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{{MI|
{{Copy edit|date=January 2023}}
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[[Muslim]] communities in [[South Asia]] apply a system of [[social stratification]].<ref>{{Cite news |author=Pratik Patnaik |title=Caste Among Indian Muslims Is a Real Issue. So Why Deny Them Reservation? |url=https://thewire.in/caste/caste-among-indian-muslims-real-why-deny-reservation |date=December 2, 2020 |newspaper=The Wire}}</ref> The stratification that operates among Muslims arises from concerns other than in the concepts of ''pure'' and ''impure'' that are integral to the Indian caste system.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=120-121}}<ref name="Webner">{{Cite book |title=The Migration Process: Capital, Gifts and Offerings among British Pakistanis |last1=Webner |first1=Pnina |date=2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |access-date=30 October 2016 |isbn=9781472518477 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1O2kBgAAQBAJ&q=caste+purity+among+Muslims&pg=PT84}}</ref> It developed as a result of relations between the foreign conquerors and [[upper caste]] [[Hindus]] who converted to Islam (''[[Ashraf#Usage in South Asia|Ashraf]]'') (also known as ''tabqa-i ashrafiyya''{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=4}}) and the local [[lower caste]] converts (''Ajlaf'') as well as the continuation of the [[Indian caste system]] among local converts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gautier |first1=Laurence |last2=Levesque |first2=Julien |date=July 2020 |title=Introduction: Historicizing Sayyid-ness: Social Status and Muslim Identity in South Asia |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |language=en |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=383–393 |doi=10.1017/S1356186320000139 |issn=1356-1863 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Non-Ashrafs are backward caste converts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ashraf: Islamic Caste Group |publisher=Britannica |year=2021 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ashraf-Islamic-caste-group}}</ref> The [[neologism]]{{clarify|date=February 2023|reason=A "neologism" is a "new term"; this seems to be a "novel CONCEPT", hard to see how this is relevant. Can "Pasmandas" be defined? The next sentence says what it includes, but not what is IS.}} ''"Pasmanda"'' includes ''Ajlaf'' and ''Arzal'' Muslims, and Ajlafs' statuses are defined by them being the descendants of converts to Islam and are also defined by their ''pesha'' (profession).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} These terms are not used in local, sociological vocabulary in places such as [[Kashmir]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]], and therefore tell us very little about the functioning of Muslim society.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
The [[Baradari (brotherhood)|Biradari]] System is how social stratification manifests itself in [[Pakistan]], and to an extent also [[India]].<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk">{{citation |author=Mughees Ahmed |year=2009 |title=Local-bodies or local "biradari" system: An analysis of the role of burglaries in the local bodies system of Punjab |journal=Pakistan Journal of History and Culture |volume=30 |number=1 |pages=81–92 |url=http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/Local-Bodies.pdf }}</ref> The South Asian Muslim caste system also includes hierarchical classifications of ''khandan'' (dynasty, family, or lineage descent) and nasal (a group based on blood ties and lineage).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
== Historical development ==
While [[Islam]] requires [[egalitarian]]ism and does not recognize any [[castes]], only [[socio-economic]] [[Social class|classes]],{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=27}} when it came to [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]] and India, the existing divisions in these regions were adopted among the local Muslim societies. Evidence of social stratification can be found in several later Persian works, such as {{transl|fa|[[Siyasatnama]]}} of [[Nizam al-Mulk]] (11th century), {{transl|fa|[[Akhlaq-i Nasiri]]}} of [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (13th century), and {{transl|fa|Jam-i-Mufidi}} (17th century).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=29}}
After [[Muhammad]] died in the 7th century, there was the war of succession which had tribes and families fighting each other.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} After this, a determinant for social stratification in Arab society included being part of the close family of Muhammad ({{transl|ar|[[Ahl al-bayt|ahl al-bayt]]|}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} This alleged {{transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}} determinant had its presence in ancient [[South Asia]] among Muslims since the 8th century.
Then this allegedly led to a further hierarchical determinant, which was Arabs versus non-Arabs.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Later on, among non-Arabs, further divisions took place between Muslims who were converted in early Islamization campaigns ({{transl|ar|khadim-al islam}}) and Muslims who converted more recently ({{transl|ar|jadid-al islam}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Today, [[South Asian]] Muslims are divided by the classifications above that have resulted in Arab-origin higher castes ({{transl|ur|unch zat}}) and those that are descendants of lower castes converts ({{transl|ur|nich zat}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} The Sultans during the [[Mughal Empire]] were all high caste.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
The Muslims who came to the subcontinent during the 12th century [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent]] were allegedly already divided into vocation-based social "classes", including priests, nobles, and others. Further, racial segregation demarcated the local Muslim converts from foreign-origin Muslims. The foreigners claimed a superior status as they were associated with the conquerors and categorized themselves as [[Ashraf]] ("noble").{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} Over time, the Indian Muslim society also allegedly split based on the existing [[Hindu caste system]].{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} According to [[M. N. Srinivas]] (1986) and R.K. Bhattacharya, Indian Hindu converts to Islam, brought their original caste system to the Muslim society in the region.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=116}} On the other hand, [[Louis Dumont]] (1957) believes that the Islamic conquerors consciously adopted the Hindu caste system "as a compromise which they had to make in a predominantly Hindu environment."{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=115-116}}
[[Ziauddin Barani]], an ethnic Indian 14th-century political thinker of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], recommended that the "sons of Mohamed" (i.e., Ashrafs) be given a higher social status than the low-born (i.e., Ajlaf). His most significant contribution to the [[fatwa]] was his analysis of the castes concerning Islam. He asserted that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over [[Sharia]] law whenever they were in conflict. According to Barani, every act "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominy, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]". Barani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of Imperial officers ("[[Vizier|Wazirs]]") that was primarily based on their caste.<ref>{{cite book |quote= Barani never called himself Turk for one intention that he wanted to be an Indian than anything else |title=Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatawa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXmCAAAAMAAJ&q=Barani+never+called+himself+Turk+for+one+intention+that+he+wanted+to+be+an+Indian+than+anything+else |page=144 |author= Arbind Das · |date=1996 |publisher=Pratibha Prakashan |isbn=9788185268453 }}</ref><ref name="Das">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, {{ISBN|81-85268-45-2}} pp. 124-143</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |title=Sacred Spaces: Exploring Traditions of Shared Faith in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBkwnoDPKgUC&pg=PA7 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-302931-1 |pages=7–}}</ref> His opinions were not followed by his own Sultanate, as he accuses the Tughlaq Sultans of appointing "low-born" people to high offices, including [[Muhammad bin Tughlaq|Sultan Muhammad Shah]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One |author= Satish Chandra |date=2004 |page=99 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=9788124110645 }}</ref> and Barani's own patron [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Sultan Firuz Shah]] in [[Delhi]], who appointed a former slave captured and converted from [[Telangana]] as his [[Grand Vizier]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&dq=firuz+shah+khan+jahan+convert&pg=RA1-PA4 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture|id=Three-volume set |editor1=Jonathan Bloom|editor2=Sheila Blair|editor3=Sheila S. Blair |date=2009 |page=4 |publisher=Oup USA |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 }}</ref>
Historically, many Muslims from the julaha or weaver caste began to identify as "Ansaris", the butchers as "Quereshis", and the sanitation and ''bhishti'' caste Muslims as "Sheikh".<ref name="Sanober"/>
The Muslim concept of ''kafa'a/kufu/kafa'ah'', which ulama use to support endogamy, justifies South Asian Muslim caste practices.{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=14}} [[Kafa'ah]] is hereditary.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
=== Ashrafization and Syedization ===
Ashrafization includes adopting upper-caste Muslim practices to achieve social climbing.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste among Urban Muslims in India |first=Syed |last= Ali |date=December 2002 |journal=Sociological Forum |volume=17 |number=4 |publisher=Springer |page=602 |jstor=3070361 |doi=10.1023/A:1021077323866|s2cid=146701489 }}</ref> The [[Sayyid Dynasty]] of [[Khizr Khan]] of the Delhi Sultanate was founded by a [[Punjabi Muslims|Punjabi Muslim]], who claimed Sayyid descent based on unsubstantiated evidence.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHbiAAAAMAAJ&q=and+rested+chiefly+on+its+causal+recognition+by+the+famous+saint+Sayyid+Jal%C3%A1l|title=The Cambridge History of India|date=1958|publisher=S. Chand|location=The claim of Khizr Khān , who founded the dynasty known as the Sayyids , to descent from the prophet of Arabia was dubious, and rested chiefly on its causal recognition by the famous saint Sayyid Jalāl - ud - dīn of Bukhārā .|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |author= Richard M. Eaton |year= 2019 | isbn=978-0520325128 |page=117|publisher= University of California Press |language=en|quote=The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...}}</ref>
The [[Sayyid Brothers|Barha Syeds]] who rose as [[Kingmaker|king-makers]] of the [[Mughal Empire]], originated from a marginal Indian peasant community of [[Muzaffarnagar]] who claimed Sayyid ancestry, although their claim to be true Syeds was generally not admitted. The Mughal Emperor [[Jahangir]] wrote that "some people make remarks about their lineage, but their bravery is a convincing proof of their being Sayyids". This showed that they had assimilated into Sayyid identity merely due to military service rather than through true descent.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SrdiVPsFRYIC&dq=barha+peasant+syeds&pg=PA18 |title=Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450-1850 |page=18 |author= Dirk H. A. Kolff |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521523059 }}</ref>
==== Caste Associations ====
Another type of Ashrafization is the establishment of caste associations to promote a community's interests and, especially, social support.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} These {{transliteration|fa|anjuman}} ('forum', 'society') is commonly termed {{transliteration|fa|jama'at}} ({{lang|fa|جماعت}}{{hairspace}}; 'congregation', 'group', 'community'), replacing in the associations' names the use of {{transliteration|ur|zat}}, which signifies 'birth or origin group'.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} The Khoja caste, who are Ismaili Shias found particularly in Karachi and Sindh, are prominent in this regard.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Other significant Muslim caste associations are those of the Memons and the Bohras in Sindh and Gujarat.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
=== History of research ===
There are various definitions of the term ''caste'', and therefore, diverse, contested opinions on whether this term can be used to denote [[social stratification]] among non-Hindu communities (e.g. [[Hindu]] [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna]] or [[classification]]s of the [[British Raj]]). Ghaus Ansari (1960) uses the term "caste" to describe the Muslim social groups with the following characteristics: [[endogamy]] within a given social group, hierarchical gradation of social groups, determination of the group membership by birth, and in some cases, an association of occupation with the social group.{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=22}}
Beginning in the [[19th century]], Western [[Indologist]]s first catalogued the various Muslim castes:{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=22}}
* [[Henry Miers Elliot]]'s ''Supplement to the glossary of Indian terms'' (1844), later amplified into ''Memoirs on the history, folk-lore, and distribution of the Races of the North Western Provinces of India''
* John Charles Williams's ''The Report on the Census of Oudh'' (1869)
* [[Denzil Ibbetson]]'s Census Report of Punjab (1883), later adapted into ''[[Panjab Castes]]''
* [[John Nesfield]]'s ''Brief View of the Caste System of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh'' (1885)
* [[Herbert Hope Risley]]'s ''Tribes and castes of Bengal'' (1893)
* [[William Crooke]]'s ''The tribes and castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh'' (1896)
Nelson's book, in particular, included a whole chapter dedicated to the primarily [[British Raj]] [[Indologist]] derived [[neologism]] of Muslim "castes". In 20th-century British India, several works included Muslim social groups in their descriptions of the Indian castes. These included [[H. A. Rose]]'s ''[[A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province]]'' (1911).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=2}}
In independent India, Ghaus Ansari (1960) initiated an academic discussion over the [[neologism]] of the Muslim "caste" system. Subsequently, Imtiaz Ahmed elaborated on the topic in his ''Caste and Social Stratification among the Muslims'' (1973).{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|p=115}}
About 1915, Mirza Muhammad Hassan Qatil wrote about the four {{lang|und|firqa}} (classes) of the Ashraf.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} He describes how people are considered to be {{lang|und|paji}} (contemptible) in the following occupations: elephant caretaking, bread business, perfume business, and businesses in bazaars.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
== Syedism, Ashrafism, Biradarism, Zatism, Sharifism, Arab Supremacy, and Divisions ==
Zat is sometimes considered a broader category than Biradari. In Pakistani Punjab, being relatives is the main criterion to comprise a Biradari. The highest to lowest ranking of Ashraf castes is the following: Syed, [[Garha|Gaur Muslims]], and Mughals.
{{see also|List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities in India}}
Ghaus Ansari (1960) named the following four broad categories of Muslim social divisions in India:
*''Ashrafs'', who claim foreign-origin descent.
**e.g. [[Sayyid]], [[Idrishi]], [[Mughal tribe|Mughal]]
*Converts from [[Forward caste|upper castes]] or [[Varna (Hinduism)|Swarna]]
**e.g. [[Garha|Gaur Muslims]], [[Muslim Rajputs|Rajput Muslims]] [[Muslim Jats]], [[Idrishi]], [[Cheema (surname)|Chimba]]
*Converts from other Indian [[Tribes]]
**e.g. [[Muslim Dhobi|Dhobi]], Mansoori, [[Muslim Gaddi|Gaddi]], [[Faqir (clan)|Faqir]], [[Hajjam]] (Nai), [[Julaha]], [[Kabaria]], [[Kumhar]], [[Kunjra]], [[Mirasi]], and [[Muslim Teli|Teli]]
*Converts from [[untouchability|untouchable]] castes
**e.g. [[Mochi (Muslim)|Muslim Mochi]], [[Bhangi]]
There is a hierarchy among Ashrafs that is determined by the degree of nearness to Muhammad and which country they originate from; accordingly, the Syeds (who trace descent from Fatima, Muhammad's daughter) have the highest status.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=887}}
The non-Ashrafs are categorized as ''Ajlaf''. The untouchable Hindu converts are also categorized as ''Arzal'' ("degraded").<ref name="Ambedkar">{{cite book |last=Ambedkar |first=Bhimrao |author-link=B.R. Ambedkar |title=Pakistan or the Partition of India |publisher= Thackers Publishers }}</ref><ref name="Ambedkaronline">[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html Web resource for ''Pakistan or the Partition of India'']</ref>{{better source needed|date=February 2023|reason=Need peer-reviewed content}} They are relegated to menial professions such as scavenging and carrying [[night soil]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/dereserve-these-myths/12109/ |title=Dereserve these myths - Indian Express |website=archive.indianexpress.com |language=en-gb |access-date=2017-09-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Falahi |first1=Masood |title=Caste and caste-based discrimination s Among Indian Muslims' |url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/5664/1/AHRC_16,_Caste_and_Caste_Based_Discriminations_Among_Indian_Muslims.pdf |website=SAS |access-date=5 January 2015}}</ref>
[[B.R. Ambedkar]], citing the Superintendent of the Census for 1901 for the Province of Bengal, mentions that the Ajlaf primarily include:
* Cultivating Sheikhs and others who were originally Hindus but who do not belong to any functional group and have not gained admittance to the Ashraf Community, e.g. Pirali and Thakrai.
* Darzi, Jolaha, Fakir, and Rangrez.
* Barhi, Bhalhiara, Chik, Churihar, Dai, Dhawa, Dhunia, Gaddi, Kalal, Kasai, Kula Kunjara, Laheri, Mahifarosh, Mallah, Naliya, Nikari.
* Abdal, Bako, Bediya, Bhal, Chamba, Dafali, Dhobi, Hajjam, Mucho, Nagarchi, Nal, Panwaria, Madaria, Tunlia.
For the Arzal, the following cases are mentioned by the Superintendent of the Census: Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html#part_2 |title=410}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=February 2023|reason=Need peer-reviewed content}}
In [[Pakistan]], various social groups (called {{transliteration|ur|quoms}}) display a social stratification comparable to the Indian caste system. The various {{transliteration|ur|quoms}} differ widely in power, privilege, and wealth. Both ethnic affiliation (e.g. [[Pashtuns|Pathan]], [[Sindhis|Sindhi]], [[Baloch people|Baloch]], [[Punjabis|Punjabi]], etc.) and membership of specific [[biraderi]]s or {{transliteration|ur|zaat/quoms}} are additional integral components of social identity.<ref name="barth">{{cite book |last=Barth |first=Fredrik |editor=E. R. Leach |title=The System Of Social Stratification In Swat, North Pakistan (Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan) |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=113 |year=1962 |access-date=2017-08-25 |archive-date=2012-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406091830/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Within the bounds of endogamy defined by the above parameters, close [[cousin marriage|consanguineous unions]] are preferred due to a unity of key features of group- and individual-level background factors as well as affinities. McKim Marriott adds that a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous, and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ecologic Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan |author=Fredrick Barth |journal=American Anthropologist |doi=10.1525/aa.1956.58.6.02a00080 |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=1079–1089 |date=December 1956 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Zeyauddin Ahmad|2011}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Caste ranking and community structure in five regions of India and Pakistan |author=McKim Marriott |year=1960 |publisher=Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute |oclc=186146571}}</ref> The numerically and socially influential tribes in Pakistani Punjab includes the agricultural tribes of [[Awan (tribe)|Awan]], [[Jat Muslim]] and [[Gujjar]] as well as Rajput.<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Punjab Province, Pakistan |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |id=483579 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Punjab-province-Pakistan |access-date=22 March 2022}}h</ref>
In [[Nepal]], the castes of Muslims rank differs according to the criteria applied.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities, Volume 1 |author=Nagendra Kr Singh, Abdul Mabud Khan |page=1124 |publisher=Global Vision Pub House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzfs_G7QHoAC&pg=PA1124 |isbn=9788187746072 |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Culture - Volume 52 |page=207 |author=Marmaduke William Pickthall, Muhammad Asad |year=1978}}</ref>
In India, the Ajlaf comprise Qureshis, Ansaris, Saifis, and other groups of lower occupation.
Most ulemas (theologians/doctors of the law) are part of the Syed, and many Ashrafs are businessmen, landowners, and traders.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
A "marriage circle" can be formed over an area, where a zat panchayat (caste council) can have the authority and where marriage alliances occur. {{citation needed|date=July 2022}}{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
A Syed's status is sometimes based more on male descendants and hypergamous marriage than bloodline purity.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
The early Turks had subdivisions.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}
In the ''Rasum-i Hind'', a textbook that was compiled by Master Pyare Lal in 1862, the four ''firqa'' (or subdivisions of the Ashraf) are explained, and ''nasl'' (lineage/pedigree) is elaborated:{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
* The ancestors of the Mughal caste are said to be descended from the Biblical Noah.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
* The ancestors of the Pathans are said to be Israelites from when Solomon was alive. {{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
In the ruling class of the Mughal Empire, Muslims were classified as native [[Hindustan]]i, Afghan, Turani, and Irani.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
=== Pakistani Punjab ===
==== Zamindars, Kammis, and the Seyp System ====
Zamindars, a landowning class, and Kammis, service-providing castes, are caste-based status groups and are found in a hierarchical system in Pakistani Punjabi villages.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=ii}} Kammi Quoms and Zamindar Quoms are rigid birth-based groups based on parentage occupations.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=ii}} In the Seyp System, contractual labour, the Kammis provide work and services and receive favours, food, money, crops, and grains.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} Zamindars are considered a dominant caste, and leaders in the village and people who dominate the town's affairs tend to be Zamindars.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} Social, political, and economic affairs of the city are dominated by Zamindar Quoms in Pakistan, and land is controlled by Zamindar Quoms,{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} while Kammi Quoms are socially marginalized and discriminated.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=8}} Inter-Quom endogamy is found between Kammi Quoms and Zamindar Quoms.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=4}} Ancestral land ownership and a parentage job being cultivation are what Punjabi Pakistanis ascribe to the Zamindar status.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=10}}
"Zamindars", in modern-day Pakistani Punjabi villages, typically refers to a Quom that owns the land and has an occupation of agriculture - Zamindari.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=6}} Some castes are higher than the service-providing castes and below the landowning castes.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=74}}
Caste endogamy is found in Pakistan, with members of a Quom tending to marry within the Quom.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=17}} In the rural parts of Pakistani Punjab, the lack of marriages between Kammi and Zamindar Quoms is vital to the caste system.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=17}} Kammis include artisan, labourer, and service providing Quoms (such as barbers, cobblers, and carpenters).{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}}
A Kammi woman remarked how:{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=136}}
{{blockquote|Even if a Kammi acquires 100 acres of land, he remains Kammi, and Zamindars will always consider him lower. A Zamindar who owns one acre of land would think, "If a Kammi has bought 2 acres, so what? After all, he remains a Kammi". They do not accept us as equals.}}
Quoms are highly influential in marriage practices.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}} However, different Zamindar Quoms sometimes intermarry, which may constitute a Biradari.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=139}} A large majority of Kammis perform daily wage labour or low-ranking tasks.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=140}}
A study in a Pakistani Punjabi village found that in the ''Seyp'' (contractual relationships) between a ''Zamindar'' (landholding) family and ''Kammi'' (artisan castes) families, Kammi families give goods and perform services to the Zamindars, which provide the Kammis with grain; the Kammi families also serve some customary and ritual tasks: for example, the barber cooks in the Zamindar's house on special events and performs circumcisions.{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=10}}
===== Elections =====
People also exhibit loyalty to their Quoms in elections.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}} In Pakistani Punjab, Biradaris are the sole criteria in local bodies' elections.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=160}} There are more Zamindars than Kammis in Pakistani Punjab.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=139}} Including because of the high financial costs of running in an election, Kammis do not generally run in elections.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=161}}
=== Bengal ===
Although class distinctions based on wealth and occupation exist, hereditary castes don't exist in mainstream Bangladeshis/Bengali Muslims, unlike Bangladeshi Hindus.<ref>[https://factsanddetails.com/south-asia/Bangladesh/Life_Bangladesh/entry-8182.html BANGLADESH SOCIETY: CLASSES, CASTES, NEIGHBORHOODS, MIDDLE CLASS AND BEGGARS]</ref> {{circular reference|date=May 2023|reason=the site uses Wikipedia as a source for its articles}}{{bsn|date=May 2023|reason=The site is maintained by someone who in their own words is "not a professor or an expert on the subjects I write about"}} There might be around 35 Muslim castes in West Bengal.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=8}} Muslim society might have been historically divided into three large groupings in Bengal, with the Sharif/Ashraf at the top, followed by the ''Atraf'' (low-born), and with the Arzal or Ajlaf at the bottom.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=8}}
Other Muslim castes historically did not associate with Arzal castes.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=10}} Lower castes historically are not allowed to enter mosques or be buried in the public burial ground.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=10}}
=== Sharifism ===
Sharifism refers to the special status given to claimants of prophetic ''nasab'' (also ''qarabah''), which means "closeness", or being descended from Muhammad, Muhammad's Quraysh tribe, or Muhammad's family.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings |publisher=Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. |year=2010 |page=30}}</ref>
== Discrimination ==
=== Representation ===
In 20th century India, the upper-class (''Ashraf'') Muslims dominated the government jobs and parliamentary representation. As a result, there have been campaigns to include lower social classes among the groups eligible for [[reservation in India|affirmative action in India]] under ''SC and STs provision act''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/01-15Sep04-Print-Edition/011509200449.htm |title=On reservation for Muslims |author=Asghar Ali Engineer |work=The Milli Gazette |publisher=Pharos |access-date=2004-09-01 }}</ref>
=== Burial ===
In India's [[Bihar]] state, [[Forward caste]] Muslims have opposed [[backward caste]] Muslims being buried in the same graveyard.<ref name="rediff_burial">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/06bihar.htm |title=Backward Muslims protest denial of burial |author=Anand Mohan Sahay |work=[[Rediff.com]] |access-date=2003-03-06 }}</ref><ref>Ahmad, I., 2010. "Can There Be a Category Called Dalit Muslims?". ''Studies in Inequality and Social Justice'', p.79</ref>
=== Cooking ===
A study in a Pakistani village found that a caste-like hierarchy exists in the Muslim community of the village. The sweeper group is ranked the lowest. The other Muslim communities do not allow the sweepers to touch the cooking vessels of the upper ranking groups of Muslims.<ref name="Donnan1988">{{cite book |author=Hastings Donnan |title=Marriage Among Muslims: Preference and Choice in Northern Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PL_ACoFwJ2gC&pg=PR9 |year=1988 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-08416-2 |pages=51–56}}</ref>
=== Racial and historical ===
Barani also explained at one point how Turkish sultans discriminated against Muslims of local descent.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} He explains how Iltutmish discriminated against low-birth Muslims by letting go of 33 of them from the government.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Additionally, Iltutmish appointed Jamal Marzuq to the post of Mutassarif of Kanauj; Aziz Bahruz disagreed due to low birth status, which resulted in Marzuq no longer being the Mutassarif.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Low-born people were not allowed to be in the mudabbiri or khwajgi post and could not be eligible for an iqta recommendation.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}
Balban prevented low-birth people from being in important offices, and he also criticized how Kamal Mohiyar was selected for mutassarif of Amroaha.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} A letter by Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains how Balban thoroughly researched the ancestry of every single one of his government servants and officers; he had genealogists met in Delhi to ascertain these ancestries.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}
Tughlaq had a policy of giving "preference to foreign-born Muslims in administration and government" and "systematically ignored the claims of Indian Muslims".{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains how:{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}
{{blockquote|The Sultan went to the extent of offering the most responsible and distinguished offices of the kingdom — for instance, those of a Wazir, a Dabir, a military commander, a judge, a professor of theology, or a Shaikhul-Islam — to almost any foreigner of some learning. Foreigners coming to India were collectively known as 'the Honourables' (A'izza)}}
Historians and Urdu writers (including Masood Alam Falahi) have explained how discrimination of Ashraf Muslims towards lower caste Muslims and Dalit Muslims was often disguised under claims of class and "{{transl|ur|khandaani}}" (family line) values among Uttar Pradesh Muslims.<ref name="Sanober">{{cite journal |title= The Identity of Language and the Language of Erasure: Urdu and the Racialized-Decastification of the "Backward Musalmaan" in India |first=Sanober |last=Umar |publisher=[[Brandeis University]] |journal=Caste: A Global Journal on Social Exclusion |date=14 February 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.26812/caste.v1i1.29 |page=187|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Islam}}
*[[Caste system among South Asian Christians]]
*[[Caste system in India]]
*[[Islam in India]]
*[[Pasmanda Muslim Mahaz]]
*[[Social class in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Social class in the United States]]
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|30em}}
=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |author=Imtiaz Ahmed |title=Ashraf and Ajlaf Categories in Indo-Muslim Society |date=May 13, 1967 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=2 |issue=19 |pages=887–891 |jstor=4357934}}
* {{cite book |last=Anis Ansari |first=Khalid |chapter=Pluralism and the Post-Minority Condition |editor1=Boaventura De Sousa Santos |editor2=Bruno Sena Martins |date=2021 |title=The Pluriverse of Human Rights: The Diversity of Struggles for Dignity: The Diversity of Struggles for Dignity |publisher=Routledge |pages=|isbn=978-1-00-039570-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m8cqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT86}}
* {{cite book |author=Ghaus Ansari |title=Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh: A Study of Culture Contact |publisher=Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society |year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0HRAAAAMAAJ |oclc=1104993 }}
* {{cite book |author=Fredrik Barth |author-link=Fredrik Barth |editor=Edmund Leach |title=Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan |publisher=CUP Archive |year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OlU7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA113 |isbn=9780521096645 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Berreman |first=Gerald D. |date=June 1972 |title=Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India |journal=American Anthropologist |volume =74 |issue=3 |pages=567–586 |issn=0002-7294 |doi =10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |first=Iftekhar Uddin |last=Chowdhury |title=Caste-based Discrimination in South Asia: A Study of Bangladesh |publisher=Indian Institute of Dalit Studies |journal=Working Paper Series |url=https://idsn.org/wp-content/uploads/user_folder/pdf/New_files/Bangladesh/Caste-based_Discrimination_in_Bangladesh__IIDS_working_paper_.pdf |volume=III |number=7 |date=November 7, 2009}}
* {{cite journal |author=Remy Delage |title=Muslim Castes in India |journal=Books & Ideas |date=29 September 2014 |publisher=College De France |url=https://booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html}}
* {{cite book |author=Azra Khanam |title=Muslim Backward Classes: A Sociological Perspective |publisher=SAGE |year=2013 |isbn=9788132116509 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sdz9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 }}
* {{cite web |author=Julien Levesque |title=Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan |year=2020 |publisher=HAL |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02697381}}
* {{cite web |author=David Lelyveld |title=Article on "Ashraf" in "Keywords in South Asian Studies" |editor=Rachel Dwyer |publisher=School of Oriental and African Studies |year=2005 |url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227045820/https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf |archive-date=December 27, 2020}}
* {{cite book |author=Robert W. Stern |title=Changing India: Bourgeois Revolution on the Subcontinent |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-00912-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kb_z1KghC1oC&pg=PA76}}
* {{cite thesis |author=Ahmed Usman |title=Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence |type=PhD |url=https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/21130/1/582096.pdf |publisher=The University of Leeds |year=2011}}
* {{cite book |title=Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings |publisher=Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. |year=2010}}
{{refend}}
==Notes==
:A.{{Note|NoteA||This source gets the quotation from the following source: E A Gait, 'Census of India' 1901: Bengal Report 6 (1), Bengal Secretariat Press. 1902, p 439; the description in 'Imperial Gazetteer of India', v. 2, pp 329}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |author=Imtiaz Ahmad |title=Caste and social stratification among Muslims in India |year=1978 |publisher=Manohar |location=New Delhi |oclc=5147249 }}
* {{cite book |author=Zeyauddin Ahmad |chapter=Caste Elements Among the Muslims of Bihar |editor=Kenneth David |date=2011 |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=337–356 |isbn=978-3-11-080775-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&pg=PA337}}
* {{cite book |last=Imam Ali |first=A.F. |title=Changing Social Stratification in Rural Bangladesh |date=September 1993 |publisher=South Asia Books |isbn=978-81-7169-267-5 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Syed Ali |date=December 2002 |title=Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste Among Urban Muslims in India |journal=Sociological Forum |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=593–620 |issn=0884-8971 |doi=10.1023/A:1021077323866 |s2cid=146701489 }}
* {{cite book |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |title= Islam, Caste and Muslim Relations in India |year=2004 |publisher= Global Media Publications |isbn=978-81-88869-06-0 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Ahmad |first=S. Shamim |author2=A. K. Chakravarti |date=January 1981 |title=Some regional characteristics of Muslim caste systems in India |journal=GeoJournal |volume =5 |issue=1 |pages=55–60 |issn=0343-2521 |doi=10.1007/BF00185243 |s2cid=153606947 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Berreman |first=Gerald D. |date=June 1972 |title=Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India |journal=American Anthropologist |volume =74 |issue=3 |pages=567–586 |issn=0002-7294 |doi =10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220 |doi-access=free }}
{{Segregation by type|state=collapsed}}
{{Discrimination}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Caste System Among South Asian Muslims}}
[[Category:Caste system in India|Muslims]]
[[Category:Islam in India]]
[[Category:Islam in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Islam in South Asia]]
[[Category:Islam in Nepal]]
[[Category:Social class in India]]
[[Category:Discrimination in India]]
[[Category:Discrimination in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Discrimination in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Discrimination in Nepal]]
[[Category:Discrimination in Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Caste-related violence in India]]
[[Category:Caste system in Nepal]]
[[Category:Caste]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | ''''INDIAN MUSLIMS WANT GLOBAL JUSTICE'''
'''INDIAN MUSLIMS ARE IN DANGEROUS SITUATION'''
{{short description|Mosque and former Hindu temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox religious building
| building_name = Gyanvapi Mosque
| image = Kashi-gyanvapi (1).jpg
| caption = The Gyanvapi Mosque
| map_type = India#India Uttar Pradesh
| map_size = 250px
| map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| map_relief = yes
| location = [[Varanasi]], [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|25.311229|83.010461 |region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| religious_affiliation = [[Islam]]
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| municipality =
| consecration_year =
| status = Functional
| functional_status =
| heritage_designation =
| leadership =
| architecture_style = [[Mughal architecture]] {{small|(part of Indo-Islamic architecture)}}
| capacity =
| length =
| width =
| width_nave =
| height_max =
| dome_quantity = 3
| dome_height_outer =
| dome_height_inner =
| dome_dia_outer =
| dome_dia_inner =
| minaret_quantity = 2
| minaret_height =
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}}
The '''Gyanvapi Mosque''' is located in [[Varanasi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]. It was constructed by [[Aurangzeb]] c. 1678, a decade after his demolition of an old [[Shiva]] temple.{{sfn|Asher|1992|p=278-279}}
== Historical development ==
While [[Islam]] requires [[egalitarian]]ism and does not recognize any [[castes]], only [[socio-economic]] [[Social class|classes]],{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=27}} when it came to [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]] and India, the existing divisions in these regions were adopted among the local Muslim societies. Evidence of social stratification can be found in several later Persian works, such as {{transl|fa|[[Siyasatnama]]}} of [[Nizam al-Mulk]] (11th century), {{transl|fa|[[Akhlaq-i Nasiri]]}} of [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (13th century), and {{transl|fa|Jam-i-Mufidi}} (17th century).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=29}}
After [[Muhammad]] died in the 7th century, there was the war of succession which had tribes and families fighting each other.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} After this, a determinant for social stratification in Arab society included being part of the close family of Muhammad ({{transl|ar|[[Ahl al-bayt|ahl al-bayt]]|}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} This alleged {{transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}} determinant had its presence in ancient [[South Asia]] among Muslims since the 8th century.
Then this allegedly led to a further hierarchical determinant, which was Arabs versus non-Arabs.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Later on, among non-Arabs, further divisions took place between Muslims who were converted in early Islamization campaigns ({{transl|ar|khadim-al islam}}) and Muslims who converted more recently ({{transl|ar|jadid-al islam}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Today, [[South Asian]] Muslims are divided by the classifications above that have resulted in Arab-origin higher castes ({{transl|ur|unch zat}}) and those that are descendants of lower castes converts ({{transl|ur|nich zat}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} The Sultans during the [[Mughal Empire]] were all high caste.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
The Muslims who came to the subcontinent during the 12th century [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent]] were allegedly already divided into vocation-based social "classes", including priests, nobles, and others. Further, racial segregation demarcated the local Muslim converts from foreign-origin Muslims. The foreigners claimed a superior status as they were associated with the conquerors and categorized themselves as [[Ashraf]] ("noble").{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} Over time, the Indian Muslim society also allegedly split based on the existing [[Hindu caste system]].{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} According to [[M. N. Srinivas]] (1986) and R.K. Bhattacharya, Indian Hindu converts to Islam, brought their original caste system to the Muslim society in the region.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=116}} On the other hand, [[Louis Dumont]] (1957) believes that the Islamic conquerors consciously adopted the Hindu caste system "as a compromise which they had to make in a predominantly Hindu environment."{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=115-116}}
[[Ziauddin Barani]], an ethnic Indian 14th-century political thinker of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], recommended that the "sons of Mohamed" (i.e., Ashrafs) be given a higher social status than the low-born (i.e., Ajlaf). His most significant contribution to the [[fatwa]] was his analysis of the castes concerning Islam. He asserted that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over [[Sharia]] law whenever they were in conflict. According to Barani, every act "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominy, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]". Barani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of Imperial officers ("[[Vizier|Wazirs]]") that was primarily based on their caste.<ref>{{cite book |quote= Barani never called himself Turk for one intention that he wanted to be an Indian than anything else |title=Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatawa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXmCAAAAMAAJ&q=Barani+never+called+himself+Turk+for+one+intention+that+he+wanted+to+be+an+Indian+than+anything+else |page=144 |author= Arbind Das · |date=1996 |publisher=Pratibha Prakashan |isbn=9788185268453 }}</ref><ref name="Das">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, {{ISBN|81-85268-45-2}} pp. 124-143</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |title=Sacred Spaces: Exploring Traditions of Shared Faith in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBkwnoDPKgUC&pg=PA7 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-302931-1 |pages=7–}}</ref> His opinions were not followed by his own Sultanate, as he accuses the Tughlaq Sultans of appointing "low-born" people to high offices, including [[Muhammad bin Tughlaq|Sultan Muhammad Shah]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One |author= Satish Chandra |date=2004 |page=99 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=9788124110645 }}</ref> and Barani's own patron [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Sultan Firuz Shah]] in [[Delhi]], who appointed a former slave captured and converted from [[Telangana]] as his [[Grand Vizier]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&dq=firuz+shah+khan+jahan+convert&pg=RA1-PA4 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture|id=Three-volume set |editor1=Jonathan Bloom|editor2=Sheila Blair|editor3=Sheila S. Blair |date=2009 |page=4 |publisher=Oup USA |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 }}</ref>
Historically, many Muslims from the julaha or weaver caste began to identify as "Ansaris", the butchers as "Quereshis", and the sanitation and ''bhishti'' caste Muslims as "Sheikh".<ref name="Sanober"/>
The Muslim concept of ''kafa'a/kufu/kafa'ah'', which ulama use to support endogamy, justifies South Asian Muslim caste practices.{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=14}} [[Kafa'ah]] is hereditary.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
=== Ashrafization and Syedization ===
Ashrafization includes adopting upper-caste Muslim practices to achieve social climbing.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste among Urban Muslims in India |first=Syed |last= Ali |date=December 2002 |journal=Sociological Forum |volume=17 |number=4 |publisher=Springer |page=602 |jstor=3070361 |doi=10.1023/A:1021077323866|s2cid=146701489 }}</ref> The [[Sayyid Dynasty]] of [[Khizr Khan]] of the Delhi Sultanate was founded by a [[Punjabi Muslims|Punjabi Muslim]], who claimed Sayyid descent based on unsubstantiated evidence.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHbiAAAAMAAJ&q=and+rested+chiefly+on+its+causal+recognition+by+the+famous+saint+Sayyid+Jal%C3%A1l|title=The Cambridge History of India|date=1958|publisher=S. Chand|location=The claim of Khizr Khān , who founded the dynasty known as the Sayyids , to descent from the prophet of Arabia was dubious, and rested chiefly on its causal recognition by the famous saint Sayyid Jalāl - ud - dīn of Bukhārā .|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |author= Richard M. Eaton |year= 2019 | isbn=978-0520325128 |page=117|publisher= University of California Press |language=en|quote=The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...}}</ref>
The [[Sayyid Brothers|Barha Syeds]] who rose as [[Kingmaker|king-makers]] of the [[Mughal Empire]], originated from a marginal Indian peasant community of [[Muzaffarnagar]] who claimed Sayyid ancestry, although their claim to be true Syeds was generally not admitted. The Mughal Emperor [[Jahangir]] wrote that "some people make remarks about their lineage, but their bravery is a convincing proof of their being Sayyids". This showed that they had assimilated into Sayyid identity merely due to military service rather than through true descent.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SrdiVPsFRYIC&dq=barha+peasant+syeds&pg=PA18 |title=Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450-1850 |page=18 |author= Dirk H. A. Kolff |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521523059 }}</ref>
==== Caste Associations ====
Another type of Ashrafization is the establishment of caste associations to promote a community's interests and, especially, social support.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} These {{transliteration|fa|anjuman}} ('forum', 'society') is commonly termed {{transliteration|fa|jama'at}} ({{lang|fa|جماعت}}{{hairspace}}; 'congregation', 'group', 'community'), replacing in the associations' names the use of {{transliteration|ur|zat}}, which signifies 'birth or origin group'.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} The Khoja caste, who are Ismaili Shias found particularly in Karachi and Sindh, are prominent in this regard.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Other significant Muslim caste associations are those of the Memons and the Bohras in Sindh and Gujarat.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
=== History of research ===
There are various definitions of the term ''caste'', and therefore, diverse, contested opinions on whether this term can be used to denote [[social stratification]] among non-Hindu communities (e.g. [[Hindu]] [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna]] or [[classification]]s of the [[British Raj]]). Ghaus Ansari (1960) uses the term "caste" to describe the Muslim social groups with the following characteristics: [[endogamy]] within a given social group, hierarchical gradation of social groups, determination of the group membership by birth, and in some cases, an association of occupation with the social group.{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=22}}
Beginning in the [[19th century]], Western [[Indologist]]s first catalogued the various Muslim castes:{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=22}}
* [[Henry Miers Elliot]]'s ''Supplement to the glossary of Indian terms'' (1844), later amplified into ''Memoirs on the history, folk-lore, and distribution of the Races of the North Western Provinces of India''
* John Charles Williams's ''The Report on the Census of Oudh'' (1869)
* [[Denzil Ibbetson]]'s Census Report of Punjab (1883), later adapted into ''[[Panjab Castes]]''
* [[John Nesfield]]'s ''Brief View of the Caste System of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh'' (1885)
* [[Herbert Hope Risley]]'s ''Tribes and castes of Bengal'' (1893)
* [[William Crooke]]'s ''The tribes and castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh'' (1896)
Nelson's book, in particular, included a whole chapter dedicated to the primarily [[British Raj]] [[Indologist]] derived [[neologism]] of Muslim "castes". In 20th-century British India, several works included Muslim social groups in their descriptions of the Indian castes. These included [[H. A. Rose]]'s ''[[A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province]]'' (1911).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=2}}
In independent India, Ghaus Ansari (1960) initiated an academic discussion over the [[neologism]] of the Muslim "caste" system. Subsequently, Imtiaz Ahmed elaborated on the topic in his ''Caste and Social Stratification among the Muslims'' (1973).{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|p=115}}
About 1915, Mirza Muhammad Hassan Qatil wrote about the four {{lang|und|firqa}} (classes) of the Ashraf.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} He describes how people are considered to be {{lang|und|paji}} (contemptible) in the following occupations: elephant caretaking, bread business, perfume business, and businesses in bazaars.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
== Syedism, Ashrafism, Biradarism, Zatism, Sharifism, Arab Supremacy, and Divisions ==
Zat is sometimes considered a broader category than Biradari. In Pakistani Punjab, being relatives is the main criterion to comprise a Biradari. The highest to lowest ranking of Ashraf castes is the following: Syed, [[Garha|Gaur Muslims]], and Mughals.
{{see also|List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities in India}}
Ghaus Ansari (1960) named the following four broad categories of Muslim social divisions in India:
*''Ashrafs'', who claim foreign-origin descent.
**e.g. [[Sayyid]], [[Idrishi]], [[Mughal tribe|Mughal]]
*Converts from [[Forward caste|upper castes]] or [[Varna (Hinduism)|Swarna]]
**e.g. [[Garha|Gaur Muslims]], [[Muslim Rajputs|Rajput Muslims]] [[Muslim Jats]], [[Idrishi]], [[Cheema (surname)|Chimba]]
*Converts from other Indian [[Tribes]]
**e.g. [[Muslim Dhobi|Dhobi]], Mansoori, [[Muslim Gaddi|Gaddi]], [[Faqir (clan)|Faqir]], [[Hajjam]] (Nai), [[Julaha]], [[Kabaria]], [[Kumhar]], [[Kunjra]], [[Mirasi]], and [[Muslim Teli|Teli]]
*Converts from [[untouchability|untouchable]] castes
**e.g. [[Mochi (Muslim)|Muslim Mochi]], [[Bhangi]]
There is a hierarchy among Ashrafs that is determined by the degree of nearness to Muhammad and which country they originate from; accordingly, the Syeds (who trace descent from Fatima, Muhammad's daughter) have the highest status.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=887}}
The non-Ashrafs are categorized as ''Ajlaf''. The untouchable Hindu converts are also categorized as ''Arzal'' ("degraded").<ref name="Ambedkar">{{cite book |last=Ambedkar |first=Bhimrao |author-link=B.R. Ambedkar |title=Pakistan or the Partition of India |publisher= Thackers Publishers }}</ref><ref name="Ambedkaronline">[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html Web resource for ''Pakistan or the Partition of India'']</ref>{{better source needed|date=February 2023|reason=Need peer-reviewed content}} They are relegated to menial professions such as scavenging and carrying [[night soil]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/dereserve-these-myths/12109/ |title=Dereserve these myths - Indian Express |website=archive.indianexpress.com |language=en-gb |access-date=2017-09-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Falahi |first1=Masood |title=Caste and caste-based discrimination s Among Indian Muslims' |url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/5664/1/AHRC_16,_Caste_and_Caste_Based_Discriminations_Among_Indian_Muslims.pdf |website=SAS |access-date=5 January 2015}}</ref>
[[B.R. Ambedkar]], citing the Superintendent of the Census for 1901 for the Province of Bengal, mentions that the Ajlaf primarily include:
* Cultivating Sheikhs and others who were originally Hindus but who do not belong to any functional group and have not gained admittance to the Ashraf Community, e.g. Pirali and Thakrai.
* Darzi, Jolaha, Fakir, and Rangrez.
* Barhi, Bhalhiara, Chik, Churihar, Dai, Dhawa, Dhunia, Gaddi, Kalal, Kasai, Kula Kunjara, Laheri, Mahifarosh, Mallah, Naliya, Nikari.
* Abdal, Bako, Bediya, Bhal, Chamba, Dafali, Dhobi, Hajjam, Mucho, Nagarchi, Nal, Panwaria, Madaria, Tunlia.
For the Arzal, the following cases are mentioned by the Superintendent of the Census: Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html#part_2 |title=410}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=February 2023|reason=Need peer-reviewed content}}
In [[Pakistan]], various social groups (called {{transliteration|ur|quoms}}) display a social stratification comparable to the Indian caste system. The various {{transliteration|ur|quoms}} differ widely in power, privilege, and wealth. Both ethnic affiliation (e.g. [[Pashtuns|Pathan]], [[Sindhis|Sindhi]], [[Baloch people|Baloch]], [[Punjabis|Punjabi]], etc.) and membership of specific [[biraderi]]s or {{transliteration|ur|zaat/quoms}} are additional integral components of social identity.<ref name="barth">{{cite book |last=Barth |first=Fredrik |editor=E. R. Leach |title=The System Of Social Stratification In Swat, North Pakistan (Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan) |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=113 |year=1962 |access-date=2017-08-25 |archive-date=2012-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406091830/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Within the bounds of endogamy defined by the above parameters, close [[cousin marriage|consanguineous unions]] are preferred due to a unity of key features of group- and individual-level background factors as well as affinities. McKim Marriott adds that a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous, and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ecologic Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan |author=Fredrick Barth |journal=American Anthropologist |doi=10.1525/aa.1956.58.6.02a00080 |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=1079–1089 |date=December 1956 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Zeyauddin Ahmad|2011}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Caste ranking and community structure in five regions of India and Pakistan |author=McKim Marriott |year=1960 |publisher=Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute |oclc=186146571}}</ref> The numerically and socially influential tribes in Pakistani Punjab includes the agricultural tribes of [[Awan (tribe)|Awan]], [[Jat Muslim]] and [[Gujjar]] as well as Rajput.<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Punjab Province, Pakistan |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |id=483579 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Punjab-province-Pakistan |access-date=22 March 2022}}h</ref>
In [[Nepal]], the castes of Muslims rank differs according to the criteria applied.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities, Volume 1 |author=Nagendra Kr Singh, Abdul Mabud Khan |page=1124 |publisher=Global Vision Pub House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzfs_G7QHoAC&pg=PA1124 |isbn=9788187746072 |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Culture - Volume 52 |page=207 |author=Marmaduke William Pickthall, Muhammad Asad |year=1978}}</ref>
In India, the Ajlaf comprise Qureshis, Ansaris, Saifis, and other groups of lower occupation.
Most ulemas (theologians/doctors of the law) are part of the Syed, and many Ashrafs are businessmen, landowners, and traders.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
A "marriage circle" can be formed over an area, where a zat panchayat (caste council) can have the authority and where marriage alliances occur. {{citation needed|date=July 2022}}{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
A Syed's status is sometimes based more on male descendants and hypergamous marriage than bloodline purity.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
The early Turks had subdivisions.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}
In the ''Rasum-i Hind'', a textbook that was compiled by Master Pyare Lal in 1862, the four ''firqa'' (or subdivisions of the Ashraf) are explained, and ''nasl'' (lineage/pedigree) is elaborated:{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
* The ancestors of the Mughal caste are said to be descended from the Biblical Noah.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
* The ancestors of the Pathans are said to be Israelites from when Solomon was alive. {{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
In the ruling class of the Mughal Empire, Muslims were classified as native [[Hindustan]]i, Afghan, Turani, and Irani.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
=== Pakistani Punjab ===
==== Zamindars, Kammis, and the Seyp System ====
Zamindars, a landowning class, and Kammis, service-providing castes, are caste-based status groups and are found in a hierarchical system in Pakistani Punjabi villages.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=ii}} Kammi Quoms and Zamindar Quoms are rigid birth-based groups based on parentage occupations.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=ii}} In the Seyp System, contractual labour, the Kammis provide work and services and receive favours, food, money, crops, and grains.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} Zamindars are considered a dominant caste, and leaders in the village and people who dominate the town's affairs tend to be Zamindars.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} Social, political, and economic affairs of the city are dominated by Zamindar Quoms in Pakistan, and land is controlled by Zamindar Quoms,{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} while Kammi Quoms are socially marginalized and discriminated.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=8}} Inter-Quom endogamy is found between Kammi Quoms and Zamindar Quoms.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=4}} Ancestral land ownership and a parentage job being cultivation are what Punjabi Pakistanis ascribe to the Zamindar status.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=10}}
"Zamindars", in modern-day Pakistani Punjabi villages, typically refers to a Quom that owns the land and has an occupation of agriculture - Zamindari.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=6}} Some castes are higher than the service-providing castes and below the landowning castes.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=74}}
Caste endogamy is found in Pakistan, with members of a Quom tending to marry within the Quom.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=17}} In the rural parts of Pakistani Punjab, the lack of marriages between Kammi and Zamindar Quoms is vital to the caste system.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=17}} Kammis include artisan, labourer, and service providing Quoms (such as barbers, cobblers, and carpenters).{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}}
A Kammi woman remarked how:{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=136}}
{{blockquote|Even if a Kammi acquires 100 acres of land, he remains Kammi, and Zamindars will always consider him lower. A Zamindar who owns one acre of land would think, "If a Kammi has bought 2 acres, so what? After all, he remains a Kammi". They do not accept us as equals.}}
Quoms are highly influential in marriage practices.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}} However, different Zamindar Quoms sometimes intermarry, which may constitute a Biradari.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=139}} A large majority of Kammis perform daily wage labour or low-ranking tasks.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=140}}
A study in a Pakistani Punjabi village found that in the ''Seyp'' (contractual relationships) between a ''Zamindar'' (landholding) family and ''Kammi'' (artisan castes) families, Kammi families give goods and perform services to the Zamindars, which provide the Kammis with grain; the Kammi families also serve some customary and ritual tasks: for example, the barber cooks in the Zamindar's house on special events and performs circumcisions.{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=10}}
===== Elections =====
People also exhibit loyalty to their Quoms in elections.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}} In Pakistani Punjab, Biradaris are the sole criteria in local bodies' elections.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=160}} There are more Zamindars than Kammis in Pakistani Punjab.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=139}} Including because of the high financial costs of running in an election, Kammis do not generally run in elections.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=161}}
=== Bengal ===
Although class distinctions based on wealth and occupation exist, hereditary castes don't exist in mainstream Bangladeshis/Bengali Muslims, unlike Bangladeshi Hindus.<ref>[https://factsanddetails.com/south-asia/Bangladesh/Life_Bangladesh/entry-8182.html BANGLADESH SOCIETY: CLASSES, CASTES, NEIGHBORHOODS, MIDDLE CLASS AND BEGGARS]</ref> {{circular reference|date=May 2023|reason=the site uses Wikipedia as a source for its articles}}{{bsn|date=May 2023|reason=The site is maintained by someone who in their own words is "not a professor or an expert on the subjects I write about"}} There might be around 35 Muslim castes in West Bengal.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=8}} Muslim society might have been historically divided into three large groupings in Bengal, with the Sharif/Ashraf at the top, followed by the ''Atraf'' (low-born), and with the Arzal or Ajlaf at the bottom.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=8}}
Other Muslim castes historically did not associate with Arzal castes.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=10}} Lower castes historically are not allowed to enter mosques or be buried in the public burial ground.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=10}}
=== Sharifism ===
Sharifism refers to the special status given to claimants of prophetic ''nasab'' (also ''qarabah''), which means "closeness", or being descended from Muhammad, Muhammad's Quraysh tribe, or Muhammad's family.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings |publisher=Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. |year=2010 |page=30}}</ref>
== Discrimination ==
=== Representation ===
In 20th century India, the upper-class (''Ashraf'') Muslims dominated the government jobs and parliamentary representation. As a result, there have been campaigns to include lower social classes among the groups eligible for [[reservation in India|affirmative action in India]] under ''SC and STs provision act''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/01-15Sep04-Print-Edition/011509200449.htm |title=On reservation for Muslims |author=Asghar Ali Engineer |work=The Milli Gazette |publisher=Pharos |access-date=2004-09-01 }}</ref>
=== Burial ===
In India's [[Bihar]] state, [[Forward caste]] Muslims have opposed [[backward caste]] Muslims being buried in the same graveyard.<ref name="rediff_burial">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/06bihar.htm |title=Backward Muslims protest denial of burial |author=Anand Mohan Sahay |work=[[Rediff.com]] |access-date=2003-03-06 }}</ref><ref>Ahmad, I., 2010. "Can There Be a Category Called Dalit Muslims?". ''Studies in Inequality and Social Justice'', p.79</ref>
=== Cooking ===
A study in a Pakistani village found that a caste-like hierarchy exists in the Muslim community of the village. The sweeper group is ranked the lowest. The other Muslim communities do not allow the sweepers to touch the cooking vessels of the upper ranking groups of Muslims.<ref name="Donnan1988">{{cite book |author=Hastings Donnan |title=Marriage Among Muslims: Preference and Choice in Northern Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PL_ACoFwJ2gC&pg=PR9 |year=1988 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-08416-2 |pages=51–56}}</ref>
=== Racial and historical ===
Barani also explained at one point how Turkish sultans discriminated against Muslims of local descent.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} He explains how Iltutmish discriminated against low-birth Muslims by letting go of 33 of them from the government.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Additionally, Iltutmish appointed Jamal Marzuq to the post of Mutassarif of Kanauj; Aziz Bahruz disagreed due to low birth status, which resulted in Marzuq no longer being the Mutassarif.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Low-born people were not allowed to be in the mudabbiri or khwajgi post and could not be eligible for an iqta recommendation.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}
Balban prevented low-birth people from being in important offices, and he also criticized how Kamal Mohiyar was selected for mutassarif of Amroaha.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} A letter by Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains how Balban thoroughly researched the ancestry of every single one of his government servants and officers; he had genealogists met in Delhi to ascertain these ancestries.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}
Tughlaq had a policy of giving "preference to foreign-born Muslims in administration and government" and "systematically ignored the claims of Indian Muslims".{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains how:{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}
{{blockquote|The Sultan went to the extent of offering the most responsible and distinguished offices of the kingdom — for instance, those of a Wazir, a Dabir, a military commander, a judge, a professor of theology, or a Shaikhul-Islam — to almost any foreigner of some learning. Foreigners coming to India were collectively known as 'the Honourables' (A'izza)}}
Historians and Urdu writers (including Masood Alam Falahi) have explained how discrimination of Ashraf Muslims towards lower caste Muslims and Dalit Muslims was often disguised under claims of class and "{{transl|ur|khandaani}}" (family line) values among Uttar Pradesh Muslims.<ref name="Sanober">{{cite journal |title= The Identity of Language and the Language of Erasure: Urdu and the Racialized-Decastification of the "Backward Musalmaan" in India |first=Sanober |last=Umar |publisher=[[Brandeis University]] |journal=Caste: A Global Journal on Social Exclusion |date=14 February 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.26812/caste.v1i1.29 |page=187|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Islam}}
*[[Caste system among South Asian Christians]]
*[[Caste system in India]]
*[[Islam in India]]
*[[Pasmanda Muslim Mahaz]]
*[[Social class in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Social class in the United States]]
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|30em}}
=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |author=Imtiaz Ahmed |title=Ashraf and Ajlaf Categories in Indo-Muslim Society |date=May 13, 1967 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=2 |issue=19 |pages=887–891 |jstor=4357934}}
* {{cite book |last=Anis Ansari |first=Khalid |chapter=Pluralism and the Post-Minority Condition |editor1=Boaventura De Sousa Santos |editor2=Bruno Sena Martins |date=2021 |title=The Pluriverse of Human Rights: The Diversity of Struggles for Dignity: The Diversity of Struggles for Dignity |publisher=Routledge |pages=|isbn=978-1-00-039570-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m8cqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT86}}
* {{cite book |author=Ghaus Ansari |title=Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh: A Study of Culture Contact |publisher=Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society |year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0HRAAAAMAAJ |oclc=1104993 }}
* {{cite book |author=Fredrik Barth |author-link=Fredrik Barth |editor=Edmund Leach |title=Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan |publisher=CUP Archive |year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OlU7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA113 |isbn=9780521096645 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Berreman |first=Gerald D. |date=June 1972 |title=Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India |journal=American Anthropologist |volume =74 |issue=3 |pages=567–586 |issn=0002-7294 |doi =10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |first=Iftekhar Uddin |last=Chowdhury |title=Caste-based Discrimination in South Asia: A Study of Bangladesh |publisher=Indian Institute of Dalit Studies |journal=Working Paper Series |url=https://idsn.org/wp-content/uploads/user_folder/pdf/New_files/Bangladesh/Caste-based_Discrimination_in_Bangladesh__IIDS_working_paper_.pdf |volume=III |number=7 |date=November 7, 2009}}
* {{cite journal |author=Remy Delage |title=Muslim Castes in India |journal=Books & Ideas |date=29 September 2014 |publisher=College De France |url=https://booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html}}
* {{cite book |author=Azra Khanam |title=Muslim Backward Classes: A Sociological Perspective |publisher=SAGE |year=2013 |isbn=9788132116509 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sdz9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 }}
* {{cite web |author=Julien Levesque |title=Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan |year=2020 |publisher=HAL |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02697381}}
* {{cite web |author=David Lelyveld |title=Article on "Ashraf" in "Keywords in South Asian Studies" |editor=Rachel Dwyer |publisher=School of Oriental and African Studies |year=2005 |url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227045820/https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf |archive-date=December 27, 2020}}
* {{cite book |author=Robert W. Stern |title=Changing India: Bourgeois Revolution on the Subcontinent |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-00912-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kb_z1KghC1oC&pg=PA76}}
* {{cite thesis |author=Ahmed Usman |title=Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence |type=PhD |url=https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/21130/1/582096.pdf |publisher=The University of Leeds |year=2011}}
* {{cite book |title=Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings |publisher=Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. |year=2010}}
{{refend}}
==Notes==
:A.{{Note|NoteA||This source gets the quotation from the following source: E A Gait, 'Census of India' 1901: Bengal Report 6 (1), Bengal Secretariat Press. 1902, p 439; the description in 'Imperial Gazetteer of India', v. 2, pp 329}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |author=Imtiaz Ahmad |title=Caste and social stratification among Muslims in India |year=1978 |publisher=Manohar |location=New Delhi |oclc=5147249 }}
* {{cite book |author=Zeyauddin Ahmad |chapter=Caste Elements Among the Muslims of Bihar |editor=Kenneth David |date=2011 |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=337–356 |isbn=978-3-11-080775-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&pg=PA337}}
* {{cite book |last=Imam Ali |first=A.F. |title=Changing Social Stratification in Rural Bangladesh |date=September 1993 |publisher=South Asia Books |isbn=978-81-7169-267-5 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Syed Ali |date=December 2002 |title=Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste Among Urban Muslims in India |journal=Sociological Forum |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=593–620 |issn=0884-8971 |doi=10.1023/A:1021077323866 |s2cid=146701489 }}
* {{cite book |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |title= Islam, Caste and Muslim Relations in India |year=2004 |publisher= Global Media Publications |isbn=978-81-88869-06-0 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Ahmad |first=S. Shamim |author2=A. K. Chakravarti |date=January 1981 |title=Some regional characteristics of Muslim caste systems in India |journal=GeoJournal |volume =5 |issue=1 |pages=55–60 |issn=0343-2521 |doi=10.1007/BF00185243 |s2cid=153606947 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Berreman |first=Gerald D. |date=June 1972 |title=Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India |journal=American Anthropologist |volume =74 |issue=3 |pages=567–586 |issn=0002-7294 |doi =10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220 |doi-access=free }}
{{Segregation by type|state=collapsed}}
{{Discrimination}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Caste System Among South Asian Muslims}}
[[Category:Caste system in India|Muslims]]
[[Category:Islam in India]]
[[Category:Islam in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Islam in South Asia]]
[[Category:Islam in Nepal]]
[[Category:Social class in India]]
[[Category:Discrimination in India]]
[[Category:Discrimination in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Discrimination in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Discrimination in Nepal]]
[[Category:Discrimination in Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Caste-related violence in India]]
[[Category:Caste system in Nepal]]
[[Category:Caste]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,10 +1,43 @@
-{{Short description|Social system in South Asia}}
-{{MI|
-{{Copy edit|date=January 2023}}
-{{Cleanup lang|article|date=February 2023}} }}
-
-[[Muslim]] communities in [[South Asia]] apply a system of [[social stratification]].<ref>{{Cite news |author=Pratik Patnaik |title=Caste Among Indian Muslims Is a Real Issue. So Why Deny Them Reservation? |url=https://thewire.in/caste/caste-among-indian-muslims-real-why-deny-reservation |date=December 2, 2020 |newspaper=The Wire}}</ref> The stratification that operates among Muslims arises from concerns other than in the concepts of ''pure'' and ''impure'' that are integral to the Indian caste system.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=120-121}}<ref name="Webner">{{Cite book |title=The Migration Process: Capital, Gifts and Offerings among British Pakistanis |last1=Webner |first1=Pnina |date=2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |access-date=30 October 2016 |isbn=9781472518477 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1O2kBgAAQBAJ&q=caste+purity+among+Muslims&pg=PT84}}</ref> It developed as a result of relations between the foreign conquerors and [[upper caste]] [[Hindus]] who converted to Islam (''[[Ashraf#Usage in South Asia|Ashraf]]'') (also known as ''tabqa-i ashrafiyya''{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=4}}) and the local [[lower caste]] converts (''Ajlaf'') as well as the continuation of the [[Indian caste system]] among local converts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gautier |first1=Laurence |last2=Levesque |first2=Julien |date=July 2020 |title=Introduction: Historicizing Sayyid-ness: Social Status and Muslim Identity in South Asia |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |language=en |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=383–393 |doi=10.1017/S1356186320000139 |issn=1356-1863 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Non-Ashrafs are backward caste converts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ashraf: Islamic Caste Group |publisher=Britannica |year=2021 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ashraf-Islamic-caste-group}}</ref> The [[neologism]]{{clarify|date=February 2023|reason=A "neologism" is a "new term"; this seems to be a "novel CONCEPT", hard to see how this is relevant. Can "Pasmandas" be defined? The next sentence says what it includes, but not what is IS.}} ''"Pasmanda"'' includes ''Ajlaf'' and ''Arzal'' Muslims, and Ajlafs' statuses are defined by them being the descendants of converts to Islam and are also defined by their ''pesha'' (profession).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} These terms are not used in local, sociological vocabulary in places such as [[Kashmir]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]], and therefore tell us very little about the functioning of Muslim society.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
-
-The [[Baradari (brotherhood)|Biradari]] System is how social stratification manifests itself in [[Pakistan]], and to an extent also [[India]].<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk">{{citation |author=Mughees Ahmed |year=2009 |title=Local-bodies or local "biradari" system: An analysis of the role of burglaries in the local bodies system of Punjab |journal=Pakistan Journal of History and Culture |volume=30 |number=1 |pages=81–92 |url=http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/Local-Bodies.pdf }}</ref> The South Asian Muslim caste system also includes hierarchical classifications of ''khandan'' (dynasty, family, or lineage descent) and nasal (a group based on blood ties and lineage).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
+'''INDIAN MUSLIMS WANT GLOBAL JUSTICE'''
+
+'''INDIAN MUSLIMS ARE IN DANGEROUS SITUATION'''
+
+{{short description|Mosque and former Hindu temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India}}
+{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
+{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
+{{Infobox religious building
+| building_name = Gyanvapi Mosque
+| image = Kashi-gyanvapi (1).jpg
+| caption = The Gyanvapi Mosque
+| map_type = India#India Uttar Pradesh
+| map_size = 250px
+| map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
+| map_relief = yes
+| location = [[Varanasi]], [[India]]
+| coordinates = {{coord|25.311229|83.010461 |region:IN|display=inline,title}}
+| religious_affiliation = [[Islam]]
+| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
+| municipality =
+| consecration_year =
+| status = Functional
+| functional_status =
+| heritage_designation =
+| leadership =
+| architecture_style = [[Mughal architecture]] {{small|(part of Indo-Islamic architecture)}}
+| capacity =
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+The '''Gyanvapi Mosque''' is located in [[Varanasi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]. It was constructed by [[Aurangzeb]] c. 1678, a decade after his demolition of an old [[Shiva]] temple.{{sfn|Asher|1992|p=278-279}}
== Historical development ==
' |
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40 => 'The '''Gyanvapi Mosque''' is located in [[Varanasi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]. It was constructed by [[Aurangzeb]] c. 1678, a decade after his demolition of an old [[Shiva]] temple.{{sfn|Asher|1992|p=278-279}}'
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Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '{{Short description|Social system in South Asia}}',
1 => '{{MI|',
2 => '{{Copy edit|date=January 2023}}',
3 => '{{Cleanup lang|article|date=February 2023}} }}',
4 => '',
5 => '[[Muslim]] communities in [[South Asia]] apply a system of [[social stratification]].<ref>{{Cite news |author=Pratik Patnaik |title=Caste Among Indian Muslims Is a Real Issue. So Why Deny Them Reservation? |url=https://thewire.in/caste/caste-among-indian-muslims-real-why-deny-reservation |date=December 2, 2020 |newspaper=The Wire}}</ref> The stratification that operates among Muslims arises from concerns other than in the concepts of ''pure'' and ''impure'' that are integral to the Indian caste system.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=120-121}}<ref name="Webner">{{Cite book |title=The Migration Process: Capital, Gifts and Offerings among British Pakistanis |last1=Webner |first1=Pnina |date=2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |access-date=30 October 2016 |isbn=9781472518477 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1O2kBgAAQBAJ&q=caste+purity+among+Muslims&pg=PT84}}</ref> It developed as a result of relations between the foreign conquerors and [[upper caste]] [[Hindus]] who converted to Islam (''[[Ashraf#Usage in South Asia|Ashraf]]'') (also known as ''tabqa-i ashrafiyya''{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=4}}) and the local [[lower caste]] converts (''Ajlaf'') as well as the continuation of the [[Indian caste system]] among local converts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gautier |first1=Laurence |last2=Levesque |first2=Julien |date=July 2020 |title=Introduction: Historicizing Sayyid-ness: Social Status and Muslim Identity in South Asia |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |language=en |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=383–393 |doi=10.1017/S1356186320000139 |issn=1356-1863 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Non-Ashrafs are backward caste converts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ashraf: Islamic Caste Group |publisher=Britannica |year=2021 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ashraf-Islamic-caste-group}}</ref> The [[neologism]]{{clarify|date=February 2023|reason=A "neologism" is a "new term"; this seems to be a "novel CONCEPT", hard to see how this is relevant. Can "Pasmandas" be defined? The next sentence says what it includes, but not what is IS.}} ''"Pasmanda"'' includes ''Ajlaf'' and ''Arzal'' Muslims, and Ajlafs' statuses are defined by them being the descendants of converts to Islam and are also defined by their ''pesha'' (profession).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} These terms are not used in local, sociological vocabulary in places such as [[Kashmir]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]], and therefore tell us very little about the functioning of Muslim society.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}',
6 => '',
7 => 'The [[Baradari (brotherhood)|Biradari]] System is how social stratification manifests itself in [[Pakistan]], and to an extent also [[India]].<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk">{{citation |author=Mughees Ahmed |year=2009 |title=Local-bodies or local "biradari" system: An analysis of the role of burglaries in the local bodies system of Punjab |journal=Pakistan Journal of History and Culture |volume=30 |number=1 |pages=81–92 |url=http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/Local-Bodies.pdf }}</ref> The South Asian Muslim caste system also includes hierarchical classifications of ''khandan'' (dynasty, family, or lineage descent) and nasal (a group based on blood ties and lineage).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p><b>INDIAN MUSLIMS WANT GLOBAL JUSTICE</b>
</p><p><b>INDIAN MUSLIMS ARE IN DANGEROUS SITUATION</b>
</p>
<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Mosque and former Hindu temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066479718">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}</style><table class="infobox vcard" style="border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #9BE89B">Gyanvapi Mosque</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kashi-gyanvapi_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kashi-gyanvapi_%281%29.jpg/220px-Kashi-gyanvapi_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kashi-gyanvapi_%281%29.jpg/330px-Kashi-gyanvapi_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Kashi-gyanvapi_%281%29.jpg/440px-Kashi-gyanvapi_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="721" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The Gyanvapi Mosque</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #9BE89B">Religion</th></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Affiliation</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity" title="Ecclesiastical polity">Ecclesiastical or organizational status</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Functional</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #9BE89B">Location</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Varanasi" title="Varanasi">Varanasi</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">State</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="switcher-container"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r997900035">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:India_relief_location_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Caste system among South Asian Muslims is located in India"><img alt="Caste system among South Asian Muslims is located in India" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/India_relief_location_map.jpg/250px-India_relief_location_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/India_relief_location_map.jpg/375px-India_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/India_relief_location_map.jpg/500px-India_relief_location_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1615" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:37.504%;left:50.033%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Caste system among South Asian Muslims"><img alt="Caste system among South Asian Muslims" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Location in Uttar Pradesh, India</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of India</span></div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r997900035"><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:India_Uttar_Pradesh_relief_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Caste system among South Asian Muslims is located in Uttar Pradesh"><img alt="Caste system among South Asian Muslims is located in Uttar Pradesh" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/India_Uttar_Pradesh_relief_map.svg/250px-India_Uttar_Pradesh_relief_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/India_Uttar_Pradesh_relief_map.svg/375px-India_Uttar_Pradesh_relief_map.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/India_Uttar_Pradesh_relief_map.svg/500px-India_Uttar_Pradesh_relief_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1006" data-file-height="981" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:77.444%;left:78.058%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Caste system among South Asian Muslims"><img alt="Caste system among South Asian Muslims" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Caste system among South Asian Muslims (Uttar Pradesh)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Uttar Pradesh</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Geographic coordinates</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion load-gadget" data-gadget="WikiMiniAtlas"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Caste_system_among_South_Asian_Muslims&params=25.311229_N_83.010461_E_region:IN_type:landmark"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">25°18′40″N</span> <span class="longitude">83°00′38″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">25.311229°N 83.010461°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">25.311229; 83.010461</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #9BE89B">Architecture</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Architectural_style" title="Architectural style">Style</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal architecture</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(part of Indo-Islamic architecture)</span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #9BE89B">Specifications</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">Dome</a>(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minaret" title="Minaret">Minaret</a>(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">2</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <b>Gyanvapi Mosque</b> is located in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Varanasi" title="Varanasi">Varanasi</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. It was constructed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> c. 1678, a decade after his demolition of an old <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> temple.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsher1992278-279_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsher1992278-279-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Historical_development"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Historical development</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Ashrafization_and_Syedization"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ashrafization and Syedization</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3"><a href="#Caste_Associations"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Caste Associations</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#History_of_research"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">History of research</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Syedism,_Ashrafism,_Biradarism,_Zatism,_Sharifism,_Arab_Supremacy,_and_Divisions"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Syedism, Ashrafism, Biradarism, Zatism, Sharifism, Arab Supremacy, and Divisions</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Pakistani_Punjab"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pakistani Punjab</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Zamindars,_Kammis,_and_the_Seyp_System"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Zamindars, Kammis, and the Seyp System</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-8"><a href="#Elections"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Elections</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Bengal"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bengal</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Sharifism"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Sharifism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Discrimination"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Discrimination</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Representation"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Representation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Burial"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Burial</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Cooking"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Cooking</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Racial_and_historical"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Racial and historical</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_development">Historical development</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>While <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> requires <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Egalitarian">egalitarianism</a> and does not recognize any <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Castes" class="mw-redirect" title="Castes">castes</a>, only <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socio-economic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socio-economic">socio-economic</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">classes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196027_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196027-2">[2]</a></sup> when it came to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Persia</a> and India, the existing divisions in these regions were adopted among the local Muslim societies. Evidence of social stratification can be found in several later Persian works, such as <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siyasatnama" title="Siyasatnama">Siyasatnama</a></i></span> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a> (11th century), <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akhlaq-i_Nasiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Akhlaq-i Nasiri">Akhlaq-i Nasiri</a></i></span> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a> (13th century), and <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">Jam-i-Mufidi</i></span> (17th century).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196029_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196029-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>After <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> died in the 7th century, there was the war of succession which had tribes and families fighting each other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup> After this, a determinant for social stratification in Arab society included being part of the close family of Muhammad (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahl_al-bayt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahl al-bayt">ahl al-bayt</a></i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup> This alleged <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ahl al-bayt</i></span> determinant had its presence in ancient <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> among Muslims since the 8th century.
</p><p>Then this allegedly led to a further hierarchical determinant, which was Arabs versus non-Arabs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup> Later on, among non-Arabs, further divisions took place between Muslims who were converted in early Islamization campaigns (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">khadim-al islam</i></span>) and Muslims who converted more recently (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">jadid-al islam</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup> Today, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian">South Asian</a> Muslims are divided by the classifications above that have resulted in Arab-origin higher castes (<span title="Urdu-language romanization"><i lang="ur-Latn">unch zat</i></span>) and those that are descendants of lower castes converts (<span title="Urdu-language romanization"><i lang="ur-Latn">nich zat</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup> The Sultans during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> were all high caste.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Muslims who came to the subcontinent during the 12th century <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim_conquests_on_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent</a> were allegedly already divided into vocation-based social "classes", including priests, nobles, and others. Further, racial segregation demarcated the local Muslim converts from foreign-origin Muslims. The foreigners claimed a superior status as they were associated with the conquerors and categorized themselves as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ashraf" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashraf">Ashraf</a> ("noble").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196030_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196030-5">[5]</a></sup> Over time, the Indian Muslim society also allegedly split based on the existing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu_caste_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu caste system">Hindu caste system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196030_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196030-5">[5]</a></sup> According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/M._N._Srinivas" title="M. N. Srinivas">M. N. Srinivas</a> (1986) and R.K. Bhattacharya, Indian Hindu converts to Islam, brought their original caste system to the Muslim society in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013116_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013116-6">[6]</a></sup> On the other hand, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_Dumont" title="Louis Dumont">Louis Dumont</a> (1957) believes that the Islamic conquerors consciously adopted the Hindu caste system "as a compromise which they had to make in a predominantly Hindu environment."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013115–116_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013115–116-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ziauddin_Barani" title="Ziauddin Barani">Ziauddin Barani</a>, an ethnic Indian 14th-century political thinker of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, recommended that the "sons of Mohamed" (i.e., Ashrafs) be given a higher social status than the low-born (i.e., Ajlaf). His most significant contribution to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fatwa" title="Fatwa">fatwa</a> was his analysis of the castes concerning Islam. He asserted that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> law whenever they were in conflict. According to Barani, every act "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominy, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]". Barani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of Imperial officers ("<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">Wazirs</a>") that was primarily based on their caste.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Das_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> His opinions were not followed by his own Sultanate, as he accuses the Tughlaq Sultans of appointing "low-born" people to high offices, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Tughlaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad bin Tughlaq">Sultan Muhammad Shah</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> and Barani's own patron <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Firuz_Shah_Tughlaq" title="Firuz Shah Tughlaq">Sultan Firuz Shah</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, who appointed a former slave captured and converted from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telangana" title="Telangana">Telangana</a> as his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grand_Vizier" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Vizier">Grand Vizier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>Historically, many Muslims from the julaha or weaver caste began to identify as "Ansaris", the butchers as "Quereshis", and the sanitation and <i>bhishti</i> caste Muslims as "Sheikh".<sup id="cite_ref-Sanober_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanober-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Muslim concept of <i>kafa'a/kufu/kafa'ah</i>, which ulama use to support endogamy, justifies South Asian Muslim caste practices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJulien_Levesque202014_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJulien_Levesque202014-14">[14]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kafa%27ah" title="Kafa'ah">Kafa'ah</a> is hereditary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ashrafization_and_Syedization">Ashrafization and Syedization</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Ashrafization includes adopting upper-caste Muslim practices to achieve social climbing.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sayyid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Dynasty">Sayyid Dynasty</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khizr_Khan" title="Khizr Khan">Khizr Khan</a> of the Delhi Sultanate was founded by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Punjabi_Muslims" title="Punjabi Muslims">Punjabi Muslim</a>, who claimed Sayyid descent based on unsubstantiated evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sayyid_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Brothers">Barha Syeds</a> who rose as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingmaker" title="Kingmaker">king-makers</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>, originated from a marginal Indian peasant community of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muzaffarnagar" title="Muzaffarnagar">Muzaffarnagar</a> who claimed Sayyid ancestry, although their claim to be true Syeds was generally not admitted. The Mughal Emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jahangir" title="Jahangir">Jahangir</a> wrote that "some people make remarks about their lineage, but their bravery is a convincing proof of their being Sayyids". This showed that they had assimilated into Sayyid identity merely due to military service rather than through true descent.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Caste_Associations">Caste Associations</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Another type of Ashrafization is the establishment of caste associations to promote a community's interests and, especially, social support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup> These <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">anjuman</i></span> ('forum', 'society') is commonly termed <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">jama'at</i></span> (<span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">جماعت</span></span> ; 'congregation', 'group', 'community'), replacing in the associations' names the use of <span title="Urdu-language romanization"><i lang="ur-Latn">zat</i></span>, which signifies 'birth or origin group'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup> The Khoja caste, who are Ismaili Shias found particularly in Karachi and Sindh, are prominent in this regard.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup> Other significant Muslim caste associations are those of the Memons and the Bohras in Sindh and Gujarat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_research">History of research</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>There are various definitions of the term <i>caste</i>, and therefore, diverse, contested opinions on whether this term can be used to denote <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a> among non-Hindu communities (e.g. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Classification" title="Classification">classifications</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>). Ghaus Ansari (1960) uses the term "caste" to describe the Muslim social groups with the following characteristics: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a> within a given social group, hierarchical gradation of social groups, determination of the group membership by birth, and in some cases, an association of occupation with the social group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196022_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196022-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>Beginning in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/19th_century" title="19th century">19th century</a>, Western <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Indologist">Indologists</a> first catalogued the various Muslim castes:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196022_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196022-19">[19]</a></sup>
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Miers_Elliot" title="Henry Miers Elliot">Henry Miers Elliot</a>'s <i>Supplement to the glossary of Indian terms</i> (1844), later amplified into <i>Memoirs on the history, folk-lore, and distribution of the Races of the North Western Provinces of India</i></li>
<li>John Charles Williams's <i>The Report on the Census of Oudh</i> (1869)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Denzil_Ibbetson" title="Denzil Ibbetson">Denzil Ibbetson</a>'s Census Report of Punjab (1883), later adapted into <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Panjab_Castes" title="Panjab Castes">Panjab Castes</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Nesfield" title="John Nesfield">John Nesfield</a>'s <i>Brief View of the Caste System of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh</i> (1885)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herbert_Hope_Risley" title="Herbert Hope Risley">Herbert Hope Risley</a>'s <i>Tribes and castes of Bengal</i> (1893)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Crooke" title="William Crooke">William Crooke</a>'s <i>The tribes and castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh</i> (1896)</li></ul>
<p>Nelson's book, in particular, included a whole chapter dedicated to the primarily <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Indologist">Indologist</a> derived <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a> of Muslim "castes". In 20th-century British India, several works included Muslim social groups in their descriptions of the Indian castes. These included <a href="/enwiki/wiki/H._A._Rose" class="mw-redirect" title="H. A. Rose">H. A. Rose</a>'s <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_Glossary_of_the_Tribes_and_Castes_of_the_Punjab_and_North-West_Frontier_Province" title="A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province">A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province</a></i> (1911).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari19602_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari19602-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>In independent India, Ghaus Ansari (1960) initiated an academic discussion over the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a> of the Muslim "caste" system. Subsequently, Imtiaz Ahmed elaborated on the topic in his <i>Caste and Social Stratification among the Muslims</i> (1973).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013115_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013115-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>About 1915, Mirza Muhammad Hassan Qatil wrote about the four <span title="undetermined-language text"><i lang="und">firqa</i></span> (classes) of the Ashraf.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005-22">[22]</a></sup> He describes how people are considered to be <span title="undetermined-language text"><i lang="und">paji</i></span> (contemptible) in the following occupations: elephant caretaking, bread business, perfume business, and businesses in bazaars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005-22">[22]</a></sup>
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<h2><span id="Syedism.2C_Ashrafism.2C_Biradarism.2C_Zatism.2C_Sharifism.2C_Arab_Supremacy.2C_and_Divisions"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Syedism,_Ashrafism,_Biradarism,_Zatism,_Sharifism,_Arab_Supremacy,_and_Divisions">Syedism, Ashrafism, Biradarism, Zatism, Sharifism, Arab Supremacy, and Divisions</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Zat is sometimes considered a broader category than Biradari. In Pakistani Punjab, being relatives is the main criterion to comprise a Biradari. The highest to lowest ranking of Ashraf castes is the following: Syed, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Garha" title="Garha">Gaur Muslims</a>, and Mughals.
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Muslim_Other_Backward_Classes_communities_in_India" title="List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities in India">List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities in India</a></div>
<p>Ghaus Ansari (1960) named the following four broad categories of Muslim social divisions in India:
</p>
<ul><li><i>Ashrafs</i>, who claim foreign-origin descent.
<ul><li>e.g. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idrishi" class="mw-redirect" title="Idrishi">Idrishi</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mughal_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal tribe">Mughal</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Converts from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forward_caste" title="Forward caste">upper castes</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Swarna</a>
<ul><li>e.g. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Garha" title="Garha">Gaur Muslims</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim_Rajputs" title="Muslim Rajputs">Rajput Muslims</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim_Jats" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Jats">Muslim Jats</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idrishi" class="mw-redirect" title="Idrishi">Idrishi</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cheema_(surname)" title="Cheema (surname)">Chimba</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Converts from other Indian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribes">Tribes</a>
<ul><li>e.g. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim_Dhobi" title="Muslim Dhobi">Dhobi</a>, Mansoori, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim_Gaddi" title="Muslim Gaddi">Gaddi</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Faqir_(clan)" title="Faqir (clan)">Faqir</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hajjam" title="Hajjam">Hajjam</a> (Nai), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Julaha" title="Julaha">Julaha</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kabaria" title="Kabaria">Kabaria</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kumhar" title="Kumhar">Kumhar</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kunjra" title="Kunjra">Kunjra</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mirasi" title="Mirasi">Mirasi</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim_Teli" title="Muslim Teli">Teli</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Converts from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">untouchable</a> castes
<ul><li>e.g. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mochi_(Muslim)" title="Mochi (Muslim)">Muslim Mochi</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhangi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhangi">Bhangi</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<p>There is a hierarchy among Ashrafs that is determined by the degree of nearness to Muhammad and which country they originate from; accordingly, the Syeds (who trace descent from Fatima, Muhammad's daughter) have the highest status.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967887_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967887-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>The non-Ashrafs are categorized as <i>Ajlaf</i>. The untouchable Hindu converts are also categorized as <i>Arzal</i> ("degraded").<sup id="cite_ref-Ambedkar_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ambedkar-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ambedkaronline_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ambedkaronline-25">[25]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Need peer-reviewed content (February 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> They are relegated to menial professions such as scavenging and carrying <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Night_soil" title="Night soil">night soil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/B.R._Ambedkar" class="mw-redirect" title="B.R. Ambedkar">B.R. Ambedkar</a>, citing the Superintendent of the Census for 1901 for the Province of Bengal, mentions that the Ajlaf primarily include:
</p>
<ul><li>Cultivating Sheikhs and others who were originally Hindus but who do not belong to any functional group and have not gained admittance to the Ashraf Community, e.g. Pirali and Thakrai.</li>
<li>Darzi, Jolaha, Fakir, and Rangrez.</li>
<li>Barhi, Bhalhiara, Chik, Churihar, Dai, Dhawa, Dhunia, Gaddi, Kalal, Kasai, Kula Kunjara, Laheri, Mahifarosh, Mallah, Naliya, Nikari.</li>
<li>Abdal, Bako, Bediya, Bhal, Chamba, Dafali, Dhobi, Hajjam, Mucho, Nagarchi, Nal, Panwaria, Madaria, Tunlia.</li></ul>
<p>For the Arzal, the following cases are mentioned by the Superintendent of the Census: Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Need peer-reviewed content (February 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, various social groups (called <span title="Urdu-language romanization"><i lang="ur-Latn">quoms</i></span>) display a social stratification comparable to the Indian caste system. The various <span title="Urdu-language romanization"><i lang="ur-Latn">quoms</i></span> differ widely in power, privilege, and wealth. Both ethnic affiliation (e.g. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pathan</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sindhis" title="Sindhis">Sindhi</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baloch_people" title="Baloch people">Baloch</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Punjabis" title="Punjabis">Punjabi</a>, etc.) and membership of specific <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biraderi" class="mw-redirect" title="Biraderi">biraderis</a> or <span title="Urdu-language romanization"><i lang="ur-Latn">zaat/quoms</i></span> are additional integral components of social identity.<sup id="cite_ref-barth_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-barth-29">[29]</a></sup> Within the bounds of endogamy defined by the above parameters, close <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cousin_marriage" title="Cousin marriage">consanguineous unions</a> are preferred due to a unity of key features of group- and individual-level background factors as well as affinities. McKim Marriott adds that a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous, and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeyauddin_Ahmad2011_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeyauddin_Ahmad2011-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> The numerically and socially influential tribes in Pakistani Punjab includes the agricultural tribes of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Awan_(tribe)" title="Awan (tribe)">Awan</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jat_Muslim" title="Jat Muslim">Jat Muslim</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gujjar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gujjar">Gujjar</a> as well as Rajput.<sup id="cite_ref-nihcr.edu.pk_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nihcr.edu.pk-33">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, the castes of Muslims rank differs according to the criteria applied.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>In India, the Ajlaf comprise Qureshis, Ansaris, Saifis, and other groups of lower occupation.
</p><p>Most ulemas (theologians/doctors of the law) are part of the Syed, and many Ashrafs are businessmen, landowners, and traders.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>A "marriage circle" can be formed over an area, where a zat panchayat (caste council) can have the authority and where marriage alliances occur.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>A Syed's status is sometimes based more on male descendants and hypergamous marriage than bloodline purity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The early Turks had subdivisions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the <i>Rasum-i Hind</i>, a textbook that was compiled by Master Pyare Lal in 1862, the four <i>firqa</i> (or subdivisions of the Ashraf) are explained, and <i>nasl</i> (lineage/pedigree) is elaborated:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>The ancestors of the Mughal caste are said to be descended from the Biblical Noah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005-22">[22]</a></sup></li>
<li>The ancestors of the Pathans are said to be Israelites from when Solomon was alive. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005-22">[22]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>In the ruling class of the Mughal Empire, Muslims were classified as native <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindustan" title="Hindustan">Hindustani</a>, Afghan, Turani, and Irani.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005-22">[22]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Pakistani_Punjab">Pakistani Punjab</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h4><span id="Zamindars.2C_Kammis.2C_and_the_Seyp_System"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Zamindars,_Kammis,_and_the_Seyp_System">Zamindars, Kammis, and the Seyp System</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Zamindars, a landowning class, and Kammis, service-providing castes, are caste-based status groups and are found in a hierarchical system in Pakistani Punjabi villages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011ii_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011ii-38">[38]</a></sup> Kammi Quoms and Zamindar Quoms are rigid birth-based groups based on parentage occupations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011ii_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011ii-38">[38]</a></sup> In the Seyp System, contractual labour, the Kammis provide work and services and receive favours, food, money, crops, and grains.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20115_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20115-39">[39]</a></sup> Zamindars are considered a dominant caste, and leaders in the village and people who dominate the town's affairs tend to be Zamindars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20115_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20115-39">[39]</a></sup> Social, political, and economic affairs of the city are dominated by Zamindar Quoms in Pakistan, and land is controlled by Zamindar Quoms,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20115_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20115-39">[39]</a></sup> while Kammi Quoms are socially marginalized and discriminated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20118_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20118-40">[40]</a></sup> Inter-Quom endogamy is found between Kammi Quoms and Zamindar Quoms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20114_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20114-41">[41]</a></sup> Ancestral land ownership and a parentage job being cultivation are what Punjabi Pakistanis ascribe to the Zamindar status.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201110_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201110-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>"Zamindars", in modern-day Pakistani Punjabi villages, typically refers to a Quom that owns the land and has an occupation of agriculture - Zamindari.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20116_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20116-43">[43]</a></sup> Some castes are higher than the service-providing castes and below the landowning castes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201174_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201174-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>Caste endogamy is found in Pakistan, with members of a Quom tending to marry within the Quom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201117_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201117-45">[45]</a></sup> In the rural parts of Pakistani Punjab, the lack of marriages between Kammi and Zamindar Quoms is vital to the caste system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201117_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201117-45">[45]</a></sup> Kammis include artisan, labourer, and service providing Quoms (such as barbers, cobblers, and carpenters).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201118_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201118-46">[46]</a></sup>
</p><p>A Kammi woman remarked how:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011136_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011136-47">[47]</a></sup>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Even if a Kammi acquires 100 acres of land, he remains Kammi, and Zamindars will always consider him lower. A Zamindar who owns one acre of land would think, "If a Kammi has bought 2 acres, so what? After all, he remains a Kammi". They do not accept us as equals.</p></blockquote>
<p>Quoms are highly influential in marriage practices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201118_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201118-46">[46]</a></sup> However, different Zamindar Quoms sometimes intermarry, which may constitute a Biradari.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011139_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011139-48">[48]</a></sup> A large majority of Kammis perform daily wage labour or low-ranking tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011140_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011140-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>A study in a Pakistani Punjabi village found that in the <i>Seyp</i> (contractual relationships) between a <i>Zamindar</i> (landholding) family and <i>Kammi</i> (artisan castes) families, Kammi families give goods and perform services to the Zamindars, which provide the Kammis with grain; the Kammi families also serve some customary and ritual tasks: for example, the barber cooks in the Zamindar's house on special events and performs circumcisions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJulien_Levesque202010_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJulien_Levesque202010-50">[50]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Elections">Elections</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>People also exhibit loyalty to their Quoms in elections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201118_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201118-46">[46]</a></sup> In Pakistani Punjab, Biradaris are the sole criteria in local bodies' elections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011160_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011160-51">[51]</a></sup> There are more Zamindars than Kammis in Pakistani Punjab.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011139_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011139-48">[48]</a></sup> Including because of the high financial costs of running in an election, Kammis do not generally run in elections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011161_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011161-52">[52]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bengal">Bengal</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Although class distinctions based on wealth and occupation exist, hereditary castes don't exist in mainstream Bangladeshis/Bengali Muslims, unlike Bangladeshi Hindus.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Wikipedia_and_sources_that_mirror_or_use_it" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This claim cites another Wikipedia article. Articles need references to reliable third-party sources. (May 2023)">circular reference</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="The site is maintained by someone who in their own words is "not a professor or an expert on the subjects I write about" (May 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There might be around 35 Muslim castes in West Bengal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChowdhury20098_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChowdhury20098-54">[54]</a></sup> Muslim society might have been historically divided into three large groupings in Bengal, with the Sharif/Ashraf at the top, followed by the <i>Atraf</i> (low-born), and with the Arzal or Ajlaf at the bottom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChowdhury20098_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChowdhury20098-54">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>Other Muslim castes historically did not associate with Arzal castes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChowdhury200910_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChowdhury200910-55">[55]</a></sup> Lower castes historically are not allowed to enter mosques or be buried in the public burial ground.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChowdhury200910_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChowdhury200910-55">[55]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sharifism">Sharifism</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Sharifism refers to the special status given to claimants of prophetic <i>nasab</i> (also <i>qarabah</i>), which means "closeness", or being descended from Muhammad, Muhammad's Quraysh tribe, or Muhammad's family.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Discrimination">Discrimination</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Representation">Representation</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>In 20th century India, the upper-class (<i>Ashraf</i>) Muslims dominated the government jobs and parliamentary representation. As a result, there have been campaigns to include lower social classes among the groups eligible for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">affirmative action in India</a> under <i>SC and STs provision act</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Burial">Burial</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>In India's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> state, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forward_caste" title="Forward caste">Forward caste</a> Muslims have opposed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Backward_caste" class="mw-redirect" title="Backward caste">backward caste</a> Muslims being buried in the same graveyard.<sup id="cite_ref-rediff_burial_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rediff_burial-58">[58]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cooking">Cooking</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>A study in a Pakistani village found that a caste-like hierarchy exists in the Muslim community of the village. The sweeper group is ranked the lowest. The other Muslim communities do not allow the sweepers to touch the cooking vessels of the upper ranking groups of Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-Donnan1988_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donnan1988-60">[60]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Racial_and_historical">Racial and historical</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Barani also explained at one point how Turkish sultans discriminated against Muslims of local descent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889-37">[37]</a></sup> He explains how Iltutmish discriminated against low-birth Muslims by letting go of 33 of them from the government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889-37">[37]</a></sup> Additionally, Iltutmish appointed Jamal Marzuq to the post of Mutassarif of Kanauj; Aziz Bahruz disagreed due to low birth status, which resulted in Marzuq no longer being the Mutassarif.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889-37">[37]</a></sup> Low-born people were not allowed to be in the mudabbiri or khwajgi post and could not be eligible for an iqta recommendation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>Balban prevented low-birth people from being in important offices, and he also criticized how Kamal Mohiyar was selected for mutassarif of Amroaha.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889-37">[37]</a></sup> A letter by Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains how Balban thoroughly researched the ancestry of every single one of his government servants and officers; he had genealogists met in Delhi to ascertain these ancestries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>Tughlaq had a policy of giving "preference to foreign-born Muslims in administration and government" and "systematically ignored the claims of Indian Muslims".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889-37">[37]</a></sup> Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains how:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889-37">[37]</a></sup>
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Sultan went to the extent of offering the most responsible and distinguished offices of the kingdom — for instance, those of a Wazir, a Dabir, a military commander, a judge, a professor of theology, or a Shaikhul-Islam — to almost any foreigner of some learning. Foreigners coming to India were collectively known as 'the Honourables' (A'izza)</p></blockquote>
<p>Historians and Urdu writers (including Masood Alam Falahi) have explained how discrimination of Ashraf Muslims towards lower caste Muslims and Dalit Muslims was often disguised under claims of class and "<span title="Urdu-language romanization"><i lang="ur-Latn">khandaani</i></span>" (family line) values among Uttar Pradesh Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanober_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanober-13">[13]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsher1992278-279-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsher1992278-279_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsher1992">Asher 1992</a>, p. 278-279.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFAsher1992 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196027-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196027_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhaus_Ansari1960">Ghaus Ansari 1960</a>, p. 27.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196029-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196029_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhaus_Ansari1960">Ghaus Ansari 1960</a>, p. 29.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemy_Delage2014_4-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRemy_Delage2014">Remy Delage 2014</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196030-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196030_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196030_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhaus_Ansari1960">Ghaus Ansari 1960</a>, p. 30.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013116-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013116_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAzra_Khanam2013">Azra Khanam 2013</a>, pp. 116.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013115–116-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013115–116_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAzra_Khanam2013">Azra Khanam 2013</a>, pp. 115–116.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFArbind_Das_·1996" class="citation book cs1">Arbind Das · (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rXmCAAAAMAAJ&q=Barani+never+called+himself+Turk+for+one+intention+that+he+wanted+to+be+an+Indian+than+anything+else"><i>Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatawa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barani</i></a>. Pratibha Prakashan. p. 144. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788185268453" title="Special:BookSources/9788185268453"><bdi>9788185268453</bdi></a>. <q>Barani never called himself Turk for one intention that he wanted to be an Indian than anything else</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arthashastra+of+Kautilya+and+Fatawa-i-Jahandari+of+Ziauddin+Barani&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Pratibha+Prakashan&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9788185268453&rft.au=Arbind+Das+%C2%B7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrXmCAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DBarani%2Bnever%2Bcalled%2Bhimself%2BTurk%2Bfor%2Bone%2Bintention%2Bthat%2Bhe%2Bwanted%2Bto%2Bbe%2Ban%2BIndian%2Bthan%2Banything%2Belse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Das-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Das_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-85268-45-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-85268-45-2">81-85268-45-2</a> pp. 124-143</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSikand2003" class="citation cs2">Sikand, Yoginder (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RBkwnoDPKgUC&pg=PA7"><i>Sacred Spaces: Exploring Traditions of Shared Faith in India</i></a>, Penguin Books India, pp. 7–, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-302931-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-302931-1"><bdi>978-0-14-302931-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Spaces%3A+Exploring+Traditions+of+Shared+Faith+in+India&rft.pages=7-&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+India&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-14-302931-1&rft.aulast=Sikand&rft.aufirst=Yoginder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRBkwnoDPKgUC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSatish_Chandra2004" class="citation book cs1">Satish Chandra (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC"><i>Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One</i></a>. Har-Anand Publications. p. 99. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788124110645" title="Special:BookSources/9788124110645"><bdi>9788124110645</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+India%3A+From+Sultanat+to+the+Mughals-Delhi+Sultanat+%281206-1526%29+-+Part+One&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Har-Anand+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9788124110645&rft.au=Satish+Chandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL5eFzeyjBTQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_BloomSheila_BlairSheila_S._Blair2009" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan Bloom; Sheila Blair; Sheila S. Blair, eds. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&dq=firuz+shah+khan+jahan+convert&pg=RA1-PA4"><i>Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture</i></a>. Oup USA. p. 4. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1"><bdi>978-0-19-530991-1</bdi></a>. Three-volume set.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art+%26+Architecture&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Oup+USA&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530991-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dun4WcfEASZwC%26dq%3Dfiruz%2Bshah%2Bkhan%2Bjahan%2Bconvert%26pg%3DRA1-PA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Sanober-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sanober_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sanober_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFUmar2020" class="citation journal cs1">Umar, Sanober (14 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26812%2Fcaste.v1i1.29">"The Identity of Language and the Language of Erasure: Urdu and the Racialized-Decastification of the "Backward Musalmaan" in India"</a>. <i>Caste: A Global Journal on Social Exclusion</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brandeis_University" title="Brandeis University">Brandeis University</a>. <b>1</b> (1): 187. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26812%2Fcaste.v1i1.29">10.26812/caste.v1i1.29</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Caste%3A+A+Global+Journal+on+Social+Exclusion&rft.atitle=The+Identity+of+Language+and+the+Language+of+Erasure%3A+Urdu+and+the+Racialized-Decastification+of+the+%22Backward+Musalmaan%22+in+India&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=187&rft.date=2020-02-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.26812%2Fcaste.v1i1.29&rft.aulast=Umar&rft.aufirst=Sanober&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.26812%252Fcaste.v1i1.29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJulien_Levesque202014-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJulien_Levesque202014_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJulien_Levesque2020">Julien Levesque 2020</a>, p. 14.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAli2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ali, Syed (December 2002). "Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste among Urban Muslims in India". <i>Sociological Forum</i>. Springer. <b>17</b> (4): 602. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1021077323866">10.1023/A:1021077323866</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3070361">3070361</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146701489">146701489</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Forum&rft.atitle=Collective+and+Elective+Ethnicity%3A+Caste+among+Urban+Muslims+in+India&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=602&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146701489%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3070361%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1021077323866&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Syed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CHbiAAAAMAAJ&q=and+rested+chiefly+on+its+causal+recognition+by+the+famous+saint+Sayyid+Jal%C3%A1l"><i>The Cambridge History of India</i></a>. The claim of Khizr Khān , who founded the dynasty known as the Sayyids , to descent from the prophet of Arabia was dubious, and rested chiefly on its causal recognition by the famous saint Sayyid Jalāl - ud - dīn of Bukhārā .: S. Chand. 1958.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+India&rft.place=The+claim+of+Khizr+Kh%C4%81n+%2C+who+founded+the+dynasty+known+as+the+Sayyids+%2C+to+descent+from+the+prophet+of+Arabia+was+dubious%2C+and+rested+chiefly+on+its+causal+recognition+by+the+famous+saint+Sayyid+Jal%C4%81l+-+ud+-+d%C4%ABn+of+Bukh%C4%81r%C4%81+.&rft.pub=S.+Chand&rft.date=1958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCHbiAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dand%2Brested%2Bchiefly%2Bon%2Bits%2Bcausal%2Brecognition%2Bby%2Bthe%2Bfamous%2Bsaint%2BSayyid%2BJal%25C3%25A1l&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_M._Eaton2019" class="citation book cs1">Richard M. Eaton (2019). <i>India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765</i>. University of California Press. p. 117. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520325128" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520325128"><bdi>978-0520325128</bdi></a>. <q>The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+in+the+Persianate+Age%3A+1000%E2%80%931765&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0520325128&rft.au=Richard+M.+Eaton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDirk_H._A._Kolff2002" class="citation book cs1">Dirk H. A. Kolff (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SrdiVPsFRYIC&dq=barha+peasant+syeds&pg=PA18"><i>Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450-1850</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521523059" title="Special:BookSources/9780521523059"><bdi>9780521523059</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naukar%2C+Rajput%2C+and+Sepoy%3A+The+Ethnohistory+of+the+Military+Labour+Market+of+Hindustan%2C+1450-1850&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780521523059&rft.au=Dirk+H.+A.+Kolff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSrdiVPsFRYIC%26dq%3Dbarha%2Bpeasant%2Bsyeds%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196022-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196022_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari196022_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhaus_Ansari1960">Ghaus Ansari 1960</a>, p. 22.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari19602-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhaus_Ansari19602_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhaus_Ansari1960">Ghaus Ansari 1960</a>, p. 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013115-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAzra_Khanam2013115_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAzra_Khanam2013">Azra Khanam 2013</a>, p. 115.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavid_Lelyveld2005_22-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavid_Lelyveld2005">David Lelyveld 2005</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967887-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967887_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFImtiaz_Ahmed1967">Imtiaz Ahmed 1967</a>, p. 887.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ambedkar-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ambedkar_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAmbedkar" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/B.R._Ambedkar" class="mw-redirect" title="B.R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar, Bhimrao</a>. <i>Pakistan or the Partition of India</i>. Thackers Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pakistan+or+the+Partition+of+India&rft.pub=Thackers+Publishers&rft.aulast=Ambedkar&rft.aufirst=Bhimrao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ambedkaronline-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ambedkaronline_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html">Web resource for <i>Pakistan or the Partition of India</i></a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/dereserve-these-myths/12109/">"Dereserve these myths - Indian Express"</a>. <i>archive.indianexpress.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.indianexpress.com&rft.atitle=Dereserve+these+myths+-+Indian+Express&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.indianexpress.com%2Fnews%2Fdereserve-these-myths%2F12109%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFalahi" class="citation web cs1">Falahi, Masood. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/5664/1/AHRC_16,_Caste_and_Caste_Based_Discriminations_Among_Indian_Muslims.pdf">"Caste and caste-based discrimination s Among Indian Muslims'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>SAS</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SAS&rft.atitle=Caste+and+caste-based+discrimination+s+Among+Indian+Muslims%27&rft.aulast=Falahi&rft.aufirst=Masood&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsas-space.sas.ac.uk%2F5664%2F1%2FAHRC_16%2C_Caste_and_Caste_Based_Discriminations_Among_Indian_Muslims.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-barth-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-barth_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarth1962" class="citation book cs1">Barth, Fredrik (1962). E. R. Leach (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120406091830/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517"><i>The System Of Social Stratification In Swat, North Pakistan (Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan)</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 113. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517">the original</a> on 6 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+System+Of+Social+Stratification+In+Swat%2C+North+Pakistan+%28Aspects+of+Caste+in+South+India%2C+Ceylon%2C+and+North-West+Pakistan%29&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Barth&rft.aufirst=Fredrik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D2995517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFredrick_Barth1956" class="citation journal cs1">Fredrick Barth (December 1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1956.58.6.02a00080">"Ecologic Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>58</b> (6): 1079–1089. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1956.58.6.02a00080">10.1525/aa.1956.58.6.02a00080</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Ecologic+Relationships+of+Ethnic+Groups+in+Swat%2C+North+Pakistan&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1079-1089&rft.date=1956-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1956.58.6.02a00080&rft.au=Fredrick+Barth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1956.58.6.02a00080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeyauddin_Ahmad2011-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeyauddin_Ahmad2011_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeyauddin_Ahmad2011">Zeyauddin Ahmad 2011</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMcKim_Marriott1960" class="citation book cs1">McKim Marriott (1960). <i>Caste ranking and community structure in five regions of India and Pakistan</i>. Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/186146571">186146571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste+ranking+and+community+structure+in+five+regions+of+India+and+Pakistan&rft.pub=Deccan+College+Postgraduate+and+Research+Institute&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F186146571&rft.au=McKim+Marriott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-nihcr.edu.pk-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nihcr.edu.pk_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>nihcr.edu.pk</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Punjab-province-Pakistan">"Punjab Province, Pakistan"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. 483579<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Punjab+Province%2C+Pakistan&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FPunjab-province-Pakistan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span>h</span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFNagendra_Kr_Singh,_Abdul_Mabud_Khan2001" class="citation book cs1">Nagendra Kr Singh, Abdul Mabud Khan (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzfs_G7QHoAC&pg=PA1124"><i>Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities, Volume 1</i></a>. Global Vision Pub House. p. 1124. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788187746072" title="Special:BookSources/9788187746072"><bdi>9788187746072</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+World+Muslims%3A+Tribes%2C+Castes+and+Communities%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=1124&rft.pub=Global+Vision+Pub+House&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9788187746072&rft.au=Nagendra+Kr+Singh%2C+Abdul+Mabud+Khan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZzfs_G7QHoAC%26pg%3DPA1124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMarmaduke_William_Pickthall,_Muhammad_Asad1978" class="citation book cs1">Marmaduke William Pickthall, Muhammad Asad (1978). <i>Islamic Culture - Volume 52</i>. p. 207.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Culture+-+Volume+52&rft.pages=207&rft.date=1978&rft.au=Marmaduke+William+Pickthall%2C+Muhammad+Asad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImtiaz_Ahmed1967889_37-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFImtiaz_Ahmed1967">Imtiaz Ahmed 1967</a>, p. 889.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011ii-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011ii_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011ii_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. ii.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20115-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20115_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20115_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20115_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 5.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20118-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20118_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 8.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20114-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20114_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 4.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201110-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201110_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 10.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20116-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman20116_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 6.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201174-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201174_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 74.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201117-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201117_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201117_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 17.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201118-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201118_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201118_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman201118_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 18.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011136-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011136_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 136.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011139-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011139_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011139_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 139.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011140-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011140_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 140.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJulien_Levesque202010-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJulien_Levesque202010_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJulien_Levesque2020">Julien Levesque 2020</a>, p. 10.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011160-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011160_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 160.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011161-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed_Usman2011161_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011">Ahmed Usman 2011</a>, p. 161.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://factsanddetails.com/south-asia/Bangladesh/Life_Bangladesh/entry-8182.html">BANGLADESH SOCIETY: CLASSES, CASTES, NEIGHBORHOODS, MIDDLE CLASS AND BEGGARS</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChowdhury20098-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChowdhury20098_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChowdhury20098_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChowdhury2009">Chowdhury 2009</a>, p. 8.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-rediff_burial-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rediff_burial_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAnand_Mohan_Sahay" class="citation web cs1">Anand Mohan Sahay. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/06bihar.htm">"Backward Muslims protest denial of burial"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rediff.com" title="Rediff.com">Rediff.com</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2003</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rediff.com&rft.atitle=Backward+Muslims+protest+denial+of+burial&rft.au=Anand+Mohan+Sahay&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rediff.com%2Fnews%2F2003%2Fmar%2F06bihar.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ahmad, I., 2010. "Can There Be a Category Called Dalit Muslims?". <i>Studies in Inequality and Social Justice</i>, p.79</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Donnan1988-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Donnan1988_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHastings_Donnan1988" class="citation book cs1">Hastings Donnan (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PL_ACoFwJ2gC&pg=PR9"><i>Marriage Among Muslims: Preference and Choice in Northern Pakistan</i></a>. BRILL. pp. 51–56. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08416-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08416-2"><bdi>978-90-04-08416-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marriage+Among+Muslims%3A+Preference+and+Choice+in+Northern+Pakistan&rft.pages=51-56&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08416-2&rft.au=Hastings+Donnan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPL_ACoFwJ2gC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFImtiaz_Ahmed1967" class="citation journal cs1">Imtiaz Ahmed (13 May 1967). "Ashraf and Ajlaf Categories in Indo-Muslim Society". <i>Economic and Political Weekly</i>. <b>2</b> (19): 887–891. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4357934">4357934</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+and+Political+Weekly&rft.atitle=Ashraf+and+Ajlaf+Categories+in+Indo-Muslim+Society&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=887-891&rft.date=1967-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4357934%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Imtiaz+Ahmed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAnis_Ansari2021" class="citation book cs1">Anis Ansari, Khalid (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m8cqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT86">"Pluralism and the Post-Minority Condition"</a>. In Boaventura De Sousa Santos; Bruno Sena Martins (eds.). <i>The Pluriverse of Human Rights: The Diversity of Struggles for Dignity: The Diversity of Struggles for Dignity</i>. Routledge. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-00-039570-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-00-039570-9"><bdi>978-1-00-039570-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pluralism+and+the+Post-Minority+Condition&rft.btitle=The+Pluriverse+of+Human+Rights%3A+The+Diversity+of+Struggles+for+Dignity%3A+The+Diversity+of+Struggles+for+Dignity&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-00-039570-9&rft.aulast=Anis+Ansari&rft.aufirst=Khalid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm8cqEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGhaus_Ansari1960" class="citation book cs1">Ghaus Ansari (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i0HRAAAAMAAJ"><i>Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh: A Study of Culture Contact</i></a>. Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1104993">1104993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Caste+in+Uttar+Pradesh%3A+A+Study+of+Culture+Contact&rft.pub=Ethnographic+and+Folk+Culture+Society&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1104993&rft.au=Ghaus+Ansari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di0HRAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFredrik_Barth1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fredrik_Barth" title="Fredrik Barth">Fredrik Barth</a> (1960). Edmund Leach (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OlU7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA113"><i>Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan</i></a>. CUP Archive. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521096645" title="Special:BookSources/9780521096645"><bdi>9780521096645</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+Caste+in+South+India%2C+Ceylon+and+North-West+Pakistan&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=9780521096645&rft.au=Fredrik+Barth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOlU7AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBerreman1972" class="citation journal cs1">Berreman, Gerald D. (June 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1972.74.3.02a00220">"Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>74</b> (3): 567–586. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1972.74.3.02a00220">10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294">0002-7294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Social+Categories+and+Social+Interaction+in+Urban+India&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=567-586&rft.date=1972-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1972.74.3.02a00220&rft.issn=0002-7294&rft.aulast=Berreman&rft.aufirst=Gerald+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1972.74.3.02a00220&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFChowdhury2009" class="citation journal cs1">Chowdhury, Iftekhar Uddin (7 November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://idsn.org/wp-content/uploads/user_folder/pdf/New_files/Bangladesh/Caste-based_Discrimination_in_Bangladesh__IIDS_working_paper_.pdf">"Caste-based Discrimination in South Asia: A Study of Bangladesh"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Working Paper Series</i>. Indian Institute of Dalit Studies. <b>III</b> (7).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Working+Paper+Series&rft.atitle=Caste-based+Discrimination+in+South+Asia%3A+A+Study+of+Bangladesh&rft.volume=III&rft.issue=7&rft.date=2009-11-07&rft.aulast=Chowdhury&rft.aufirst=Iftekhar+Uddin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fidsn.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fuser_folder%2Fpdf%2FNew_files%2FBangladesh%2FCaste-based_Discrimination_in_Bangladesh__IIDS_working_paper_.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRemy_Delage2014" class="citation journal cs1">Remy Delage (29 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html">"Muslim Castes in India"</a>. <i>Books & Ideas</i>. College De France.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Books+%26+Ideas&rft.atitle=Muslim+Castes+in+India&rft.date=2014-09-29&rft.au=Remy+Delage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooksandideas.net%2FMuslim-Castes-in-India.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAzra_Khanam2013" class="citation book cs1">Azra Khanam (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sdz9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115"><i>Muslim Backward Classes: A Sociological Perspective</i></a>. SAGE. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788132116509" title="Special:BookSources/9788132116509"><bdi>9788132116509</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Backward+Classes%3A+A+Sociological+Perspective&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9788132116509&rft.au=Azra+Khanam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSdz9AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJulien_Levesque2020" class="citation web cs1">Julien Levesque (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02697381">"Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan"</a>. HAL.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Debates+on+Muslim+Caste+in+North+India+and+Pakistan&rft.pub=HAL&rft.date=2020&rft.au=Julien+Levesque&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-02697381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Lelyveld2005" class="citation web cs1">David Lelyveld (2005). Rachel Dwyer (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201227045820/https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf">"Article on "Ashraf" in "Keywords in South Asian Studies"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. School of Oriental and African Studies. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Article+on+%22Ashraf%22+in+%22Keywords+in+South+Asian+Studies%22&rft.pub=School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.date=2005&rft.au=David+Lelyveld&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.soas.ac.uk%2Fsouth-asia-institute%2Fkeywords%2Ffile24799.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_W._Stern2003" class="citation book cs1">Robert W. Stern (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kb_z1KghC1oC&pg=PA76"><i>Changing India: Bourgeois Revolution on the Subcontinent</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00912-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00912-6"><bdi>978-0-521-00912-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+India%3A+Bourgeois+Revolution+on+the+Subcontinent&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00912-6&rft.au=Robert+W.+Stern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkb_z1KghC1oC%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed_Usman2011" class="citation thesis cs1">Ahmed Usman (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/21130/1/582096.pdf"><i>Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (PhD). The University of Leeds.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Social+Stratification+in+a+Punjabi+Village+of+Pakistan%3A+The+Dynamics+between+Caste%2C+Gender%2C+and+Violence&rft.inst=The+University+of+Leeds&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Ahmed+Usman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fetheses.whiterose.ac.uk%2F21130%2F1%2F582096.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings</i>. Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+and+Comparative+Religious+Studies%3A+Selected+Writings&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publisher%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<dl><dd>A.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_NoteA"><b><a href="#ref_NoteA">^</a></b> This source gets the quotation from the following source: E A Gait, 'Census of India' 1901: Bengal Report 6 (1), Bengal Secretariat Press. 1902, p 439; the description in 'Imperial Gazetteer of India', v. 2, pp 329</span></dd></dl>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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</h2>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFImtiaz_Ahmad1978" class="citation book cs1">Imtiaz Ahmad (1978). <i>Caste and social stratification among Muslims in India</i>. New Delhi: Manohar. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5147249">5147249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste+and+social+stratification+among+Muslims+in+India&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Manohar&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5147249&rft.au=Imtiaz+Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFZeyauddin_Ahmad2011" class="citation book cs1">Zeyauddin Ahmad (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&pg=PA337">"Caste Elements Among the Muslims of Bihar"</a>. In Kenneth David (ed.). <i>The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia</i>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 337–356. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080775-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080775-2"><bdi>978-3-11-080775-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste+Elements+Among+the+Muslims+of+Bihar&rft.btitle=The+New+Wind%3A+Changing+Identities+in+South+Asia&rft.pages=337-356&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-080775-2&rft.au=Zeyauddin+Ahmad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVp_la9QMGIQC%26pg%3DPA337&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFImam_Ali1993" class="citation book cs1">Imam Ali, A.F. (September 1993). <i>Changing Social Stratification in Rural Bangladesh</i>. South Asia Books. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7169-267-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7169-267-5"><bdi>978-81-7169-267-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+Social+Stratification+in+Rural+Bangladesh&rft.pub=South+Asia+Books&rft.date=1993-09&rft.isbn=978-81-7169-267-5&rft.aulast=Imam+Ali&rft.aufirst=A.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSyed_Ali2002" class="citation journal cs1">Syed Ali (December 2002). "Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste Among Urban Muslims in India". <i>Sociological Forum</i>. <b>17</b> (4): 593–620. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1021077323866">10.1023/A:1021077323866</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0884-8971">0884-8971</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146701489">146701489</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Forum&rft.atitle=Collective+and+Elective+Ethnicity%3A+Caste+Among+Urban+Muslims+in+India&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=593-620&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146701489%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0884-8971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1021077323866&rft.au=Syed+Ali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSikand2004" class="citation book cs1">Sikand, Yoginder (2004). <i>Islam, Caste and Muslim Relations in India</i>. Global Media Publications. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-88869-06-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-88869-06-0"><bdi>978-81-88869-06-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%2C+Caste+and+Muslim+Relations+in+India&rft.pub=Global+Media+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-88869-06-0&rft.aulast=Sikand&rft.aufirst=Yoginder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAhmadA._K._Chakravarti1981" class="citation journal cs1">Ahmad, S. Shamim; A. K. Chakravarti (January 1981). "Some regional characteristics of Muslim caste systems in India". <i>GeoJournal</i>. <b>5</b> (1): 55–60. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00185243">10.1007/BF00185243</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0343-2521">0343-2521</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153606947">153606947</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GeoJournal&rft.atitle=Some+regional+characteristics+of+Muslim+caste+systems+in+India&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-60&rft.date=1981-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153606947%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0343-2521&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00185243&rft.aulast=Ahmad&rft.aufirst=S.+Shamim&rft.au=A.+K.+Chakravarti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBerreman1972" class="citation journal cs1">Berreman, Gerald D. (June 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1972.74.3.02a00220">"Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>74</b> (3): 567–586. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1972.74.3.02a00220">10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294">0002-7294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Social+Categories+and+Social+Interaction+in+Urban+India&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=567-586&rft.date=1972-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1972.74.3.02a00220&rft.issn=0002-7294&rft.aulast=Berreman&rft.aufirst=Gerald+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1972.74.3.02a00220&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+system+among+South+Asian+Muslims" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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.navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Segregation_by_type" title="Template:Segregation by type"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Segregation_by_type" title="Template talk:Segregation by type"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Segregation_by_type" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Segregation by type"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Segregation_in_countries_by_type_(in_some_countries,_categories_overlap)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Segregation_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Segregation in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tal_Committee" title="Tal Committee">Israel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Exodus_of_Muslims_from_Serbia_(1862)" title="Exodus of Muslims from Serbia (1862)">Serbia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Greece_and_Turkey" title="Population exchange between Greece and Turkey">Greece and Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1947)" title="Partition of Bengal (1947)">Partition of Bengal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_segregation#Saudi_Arabia" title="Religious segregation">Saudi Arabia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Spain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_segregation#Bahrain" title="Religious segregation">Bahrain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_segregation#Myanmar" title="Religious segregation">Myanmar</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Ethnic and racial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pass_system_(Canadian_history)" title="Pass system (Canadian history)">Canada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_segregation#Bahrain" title="Racial segregation">Bahrain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_apartheid_in_Brazil" title="Social apartheid in Brazil">Brazil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Bulgaria_and_Romania" title="Population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania">Bulgaria and Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Exodus_of_Turks_from_Bulgaria_(1950-1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)">Bulgaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Czechoslovak%E2%80%93Hungarian_population_exchange" title="Czechoslovak–Hungarian population exchange">Czechoslovakia and Hungary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antihaitianismo" title="Antihaitianismo">Dominican Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_segregation#Fiji" title="Racial segregation">Fiji</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_situation_in_the_French_suburbs" title="Social situation in the French suburbs">France</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nur_f%C3%BCr_Deutsche" title="Nur für Deutsche">Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Israel_and_apartheid" title="Israel and apartheid">Israel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bumiputera_(Malaysia)" title="Bumiputera (Malaysia)">Malaysia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_segregation#Rhodesia" title="Racial segregation">Rhodesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid in South Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Spain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saudization" title="Saudization">Saudi Arabia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emiratisation" title="Emiratisation">United Arab Emirates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racial segregation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">United States</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">Massive resistance</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">Gender</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Afghanistan" title="Sex segregation in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Iran" title="Sex segregation in Iran">Iran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Sex segregation in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gender_separation_in_Judaism" title="Gender separation in Judaism">Judaism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_public_restrooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex segregation in public restrooms">Sex segregation in public restrooms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist feminism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Auto-segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Auto-segregation">Auto-segregation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Balkanization" title="Balkanization">Balkanization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnic_federalism" title="Ethnic federalism">Ethnic federalism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustan</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnopluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">Ethnocracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Exclusionary_zoning" title="Exclusionary zoning">Exclusionary zoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labor camps</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">Residential segregation in the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy (United States)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apartheid_legislation" title="Apartheid legislation">laws</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corporative_federalism" title="Corporative federalism">Corporative federalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hafrada" title="Hafrada">Hafrada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rankism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservation in India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">Second-class citizen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Separate_school" title="Separate school">Separate school</a> (Canada)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">Shunning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_apartheid" title="Social apartheid">Social apartheid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li>See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pillarisation" title="Pillarisation">Pillarisation</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Segregation" title="Category:Segregation">Category</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Caste" title="Category:Caste">caste</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Sex_segregation" title="Category:Sex segregation">gender</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Racial_segregation" title="Category:Racial segregation">racial</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Segregation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Segregation">Commons</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Discrimination" title="Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination" title="Template talk:Discrimination"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination based on skin color">Skin color</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">Cronyism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lesbophobia" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Christianity</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodox</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodox</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">National</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afrophobia" title="Afrophobia">African</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Arabism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Arabism">Arab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li>
<li>Asian
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Negrophobia" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Catalanism" title="Anti-Catalanism">Catalan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antihaitianismo" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hispanophobia" title="Hispanophobia">Hispanic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li>
<li>Indigenous people
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Israeli</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uyghur_genocide" title="Uyghur genocide">Uyghur genocide</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-LGBT_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBT rhetoric">Anti-LGBT rhetoric</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Violence_against_LGBT_people" title="Violence against LGBT people">LGBT</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/LGBT_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBT grooming conspiracy theory">LGBT grooming conspiracy theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlanta_Braves_tomahawk_chop_and_name_controversy" title="Atlanta Braves tomahawk chop and name controversy">Braves</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks_name_and_logo_controversy" title="Chicago Blackhawks name and logo controversy">Blackhawks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kansas_City_Chiefs_name_controversy" title="Kansas City Chiefs name controversy">Chiefs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Witch-hunt" title="Witch-hunt">Witch-hunt</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discriminatory<br />policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonperson" title="Nonperson">Nonpersons</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countermeasures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian privilege</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">Male privilege</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">White privilege</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">Category</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Prejudice_and_discrimination" title="Category:Prejudice and discrimination">Commons</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1707295615' |