Examine individual changes

'{{Short description|Calendars used by Hindus worldwide}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}} {{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}} [[File:Hindu calendar 1871-72.jpg|thumb|A page from the Hindu calendar 1871-72]] The '''Hindu calendar''', also called '''[[Panchangam|Panchanga]]''' ({{Lang-sa|पञ्चाङ्ग}}), is one of various [[lunisolar calendar]]s that are traditionally used in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Southeast Asia]], with further regional variations for social and [[Hindu]] religious purposes. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based on [[sidereal year]] for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start.<ref name=richmond80/> Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the [[Shaka era|Shalivahana Shaka]] (Based on the [[Shalivahana|King Shalivahana]], also the [[Indian national calendar]]) found in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan region]] of Southern India and the [[Vikram Samvat]] (Bikrami) found in Nepal and the North and Central regions of [[India]] – both of which emphasize the lunar cycle. Their new year starts in spring. In regions such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasized and this is called the [[Tamil calendar]] (though Tamil Calendar uses month names like in Hindu Calendar) and [[Malayalam calendar]] and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.<ref name=richmond80>{{Cite book|title=Time Measurement and Calendar Construction|publisher= Brill Archive|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wwEVAAAAIAAJ| access-date=2011-09-18| year= 1956|author= B. Richmond|pages=80–82}}</ref><ref name="Fuller2004p109"/> A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as [[Panchangam]] (पञ्चाङ्गम्), which is also known as [[Panjika]] in Eastern India.<ref>{{cite book|author=Klaus K. Klostermaier|title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C&pg=PA490|year=2007|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4|page=490}}</ref> The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the [[Hebrew calendar]], the [[Chinese calendar]], and the [[Babylonian calendar]], but different from the Gregorian calendar.<ref name=nesbittbc>{{cite book|author=Eleanor Nesbitt|title=Sikhism: a Very Short Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XebnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-874557-0|pages=122–123}}</ref> Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days)<ref>{{cite book|author=Orazio Marucchi|title=Christian Epigraphy: An Elementary Treatise with a Collection of Ancient Christian Inscriptions Mainly of Roman Origin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoBjBYdzrkQC&pg=PA289 |year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23594-5|page=289}}, Quote: "the lunar year consists of 354 days".</ref> and approximately 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month, once every 32–33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.<ref name=nesbittbc/><ref name="Fuller2004p109">{{cite book|author=Christopher John Fuller|title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-69112-04-85|pages=109–110}}</ref> The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by the [[Hindu]]s all over the world, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local [[Buddhist calendar]]s. Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system.<ref>{{cite book|author=Anita Ganeri|title=Buddhist Festivals Through the Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-EawToG-6YC&pg=PT11|year=2003|publisher=BRB|isbn=978-1-58340-375-4|pages=11–12}}</ref> The [[Buddhist calendar]] and the traditional lunisolar calendars of [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Thailand]] are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, the ancient [[Jain]] traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, the Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira's lifetimes as their reference points.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3gAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |year=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-392-6|pages=6–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John E. Cort|title=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ip7mCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-513234-2|pages=142–146}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr.|author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8|page=156}}</ref> The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system. It is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting, such as [[Ekadashi]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Ekadasi: Why Ekadasi is celebrated in Hinduism?-by Dr Bharti Raizada|date=22 May 2017|website=NewsGram|url=https://www.newsgram.com/ekadasi-importance-hinduism/}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Origins== {{Hinduism}} {{Quote box | quote = '''Time keeping''' <poem> [The current year] minus one, multiplied by twelve, multiplied by two, added to the elapsed [half months of current year], increased by two for every sixty [in the sun], is the quantity of half-months ([[Syzygy (astronomy)|syzygies]]). </poem> | source = — Rigveda Jyotisha-vedanga 4<br>Translator: Kim Plofker{{Sfn|Kim Plofker|2009|p=36}} | bgcolor = #FFE0BB | align = left }} The [[Vedic culture]] developed a sophisticated time keeping methodology and calendars for Vedic rituals,{{Sfn|Kim Plofker|2009|pp=10, 35–36, 67}} and timekeeping as well as the nature of solar and Moon movements are mentioned in Vedic texts.{{Sfn|Yukio Ohashi|1993|pp=185–251}} For example, Kaushitaki [[Brahmana]] chapter 19.3 mentions the shift in the relative location of the Sun towards north for 6 months, and south for 6 months.{{Sfn|Yukio Ohashi|1999|p=720}}{{Sfn|Kim Plofker|2009|pp=35–42}} Time keeping was important to Vedic rituals, and ''[[Jyotisha]]'' was the Vedic era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time, in order to fix the day and time of these rituals.<ref name=monierwilliamsnijyotisa/><ref name=jameslochtefeldsca326/><ref name="mullerhaslp210">{{cite book|author=Friedrich Max Müller|title=A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mlle|year=1860|publisher=Williams and Norgate|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mlle/page/210 210]–215}}</ref> This study is one of the six ancient [[Vedanga]]s, or ancillary science connected with the [[Vedas]] – the scriptures of Vedic Sanatan Sanskriti.<ref name=monierwilliamsnijyotisa>{{cite book|author=Monier Monier-Williams|title=A Sanskrit–English Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3NWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA353|year=1923|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=353}}</ref><ref name=jameslochtefeldsca326>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Jyotisha" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, pp. 326–327</ref> Yukio Ohashi states that this Vedanga field developed from actual astronomical studies in ancient Vedic Period.{{Sfn|Yukio Ohashi|1999|p=719}}{{Sfn|Yukio Ohashi|1999|pp=719–721}} The texts of Vedic Jyotisha sciences were translated into the [[Chinese language]] in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, and the Rigvedic passages on astronomy are found in the works of Zhu Jiangyan and [[Zhi Qian]].{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|p=2}} According to [[Subhash Kak]], the beginning of the Hindu calendar was much earlier. He cites Greek historians describing Maurya kings referring to a calendar which originated in 6676 BCE known as ''Saptarsi'' calendar.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Kak |first=Subhash |date=2015 |title=The Mahabharata and the Sindhu-Sarasvati Tradition |magazine=Sanskrit Magazine |page=2 |url= http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/MahabharataII.pdf |access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref> The Vikrami calendar is named after king [[Vikramaditya]] and starts in 57 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eleanor Nesbitt|title=Sikhism: a Very Short Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XebnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-874557-0|pages=122, 142}}</ref> ==Texts== Hindu scholars kept precise time by observing and calculating the cycles of [[Surya]] (the Sun), Moon and the planets. These calculations about the Sun appear in various astronomical texts in [[Sanskrit]], such as the 5th-century ''Aryabhatiya'' by [[Aryabhata]], the 6th-century ''Romaka'' by Latadeva and ''Panca Siddhantika'' by Varahamihira, the 7th-century ''Khandakhadyaka'' by Brahmagupta and the 8th-century ''Sisyadhivrddida'' by Lalla.<ref name="Burgess1989vii">{{cite book|author=Ebenezer Burgess|editor=P Ganguly, P Sengupta|title=Sûrya-Siddhânta: A Text-book of Hindu Astronomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0Uo_-_iizwC|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint), Original: Yale University Press, American Oriental Society|isbn=978-81-208-0612-2|pages=vii–xi}}</ref> These texts present Surya and various planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion.<ref name="Burgess1989vii"/> Other texts such as ''Surya Siddhanta'' dated to have been completed sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various deified planets with stories behind them.<ref name="Burgess1989vii"/> The manuscripts of these texts exist in slightly different versions. They present Surya, planet-based calculations and Surya's relative motion to Earth. These vary in their data, suggesting that the text were open and revised over their lives.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lionel D. Barnett|title=Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x40mwFwgK44C&pg=PA190 |year=1994|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0530-5 |pages=190–192 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ebenezer Burgess|editor=P Ganguly, P Sengupta|title=Sûrya-Siddhânta: A Text-book of Hindu Astronomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0Uo_-_iizwC|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint), Original: Yale University Press, American Oriental Society|isbn=978-81-208-0612-2|pages=ix–xi, xxix}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=J Fleet | title=Arbhatiya|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LssAAAAIAAJ|year=1911|publisher=Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society|pages=794–799}}</ref> For example, the 1st millennium CE Hindu scholars calculated the sidereal length of a year as follows, from their astronomical studies, with slightly different results:<ref name="Burgess198926">{{cite book|author=Ebenezer Burgess|editor=P Ganguly, P Sengupta|title=Sûrya-Siddhânta: A Text-book of Hindu Astronomy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=W0Uo_-_iizwC|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint), Original: Yale University Press, American Oriental Society|isbn=978-81-208-0612-2|pages=26–27}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" align=center style = " background: transparent; " |+Length of year in various Sanskrit texts |-style="text-align: center;" |'''Hindu text''' |'''Estimated length of the [[sidereal year]]'''<ref name="Burgess198926"/> |-style="text-align: center;" | ''[[Surya Siddhanta]]'' | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 36.56 seconds |-style="text-align: center;" | ''Paulica Siddhanta'' | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 36 seconds |-style="text-align: center;" | ''Paracara Siddhanta'' | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 31.50 seconds |-style="text-align: center;" | ''Arya Siddhanta'' | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30.84 seconds |-style="text-align: center;" | ''Laghu Arya Siddhanta'' | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30 seconds |-style="text-align: center;" | ''[[Siddhanta Shiromani]]'' | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 9 seconds |} The Hindu texts used the lunar cycle for setting months and days, but the solar cycle to set the complete year. This system is similar to the Jewish and Babylonian ancient calendars, creating the same challenge of accounting for the mismatch between the nearly 354 lunar days in twelve months, versus over 365 solar days in a year.<ref name=nesbittbc/><ref name=" Montgomery2015p103"/> They tracked the solar year by observing the entrance and departure of ''Surya'' (sun, at sunrise and sunset) in the constellation formed by stars in the sky, which they divided into 12 intervals of 30 degrees each.<ref name="Reingold2008p275">{{cite book|author1=Nachum Dershowitz|title=Calendrical Calculations|title-link=Calendrical Calculations|author2=Edward M. Reingold|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-88540-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/calendricalcalcu00ders/page/n155 123]–133, 275–311}}</ref> Like other ancient human cultures, Hindus innovated a number of systems of which intercalary months became most used, that is adding another month every 32.5 months on average.<ref name=" Montgomery2015p103"/> As their calendar keeping and astronomical observations became more sophisticated, the Hindu calendar became more sophisticated with complex rules and greater accuracy.<ref name="Montgomery2015p103">{{cite book|author1=Scott L. Montgomery|author2=Alok Kumar|title=A History of Science in World Cultures: Voices of Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kkLeCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |year=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-43906-6|pages=103–106}}</ref><ref name="fuller292">{{cite book|author=Christopher John Fuller|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC|title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-69112-04-85|pages=291–293}}</ref><ref name="Reingold2008p275"/> According to Scott Montgomery, the ''Siddhanta'' tradition at the foundation of Hindu calendars predate the Christian era, once had 18 texts of which only 5 have survived into the modern era.<ref name=" Montgomery2015p103"/> These texts provide specific information and formulae on motions of Sun, Moon and planets, to predict their future relative positions, equinoxes, rise and set, with corrections for prograde, retrograde motions, as well as parallax. These ancient scholars attempted to calculate their time to the accuracy of a ''truti'' (29.63 microseconds). In their pursuit of accurate tracking of relative movements of celestial bodies for their calendar, they had computed the mean diameter of the Earth, which was very close to the actual 12,742&nbsp;km (7,918&nbsp;mi).<ref name="Montgomery2015p103"/><ref name="Reingold2008p275"/> Hindu calendars were refined during the [[Gupta period|Gupta era]] astronomy by [[Āryabhaṭa]] and [[Varahamihira|Varāhamihira]] in the 5th to 6th century. These, in turn, were based in the [[Hindu astronomy|astronomical tradition]] of ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha|Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa]]'', which in the preceding centuries had been standardised in a number of (non-extant) works known as ''[[Surya Siddhanta|Sūrya Siddhānta]]''. Regional diversification took place in the medieval period. The astronomical foundations were further developed in the medieval period, notably by [[Bhāskara II]] (12th century).{{citation needed|date=March 2017}} ===Astrology=== Later, the term ''[[Jyotisha]]'' evolved to include [[Hindu astrology]]. The astrological application of the Hindu calendar was a field that likely developed in the centuries after the arrival of [[Greek astrology]] with [[Alexander the Great]],{{Sfn|Yukio Ohashi|1999|pp=719–721}}{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|pp=2–3}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Erik Gregersen|title=The Britannica Guide to the History of Mathematics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZ3zVmLUcjcC|year=2011|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-61530-127-0|page=187}}</ref> because their zodiac signs are nearly identical.<ref name=jameslochtefeldsca326/><ref name=campion110>{{cite book|author=Nicholas Campion|title=Astrology and Cosmology in the World's Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxSr1NT3BLoC|year=2012|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-0842-2|pages=110–111}}</ref> The ancient Hindu texts on Jyotisha only discuss timekeeping, and never mention astrology or prophecy.<ref>{{cite book|author=C. K. Raju|title=Cultural Foundations of Mathematics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jza_cNJM6fAC|year=2007|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-81-317-0871-2|page=205}}</ref> These ancient texts predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level.<ref name="mullerhaslp210"/> Later medieval era texts such as the ''Yavana-jataka'' and the ''Siddhanta'' texts are more astrology-related.{{Sfn|Kim Plofker|2009|pp=116–120, 259–261}} ===Balinese Hindu calendar=== Hinduism and Buddhism were the prominent religions of southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE, prior to the Islamic conquest that started in the 14th century. The Hindus prevailed in Bali, Indonesia, and they have two types of Hindu calendar. One is a 210-day based [[Pawukon calendar]] which likely is a pre-Hindu system, and another is similar to lunisolar calendar system found in South India and it is called the [[Balinese saka calendar]] which uses Hindu methodology.<ref name="Reingold2008p153"/> The names of month and festivals of Balinese Hindus, for the most part, are different, though the significance and legends have some overlap.<ref name="Reingold2008p153">{{cite book|author1=Nachum Dershowitz|author2=Edward M. Reingold|title=Calendrical Calculations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPbx0-qgXu0C|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-88540-9|pages=123–133, 153–161, 275–311}}</ref> == Astronomical basis == {{Main|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar}} The Hindu calendar is based on a [[geocentric model]] of the [[Solar System]]. A large part of this calendar is defined based on the movement of the Sun and the Moon around the Earth (saura māna and cāndra māna respectively). Furthermore, it includes [[Orbital period#Synodic period|synodic]], [[Sidereal year|sidereal]], and [[Tropical year|tropical]] elements. Many variants of the Hindu calendar have been created by including and excluding these elements (solar, lunar, lunisolar etc.) and are in use in different parts of India. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" {| |+ style="text-align: left;" | Elements of the Hindu calendar |- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center" ! !! width=30%|synodic elements !! width=30%|sidereal elements !! width=30%|tropical elements |- | '''saura māna''' | |valign="top" | [[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#rashi|rāśi]], [[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#sauramasa|sauramāsa]], [[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#sauravarsha|varṣa]] |[[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#uttarayana|uttarāyaṇa]], dakṣiṇāyana, devayāna, pitṛyāṇa, [[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#rthu|ṛtu]] |- | '''cāndra māna''' |[[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#tithi|tithi]], [[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#paksha|pakṣa]], [[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#chandramasa|candramāsa]], [[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#chandravarsha|varṣa]] | | |- |'''nākṣatra māna''' | |[[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#nakshatradina|dina]], [[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#ghatika|ghaṭikā]] (aka nāḍī), vighaṭikā (aka vināḍī), prāṇa (aka asu) | |- |'''sāvana māna''' |[[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#savanadina|dina]] | | |} ==Year: Samvat== ''Samvat'' refers to era of the several Hindu calendar systems in [[Nepal]] and [[India]], in a similar manner to the [[Christian era]]. There are several ''samvat'' found in historic Buddhist, Hindu and Jain texts and epigraphy, of which three are most significant: Vikrama era, Old Shaka era and Shaka era of 78 CE.<ref name="Salomon1998p181"/> [[File:KedukanBukit001.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Hindu calendar saka samvat system is found in Indonesian inscriptions, such as the [[Kedukan Bukit]] inscription (pictured above) dated to 604 Śaka, which is equivalent to 682 CE.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Colette Caillat|author2=J. G. de Casparis|title=Middle Indo-Aryan and Jain Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfgYakgCTgC |year=1991|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-09426-1|page=36}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Andrea Acri|title=Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia: Networks of Masters, Texts, Icons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HV8DQAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute|isbn=978-981-4695-08-4|pages=256–258}}</ref>]] * [[Vikram Samvat]] (Bikram Sambat): A northern Indian almanac which started in 57 BCE, and is also called the ''Vikrama Era''. It is related to the [[Bikrami calendar]], and is apocryphally linked to Vikramaditya. The year starts from the month of Baishakh / [[Vaisakha|Vaishakha]]. This system is common in epigraphic evidence from northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent, particularly after the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE.<ref name="Salomon1998p181"/> * [[Shaka Samvat]]: There are two Shaka era systems in scholarly use, one is called ''Old Shaka Era'', whose epoch is uncertain, probably sometime in the 1st millennium BCE because ancient Buddhist, Jain and Hindu inscriptions and texts use it. However, the starting point of Old Shaka Era is a subject of dispute among scholars. The second system is called ''Saka Era of 78 AD'', or simply ''Saka Era'', a system that is common in epigraphic evidence from southern India.<ref name="Salomon1998p181">{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC&pg=PA181|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535666-3|pages=181–183}}</ref> * Saka era of [[Southeast Asia]]: The Hindu calendar system in Indonesia is attributed to the legend of Hindus arriving with a sage Aji Saka in 1st-century [[Java]], in March 78 CE.<ref>{{cite book|author=Duncan Graham|title=The People Next Door: Understanding Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0VwAAAAMAAJ|year=2004|publisher=University of Western Australia Press|isbn=978-1-920694-09-8|pages=16–17}}</ref><ref name="Melton2011p652">{{cite book|author=J. Gordon Melton|title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDU30Ae4S4cC&pg=PA652 |year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-205-0|pages=652–653}}</ref> Numerous ancient and medieval era texts and inscriptions found in Indonesian islands use this reference year.<ref>{{cite book|author1=M. C. Ricklefs|author2=P. Voorhoeve|author3=Annabel Teh Gallop|title=Indonesian Manuscripts in Great Britain: A Catalogue of Manuscripts in Indonesian Languages in British Public Collections |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3XFODAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|year=2014|publisher=Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia|isbn=978-979-461-883-7|pages=49, 69–73, 81}}</ref><ref name="Casparis1978p15"/> In mainland southeast Asia, the earliest verifiable use of Hindu Saka methodology in inscriptions is marked ''Saka 533'' in [[Angkor Borei and Phnom Da|Ankor Borei]], which corresponds to 611 CE, while the [[Kedukan Bukit]] inscription in Sumatra, containing three dates in ''Saka 604'' (682 CE), is the earliest known use of the Shaka era in the Indonesian islands.<ref name="Casparis1978p15"/> However, these inscriptions only set the [[floruit]] for the use of the Shaka era in these places, and the Hindu calendar likely existed in southeast Asia before these dates to be used in important monuments. Further, the Hindu calendar system remained popular among the Hindus through to the 15th century, and thereafter in Bali.<ref name="Casparis1978p15">{{cite book|author=J. G. De Casparis|title=Indonesian Chronology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O8w3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15|year=1978|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-05752-8|pages=15–24}}</ref> * [[Indian national calendar]] (modern): combines many Hindu calendars into one official standardized one, but old ones remain in use.<ref name="Klostermaier2007p490"/> ==Months== ===Solar month and seasons=== {{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#sauramana}} The Hindu calendar divides the zodiac into twelve division called ''rāśi''. The time taken by the Sun to transit through a ''rāśi'' is a solar month whose name is identical to the name of the ''rāśi.'' In practice, solar months are mostly referred as ''rāśi'' (not months). The solar months are named differently in different regional calendars. While the Malayalam calendar broadly retains the phonetic Sanskrit names, the Bengali and Tamil calendars repurpose the Sanskrit ''lunar month names'' (Chaitra, Vaishaka etc.) as follows: * The Tamil calendar replaces Mesha, Vrisha etc. with Chithirai, Vaigasi etc. * The Bengali calendar is similar to the Tamil calendar except in that it starts the year with Boiśākh (instead of Choitrô), followed by Jyoisthô etc. The Assamese and Odia calendars too are structured the same way. The solar months (''rāśi'') along with their equivalent names in the Bangali, Malayalam and Tamil calendar are given below: <div style="overflow:auto"> {| class="wikitable" |+ Solar month names in different Hindu calendars !#|| style="background: #ffad66" width=100 |Vikrami<br>(solar) !width=100 |Assamese||width=100|Bengali||width=100 |Malayalam !width=100 |Odia||width=100|Tamil !Tulu|| width="100" |Gregorian |- |1|| align="center" |Mina |align="center" |চ’ত (Söt)|| align="center" |চৈত্র (Choitrô) | align="center" |മീനം (Mīnaṃ) |align="center" |ଚୈତ୍ର (Chaitra) | align="center" |பங்குனி (Paṅguṉi) |Suggi|| align="center" |March–April |- |2|| align="center" |Mēsha |align="center" |ব’হাগ (Böhag)|| align="center"|বৈশাখ (Boiśākh) | align="center" |മേടം (Mēḍaṃ) |align="center" |ବୈଶାଖ (Baiśākha) | align="center" |சித்திரை (Śittirai) |Paggu | align="center" | April–May |- |3|| align="center" |Vrisha |align="center" |জেঠ (Zeth)|| align="center" | জ্যৈষ্ঠ (Jyoisthô) | align="center" |ഇടവം (Iḍavaṃ) |align="center" |ଜ୍ୟେଷ୍ଠ (Jyēṣṭha) | align="center" | வைகாசி (Vaigāsi) |Beshya|| align="center" | May–June |- |4|| align="center" |Mithuna |align="center" |আহাৰ (Ahar)|| align="center" |আষাঢ় (Āsādh) | align="center" |മിഥുനം (Mithunaṃ) |align="center" |ଆଷାଢ଼ (Āṣāḍha) | align="center" | ஆனி (Āṉi) |Kaarthel|| align="center" | June–July |- |5|| align="center" |Karka |align="center" |শাওণ (Xaün)|| align="center" |শ্রাবণ (Śrābôṇ) | align="center" |കർക്കടകം (Karkkaṭakam) |align="center" |ଶ୍ରାବଣ (Śrābaṇa) | align="center" | ஆடி (Āḍi) |Aati|| align="center" |July–August |- |6|| align="center" |Singa |align="center" |ভাদ (Bhado)|| align="center" |ভাদ্র (Bhādrô) | align="center" |ചിങ്ങം (Ciṅṅaṃ) |align="center" |ଭାଦ୍ରବ (Bhādraba) or ଭାଦ୍ର (Bhādra) | align="center" | ஆவணி (Āvaṇi) |Sōna|| align="center" | August–September |- |7|| align="center" |Kanya |align="center" |আহিন (Ahin)|| align="center" |আশ্বিন (Āśhshin) | align="center" |കന്നി (Kanni) |align="center" |ଆଶ୍ୱିନ (Āśvina) | align="center" | புரட்டாசி (Puraṭṭāsi) |Nirnaal|| align="center" |September–October |- |8|| align="center" |Tula |align="center" |কাতি (Kati)|| align="center" |কার্তিক (Kārtik) | align="center" |തുലാം (Tulāṃ) |align="center" |କାର୍ତ୍ତିକ (Kārttika) | align="center" | ஐப்பசி (Aippasi) |Bonthel|| align="center" |October–November |- |9|| align="center" |Vrischika |align="center" |আঘোণ (Aghün)|| align="center" |অগ্রহায়ণ (Ôgrôhāyôn) | align="center" |വൃശ്ചികം (Vr̥ścikaṃ) |align="center" |ମାର୍ଗଶିର (Mārgaśira) | align="center" | கார்த்திகை (Kārttigai) |Jaarde|| align="center" |November–December |- |10|| align="center" |Dhanus |align="center" |পোহ (Puh)|| align="center" |পৌষ (Poush) | align="center" |ധനു (Dhanu) |align="center" |ପୌଷ (Pauṣa) | align="center" |மார்கழி (Mārgaḻi) |Perarde|| align="center" |December–January |- |11|| align="center" |Makara |align="center" |মাঘ (Magh)|| align="center" |মাঘ (Māgh) | align="center" |മകരം (Makaram) |align="center" |ମାଘ (Māgha) | align="center" |தை (Tai) |Puyinthel|| align="center" |January–February |- |12|| align="center" |Kumbha |align="center" |ফাগুন (Phagun)|| align="center" |ফাল্গুন (Phālgun) | align="center" |കുംഭം (Kumbham) |align="center" |ଫାଲ୍‌ଗୁନ (Phālguna) or ଫଗୁଣ (Phaguṇa) | align="center" |மாசி (Māsi) |Maayi|| align="center" |February–March |} </div> The solar months (''rāśi'') along with the approximate correspondence to Hindu seasons and Gregorian months are:<ref name="Reingold2008p275"/> <div style="overflow:auto"> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! style="background: #ffad66;" |Rāśi ! [[Sidereal and tropical astrology#Astronomic zodiac|Sidereal]] [[Hindu astrology#Rāśi – zodiacal signs|signs]] ! Gregorian<br>months<ref name="fuller292" /> ! [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]]<br>(season) ! [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] in [[Devanagari]] script ! Bengali name for [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] ! Gujarati name for [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] ! Kannada name for [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] ! Kashmiri name for [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] ! Malayalam name for [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] ! Odia name for [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] ! Tamil name for [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] ! Telugu name for [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] ! Tibetan name for [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] ! Kalachakra tantra Tibetan-name for [[Ritu (Indian season)|Ṛtu]] |- | [[Mīna]] [[Meṣa|Mesh]] | ♓ ♈ | Mid March– Mid May | [[Vasanta (season)|Vasanta]] ([[Spring (season)|Spring]]) | वसन्त | বসন্ত (Bôsôntô) | વસંત ઋતુ (Vasaṃta r̥tu) | ವಸಂತ ಋತು (Vasaṃta Ṛtu) | {{Lang|ks|سونٛتھ}} {{IPA|[sõ:tʰ]}} | വസന്തം‌ (Vasaṃtam) | ବସନ୍ତ (Basanta) | இளவேனில் (ilavenil) | వసంత ఋతువు (Vasaṃta Ṛtuvu) | དཔྱིད་ར་བ་དང་དཔྱིད་བར་མ (shid rawa, thang, shid warma) | དཔྱིད་ཀ (shid ka) |- | [[Vṛṣabha]] [[Mithuna (month)|Mithuna]] | ♉ ♊ | Mid May– Mid July | [[Grishma|Grīṣma]] ([[Summer]]) | ग्रीष्म | গ্রীষ্ম (Grishsho) | ગ્રીષ્મ ઋતુ (Grīṣma r̥tu) | ಗ್ರೀಷ್ಮ ಋತು (Grīṣma Ṛtu) | {{Lang|ks|گرٛێشِم}} {{IPA|[greʃim]}} | ഗ്രീഷ്മം (Grīṣmam) | ଗ୍ରୀଷ୍ମ (Grīṣma) | முதுவேனில் (mudhuvenil) | గ్రీష్మ ఋతువు (Grīṣma Ṛtuvu) | དཔྱིད་ཐ་མ་དང་དབྱར་ར་བ། (shid dama, thang, yar rawa) | སོ་ག(soga) |- | [[Karkaṭa]] [[Siṃha]] | ♋ ♌ | Mid July– Mid Sep | [[Varsha (season)|Varṣā]] ([[Monsoon]]) | वर्षा | বর্ষা (Bôrsha) | વર્ષા ઋતુ (Varṣa r̥tu) | ವರ್ಷ ಋತು (Varṣa Ṛtu) | {{Lang|ks|ؤہراتھ}} {{IPA|[wəhraːtʰ]}} | വര്‍ഷം‌ (Varṣām) | ବର୍ଷା (Barṣā) | கார் (kaar) | వర్ష ఋతువు (Varṣa Ṛtuvu) | དབྱར་བར་མ་དང་དབྱར་ཐ་མ (yarwarma, thang, yardama) | དབྱར་ག (yarka) |- | [[Kanyā]] [[Tulā]] | ♍ ♎ | Mid Sep– Mid Nov | [[Sharad (season)|Śarad]] ([[Autumn]]) | शरद् | শরৎ(Shôrôt) | શરદ ઋતુ (Śarad r̥tu) | ಶರದೃತು (Śaradṛtu) | {{Lang|ks|ہَرُد}} {{IPA|[harud]}} | ശരത്‌ (Śarat) | ଶରତ (Śarata) | குளிர் (kulir) | శరదృతువు (Śaradṛtuvu) | སྟོན་ར་བ་དང་སྟོན་བར་མ (ston rawa, thang, ston warma) | སྟོན་ཁ (stonka) |- | [[Vṛścika]] [[Dhanu (month)|Dhanu]] | ♏ ♐ | Mid Nov– Mid Jan | [[Hemanta (season)|Hemanta]] (Pre-[[Winter]]) | हेमन्त | হেমন্ত (Hemôntô) | હેમંત ઋતુ (Hēmaṃta r̥tu) | ಹೇಮಂತ ಋತು (Hēmaṃta Ṛtu) | {{Lang|ks|وَنٛدٕ}} {{IPA|[wandɨ]}} | ഹേമന്തം‌ (Hemantam) | ହେମନ୍ତ (Hemanta) | முன்பனி (munpani) | హేమంత ఋతువు (Hēmaṃta Ṛtuvu) | སྟོན་ཐ་མ་དང་དགུན་ར་བ (ston da ma, thang, dgun rawa) | དགུན་སྟོད (dgun stod) |- | [[Makara (month)|Makara]] [[Kumbha (month)|Kumbha]] | ♑ ♒ | Mid Jan– Mid March | [[Shishira (season)|Śiśira]] ([[Winter]]) | शिशिर | শীত (Śeet) | શિશિર ઋતુ (Śiśira r̥tu) | ಶಿಶಿರ ಋತು (Śiśira Ṛtu) | {{Lang|ks|شِشُر}} {{IPA|[ʃiʃur]}} | ശിശിരം‌ (Śiśiram) | ଶୀତ/ଶିଶିର (Śīta/Śiśira) | பின்பனி (pinpani) | శిశిర ఋతువు (Śiśira Ṛtuvu) | དགུན་བར་མ་དང་དགུན་ཐ་མ (dgun warma, thang, dgun dama) | དགུན་སྨད (dgun smad) |} </div> The names of the solar months are also used in the [[Darian calendar]] for the planet [[Mars]]. ==={{Anchor|Lunar months and approximate correspondence}}Lunar months=== <!-- Chaitradi and Karttikadi redirect to this section. If you change the section header, please update the redirects --> {{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#chandramana}} Lunar months are defined based on lunar cycles, i.e. the regular occurrence of new moon and full moon and the intervening waxing and waning phases of the moon. ====Paksha==== {{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#paksha}} A lunar month contains two fortnights called ''[[paksha|pakṣa]]'' (पक्ष, literally "side").<ref name="Fuller2004p109" /> One fortnight is the bright, waxing half where the moon size grows and it ends in the full moon. This is called "Gaura Paksha" or ''Shukla Paksha''.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.rockingbaba.com/blog/index.php/2015/07/22/phases-paksha-of-moon-shukla-paksha-krishna-paksha/|title = What is Shukla Paksha and Krishna Paksha &#124; Phases of Moon|date = 22 July 2015|access-date = 20 August 2018|archive-date = 7 August 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200807200335/https://www.rockingbaba.com/blog/index.php/2015/07/22/phases-paksha-of-moon-shukla-paksha-krishna-paksha/|url-status = dead}}</ref> The other half is the darkening, waning fortnight which ends in the new moon. This is called "Vadhya Paksha" or ''Krishna Paksha''.<ref name="Fuller2004p109" /> The Hindu festivals typically are either on or the day after the full moon night or the darkest night (''amavasya'', अमावास्या), except for some associated with [[Krishna]], [[Durga]] or [[Rama]]. The lunar months of the hot summer and the busy major cropping-related part of the monsoon season typically do not schedule major festivals.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christopher John Fuller|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC|title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-69112-04-85|pages=109–110, 291–293}}</ref> ===={{Anchor|amanta|purnimanta}}Amanta and Purnimanta systems==== {{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#chandramana}} Two traditions have been followed in the Indian subcontinent with respect to lunar months: the amanta tradition, which ends the lunar month on [[Dark moon|new moon]] day (similar to the [[Islamic calendar]]) and the purnimanta tradition, which ends it on [[full moon]] day.<ref name="Dikshitar1993p24">{{cite book|author=V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KP_DTtd6kJEC&pg=PA24|title=The Gupta Polity|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1993|isbn=978-81-208-1024-2|pages=24–35}}</ref> As a consequence, in the amanta tradition, Shukla paksha precedes Krishna paksha in every lunar month, whereas in the purnimanta tradition, Krishna paksha precedes Shukla paksha in every lunar month. As a result, a Shukla paksha will always belong to the same month in both traditions, whereas a Krishna paksha will always be associated with different (but succeeding) months in each tradition. {| class="wikitable" |+style="text-align:left"|Variations in the naming of lunar months ! !Krishna Paksha !Shukla Paksha !Krishna Paksha |- style="text-align:center" | style="text-align:left" |'''Amanta''' |Phalguna | colspan="2" |Chaitra |- style="text-align:center" | style="text-align:left" |'''Purnimanta''' | colspan="2" |Chaitra |Vaishaka |} The amanta (also known as Amavasyanta or Mukhyamana) tradition is followed by most Indian states that have a peninsular coastline (except [[Assam]], [[West Bengal]], [[Odisha]], [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]], which use their own [[solar calendar]]s). These states are [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Goa]], [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]]. Nepal and most Indian states north of the Vindhya mountains follow the purnimanta (or Gaunamana) tradition. The purnimanta tradition was being followed in the [[Vedic era]]. It was replaced with the amanta tradition as the Hindu calendar system prior to the 1st century BCE, but the Purnimanta tradition was restored in 57 BCE by [[Vikramaditya]], who wanted to return to the Vedic roots.<ref name="Dikshitar1993p24" /> The presence of this system is one of the factors considered in dating ancient Indian manuscripts and epigraphical evidence that have survived into the modern era.<ref name="Dikshitar1993p24" /><ref>{{cite book|author=D. C. Sircar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXMB3649biQC&pg=PA304|title=Indian Epigraphy|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1965|isbn=978-81-208-1166-9|pages=304–305 with footnotes}}</ref> The two traditions of Amanta and Purnimanta systems have led to alternate ways of dating any festival or event that occurs in a Krishna paksha in the historic Hindu, Buddhist or Jain literature, and contemporary regional literature or festival calendars. For example, the Hindu festival of Maha Shivaratri falls on the fourteenth lunar day of ''Magha's'' Krishna paksha in the Amanta system, while the same exact day is expressed as the fourteenth lunar day of ''Phalguna's'' Krishna paksha in the Purnimanta system.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maha Shivaratri date|url=https://www.drikpanchang.com/festivals/maha-shivaratri/maha-shivaratri-date-time.html|website=drikpanchang.com}}</ref> Both lunisolar calendar systems are equivalent ways of referring to the same date, and they continue to be in use in different regions, though the Purnimanta system is now typically assumed as implied in modern Indology literature if not otherwise specified.<ref name="fuller292" /><ref name="Reingold2008p275" /> ==== List of Lunar Months ==== The names of the Hindu months vary by region. Those Hindu calendars which are based on lunar cycle are generally phonetic variants of each other, while the solar cycle are generally variants of each other too, suggesting that the timekeeping knowledge travelled widely across the Indian subcontinent in ancient times.<ref name="richmond80" /><ref name="Reingold2008p275" /> During each lunar month, the Sun transits into a sign of the zodicac ([[sankranti]]). The lunar month in which the Sun transits into Mesha is named Chaitra and designated as the first month of the lunar year. A few major calendars are summarized below: <div style="overflow:auto"> {| class="wikitable" |+ Lunar calendar month names in different Hindu calendars<ref name=richmond80/> !#||style="background: #ffad66;" width=50|Vikrami<br>(lunar)<ref name=fuller292/>|| style="background: #ffad66;" width=50|Sankrant !width=50|Bhojpuri !width=50|Hindi !Marathi ! width="50" |Kannada !width=100|Kashmiri !width=50|Maithili !width=50|Meitei (Manipuri) !Nepali !width=50|Punjabi !width=100|Sindhi !width=50|Telugu||width=50|Tulu||width=50|Tibetan||width=50|Gregorian |- |1|| align="center" |[[Chaitra]] | align="center" |Mēsha |{{Script|kthi|𑂒𑂶𑂞}} (chait) |चैत/चैत्र |चैत्र |ಚೈತ್ರ (Chaitra) |{{Lang|ks|ژِتھٕر}} {{IPA|[t͡sitʰɨr]}} or {{Lang|ks|ژٕتھٕر}} {{IPA|[t͡sɨtʰɨr]}} |𑒔𑒻𑒞𑒱 (Chait) |ꯂꯝꯇꯥ (Lamta) |चैत (Chait) |{{Lang|pa|ਚੇਤ}} (Chēt) |{{Lang|sd|چيٽُ‎}} (Chēṭu) |చైత్రము (Chaitramu) | align="center" |Suggi|| align="center" |ནག་པ་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" |March–April |- |2|| align="center" |[[Vaisakha|Vaisākha]]|| align="center" |Vrisha |{{Script|Kthi|𑂥𑂶𑂮𑂰𑂎}} (Baisākh) |बैसाख/वैशाख |वैशाख |ವೈಶಾಖ (Vaisākha) |{{Lang|ks|وَہؠکھ}} {{IPA|[wahʲakʰ]}} or {{Lang|ks|بیساکھ}} {{IPA|[beːsaːkʰ]}} |𑒥𑒻𑒮𑒰𑒐 (Baishakh) |ꯁꯖꯤꯕꯨ (Sajibu) |वैशाख (Baishākh) |{{Lang|pa|ਵਸਾਖ}} (Vasākh) |{{Lang|sd|ويساکُ‎}} (Vēsāku) or {{Lang|sd|وِهاءُ‎}} (Vihāu) |వైశాఖము (Vaiśākhamu) | align="center" |Paggu | align="center" |ས་ག་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" | April–May |- |3|| align="center" |[[Jyeshta]]|| align="center" |Mithuna |{{Script|Kthi|𑂔𑂵𑂘}}<br/> (Jeṭh) |जेठ/ज्येष्ठ |ज्येष्ठ |ಜ್ಯೇಷ್ಠ (Jyeshta) |{{Lang|ks|زیٹھ}} {{IPA|[zeːʈʰ]}} |𑒖𑒹𑒚 (Jeth) |ꯀꯥꯂꯦꯟ (Kalen) |जेठ (Jēṭh) |{{Lang|pa|ਜੇਠ}} (Jēṭh) |{{Lang|sd|ڄيٺُ}} (Jjēṭhu) |జ్యేష్ఠము (Jyēsṭhamu) | align="center" |Bēsha|| align="center" |སྣྲོན་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" | May–June |- |4|| align="center" |[[Aashaadha|Āshāda]]|| align="center" |Karka |{{Script|kthi|𑂄𑂮𑂰𑂜}} (āsār̤h) |असाढ़ / आषाढ |आषाढ |ಆಷಾಢ (Āshāda) |{{Lang|ks|ہار}} {{IPA|[haːr]}} |𑒁𑒮𑒰𑒜𑓃 (Asadh) |ꯏꯉꯥ (Eenga) |असार (Asār) |{{Lang|pa|ਹਾੜ੍ਹ}} (Hāṛh) |{{Lang|sd|آکاڙُ‎}} (Ākhāṛu) or {{Lang|sd|آهاڙُ‎}} (Āhāṛu) |ఆషాఢము (Āṣāḍhamu) | align="center" |Kārtel|| align="center" |ཆུ་སྟོད་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" | June–July |- |5|| align="center" |[[Shraavana]]|| align="center" |Singa |{{Script|Kthi|𑂮𑂰𑂫𑂢}} (sāwan) |सावन/श्रावण |श्रावण |ಶ್ರಾವಣ (Shrāvana) |{{Lang|ks|شرٛاوُن}} {{IPA|[ʃraːwun]}} |𑒮𑒰𑒍𑒢 (Saon) |ꯏꯉꯦꯟ (Eengen) |साउन (Sāun) |{{Lang|pa|ਸਾਓਣ}} (Sāoṇ) |{{Lang|sd|سانوَڻُ}} (Sānvaṇu) |శ్రావణము (Śrāvaṇamu) | align="center" |Aaṭi|| align="center" |གྲོ་བཞིན་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" |July–August |- |6|| align="center" |[[Bhadrapada|Bhādra]]|| align="center" |Kanya |{{Script|Kthi|𑂦𑂰𑂠𑂷}} (Bhādo) |भादों/ भाद्रपद |भाद्रपद |ಭಾದ್ರಪದ (Bhādrapada) |{{Lang|ks|بٲدٕرپؠتھ}} {{IPA|[bəːdɨrpʲatʰ]}} or {{Lang|ks|بٲدرؠتھ}} {{IPA|[bəːdrʲatʰ]}} or {{Lang|ks|بٲدٕر}} {{IPA|[bəːdɨr]}} |𑒦𑒰𑒠𑒼 (Bhado) |ꯊꯧꯋꯥꯟ (Thouwan) |भदौ (Bhadau) |{{Lang|pa|ਭਾਦੋਂ}} (Bhādōn) or {{Lang|pa|ਭਾਦਰੋਂ}} (Bhādrōn) |{{Lang|sd|بَڊو‎}} (Baḍo) or {{Lang|pa|بَڊرو}} (Baḍro) |భద్రపదము (Bhadrapadamu)|| align="center" |Sona|| align="center" |ཁྲིམས་སྟོད་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" | August–September |- |7|| align="center" |[[Ashvin|Ashwina]]|| align="center" |Tula |{{Script| Kthi|𑂄𑂮𑂱𑂢}} (āsin) |आसिन/आश्विन |आश्विन |ಆಶ್ವಯುಜ (Āswayuja) |{{Lang|ks|ٲشِد}} {{IPA|[əːʃid]}} |𑒂𑒮𑒱𑒢 (Aasin) |ꯂꯥꯡꯕꯟ (Langban) |असोज (Asoj) |{{Lang|pa|ਅੱਸੂ}} (Assū) |{{Lang|sd|اَسُو}} (Asū) |ఆశ్వయుజము (Āśvayujamu)|| align="center" |Kanya/Nirnāl|| align="center" |ཐ་སྐར་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" |September–October |- |8|| align="center" |[[Kartika (month)|Kartika]]|| align="center" |Vrischika |{{Script|Kthi|𑂍𑂰𑂞𑂱𑂍}} (kātik) |का(र्)तिक |कार्तिक |ಕಾರ್ತೀಕ (Kārtika) |{{Lang|ks|کارتِکھ}} {{IPA|[kaːrtikʰ]}} |𑒏𑒰𑒞𑒱𑒏 (Katik) |ꯃꯦꯔꯥ (Mera) |कात्तिक (Kāttik) |{{Lang|pa|ਕੱਤਕ}} (Kattak) |{{Lang|sd|ڪَتِي}} (Katī) |కార్తికము (Kārtikamu)|| align="center" |Bontel|| align="center" |སྨིན་དྲུག་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" |October–November |- |9|| align="center" |Mārgasirsa<br> ([[Agrahayana]]) || align="center" |Dhanus |{{Script|Kthi|𑂃𑂏𑂯𑂢}} (agahan) |अघन/अग्रहायण मँगसिर/मार्गशीर्ष |मार्गशीर्ष |ಮಾರ್ಗಶಿರ (Mārgasira) |{{Lang|ks|مَنٛجہۆر}} {{IPA|[mand͡ʒhor]}} or {{Lang|ks|مۄنٛجہِ ہور}} {{IPA|[mɔnd͡ʒihoːr]}} or {{Lang|ks|مَگَر}} {{IPA|[magar]}} |𑒁𑒑𑒯𑒢 (Agahan) |ꯍꯤꯌꯥꯡꯀꯩ (Heeyangkei) |मंसिर (Mangsir) |{{Lang|pa|ਮੱਘਰ}} (Magghar) |{{Lang|sd|ناهرِي}} (Nāhrī) or {{Lang|sd|مَنگهِرُ‎}} (Manghiru) |మార్గశిరము(Mārgaśiramu)|| align="center" |Jārde|| align="center" |མགོ་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" |November–December |- |10|| align="center" |[[Pausha]]|| align="center" |Makara |{{Script|Kthi|𑂣𑂴𑂮}} (pūs) |पूस/पौष |पौष |ಪುಷ್ಯ (Pushya) |{{Lang|ks|پوہ}} {{IPA|[poːh]}} or {{Lang|ks|پۄہ}} {{IPA|[pɔh]}} |𑒣𑒴𑒮 (Poos) |ꯄꯣꯢꯅꯨ (Poinu) |पुष (Puṣ) |{{Lang|pa|ਪੋਹ}} (Poh) |{{Lang|sd|پوهُه}} (Pohu) |పుష్యము(Puṣyamu)|| align="center" |Perarde|| align="center" |རྒྱལ་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" |December–January |- |11|| align="center" |[[Maagha|Māgha]]|| align="center" |Kumbha |{{Script| Kthi|𑂧𑂰𑂐}} (Māgh) |माघ |माघ |ಮಾಘ (Magha) |{{Lang|ks|ماگ}} {{IPA|[maːg]}} |𑒧𑒰𑒒 (Magh) |ꯋꯥꯛꯆꯤꯡ (Wakching) |माघ (Magh) |{{Lang|pa|ਮਾਘ}} (Māgh) |{{Lang|sd|مانگھُه}} (Mānghu) |మాఘము(Māghamu)|| align="center" |Puyintel|| align="center" |མཆུ་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" |January–February |- |12|| align="center" |[[Phalguna|Phālguna]]|| align="center" |Mina |{{Script|Kthi|𑂤𑂰𑂏𑂳𑂢}} (Fāgun) |फा(ल्)गुन |फाल्गुन |ಫಾಲ್ಗುಣ (Phalguna) |{{Lang|ks|پھاگُن}} {{IPA|[pʰaːgun]}} |𑒤𑒰𑒑𑒳𑒢 (Fagun) |ꯐꯥꯢꯔꯦꯜ (Fairel) |फागुन (Phagun) |{{Lang|pa|ਫੱਗਣ}} (Phaggaṇ) |{{Lang|sd|ڦَڳُڻُ}} (Phaguṇu) |ఫాల్గుణము (Phālguṇamu)|| align="center" |Māyi|| align="center" |དབོ་ཟླ་བ|| align="center" |February–March |} </div> ===Corrections between lunar and solar months=== {{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#adhikamasa}} [[File:Hindu Lunisolar Calendar.ogv|thumb|The astronomical basis of the Hindu lunar months. Also illustrates Adhika Masa (Year 2-Bhadrapada) repeats; the first time the Sun moves entirely within Simha Rashi thus rendering it an Adhika Masa]] Twelve Hindu mas (māsa, lunar month) are equal to approximately 354 days, while the length of a sidereal (solar) year is about 365 days. This creates a difference of about eleven days, which is offset every (29.53/10.63) = 2.71 years, or approximately every 32.5 months.<ref name="Montgomery2015p103"/> Purushottam Maas or [[Adhik Maas]] is an extra month that is inserted to keep the lunar and solar calendars aligned. The twelve months are subdivided into six lunar seasons timed with the agriculture cycles, blooming of natural flowers, fall of leaves, and weather. To account for the mismatch between lunar and solar calendar, the Hindu scholars adopted intercalary months, where a particular month just repeated. The choice of this month was not random, but timed to sync back the two calendars to the cycle of agriculture and nature.<ref name="Montgomery2015p103"/><ref name="Reingold2008p275"/> The repetition of a month created the problem of scheduling festivals, weddings and other social events without repetition and confusion. This was resolved by declaring one month as ''Shudha'' (pure, clean, regular, proper, also called ''Deva'' month) and the other ''Mala'' or ''Adhika'' (extra, unclean and inauspicious, also called [[Purushottam Maas|Asura masa]]).<ref name="Underhill1991p32">{{cite book|author=Muriel Marion Underhill|title=The Hindu Religious Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb9Zc0yPVUUC&pg=PA32|year=1991|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0523-7|pages=20, 32 note 5}}</ref> The Hindu mathematicians who calculated the best way to adjust the two years, over long periods of a ''yuga'' (era, tables calculating 1000 of years), they determined that the best means to intercalate the months is to time the intercalary months on a 19-year cycle, similar to the [[Metonic cycle]] used in the [[Hebrew calendar]]. This intercalation is generally adopted in the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 16th and 19th year of this cycle. Further, the complex rules rule out the repetition of [[Agrahayana|Mārgasirsa]] (also called ''Agrahayana''), [[Pausha]] and [[Maagha]] lunar months. The historic Hindu texts are not consistent on these rules, with competing ideas flourishing in the Hindu culture.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert Sewell|author2=Śaṅkara Bālakr̥shṇa Dīkshita|title= The Indian Calendar |year=1896|url= https://archive.org/details/indiancalendarwi00sewerich |publisher=S. Sonnenschein |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiancalendarwi00sewerich/page/29 29]–34, 48–56}}</ref> ====Rare corrections==== The Hindu calendar makes further rare adjustments, over a cycle of centuries, where a certain month is considered ''kshaya'' month (dropped). This occurs because of the complexity of the relative lunar, solar and earth movements. Underhill (1991) describes this part of Hindu calendar theory: "when the sun is in perigee, and a lunar month being at its longest, if the new moon immediately precedes a [[Sankranti|samkranti]], then the first of the two lunar months is deleted (called ''nija'' or ''kshaya'')." This, for example, happened in the year 1&nbsp;BCE, when there was no new moon between Makara samkranti and Kumbha samkranti, and the month of Pausha was dropped.<ref>{{cite book |first=Muriel Marion |last=Underhill |title=The Hindu Religious Year |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb9Zc0yPVUUC&pg=PA20 |year=1991 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0523-7 |pages=20–21}}</ref> ==Day== Just like months, the Hindu calendar has two measures of a day, one based on the lunar movement and the other on solar. The solar (''[[Saura calendar|saura]]'') day or civil day, called ''divasa'' ({{lang|sa|दिवस}}), has been what most Hindus traditionally use, is easy and empirical to observe, with or without a clock, and it is defined as the period from one sunrise to another. The lunar day is called ''tithi'' ({{lang|sa|तिथि}}), and this is based on complicated measures of lunar movement. A lunar day or ''tithi'' may, for example, begin in the middle of an afternoon and end next afternoon.<ref>{{cite book|author=Muriel Marion Underhill|title=The Hindu Religious Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb9Zc0yPVUUC&pg=PA20|year=1991|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0523-7|pages=23, 26–27}}</ref> Both these days do not directly correspond to a mathematical measure for a day such as equal 24 hours of a solar year, a fact that the Hindu calendar scholars knew, but the system of ''divasa'' was convenient for the general population. The ''tithi'' have been the basis for timing rituals and festivals, while ''divasa'' for everyday use. The Hindu calendars adjust the mismatch in ''divasa'' and ''tithi'', using a methodology similar to the solar and lunar months.<ref>{{cite book|author=Muriel Marion Underhill|title=The Hindu Religious Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb9Zc0yPVUUC&pg=PA20|year=1991|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0523-7|pages=27–28}}</ref> A ''tithi'' is technically defined in Vedic texts, states [[John E. Cort]], as "the time required by the combined motions of the Sun and Moon to increase (in a bright fortnight) or decrease (in a dark fortnight) their relative distance by twelve degrees of the zodiac.<ref name="Cort2001p2">{{cite book|author=John E. Cort|author-link=John E. Cort|title=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Ip7mCwAAQBAJ |year= 2001|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-513234-2|page=228 note 2}}</ref> These motions are measured using a fixed map of celestial zodiac as reference, and given the elliptical orbits, a duration of a ''tithi'' varies between 21.5 and 26 hours, states Cort.<ref name="Cort2001p2"/> However, in the Indian tradition, the general population's practice has been to treat a tithi as a solar day between one sunrise to next.<ref name="Cort2001p2"/> A lunar month has 30 ''tithi''. The technical standard makes each ''tithi'' contain different number of hours, but helps the overall integrity of the calendar. Given the variation in the length of a solar day with seasons, and the Moon's relative movements, the start and end time for ''tithi'' varies over the seasons and over the years, and the ''tithi'' adjusted to sync with ''divasa'' periodically with intercalation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Muriel Marion Underhill|title=The Hindu Religious Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb9Zc0yPVUUC&pg=PA20|year=1991|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0523-7|pages=23–28}}</ref> ===Weekday/Vāsara=== ''Vāsara'' refers to the weekdays in Sanskrit.<ref>[[Monier Monier-Williams]], [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0900/mw__0981.html वासर], Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, page 948</ref> Also referred to as ''Vara'' and used as a suffix.<ref name="Klostermaier2007p490">{{cite book|author=Klaus K. Klostermaier|title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C&pg=PA490 |year=2007|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4|pages=490–492}}</ref> The correspondence between the [[Names of the days of the week|names of the week]] in Hindu and other Indo-European calendars are exact. This alignment of names probably took place sometime during the 3rd century CE.<ref name=underhill25/><ref name="Dalal2010p89"/> The weekday of a Hindu calendar has been symmetrically divided into 60 ''ghatika'', each ''ghatika'' (24 minutes) is divided into 60 ''pala'', each ''pala'' (24 seconds) is subdivided into 60 ''vipala'', and so on.<ref name=underhill25/> <div style="overflow:auto"> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; font-size:85%;" |+ Names of the weekdays in different languages |- !No. !style="background: #ffad66;" |[[Sanskrit]]<ref name=underhill25>{{cite book|author=Muriel Marion Underhill|title=The Hindu Religious Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb9Zc0yPVUUC&pg=PA20|year=1991|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0523-7|pages=24–25}}</ref><ref name="Dalal2010p89">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=89}}</ref> !Latin weekday !Celestial object ![[Assamese language|Assamese]] ![[Bengali language|Bengali]] ![[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] ![[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] ![[Hindi language|Hindi]] ![[Kannada language|Kannada]] ![[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] ![[Konkani language|Konkani]] ![[Malayalam]] ![[Maithili language|Maithili]] ![[Marathi language|Marathi]] ![[Meitei language|Meitei]]<br>(Manipuri) ![[Nepali language|Nepali]] ![[Odia language|Odia]] ![[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]<br>(Hindus and Sikhs){{refn|group=note|Punjabi Muslims use Urdu/Arabic words for Friday / Saturday etc.<ref>{{cite book|author=Tej Bhatia|title=Punjabi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nTKBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA208|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-89460-2|pages=208–209}}</ref>}} ![[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] ![[Sylheti language|Sylheti]] ![[Tamil language|Tamil]] ![[Telugu language|Telugu]] ![[Urdu language|Urdu]] ![[Balinese language|Balinese]] ![[Cham language|Cham]] |- |1 |[[Sūrya|Ravi]]<nowiki/>vāsara <br/> रविवासर or <br> [[Surya]] vāsara <br/> आदित्य वासर |[[Sunday]]/dies [[Sol (Roman mythology)|Solis]] |[[Sūrya|Ravi, Aditya]] = [[Sun]] |[[Sūrya|Dêûbār/Rôbibār]] <br /> দেওবাৰ/ৰবিবাৰ |[[Sūrya|Rôbibār]] <br /> রবিবার |[[Surya|Etwār]] <br /> {{script| kthi|𑂉𑂞𑂫𑂰𑂩}} |[[Sūrya|Ravivār]] <br /> રવિવાર |[[Sūrya|Ravivār]] <br/> रविवार |[[Sūrya|Bhānuvāra]] <br /> ಭಾನುವಾರ |[[Surya|[aːtʰwaːr]]] {{Lang|ks|آتھوار}} |[[Sūrya|etār]] <br />{{script |Kthi|𑂉𑂞𑂫𑂰𑂩 }} |[[Sūrya|Njaayar]] <br /> ഞായർ |[[Sūrya|Ravidin]] <br /> 𑒩𑒫𑒱𑒠𑒱𑒢 |[[Sūrya|Ravivāra]] <br /> रविवार |Nongmaijing<br />ꯅꯣꯡꯃꯥꯏꯖꯤꯡ |[[Sūrya|Aaitabar]] <br /> आइतवार |[[Sūrya|Rabibāra]] <br /> ରବିବାର |[[Sūrya|Aitvār]] <br /> ਐਤਵਾਰ |[[Surya|Ācharu]] {{Lang|sd|آچَرُ}} or [[Surya|Ārtv]][[Sūrya|ār]]<nowiki/>u {{Lang|sd|آرتوارُ‎}} |[[Sūrya|Rôibār]] <br /> ꠞꠁꠛꠣꠞ |[[Sūrya|Nyayiru]] <br /> ஞாயிறு |[[Sūrya|Ādivāraṁ]] <br/> ఆదివారం |[[Sūrya|Itvār]] <br /> {{Nastaliq|اتوار}} ||[[Sūrya|Redite]] <br/> ᬋᬤᬶᬢᭂ ||[[Sūrya|Adit]] |- |2 |[[Soma (deity)|Soma]]<nowiki/>vāsara <br/> सोमवासर or <br> Indu vāsara <br/> इन्दु वासर |[[Monday]]/dies [[Selene|Lunae]] |[[Soma (deity)]], [[Chandra]] = [[Moon]] |[[Soma (deity)|Xûmbār]] <br /> সোমবাৰ |[[Soma (deity)|Śombār]] <br /> সোমবার |[[Soma (deity)|Somār]] <br /> {{Script| Kthi|𑂮𑂷𑂧𑂰𑂩 }} |[[Soma (deity)|Sōmavār]]<br /> સોમવાર |[[Soma (deity)|Somavār]] <br/>सोमवार |[[Soma (deity)|Sōmavāra]] <br /> ಸೋಮವಾರ |[[Chandra|[t͡səndrɨwaːr]]]<br /> {{Lang|ks|ژٔنٛدرٕوار}} ||[[Soma (deity)|Somaar]] <br /> सोमार |[[Soma (deity)|Thinkal]] <br /> തിങ്കൾ |[[Soma (deity)|Somdin]] <br /> 𑒮𑒼𑒧𑒠𑒱𑒢 |[[Soma (deity)|Somavāra]] <br />सोमवार |Ningthoukaba<br />ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯧꯀꯥꯕ |[[Soma (deity)|Sombar]] <br /> सोमवार |[[Soma (deity)|Somabāra]] <br /> ସୋମବାର |[[Soma (deity)|Somavār]] <br /> ਸੋਮਵਾਰ |[[Chandra|Sūmaru]] {{Lang|sd|سُومَرُ}} |[[Soma (deity)|Śombār]] <br /> ꠡꠝꠛꠣꠞ |[[Soma (deity)|Thingal]] <br /> திங்கள் |[[Soma (deity)|Sōmavāraṁ]] <br/> సోమవారం |[[Soma (deity)|Somvār]] <br /> {{Nastaliq|سوموار}} or [[Soma (deity)|Pīr]]<br />{{Nastaliq| پیر }} |[[Soma (deity)|Soma]] <br /> ᬲᭀᬫ |[[Soma (deity)|Thom]] |- |3 |[[Mangala|Maṅgala]]<nowiki/>vāsara <br/> मङ्गलवासर or <br> Bhaumavāsara <br/> भौम वासर |[[Tuesday]]/dies [[Mars (mythology)|Martis]] |[[Mangala|Maṅgala]] = [[Mars]] |[[Mangala|Môṅôlbār/Môṅgôlbār]] <br /> মঙলবাৰ/মঙ্গলবাৰ |[[Mangala|Môṅgôlbār]] <br /> মঙ্গলবার |[[Mangala|Maṅar]] <br /> {{Script| Kthi| 𑂧𑂑𑂩 }} |[[Mangala|Maṅgaḷavār]] <br /> મંગળવાર |[[Mangala|Maṅgalavār]] <br/> मंगलवार |[[Mangala|Maṁgaḷavāra]] <br /> ಮಂಗಳವಾರ |[[Mangala|[boːmwaːr]]] {{Lang|ks|بوموار}} or [[Mangala|[bɔ̃waːr]]] {{Lang|ks|بۄنٛوار}} |[[Mangala|Mangaḷār]] <br /> मंगळार |[[Mangala|Chovva]] <br /> ചൊവ്വ |[[Mangala|Maṅgaldin]] <br /> 𑒧𑓀𑒑𑒪𑒠𑒱𑒢 |[[Mangala|Maṅgaḷavāra]] <br /> मंगळवार |Leipakpokpa<br />ꯂꯩꯄꯥꯛꯄꯣꯛꯄ |[[Mangala|Mangalbar]] <br /> मङ्गलवार |[[Mangala|Maṅgaḷabāra]] <br /> ମଙ୍ଗଳବାର |[[Mangala|Maṅgalavār]] <br /> ਮੰਗਲਵਾਰ |[[Mangala|Mangalu]] {{Lang|sd|مَنگلُ}} or [[Mangala|Angāro]] {{Lang|sd|اَنڱارو}} |[[Mangala|Môṅgôlbār]] <br /> ꠝꠋꠉꠟꠛꠣꠞ |[[Mangala|Chevvai]] <br /> செவ்வாய் |[[Mangala|Maṁgaḷavāraṁ]] <br/> మంగళవారం |[[Mangala|Mangal]] <br/> {{Nastaliq| منگل}} |[[Mangala|Anggara]] <br /> ᬳᬂᬕᬭ |[[Mangala|Angar]] |- |4 |[[Budha]]<nowiki/>vāsara <br/> बुधवासर or <br> Saumya vāsara <br/> सौम्य वासर |[[Wednesday]]/dies [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercurii]] |[[Budha]] = [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] |[[Budha|Budhbār]] <br /> বুধবাৰ |[[Budha|Budhbār]] <br /> বুধবার |[[Budha|Buddh]] <br />{{Script| Kthi| 𑂥𑂳𑂡 }} |[[Budha]]vār <br /> બુધવાર |[[Budha]]vāra <br/> बुधवार |[[Budha]]vāra <br /> ಬುಧವಾರ |[[Budha|[bɔdwaːr]]] {{Lang|ks|بۄدوار}} |[[Budha]]vār <br /> बुधवार |[[Budha]]n <br /> ബുധൻ |[[Budha|Budhdin]] <br /> 𑒥𑒳𑒡𑒠𑒱𑒢 |[[Budha]]vāra <br /> बुधवार |Yumsakeisa<br />ꯌꯨꯝꯁꯀꯩꯁ |[[Budha]]bar <br /> बुधवार |[[Budha]]bāra <br /> ବୁଧବାର |[[Budha|Buddhavār]] <br /> ਬੁੱਧਵਾਰ |[[Budha]]ru {{Lang|sd|ٻُڌَرُ}} or [[Budha|Arbā]] {{Lang|sd|اَربع}} |[[Budha|Budbār]] <br /> ꠛꠥꠗꠛꠣꠞ |[[Budha]]n <br /> புதன் |[[Budha]]vāraṁ <br/> బుధవారం |[[Budha|Budh]] <br/> {{Nastaliq|بدھ}} |[[Budha|Buda]] <br/> ᬩᬸᬤ |[[Budha|But]] |- |5 |[[Guru]]<nowiki/>vāsara <br/> गुरुवासर <br/> or <br> [[Bṛhaspati|Brhaspati]] vāsara <br/> बृहस्पतिवासर |[[Thursday]]/dies [[Jupiter (mythology)|Iovis]]/Jupiter |[[Bṛhaspati|Deva-Guru Bṛhaspati]] = [[Jupiter]] |[[Bṛhaspati|Brihôspôtibār]] <br /> বৃহস্পতিবাৰ |[[Bṛhaspati|Brihôśpôtibār]] <br /> বৃহস্পতিবার |[[Guru|Biphe/Biyaphe]] <br /> {{Script| Kthi| 𑂥𑂱𑂤𑂵 / 𑂥𑂱𑂨𑂤𑂵 }} |[[Guru]]vār <br /> ગુરુવાર |[[Guru]]vār <br/> गुरुवार or <br> [[Bṛhaspati|Brihaspativ]]āra <br> बृहस्पतिवार |[[Guru]]vāra <br/> ಗುರುವಾರ |[[Bṛhaspati|[braswaːr]]] {{Lang|ks|برَٛسوار}} or [[Bṛhaspati|[brʲaswaːr]]] {{Lang|ks|برٛؠسوار}} |[[Guru|Birestār]] <br /> बिरेस्तार |[[Guru|Vyaazham]] <br /> വ്യാഴം |[[Guru|Brihaspatidin]]<br /> 𑒥𑒵𑒯𑒮𑓂𑒣𑒞𑒲𑒠𑒱𑒢 |[[Guru]]vāra <br /> गुरुवार |Sagolsen<br />ꯁꯒꯣꯜꯁꯦꯟ |[[Guru|Bihibar]] <br /> बिहीवार |[[Guru]]bāra <br /> ଗୁରୁବାର |[[Guru|Vīravār]] <br /> ਵੀਰਵਾਰ |[[Bṛhaspati|Vispati]] {{Lang|sd|وِسپَتِ‎}} or [[Bṛhaspati|Khamīsa]] {{Lang|sd|خَميِسَ‎}} |[[Bṛhaspati|Biśôtbār]] <br /> ꠛꠤꠡꠔꠛꠣꠞ |[[Guru|Vyazhan]] <br /> வியாழன் |[[Guru|Guruvāraṁ, Br̥haspativāraṁ]] <br/> గురువారం, బృహస్పతివారం, లక్ష్మీవారం |[[Guru|Gurūvār]] <br /> {{Nastaliq| گرووار}} or [[Guru|Jume'rāt]] <br /> {{Nastaliq| جمعرات}} |[[Guru|Wrespati]] <br /> ᬯ᭄ᬭᭂᬲ᭄ᬧᬢᬶ |[[Guru|Jip]] |- |6 |[[Shukra|Śukra]]<nowiki/>vāsara <br/> शुक्रवासर |[[Friday]]/dies [[Venus (mythology)|Veneris]] |[[Shukra|Śukra]] = [[Venus]] |[[Shukra|Xukurbār/Xukrôbār]] <br /> শুকুৰবাৰ/শুক্রবাৰ |[[Shukra|Śukrôbār]] <br /> শুক্রবার |[[Shukra|Sūk]] <br /> {{Script| Kthi|𑂮𑂴𑂍 }} |[[Shukra|Śukravār]] <br /> શુક્રવાર |[[Shukra|Śukravār]] <br/> शुक्रवार |[[Shukra|Śukravāra]] <br/> ಶುಕ್ರವಾರ |[[Shukra|[ʃokurwaːr]]] {{Lang|ks|شۆکُروار}} or [[Shukra|[jumaːh]]] {{Lang|ks|جُمعہ}} |[[Shukra|Shukrār]] <br /> शुक्रार |[[Shukra|Velli]] <br /> വെള്ളി |[[Shukra|Śukradin]] <br /> 𑒬𑒳𑒏𑓂𑒩𑒠𑒱𑒢 |[[Shukra|Śukravāra]] <br /> शुक्रवार |Eerai<br />ꯏꯔꯥꯢ |[[Shukra|Sukrabar]] <br /> शुक्रवार |[[Shukra|Sukrabāra]] <br /> ଶୁକ୍ରବାର |[[Shukra|Śukkaravār]] <br /> ਸ਼ੁੱਕਰਵਾਰ |[[Shukra|Śukru]] {{Lang|sd|شُڪرُ}} or [[Shukra|Jum'o]] {{Lang|sd|جُمعو}} |[[Shukra|Śukurbār]] <br /> ꠡꠥꠇꠥꠞꠛꠣꠞ |[[Shukra|Velli]] <br /> வெள்ளி |[[Shukra|Śukravāraṁ]] <br/> శుక్రవారం |[[Shukra|Śukarvār]] <br /> {{Nastaliq|شکروار}} or [[Shukra|Juma'a]]<br />{{Nastaliq| جمع}} |[[Shukra|Sukra]] <br /> ᬲᬸᬓ᭄ᬭ |[[Shukra|Suk]] |- |7 |[[Shani|Śani]]<nowiki/>vāsara <br/> शनिवासर Or Śaniścaravāsara शनिश्चरवासर |[[Saturday]]/dies [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturnis]] |[[Shani|Śani]] = [[Saturn]] |[[Shani|Xônibār]] <br /> শনিবাৰ |[[Shani|Śônibār]] <br /> শনিবার |[[Shani|Sanichchar]] <br /> {{Script| Kthi|𑂮𑂢𑂱𑂒𑂹𑂒𑂩 }} |[[Shani|Śanivār]] <br /> શનિવાર |[[Shani|Śanivār]] <br/> शनिवार |[[Shani|Śanivāra]] <br/> ಶನಿವಾರ |[[Shani|[baʈɨwaːr]]] {{Lang|ks|بَٹہٕ وار}} |[[Shani|Shenvār]] <br /> शेनवार |[[Shani]] <br /> ശനി |[[Shani|Śanidin]] <br /> 𑒬𑒢𑒲𑒠𑒱𑒢 |[[Shani|Śanivāra]] <br /> शनिवार |Thangja<br />ꯊꯥꯡꯖ |[[Shani|Sanibar]] <br /> शनिवार |[[Shani|Sanibāra]] <br /> ଶନିବାର |[[Shani|Śanīvār]] <br /> ਸ਼ਨੀਵਾਰ or<br />[[Shani|Śaniccharvār]] <br /> ਸ਼ਨਿੱਚਰਵਾਰ or<br />[[Shani|Saniccharvār]] <br /> ਸਨਿੱਚਰਵਾਰ or<br />[[Shani|Sanīvār]] <br /> ਸਨੀਵਾਰ |[[Shani|Chancharu]] {{Lang|sd|ڇَنڇَرُ‎}} or [[Shani|Śanscharu]] {{Lang|sd|شَنسچَرُ}} |[[Shani|Śônibār]] <br />ꠡꠘꠤꠛꠣꠞ |[[Shani]] <br /> சனி |[[Shani|Śanivāraṁ]] <br/> శనివారం |[[Shani|Sanīchar]] <br/> {{Nastaliq|سنیچر}} or [[Shani|Haftah]]<br />{{Nastaliq| ہفتہ}} |[[Shani|Saniscara]] <br /> ᬲᬦᬶᬲ᭄ᬘᬭ |[[Shani|Thanchar]] |} </div> {{reflist|group=note}} The term '''-vāsara''' is often realised as '''vāra''' or '''vaar''' in [[Sanskrit]]-derived and influenced languages. There are many variations of the names in the regional languages, mostly using alternate names of the celestial bodies involved. ===Five limbs of time=== The complete Vedic calendars contain five ''angas'' or parts of information: lunar day (tithi), solar day (diwas), [[Asterism (astronomy)|asterism]] (naksatra), planetary joining (yoga) and astronomical period (karanam). This structure gives the calendar the name ''Panchangam''.<ref name="Klostermaier2007p490"/> The first two are discussed above. ====Yoga==== ::''See the main article on [[Nityayoga|yoga]].'' {{More citations needed section|date=March 2010}} The [[Sanskrit]] word Yoga means "union, joining, attachment", but in astronomical context, this word means latitudinal and longitudinal information. The longitude of the Sun and the longitude of the Moon are added, and normalised to a value ranging between 0° to 360° (if greater than 360, one subtracts 360). This sum is divided into 27 parts. Each part will now equal 800' (where ' is the symbol of the [[arcminute]] which means 1/60 of a degree). These parts are called the ''yogas''. They are labelled: {{div col|colwidth=22em}} # Viṣkambha # Prīti # Āyuśmān # Saubhāgya # Śobhana # Atigaṇḍa # Sukarma # [[Dhrti]] # Śūla # Gaṇḍa # [[Vṛddhi]] # [[Dhruva]] # Vyāghatā # Harṣaṇa # [[Vajra]] # [[Siddhi]] # Vyatipāta # Variyas # Parigha # [[Śiva]] # [[Siddha]] # Sādhya # Śubha # Śukla # [[Brahma]] # Māhendra # Vaidhṛti {{div col end}} Again, minor variations may exist. The ''yoga'' that is active during sunrise of a day is the prevailing ''yoga'' for the day. ====Karaṇa==== A '''[[Karaṇa (pañcāṅga)|karaṇa]]''' is half of a '''[[tithi]]'''. To be precise, a karaṇa is the time required for the angular distance between the Sun and the Moon to increase in steps of 6° starting from 0°. (Compare with the definition of a tithi.) Since the tithis are 30 in number, and since 1 tithi = 2 karaṇas, therefore one would logically expect there to be 60 karaṇas. But there are only 11 such karaṇas which fill up those slots to accommodate for those 30 tithis. There are actually 4 "fixed" (sthira) karaṇas and 7 "repeating" (cara) karaṇas. The 4 "fixed" karaṇas are: # Śakuni (शकुनि) # Catuṣpāda (चतुष्पाद) # [[Nāga]] (नाग) # Kiṃstughna (किंस्तुघ्न) The 7 "repeating" karaṇas are:<ref name="Burgess1989">{{cite book|author=Ebenezer Burgess|title=Sûrya-Siddhânta: A Text-book of Hindu Astronomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0Uo_-_iizwC&pg=PA107|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0612-2|pages=107–}}</ref> # [[Vava (karana)|Vava]] or Bava (बव) # Valava or Bālava (बालव) # Kaulava (कौलव) # Taitila or Taitula (तैतिल) # [[Gara]] or Garaja (गरज) # Vaṇija (वणिज) # Viṣṭi ([[Bhadra (Hindu calendar)|Bhadra]]) (भद्रा) * Now the first half of the 1st ''tithi'' (of Śukla Pakṣa) is always ''Kiṃtughna karaṇa''. Hence this '''karaṇa''' is "fixed". * Next, the 7-repeating karaṇas repeat eight times to cover the next 56 half-''tithis''. Thus these are the "repeating" (cara) karaṇas. * The 3 remaining half-''tithis'' take the remaining "fixed" karaṇas in order. Thus these are also "fixed" (sthira). * Thus one gets 60 karaṇas from those 11 preset karaṇas. The Vedic day begins at sunrise. The karaṇa at sunrise of a particular day shall be the prevailing karaṇa for the whole day. (citation needed ) ====Nakshatra==== {{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#nakshatra}} [[Nakshatras]] are divisions of ecliptic, each 13° 20', starting from 0° Aries. ==Festival calendar: Solar and Lunar dates== {{Main|List of Hindu festivals}} Many holidays in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina traditions are based on the lunar cycles in the lunisolar timekeeping with foundations in the Hindu calendar system. A few holidays, however, are based on the solar cycle, such as the [[Vaisakhi]], [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]] and those associated with [[Sankranti]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Peter J. Claus|author2=Sarah Diamond|author3=Margaret Ann Mills|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&pg=PA91|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|pages=91–93}}</ref> The dates of the lunar cycle based festivals vary significantly on the Gregorian calendar and at times by several weeks.The solar cycle based ancient Hindu festivals almost always fall on the same Gregorian date every year and if they vary in an exceptional year, it is by one day.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert Sewell|author2=Śaṅkara Bālakr̥shṇa Dīkshita|title=The Indian Calendar: With Tables for the Conversion of Hindu and Muhammadan Into A.D. Dates, and Vice Versa|url=https://archive.org/details/indiancalendarwi00sewerich|year=1896|publisher=S. Sonnenschein |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiancalendarwi00sewerich/page/9 9]–12}}</ref> ==Regional variants== The Hindu Calendar Reform Committee, appointed in 1952, identified more than thirty well-developed calendars, in use across different parts of India. Variants include the lunar emphasizing ''Vikrama'', the ''Shalivahana'' calendars, as well as the solar emphasizing [[Tamil calendar]] and [[Malayalam calendar]]. The two calendars most widely used today are the ''[[Vikram Samvat|Vikrama]]'' calendar, which is in followed in western and [[northern India]] and [[Nepal]], the [[Shalivahana era|Shalivahana Shaka]] calendar which is followed in the [[Deccan]] region of India (Comprising present day Indian states of [[Telangana]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Karnataka]], [[Maharashtra]], and [[Goa]]).<ref name="Underhill1921">The Shalivahan Shaka calendar follows the Amant system. The year begins on the first day of the bright fortnight of the month of Chaitra.{{cite book|author=Muriel Marion Underhill|title=The Hindu Religious Year|url=https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.23377|year=1921|publisher=Association Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.23377/page/n12 15]}}</ref> ===Lunar=== Calendars based on lunar cycle (lunar months in solar year, lunar phase for religious dates and new year): * [[Vikram Samvat]] ** Vikrami era – North and Central India (Lunar) ** Gujarati samvat – Gujarat, Rajasthan ** Sindhi samvat – Sindhis * [[Shalivahana era|Shalivahana]] calendar (Shaka era) – Used in [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan region]] states of [[Maharashtra]], [[Goa]], [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]] * Saptarishi era calendar – [[Kashmiri Pandits]] * [[Kannada calendar]] - Karnataka * [[Kashmiri calendar]] - Kashmir * [[Maithili calendar]] * [[Meitei calendar]] – Manipur * [[Nepal Sambat|Nepali calendar]] - Nepal, Sikhim * [[Punjabi calendar]] - Punjab * [[Sindhi calendar]] - Sindh * [[Telugu calendar]] - Andhra Pradesh, Telangana * [[Tibetan calendar]] - Tibet ===Solar=== Calendars based on solar cycle (solar months in solar year, lunar phase for religious dates but new year which falls on solar date – [[South and Southeast Asian solar New Year]]): * [[Assamese calendar]] – Assam * [[Bengali calendars|Bengali calendar]] – West Bengal * [[Odia calendar]] – Odisha * [[Tirhuta Panchang]] – Maithilis * [[Tripuri calendar]] – Tripura * [[Malayalam calendar]] – Kerala * [[Tamil calendar]] – Tamil Nadu * [[Tulu calendar]] – Tulus * [[Vikram Samvat]] calendar - Nepal ** ** Vi– North and Central India (Solar) ** Bikram Sambat – Nepal, Sikkim ===Other related calendars across India and Asia=== * [[Indian national calendar]] – used by Indian Government (civil calendar based on solar months) * [[Vira Nirvana Samvat]] (Lunar) – Jain * * [[Buddhist calendar]] (Lunar) – Buddhist * [[Tibetan calendar]] (Lunar) – Tibet, Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh * [[Pawukon calendar]] – Bali * [[Balinese saka calendar]] (Lunar) – Bali * [[Cham calendar]] (Lunar) – Chams * [[Chula Sakarat]] (Lunar) – Myanmar * [[Thai solar calendar]] – Thailand * [[Thai lunar calendar]] – Thailand * [[Month#Khmer calendar|Khmer calendar]] (Lunar & Solar) – Cambodia ==See also== * [[Hinduism]] * [[Panjika]] * [[Sankranti]] * [[Ekadashi]] * [[Panchangam]] * [[Kollam era]] * [[Hindu astrology]] * [[Hindu units of time]] * [[Malayalam calendar]] * [[List of Hindu festivals]] * [[Hindu units of measurement]] * [[List of Hindu Empires and Dynasties]] * [[Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ===Bibliography=== *{{cite book|author=Kim Plofker|title=Mathematics in India |title-link=Mathematics in India (book) |year=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12067-6 }} *{{cite journal | last=Pingree | first=David | title=The Mesopotamian Origin of Early Indian Mathematical Astronomy | journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy | publisher=SAGE | volume=4 | issue=1 | year=1973 | pages=1–12 | doi=10.1177/002182867300400102 | bibcode=1973JHA.....4....1P | s2cid=125228353 }} *{{cite book|last=Pingree |first= David | title= Jyotihśāstra : Astral and Mathematical Literature| publisher= Otto Harrassowitz| year= 1981| isbn= 978-3447021654 }} *{{cite book|author=Yukio Ohashi|editor=Johannes Andersen|title=Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQYscrT0fgQC|year=1999|publisher=Springer Science|isbn=978-0-7923-5556-4}} *{{cite journal|author=Yukio Ohashi| title=Development of Astronomical Observations in Vedic and post-Vedic India| year=1993|journal=Indian Journal of History of Science|volume=28|number=3}} *{{cite book| author=Maurice Winternitz| author-link=Moriz Winternitz| title=History of Indian Literature, Volume 1| year=1963| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| isbn=978-81-208-0056-4}} ==Further reading== * Reingold and Dershowitz, ''[[Calendrical Calculations|Calendrical Calculations, Millennium Edition]]'', [[Cambridge University Press]], latest 2nd edition 3rd printing released November 2004. {{ISBN|0-521-77752-6}} * S. Balachandra Rao, ''Indian Astronomy: An Introduction'', Universities Press, Hyderabad, 2000. * Rai Bahadur Pandit Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha, ''The Paleography of India'', 2 ed., Ajmer, 1918, reprinted Manshuram Manoharlal publishers, 1993. ==External links== {{EB1911 poster|Hindu Chronology}} * [https://www.youtube.com/@ahargana Ahargana - The Astronomy of the Hindu Calendar] Explains the various calendric elements of the Hindu calendar by means of astronomical simulations created using [[Stellarium (software)|Stellarium]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170524154539/http://www.bsswebsite.me.uk/Daysanddates/indiandate.htm Converter: Gregorian and 1957 Normalized Indian Calendar], Shalivahana Hindu calendar, United Kingdom * [https://www.thedivineindia.com/hindu-calcendar/6931 Hindu Calendar - thedivineindia.com] * [https://monthlycalendars.in/index.php Hindu Calendars Monthly - monthlycalendars.in] * [http://nepcal.com/ Hindu Calendar of Nepal] The Official Hindu Calendar of Nepal * [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.india.hindicalender Indian panchang and Hindu Calendar] Bharat Calendar - Hindu Calendar with in-depth details * [http://www.cc.kyoto-su.ac.jp/~yanom/pancanga/ Kyoto University Gregorian – Saka – Vikrami Calendar Converter Tool], M. YANO and M. FUSHIMI {{Special characters|Indic}} {{Hindu calendar}} {{calendars}} {{HinduFestivals}} {{Hindudharma}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hindu Calendar}} [[Category:Hindu calendar| ]] [[Category:Hindu astronomy|Calendar]] [[Category:Hindu astrology|Calendar]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Time in India]] [[Category:Time in Hinduism]] [[Category:Indian inventions]]'