). <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lethal_Weapon_2" title="Lethal Weapon 2">Lethal Weapon 2</a></i>. Warner Bros.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lethal+Weapon+2&rft.pub=Warner+Bros.&rft.date=1989-07&rft.aulast=Boam&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard H. Fallon, Jr. (2013). <i>The Dynamic Constitution</i>. Cambridge University Press, 196.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Smith2014-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith2014_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith2014_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas J. Smith (2014). <i>On Democracy's Doorstep: The Inside Story of How the Supreme Court Brought "One Person, One Vote" to the United States</i>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"One person, one vote", in David Andrew Schultz (2010). <i>Encyclopedia of the United States Constitution</i>. Infobase Publishing, 526.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ansolabehere-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ansolabehere_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ansolabehere_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ansolabehere_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Ansolabehere, James M. Snyder (2008). <i>The End of Inequality: One Person, One Vote and the Transformation of American Politics</i>. Norton.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. J. Warren, <i>Reynolds v. Sims,</i> 377 U.S. 533, 558 (1964) (quoting <i>Gray v. Sanders</i>, 372 U.S. 368 (1963)), cited in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/quotation/%5Bfield_short_title-raw%5D_185">"One-person, one-vote rule"</a>, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1963/23">"Reynolds v. Sims"</a>. <i>Oyez</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oyez&rft.atitle=Reynolds+v.+Sims&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oyez.org%2Fcases%2F1963%2F23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-governance-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-governance_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-governance_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.charlestoncounty.org/MAP/FinalReport/pages219-238.pdf">Charlie B. Tyler, "County Government in the Palmetto State"</a>, University of South Carolina, 1998, p. 221</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGoldman1986" class="citation news cs1">Goldman, Ari L. (21 November 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/21/nyregion/one-man-one-vote-decades-of-court-decisions.html">"ONE MAN, ONE VOTE: DECADES OF COURT DECISIONS"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=ONE+MAN%2C+ONE+VOTE%3A+DECADES+OF+COURT+DECISIONS&rft.date=1986-11-21&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Ari+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F11%2F21%2Fnyregion%2Fone-man-one-vote-decades-of-court-decisions.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHalsey1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A._H._Halsey" title="A. H. Halsey">Halsey, Albert Henry</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x3euCwAAQBAJ&q=%22Representation+of+the+people+act+1969%22+%22business+vote%22&pg=PA298"><i>British Social Trends since 1900</i></a>. Springer. p. 298. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781349194667" title="Special:BookSources/9781349194667"><bdi>9781349194667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Social+Trends+since+1900&rft.pages=298&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9781349194667&rft.aulast=Halsey&rft.aufirst=Albert+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx3euCwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Representation%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bpeople%2Bact%2B1969%2522%2B%2522business%2Bvote%2522%26pg%3DPA298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Brooke1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Brooke,_Baron_Brooke_of_Sutton_Mandeville" title="Peter Brooke, Baron Brooke of Sutton Mandeville">Peter Brooke</a> (24 February 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1999/feb/24/city-of-london-ward-elections-bill-by#S6CV0326P0_19990224_HOC_414">"City of London (Ward Elections) Bill"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hansard" title="Hansard">Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)</a></i>. United Kingdom: House of Commons. col. 452.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=City+of+London+%28Ward+Elections%29+Bill&rft.btitle=Parliamentary+Debates+%28Hansard%29&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=col.-452&rft.pub=House+of+Commons&rft.date=1999-02-24&rft.au=Peter+Brooke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.parliament.uk%2Fhistoric-hansard%2Fcommons%2F1999%2Ffeb%2F24%2Fcity-of-london-ward-elections-bill-by%23S6CV0326P0_19990224_HOC_414&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_H._Whyte" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_H._Whyte" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Whyte">John H. Whyte</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/discrimination/whyte.htm">"How much discrimination was there under the unionist regime, 1921-1968?"</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conflict_Archive_on_the_Internet" title="Conflict Archive on the Internet">Conflict Archive on the Internet</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-08-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+much+discrimination+was+there+under+the+unionist+regime%2C+1921-1968%3F&rft.pub=Conflict+Archive+on+the+Internet&rft.au=John+H.+Whyte&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcain.ulst.ac.uk%2Fissues%2Fdiscrimination%2Fwhyte.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/prize.htm">"We Shall Overcome -- The Players"</a>. <i>www.nps.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nps.gov&rft.atitle=We+Shall+Overcome+--+The+Players&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fnr%2Ftravel%2Fcivilrights%2Fprize.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1963/23">"Reynolds v. Sims"</a>. <i>Oyez</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oyez&rft.atitle=Reynolds+v.+Sims&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oyez.org%2Fcases%2F1963%2F23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:1-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous2010" class="citation web cs1">Anonymous (2010-08-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/one-person_one-vote_rule">"one-person, one-vote rule"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=one-person%2C+one-vote+rule&rft.date=2010-08-19&rft.au=Anonymous&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fone-person_one-vote_rule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090902233322/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838157,00.html">"The Supreme Court: One-Man, One-Vote, Locally"</a>. <i>Time</i>. 1968-04-12. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,838157,00.html">the original</a> on September 2, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court%3A+One-Man%2C+One-Vote%2C+Locally&rft.date=1968-04-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C838157%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.fairvote.org/?page=397"><i>Stephenson v Ann Arbor Board of Canvassers,</i> fairvote.org</a>, accessed 6 November 2013.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCollinsJournal2018" class="citation web cs1">Collins, Steve; Journal, Sun (2018-12-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sunjournal.com/2018/12/13/federal-court-rules-against-bruce-poliquins-challenge-of-ranked-choice-voting/">"Federal court rules against Bruce Poliquin's challenge of ranked-choice voting"</a>. <i>Lewiston Sun Journal</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lewiston+Sun+Journal&rft.atitle=Federal+court+rules+against+Bruce+Poliquin%27s+challenge+of+ranked-choice+voting&rft.date=2018-12-13&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft.au=Journal%2C+Sun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sunjournal.com%2F2018%2F12%2F13%2Ffederal-court-rules-against-bruce-poliquins-challenge-of-ranked-choice-voting%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?q=dudum+v+arntz&hl=en&as_sdt=2003&case=438379963242494061&scilh=0">"<i>Dudum v. Arntz</i>, 640 F. 3d 1098 (2011)"</a>. United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-04-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dudum+v.+Arntz%2C+640+F.+3d+1098+%282011%29&rft.pub=United+States+Court+of+Appeals%2C+Ninth+Circuit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar_case%3Fq%3Ddudum%2Bv%2Barntz%26hl%3Den%26as_sdt%3D2003%26case%3D438379963242494061%26scilh%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFU.S._District_Judge_Lance_Walker2018" class="citation web cs1">U.S. District Judge Lance Walker (2018-12-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bangordailynews.com/2018/12/13/politics/read-the-federal-judges-decision-on-poliquins-ranked-choice-challenge/">"Read the federal judge's decision on Poliquin's ranked-choice challenge"</a>. <i>Bangor Daily News</i>. Bangor Daily News. p. 21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-02-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bangor+Daily+News&rft.atitle=Read+the+federal+judge%27s+decision+on+Poliquin%27s+ranked-choice+challenge&rft.pages=21&rft.date=2018-12-13&rft.au=U.S.+District+Judge+Lance+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbangordailynews.com%2F2018%2F12%2F13%2Fpolitics%2Fread-the-federal-judges-decision-on-poliquins-ranked-choice-challenge%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0312/p01s03-uspo.html">"Should 14-year-olds vote? OK, how about a quarter of a vote?"</a>, Daniel B. Wood, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christian_Science_Monitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Science Monitor">Christian Science Monitor</a></i>, Mar. 12, 2004.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Avery v. Midland County,</i> 390 U.S. 474, 88 S. Ct. 1114, 20 L. Ed. 2d 45 (1968)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ball v. James,</i> 451 U.S. 355, 101 S. Ct. 1811, 68 L. Ed. 2d 150 (1981)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bjornestad v. Hulse,</i> 229 Cal. App. 3d 1568, 281 Cal. Rptr. 548 (1991)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Board of Estimate v. Morris</i>, 489 U.S. 688, 109 S. Ct. 1433, 103 L. Ed. 2d 717 (1989)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Hadley v. Junior College District,</i> 397 U.S. 50, 90 S. Ct. 791, 25 L. Ed. 2d 45 (1970)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Hellebust v. Brownback,</i> 824 F. Supp. 1511 (D. Kan. 1993)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Kessler v. Grand Central District Management Association,</i> 158 F.3d 92. (2d Cir. 1998)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Reynolds v. Sims</i>, 377 U.S. 533, 84 S. Ct. 136, 12 L. Ed. 2d 506 (1964)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Salyer Land Co. v. Tulare Lake Basin Water Storage District,</i> 410 U.S. 719 (1973)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAhtone2017" class="citation news cs1">Ahtone, Tristan (January 4, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yesmagazine.org/people-power/the-cherokee-nation-is-entitled-to-a-delegate-in-congress-but-will-they-finally-send-one-20170104">"The Cherokee Nation Is Entitled to a Delegate in Congress. But Will They Finally Send One?"</a>. <i>YES! Magazine</i>. Bainbridge Island, Washington<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 4,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=YES%21+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Cherokee+Nation+Is+Entitled+to+a+Delegate+in+Congress.+But+Will+They+Finally+Send+One%3F&rft.date=2017-01-04&rft.aulast=Ahtone&rft.aufirst=Tristan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yesmagazine.org%2Fpeople-power%2Fthe-cherokee-nation-is-entitled-to-a-delegate-in-congress-but-will-they-finally-send-one-20170104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPommersheim2009" class="citation book cs1">Pommersheim, Frank (September 2, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DbNdwTo2ENEC&pg=PA333"><i>Broken Landscape: Indians, Indian Tribes, and the Constitution</i></a>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 333. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-970659-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-970659-4"><bdi>978-0-19-970659-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 4,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Broken+Landscape%3A+Indians%2C+Indian+Tribes%2C+and+the+Constitution&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=333&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009-09-02&rft.isbn=978-0-19-970659-4&rft.aulast=Pommersheim&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDbNdwTo2ENEC%26pg%3DPA333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/politics/the-cherokee-nation-wants-a-representative-in-congress/ar-AAGi9I6?ocid=ob-tw-enus-677">"The Cherokee Nation wants a representative in Congress"</a>. <i>www.msn.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.msn.com&rft.atitle=The+Cherokee+Nation+wants+a+representative+in+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msn.com%2Fen-us%2Fnews%2Fpolitics%2Fthe-cherokee-nation-wants-a-representative-in-congress%2Far-AAGi9I6%3Focid%3Dob-tw-enus-677&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKrehbiel-Burton2019" class="citation news cs1">Krehbiel-Burton, Lenzy (August 23, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/state-and-regional/citing-treaties-cherokees-call-on-congress-to-seat-delegate-from/article_9da9a5d4-69a1-52d8-bad6-beea75a2e17e.html">"Citing treaties, Cherokees call on Congress to seat delegate from tribe"</a>. <i>Tulsa World</i>. Tulsa, Oklahoma<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 24,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tulsa+World&rft.atitle=Citing+treaties%2C+Cherokees+call+on+Congress+to+seat+delegate+from+tribe&rft.date=2019-08-23&rft.aulast=Krehbiel-Burton&rft.aufirst=Lenzy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tulsaworld.com%2Fnews%2Fstate-and-regional%2Fciting-treaties-cherokees-call-on-congress-to-seat-delegate-from%2Farticle_9da9a5d4-69a1-52d8-bad6-beea75a2e17e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRosser2005" class="citation journal cs1">Rosser, Ezra (7 Nov 2005). "The Nature of Representation: The Cherokee Right to a Congressional Delegate". <i>Boston University Public Interest Law Journal</i>. <b>15</b> (91): 91–152. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=842647">842647</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+University+Public+Interest+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Representation%3A+The+Cherokee+Right+to+a+Congressional+Delegate&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=91&rft.pages=91-152&rft.date=2005-11-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D842647%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Rosser&rft.aufirst=Ezra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/blog/voting-rights/promoting-access-ballot/one-man-one-vote-nelson-mandela-voting-rights">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"One Man, One Vote": Nelson Mandela on Voting Rights"</a>. <i>American Civil Liberties Union</i>. 11 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Civil+Liberties+Union&rft.atitle=%22One+Man%2C+One+Vote%22%3A+Nelson+Mandela+on+Voting+Rights&rft.date=2013-12-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fblog%2Fvoting-rights%2Fpromoting-access-ballot%2Fone-man-one-vote-nelson-mandela-voting-rights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8009522.stm">"One man, one vote in Indian forest"</a>. 2009-04-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=One+man%2C+one+vote+in+Indian+forest&rft.date=2009-04-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fsouth_asia%2F8009522.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAhluwalia" class="citation news cs1">Ahluwalia, Sanjeev. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.orfonline.org/research/some-votes-more-equal-than-others-50010/">"Some votes are more equal than others"</a>. <i>ORF</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ORF&rft.atitle=Some+votes+are+more+equal+than+others&rft.aulast=Ahluwalia&rft.aufirst=Sanjeev&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.orfonline.org%2Fresearch%2Fsome-votes-more-equal-than-others-50010%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFW._Martin_James_III2011" class="citation book cs1">W. Martin James III (2011). <i>A Political History of the Civil War in Angola: 1974-1990</i>. Transaction Publishers. p. X. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412815062" title="Special:BookSources/9781412815062"><bdi>9781412815062</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+History+of+the+Civil+War+in+Angola%3A+1974-1990&rft.pages=X&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781412815062&rft.au=W.+Martin+James+III&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOne+man%2C+one+vote" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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</ol></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1694251547' |