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New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '[[Northern Wu]], or [[Taihu Wu]], is the largest subbranch of [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] [[Sinitic languages|Chinese]],{{sfnp|Zheng|2008|pp=vi}} and is spoken in [[Shanghai]], southern [[Jiangsu]], and northern [[Zhejiang]].{{sfnp|Li|2012}} These languages are noted for their extremely high number of [[vowel]]s, even compared to some [[Germanic languages]],{{sfnp|Li|Hong|2012|pp=12}} and highly complex [[tone sandhi]].{{sfnp|Rose|Toda|1994|pp=267}} This article will use [[Romanization of Wu Chinese|Wugniu]]<ref name="wugniu">[https://wugniu.com/ {{lang|zh|吳語學堂}} (Wugniu)]</ref> and [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] for transcription.
==Syllable structure==
Much like other Sinitic languages, Northern Wu languages almost universally have an initial-final-tone [[syllable structure]]. The final can be further split into the [[Semivowel|glide]], [[Syllable#Nucleus|nucleus]] and [[Syllable#Coda|coda]]. For the most part, contemporary Northern Wu languages only permit nasals and the glottal stop ({{IPA|/ʔ/}}) in coda position,{{sfnp|Rose|2001}} though there is evidence to suggest that this was not the case in some historical varieties.{{sfnp|Qian|2003}} There are plentiful [[Syllable#Onset|initials]] in Northern Wu,{{sfnp|Liu|Kula|2018|pp=27}} more than many other Sinitic languages such as [[Cantonese]] or [[Changsha dialect|Changshanese]], partially due to the preservation of voiced initials, which will be explained in more detail in other sections.
==Initials==
Much like other Wu languages, Northern Wu languages tend to preserve historical voiced initials,{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=3-7}} which is a feature only found in several other lects along the [[Yangtze River]], such as [[Old Xiang]].{{sfnp|Chen|2004|pp=10-55}}
Northern Wu languages' initials are generally similar. The following is a table of all the commonly-found Northern Wu phonemic initials, with their common urban realizations, Wugniu romanization, and example syllables.<ref name="wugniu" />{{sfnp|Qian|2007|pp=386}}{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=1}}{{sfnp|Ningbo Gazetteer|pp=2853}}{{sfnp|Wang|2015|pp=3-4}}{{sfnp|Bao|1998|pp=6}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+Initial Consonants
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align="center"
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}} ⟨m⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|美悶梅門}}
|{{IPA link|n}} ⟨n⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|拿囡內男}}
|{{IPA link|ɲ}} ⟨gn⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|粘扭泥牛}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ}} ⟨ng⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|砑我外鵝}}
|
|- align="center"
! rowspan="3" |[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
!<small>[[Tenuis consonant|plain]]</small>
|{{IPA link|p}} ⟨p⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|布幫北}}
|{{IPA link|t}} ⟨t⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|膽懂德}}
|
|{{IPA link|k}} ⟨k⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|干公夾}}
|({{IPA link|ʔ}})<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|鴨衣烏}}
|- align="center"
!<small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPA link|pʰ}} ⟨ph⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|怕胖劈}}
|{{IPA link|tʰ}} ⟨th⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|透聽鐵}}
|
|{{IPA link|kʰ}} ⟨kh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|開擴康}}
|
|- align="center"
!<small>[[voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|b}} ⟨b⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|步盆拔}}
|{{IPA link|d}} ⟨d⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|地動奪}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɡ}} ⟨g⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|葵共軋}}
|
|- align="center"
! rowspan="3" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!<small>[[Tenuis consonant|plain]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|ts}} ⟨ts⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|煮增質}}
|{{IPA link|tɕ}} ⟨c⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|舉精腳}}
|
|
|- align="center"
!<small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|tsʰ}} ⟨tsh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|處倉出}}
|{{IPA link|tɕʰ}} ⟨ch⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|丘輕切}}
|
|
|- align="center"
!<small>[[voiced]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|dz}} ⟨dz⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|茶從鋤}}
|{{IPA link|dʑ}} ⟨j⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|旗羣劇}}
|
|
|- align="center"
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!<small>[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA link|f}} ⟨f⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|飛粉福}}
|{{IPA link|s}} ⟨s⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|書松色}}
|{{IPA link|ɕ}} ⟨sh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|修血曉}}
|
|{{IPA link|h}} ⟨h⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|花荒忽}}
|- align="center"
!<small>[[voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|v}} ⟨v⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|扶服浮}}
|{{IPA link|z}} ⟨z⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|樹石十}}
|{{IPA link|ʑ}} ⟨zh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|徐秦絕}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɦ}} ⟨gh⟩, ⟨y⟩, ⟨w⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|鞋移胡雨}}
|- align="center"
! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|{{IPA link|l}} ⟨l⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|拉賴領}}
|
|
|
|}
===Noteworthy omissions===
Some varieties in [[Suzhou]] and [[Jiaxing]] have [[retroflex]] initials,{{sfnp|Ye|1988|pp=82}}{{sfnp|Mo|2013|pp=15}} much like some [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]] varieties. Compare the following examples.<ref name="wugniu" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! !! Beijing !! Changshu !! Changzhou !! Shengzhou
|-
! 張
| zhāng<br />{{IPA|/tʂaŋ⁵⁵/}} || can<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʂaŋ⁵²/}} || tsan<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsaŋ⁵⁵/}} || tsan<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsã⁵³⁴/}}
|-
! 常
| cháng<br />{{IPA|/tʂʰaŋ³⁵/}} || jan<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/dʐaŋ³⁴/}} || zan<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/zaŋ²¹³/}} || dzan<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/dzã²¹³/}}
|-
! 船
| chuán<br />{{IPA|/tʂʰuan³⁵/}} || zhe<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/ʐe³⁴/}} || zoe<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/zɤ²¹³/}} || zoen<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/zœ̃²¹³/}}
|}
===Characteristic preservations and innovations===
Northern Wu, much like other Wu varieties, preserves [[voice (linguistics)|voicing]] in its initials.{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=3-7}} The exact mechanism in which this is realized is discussed below.
Again, much like other Wu languages,{{sfnp|Li|2012}} Northern Wu preserves the Middle Chinese ''ri'' initial ({{lang|zh|日母}}) as a nasal. Compare the following, where ⟨gn⟩ is used to notate /{{IPA link|ɲ}}/:<ref name="wugniu" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! !! Beijing !! Guangzhou !! Xi'an !! Seoul<br />([[Sino-Korean vocabulary|Sino-Korean]])!! Shanghai !! Beilun !! Anji
|-
! {{link text|日}}
| rì || jat<sup>6</sup> || ěr || il || gniq<sup>8</sup> || gniq<sup>8</sup> || gniq<sup>8</sup>
|-
! {{link text|玉}}
| yù || juk<sup>6</sup> || yǔ || ok || gnioq<sup>8</sup>, gniuq<sup>8</sup> || gnioq<sup>8</sup> || gnioq<sup>8</sup>
|}
Note that {{lang|zh|日}} here is pronounced in the [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|colloquial pronunciations]] rather than literary ones.
====Palatalization====
Many Northern Wu varieties have [[sibilant]]s that undergo [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] ({{lang|zh|尖團合流}} [<small>[[:zh:尖團合流|zh]]</small>]).{{sfnp|Qian|2007}} This process is becoming more common among younger speakers.{{sfnp|Ye|1988|pp=82}}{{sfnp|Zhou|2011|pp=12}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! !! Old Suzhou !! Old Wuxi !! Shanghai !! New Suzhou !! New Wuxi
|-
! {{link text|精}}
| tsin<sup>1</sup> || tsin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup>
|-
! {{link text|經}}
| cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup>
|-
! {{link text|齊}}
| zi<sup>2</sup> || zi<sup>6</sup> || zhi<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup>
|-
! {{link text|旗}}
| ji<sup>2</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup>
|}
===Depression===
The voiced initials in Northern Wu languages are realised with [[breathy voice]].{{sfnp|Rose|2021}} This functions much like a phonemic depressor and lowers the pitch of the realization.{{sfnp|Rose|2001}} Some linguists, such as [[Y. R. Chao]], transcribe these phones not as voiced consonants, but as voiceless consonants followed by /{{IPA link|ɦ}}/ or even /{{IPA link|ʢ}}/.{{sfnp|Liu|Kula|2018|pp=27}}{{sfnp|Rose|2015|pp=1}} More recently, potentially due to [[Standard Mandarin]] influence, the younger generation has merged the pronunciation of the unaspirated voiceless series with the (breathy) voiced series.{{sfnp|Gu|2008|pp=76}} However, the functional load of the breathy voice is relatively low, due to the fact that tonal distribution lends to disambiguation between historically voiced and voiceless syllables. This breathy voice is at times known as "murmur".{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999}}{{sfnp|Chappell|Lan|2017|pp=15}}
Some speakers, particularly in [[Shanghai]], may constrict their throats when pronouncing voiceless (unaspirated) initials to further disambiguate breathy and [[modal voice|modal]] initials.{{sfnp|Chu|2013|pp=2}} This construction may result in the pronunciation of an [[implosive]].
====Implosives====
In various suburban [[Shanghainese]] varieties, the unaspirated voiceless series is realised as [[implosive]]s.{{sfnp|Xu|2015|pp=7}}{{sfnp|Chuansha Gazetteer|pp=897}}{{sfnp|Zhu|2006a|pp=19-20}}{{sfnp|Chen|1988}} This feature appears to also have been in urban ([[Puxi]]) Shanghainese, though it is lost today.{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=50}}
===Glottal plosive series===
The glottal fricatives /{{IPA link|h}}/ and /{{IPA link|ɦ}}/ are phonotactically part of a plosive series with /{{IPA link|ʔ}}/. Spectral analyses have found that these three phones show three-way differences parallel to stops.{{sfnp|Koenig|Shi|2014|pp=25}} Younger speakers also tend to merge {{IPA|/ɦ/}} with {{IPA|/ʔ/}}, not {{IPA|/h/}}, as would be expected if it were phonotatically a fricative.{{sfnp|Gu|2008|pp=14}} As the {{IPA|/ʔ/}} has been analyzed as a null initial in the past,{{sfnp|Qian|2007|pp=307}} it could be said that Northern Wu languages have a three-way null initial contrast.
==Finals==
Finals vary singificantly more than initials in Northern Wu languages. As such, only noteworthy phonological and diachronic features will be discussed. For detailed analyses of individual lects, refer to their specific pages.
===Characteristic innovations===
====''Ma'' raising====
A feature found in many Wu languages, including Northern Wu, is the raising of the historical ''ma'' ({{lang|zh|麻}}) rimes.{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=18}} They are typically realised as /{{IPA link|o}}/, though some lects such as [[Shanghainese]] or [[Wuxi dialect|Wuxinese]] may raise it even higher and having it merge with /{{IPA link|u}}/.{{sfnp|Gu|2008|pp=78}} The exact sets of words that undergo raising varies from lect to lect, though in general, the southern two branches (Linshao and Yongjiang) have more raising than northern ones.<ref name="wugniu" />{{sfnp|Zheng|2013|pp=39-40}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! !! Haimen !! Qingpu !! Wuxi !! Tonglu !! Ningbo !! Beijing
|-
! {{link text|爬}}
|| bo<sup>2</sup> || bo<sup>2</sup> || bu<sup>2</sup> || buo<sup>2</sup> || bo<sup>2</sup> || pá
|-
! {{link text|茶}}
| dzo<sup>2</sup> || zo<sup>2</sup> || zeu<sup>2</sup> || jiuo<sup>2</sup> || dzo<sup>2</sup> || chá
|-
! {{link text|下}}
| gho<sup>4</sup> || gho<sup>6</sup> || wu<sup>6</sup> || wo<sup>6</sup> || gho<sup>6</sup> || xià
|-
! {{link text|家}}
| ka<sup>1</sup> || ka<sup>1</sup> || ka<sup>1</sup> || kuo<sup>1</sup> || ko<sup>1</sup> || jiā
|}
Notice how the two localities in Zhejiang, Tonglu and Ningbo, both pronounce the word {{lang|zh|家}} with a raised vowel, whereas those in Jiangsu and Shanghai do not. Northern varieties tend to retain the /{{IPA|a}}/ value after velars, whereas Linshao and Yongjiang do not.{{sfnp|Zheng|2013|pp=40}}
====''Hou'' fronting====
Northern Wu lects along the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] tend to front the Qieyun Middle Chinese {{lang|zh|侯}} rime (ie. Wugniu eu).{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=57}} [[Y. R. Chao]] suggested that this is due to influence from [[Hangzhou dialect|Hangzhounese]].{{sfnp|Chao|1967|pp=100}} Chao raises the example of {{lang|zh|歐洲後頭的狗}} "the dog behind Europe", pronounced as {{sic}} {{IPA|[eitsei ɦeidei kə' kei]}}, taken from his native [[Changzhou dialect|Changzhounese]]. Compare Standard Mandarin ''Ōuzhōu hòutóu de gǒu''.{{sfnp|Chao|1967|pp=100}}
====''Shan'' and ''xian'' rimes====
The Northern Wu languages exhibit interesting behaviour regarding Qieyun Middle Chinese ''shan'' ({{lang|zh|山}}) and ''xian'' ({{lang|zh|咸}}) rimes (ie. Wugniu ae). Some varieties lose the nasal coda completely, whereas others retain it. Some also leave some sporadic nasalization.{{sfnp|van Dam|2014|pp=63-66}} They typically also have abnormally raised, rounded, or fronted vowels and more complex distribution when compared to other lects, thus resulting in noticable differences. This behaviour is also exhibited in [[Hangzhou dialect|Hangzhounese]].{{sfnp|Bao|1998|pp=12}}
{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Correspondance of vernacular Shanghainese readings with Middle Chinese rime classes{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=116-117}}
! rowspan=2|Modern reflex !! colspan=2|Historical class !! rowspan=2|Conditions !! rowspan=2|Examples
|-
! ''Yunshe'' ({{lang|zh|韻攝}}) and division ({{lang|zh|等}}) !! ''Yun'' ({{lang|zh|韻}})
|-
! rowspan=6|i
| rowspan=2|Open III {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|鹽}} || {{lang|zh|幫}}, {{lang|zh|泥}}, {{lang|zh|精}} and {{lang|zh|日}} series; velars || {{link text|貶}}{{link text|尖}}{{link text|染}}{{link text|厭}}
|-
| {{lang|zh|嚴}} || ''Unconditional'' || {{link text|嚴}}{{link text|劍}}{{link text|欠}}{{link text|醃}}
|-
| Open IV {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|添}} || {{lang|zh|端}}, {{lang|zh|泥}}, {{lang|zh|見}} and {{lang|zh|曉}} series || {{link text|店}}{{link text|念}}{{link text|嫌}}{{link text|兼}}
|-
| rowspan=2|Open III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || {{lang|zh|幫}}, {{lang|zh|泥}}, {{lang|zh|精}}, {{lang|zh|見}} and {{lang|zh|影}} series || {{link text|變}}{{link text|剪}}{{link text|連}}{{link text|延}}
|-
| {{lang|zh|元}} || ''Unconditional'' || {{link text|建}}{{link text|言}}{{link text|軒}}{{link text|堰}}
|-
| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || most terms of {{lang|zh|泥}} and {{lang|zh|精}} series and two irregular {{lang|zh|以}} initial terms || {{link text|戀}}{{link text|泉}}{{link text|宣}}{{link text|沿}}
|-
! rowspan=10|e
| rowspan=2|Open I {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|覃}} || ''Sporadic'' || {{link text|耽}}{{link text|堪}}{{link text|坎}}{{link text|勘}}
|-
| {{lang|zh|談}} || (Historical) dentialveolars || {{link text|膽}}{{link text|淡}}{{link text|籃}}{{link text|三}}
|-
| rowspan=2|Open II {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|咸}} || rowspan=2|''Unconditional'' || {{link text|站}}{{link text|攙}}{{link text|減}}{{link text|陷}}
|-
| {{lang|zh|銜}} || {{link text|攙}}{{link text|衫}}{{link text|監}}{{link text|艦}}
|-
| Closed III {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|凡}} || ''Unconditional'' || {{link text|凡}}{{link text|泛}}{{link text|帆}}{{link text|範}}
|-
| Open I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|寒}} || (Historical) dentialveolars || {{link text|丹}}{{link text|坦}}{{link text|懶}}{{link text|傘}}
|-
| rowspan=2|Open II {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|山}} || rowspan=2|''Unconditional'' || {{link text|扮}}{{link text|產}}{{link text|揀}}{{link text|限}}
|-
| {{lang|zh|刪}} || {{link text|班}}{{link text|棧}}{{link text|姦}}{{link text|晏}}
|-
| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || Sporadic labials || {{link text|慢}}{{link text|蔓}}{{link text|般}}{{link text|瘢}}
|-
| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|元}} || {{lang|zh|非}} series || {{link text|反}}{{link text|翻}}{{link text|飯}}{{link text|萬}}
|-
! rowspan=3|ue
| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || ''two irregular terms'' || {{link text|慣}}{{link text|款}}
|-
| Closed II {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|山}} & {{lang|zh|刪}} || Velars || {{link text|關}}{{link text|慣}}{{link text|環}}{{link text|幻}}
|-
| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|元}} || ''one irregular term'' || {{link text|挽}}
|-
! rowspan=7|oe
| Open I {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|覃}} || Velars || {{link text|甘}}{{link text|敢}}{{link text|蚶}}{{link text|酣}}
|-
| Open III {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|鹽}} || (Historical) retroflex || {{link text|占}}{{link text|陝}}{{link text|閃}}{{link text|禪}}
|-
| Open I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|寒}} || Velars || {{link text|看}}{{link text|乾}}{{link text|汗}}{{link text|安}}
|-
| Open III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || {{lang|zh|知}}, {{lang|zh|章}} and {{lang|zh|日}} series || {{link text|展}}{{link text|戰}}{{link text|善}}{{link text|然}}
|-
| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || {{lang|zh|幫}} series and (historical) dentialveolars || {{link text|搬}}{{link text|短}}{{link text|暖}}{{link text|酸}}
|-
| Closed II {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|刪}} || {{lang|zh|莊}} series || {{link text|篡}}{{link text|閂}}{{link text|栓}}
|-
| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || {{lang|zh|知}} and {{lang|zh|章}} series || {{link text|轉}}{{link text|傳}}{{link text|磚}}{{link text|船}}
|-
! rowspan=2|uoe
| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || Velars || {{link text|官}}{{link text|寬}}{{link text|歡}}{{link text|碗}}
|-
| Closed II & III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|刪}} & {{lang|zh|元}} || ''Sporadic'' || {{link text|婉}}{{link text|宛}}
|-
! rowspan=3|ioe
| rowspan=2|Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || Velars and {{lang|zh|日}} initial || {{link text|軟}}{{link text|卷}}{{link text|拳}}{{link text|院}}
|-
| {{lang|zh|元}} || Velars || {{link text|勸}}{{link text|願}}{{link text|怨}}{{link text|遠}}
|-
| Closed IV {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|先}} || Velars || {{link text|犬}}{{link text|縣}}{{link text|玄}}{{link text|淵}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! !! Qieyun description !! Yixing !! Kunshan !! Jiaxing !! Wuhang !! Zhoushan
|-
! {{link text|山}}
| Open Grade II {{lang|zh|山}} || sa<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup>
|-
! {{link text|凡}}
| Closed Grade III {{lang|zh|咸}} || va<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup>
|-
! {{link text|鹽}}
| Open Grade III {{lang|zh|咸}} || ye<sup>2</sup> || ie<sup>2</sup> || ye<sup>2</sup> || ye<sup>2</sup> || ghien<sup>2</sup>
|-
! {{link text|天}}
| Open Grade IV {{lang|zh|山}} || tie<sup>1</sup> || thie<sup>1</sup> || thie<sup>1</sup> || thie<sup>1</sup> || thien<sup>1</sup>
|-
! {{link text|川}}
| Closed Grade III {{lang|zh|山}} || chioe<sup>1</sup> || tshoe<sup>1</sup> || tshoe<sup>1</sup> || tshae<sup>1</sup> || tshoen<sup>1</sup>
|-
! {{link text|南}}
| Open Grade I {{lang|zh|咸}} || ne<sup>2</sup> || noe<sup>2</sup> || noe<sup>2</sup> || nae<sup>2</sup> || nei<sup>2</sup>
|}
====Frication====
Several Northern Wu varieties have a very large number of contrastive high vowels.{{sfnp|Yue|Hu|pp=2058}}{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=7}} This contrast is typically realised in the form of [[roundedness|rounding]] or frication.{{sfnp|Yue|Hu|pp=2058}}{{sfnp|Hu|2006}}{{sfnp|Cao|2003|pp=11}} This frication can be notated as a lowering or raising of the vowel or as a glide insertion. Typically, frication in non-apical vowels happens to contrast terms with historical nasal codas.<ref name="wugniu" />{{sfnp|Wang|1996}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Frication contrast in some high front vowels
! rowspan=2|Syllable !! colspan=2|Suzhou !! colspan=2|Changzhou
|-
! Wugniu !! IPA !! Wugniu !! IPA
|-
| {{link text|天}} || thie<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰi⁴⁴/}} || thie<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰiɪ⁵⁵/}}
|-
| {{link text|梯}} || thi<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰiⱼ⁴⁴/}} || thi<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰi⁵⁵/}}
|-
| {{link text|鳩}} || cieu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕy⁴⁴/}} || ciou<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕy⁵⁵/}}
|-
| {{link text|居}} || ciu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕyⱼ⁴⁴/}} || ciu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕiɤɯ⁵⁵/}}
|-
| {{link text|絲}} || sy<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sɿ⁴⁴/}} || sy<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sɿ⁵⁵/}}
|-
| {{link text|書}} || syu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sʮ⁴⁴/}} || syu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sʮ⁵⁵/}}
|}
===Codas===
Codas in Northern Wu are relatively simple compared to other Sinitic languages. In most modern Northern Wu varieties, only a single nasal phoneme and a checked coda (typically transcribed {{IPA|/ʔ/}}) are permitted in coda position.
====Nasal coda====
Northern Wu languages typically only have one final nasal phoneme.{{sfnp|Li|2012}}<ref name = "wugniu" />{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Wugniu|2016|pp=4}} This is typically realised as {{IPA|[n]}}, {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, {{IPA|[ȵ]}} or a [[nasalization]] of the nucleus vowel, typically in [[free variation]].{{sfnp|Akamatsu|1991|pp=34}}
====Checked coda====
Northern Wu languages typically only permit {{IPA|/ʔ/}} in coda position.{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|You|pp=252}} This is different to other coastal Southern Chinese languages, as they typically do not merge all checked codas into one category{{sfnp|Li|2012}} It is also noteworthy that the coda is often realised as a shortening of the vowel rather than an actual {{IPA|[ʔ]}},{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=8}}{{sfnp|Shi|Chen|2022|pp=169}} which contrasts with [[Wenzhou dialect|Oujiang]] varieties, which typically lengthen checked syllables.{{sfnp|Ye|2008|pp=30-45}} Compare the following syllables.<ref name="wugniu" />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Checked-coda terms in various languages
! !! Historical coda !! Shanghai !! Haining (Xiashi) !! Shangyu !! Yinzhou !! Wenzhou !! Hong Kong !! Xi'an !! Tokyo<br />([[Go'on]])
|-
| {{link text|立}} || rowspan=2|-p || liq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/liɪʔ˩˨/}} || liq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/liəʔ˨/}} || liq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/liɪʔ˥/}} || liq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/liʔ˩˨/}} || lei<sup>8</sup>, li<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/lei˨˩˧/}},{{IPA|/li˨˩˧/}} || laap<sup>6</sup><br />{{IPA|/laːp˨/}} || lǐ<br />{{IPA|/li˧˩/}} || ryuu<br />{{IPA|/ɾjɯː/}}
|-
| {{link text|法}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/faʔ˦/}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/faʔ˥/}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/fɐʔ˥/}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/faʔ/}} || ho<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/ho˨˩˧/}} || faat<sup>3</sup><br />{{IPA|/faːt˧/}} || fǎ<br />{{IPA|/fa˧˩}} || hou<br />{{IPA|/hoː/}}
|-
| {{link text|鐵}} || rowspan=2|-t || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiɪʔ˦/}} || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiəʔ˥/}} || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiɪʔ˥/}} || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiʔ˥/}} || thi<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰi˨˩˧/}} || tit<sup>3</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiːt˧/}} || tiě<br />{{IPA|/tʰiɛ˧˩/}} || teti<br />{{IPA|/tetɕi/}}
|-
| {{link text|七}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiɪʔ˦/}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiəʔ˥/}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiɪʔ˥/}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiɪʔ˥/}} || tshai<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsʰai˨˩˧/}} || cat<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsʰɐt˥/}} || qǐ<br />{{IPA|/tɕi˧˩/}} || siti<br />{{IPA|/ɕitɕi/}}
|-
| {{link text|角}} || rowspan=2|-k || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˦/}} || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˥/}} || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˥/}} || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˥/}} || ko<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/ko˨˩˧/}} || gok<sup>3</sup><br />{{IPA|/kɔːk˧/}} || juǒ<br />{{IPA|/tɕyɤ˧˩/}} || kaku<br />{{IPA|/kakɯ/}}
|-
| {{link text|落}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˩˨/}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˨/}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˧/}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˩˨/}} || lo<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/lo˨˩˧/}} || lok<sup>6</sup><br />{{IPA|/lɔːk˨/}} || luǒ<br />{{IPA|/luɤ˧˩/}} || raku<br />{{IPA|/ɾakɯ/}}
|}
==Tones==
[[Tone (linguistics)|Tone]] plays a critical role in Northern Wu and impacts the realisation of both initials and finals.{{sfnp|Liu|Kula|2018|pp=27}}{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=34}}{{sfnp|Wang|2018|pp=462}} It disambiguates between both monosyllabic words via underlying tone{{sfnp|Su|2009|pp=20-37}} and polysyllabic terms through the use of tone sandhi.{{sfnp|Zhang|1979|pp=292-293}} Northern Wu languages can theoretically have up to twelve [[Phoneme|phonemic]] tones, depending on analysis. These lects can be found in places in [[Suzhou]] and [[Jiaxing]], such as [[Wujiang, Suzhou|Wujiang]].{{sfnp|Lin|2015|pp=79}}{{sfnp|Xu|2009|pp=7}}
===Phonemic tone===
Phonemic tones in Northern Wu is traditionally analysed based on [[Four tones (Middle Chinese)|four historical tone categories]], which are further divided in half based on the [[Voice (linguistics)|voicing]] of the initial. Those that pair with voiceless initials are known as "dark" ({{lang|zh|陰}}) tones and the opposite is true for "light" ({{lang|zh|陽}}) ones. This yields a total of eight tones. The hypothetical maximum of 12 tones are achived when [[Aspiration (linguistics)|aspiration]] conditions a further tone split through the dark tones.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Tone contours of monosyllables in two lects in Wujiang
! Historical<br />Category !! Phonation !! Example words !! Category !! Wugniu !! Songling !! Tongli !! Pingwang
|-
! rowspan=3|Level
| Plain || {{lang|zh|剛丁三安}} || Whole dark level<br />{{lang|zh|全陰平}} || rowspan=2|1 || 55 || 55 || 55
|-
| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|開粗天偏}} || Partial dark level<br />{{lang|zh|次陰平}} || 33 || 33 || 33
|-
| Voiced || {{lang|zh|陳唐寒人}} || Light level<br />{{lang|zh|陽平}} || 2 || 13 || 13 || 24
|-
! rowspan=3|Rising
| Plain || {{lang|zh|古短比好}} || Whole dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|全陰上}} || rowspan=2|3 || 51 || 51 || 51
|-
| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|口草體普}} || Partial dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|次陰上}} || 42 || 42 || 34
|-
| Voiced || {{lang|zh|近厚老染}} || Light rising<br />{{lang|zh|陽上}} || 4 || 31 || 31 || 23
|-
! rowspan=3|Departing
| Plain || {{lang|zh|蓋對漢送}} || Whole dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|全陰去}} || rowspan=2|5 || 412 || 412 || 513
|-
| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|臭菜退戲}} || Partial dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|次陰去}} || 312 || 312 || 313
|-
| Voiced || {{lang|zh|樹共飯帽}} || Light rising<br />{{lang|zh|陽去}} || 6 || 212 || 212 || 213
|-
! rowspan=3|Checked
| Plain || {{lang|zh|各百說發}} || Whole dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|全陰入}} || rowspan=2|7 || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|尺切拍曲}} || Partial dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|次陰入}} || 3 || 3 || 3
|-
| Voiced || {{lang|zh|局服岳六}} || Light rising<br />{{lang|zh|陽入}} || 8 || 2 || 2 || 2
|}
Note that, unlike [[Yue Chinese|Yue languages]], the dark checked tone split is conditioned by aspiration, not [[vowel length]].{{sfnp|Shao|Liang|2022}}
Although there are Northern Wu lects with a high number of tones, it is also noteworthy that contemporary [[Shanghainese]] in particular only has at most five phonemic tones, by merging tones 2 and 4 with 6, and tones 3 with 5.{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=8-9}} A typical Northern Wu variety has 7-8 tones.{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=10}}{{sfnp|Ningbo Gazetteer|pp=2854}}{{sfnp|Wang|2015|pp=7}}{{sfnp|Chappell|Lan|2017|pp=15}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Tone categories in Shanghainese
! !! Level !! Rising !! Departing !! Checked
|-
! Voiceless
| 1 || colspan=2|5 || 7
|-
! Voiced
| colspan=3|6 || 8
|}
For the most part, light tones can only occur with voiced initials, and dark tones can only occur with voiceless initials. In general, the light counterpart of a dark tone tends to be a lowered (or depressed) equivalent of the dark tone, as explored above.{{sfnp|Rose|2001}} Compare the pronunciations of the dark and light departing tones in the following Wu varieties:<ref name = "wugniu" />{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Ye|1993|pp=6}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! !! Tone 5 !! Tone 6
|-
! Jiangyin
| 423 || 213
|-
! Suzhou
| 513 || 31
|-
! Pinghu
| 445 || 13
|-
! Haiyan
| 35 || 213
|-
! Xiaoshan
| 53 || 31
|-
! Ningbo
| 44 || 213
|-
! Shanghai
| 334 || 113
|}
===Neutral tones===
Neutral tones ({{zh|輕聲}}), informally transcribed as 0 or not transcribed at all, are found in tone sandhi and in some grammatical particles. For instance, the perfective particle {{lang|zh|了|tr=leq}} in Shanghainese should be tone 8 due to its voiced and checked nature, though it in reality functions without a tone.{{sfnp|Qian|2007|pp=307}} This phenomenon can also be observed in [[Standard Mandarin]], though it is more pronounced in Northern Wu due to the grammatical nature of Northern Wu sandhi.
===Tone sandhi===
Northern Wu languages all have [[tone sandhi]], both left-prominent (hereafter LPS) and right-prominent (RPS).{{sfnp|Rose|Toda|1994}}{{efn|LPS is also known as "broad sandhi" ({{lang|zh|廣用式}}) and RPS is also known as "narrow sandhi" ({{lang|zh|窄用式}}).}} LPS is found in polysyllabic words, whereas RPS is found in verb-object constructions. This is a feature that is shared among Wu languages, though in Northern Wu, sandhi chains generally share similar contours.{{sfnp|Rose|2001|pp=159}} This, coupled with the fact that this sort of complex tone sandhi cannot be found in the [[Qieyun system]] or reconstructions of [[Middle Chinese]], would suggest that this sandhi is a Wu shared innovation, and that Northern Wu languages share a recent common origin.{{sfnp|Rose|2001|pp=159}}
There are five general types of contours:{{sfnp|Rose|Toda|1994}}
* Contour spreading, where the contour of the head syllable gets stretched over subsequent syllables
* Default realization, where the subsequent syllables become null tones
* Countour levelling, where a syllable removes its tone contour movement such that it becomes level
* Citation target, where a sandhi chain rises until it matches one of the monosyllabic tones
* Categorical shift, where the subsequent syllables change tone categories
====Left-prominent sandhi====
LPS in Northern Wu is typically regarded as highly complex. Northern Wu varieties are traditionally analysed to have unique sandhi chains for each tone category of every syllable, which results in complex charts that sprawl several pages.{{sfnp|Lau|2002|pp=7-9}} However, these analyses can usually be simplified, and not all combinations yield unique sandhi chains. Shanghainese LPS, for instance, has traditionally been analysed to only preserve phonemic tone on the first or head syllable, and drop it on all subsequent syllables,{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=24}} which may thus be considered somewhat similar to [[pitch accent]] in some languages. However, some younger speakers insert a rising tone contour on traditionally voiced initials to perhaps mimic the depression effect.
This is similar to some analyses of [[Suzhou dialect|Suzhounese]] and [[Hangzhou dialect|Hangzhounese]]. Checked tones in Suzhounese can be analysed to preserve the underlying tone of the first two syllables,{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=11-13}}{{efn|[[wikt:WT:AZH/Wu#Suzhounese|This is the system used on Wiktionary.]]}}, whereas Hangzhounese sandhi is conditioned based on whether the second syllable belongs to the rising or non-rising category.{{sfnp|Akitani|1988|pp=43}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Suzhounese checked tone sandhi
! colspan=2|Tone number !! rowspan=2|Disyllabic !! rowspan=2|Trisyllabic !! rowspan=2|Quadrisyllabic
|-
! First<br />syllable !! Second<br />syllable
|-
! rowspan=4|7 !! 1, 2
| 44 23 || 44 23 0 || 44 23 44 0
|-
! 3
| 22 33 || 22 33 0 || 22 33 44 0
|-
! 5, 6
| 55 523 || 55 52 33 || 55 52 22 33
|-
! 7, 8
| 44 44 || 44 44 0 || 44 44 22 0
|-
! rowspan=4|8 !! 1, 2
| 22 33 || 22 33 0 || 22 33 44 0
|-
! 3
| 22 51 || 22 51 0 || 22 51 11 0
|-
! 5, 6
| 22 523 || 22 52 33 || 22 52 22 33
|-
! 7, 8
| 33 44 || 33 44 0 || 33 44 22 0
|}
The tone category of the third and fourth syllables do not matter.{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=11-13}}
====Right-prominent sandhi====
RPS primarily occurs on verbs in verb-object constructions,{{sfnp|Zhang|2013}} and often is only relevant to monosyllables. They also occur in certain situations such as quantitative adjectives and a handful of irregular words. This can be used to disambiguate between certain constructions, such as the famous {{lang|zh|炒麪}} example,{{sfnp|Zhu|2006b|pp=39}} but also the following:{{sfnp|Zhang|1979|pp=292-293}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ LPS and RPS minimal pairs in Chongmingese
! LPS
| {{link text|九桶}}<br />{{IPA|/tɕiɵ'''⁴²''' dõ³³/}} || {{link text|半天}}<br />{{IPA|/pie'''³³''' tʰie⁵⁵/}}
|-
! RPS
| {{link text|酒桶}}<br />{{IPA|/tɕiɵ'''³³''' dõ/}} || {{link text|變天}}<br />{{IPA|/pie'''⁴²''' tʰie⁵⁵/}}
|}
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
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{{refend}}' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,0 +1,1049 @@
+[[Northern Wu]], or [[Taihu Wu]], is the largest subbranch of [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] [[Sinitic languages|Chinese]],{{sfnp|Zheng|2008|pp=vi}} and is spoken in [[Shanghai]], southern [[Jiangsu]], and northern [[Zhejiang]].{{sfnp|Li|2012}} These languages are noted for their extremely high number of [[vowel]]s, even compared to some [[Germanic languages]],{{sfnp|Li|Hong|2012|pp=12}} and highly complex [[tone sandhi]].{{sfnp|Rose|Toda|1994|pp=267}} This article will use [[Romanization of Wu Chinese|Wugniu]]<ref name="wugniu">[https://wugniu.com/ {{lang|zh|吳語學堂}} (Wugniu)]</ref> and [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] for transcription.
+
+==Syllable structure==
+Much like other Sinitic languages, Northern Wu languages almost universally have an initial-final-tone [[syllable structure]]. The final can be further split into the [[Semivowel|glide]], [[Syllable#Nucleus|nucleus]] and [[Syllable#Coda|coda]]. For the most part, contemporary Northern Wu languages only permit nasals and the glottal stop ({{IPA|/ʔ/}}) in coda position,{{sfnp|Rose|2001}} though there is evidence to suggest that this was not the case in some historical varieties.{{sfnp|Qian|2003}} There are plentiful [[Syllable#Onset|initials]] in Northern Wu,{{sfnp|Liu|Kula|2018|pp=27}} more than many other Sinitic languages such as [[Cantonese]] or [[Changsha dialect|Changshanese]], partially due to the preservation of voiced initials, which will be explained in more detail in other sections.
+
+==Initials==
+Much like other Wu languages, Northern Wu languages tend to preserve historical voiced initials,{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=3-7}} which is a feature only found in several other lects along the [[Yangtze River]], such as [[Old Xiang]].{{sfnp|Chen|2004|pp=10-55}}
+
+Northern Wu languages' initials are generally similar. The following is a table of all the commonly-found Northern Wu phonemic initials, with their common urban realizations, Wugniu romanization, and example syllables.<ref name="wugniu" />{{sfnp|Qian|2007|pp=386}}{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=1}}{{sfnp|Ningbo Gazetteer|pp=2853}}{{sfnp|Wang|2015|pp=3-4}}{{sfnp|Bao|1998|pp=6}}
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
+|+Initial Consonants
+! colspan="2" |
+![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
+![[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
+![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
+![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
+![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
+|- align="center"
+! colspan="2" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
+|{{IPA link|m}} ⟨m⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|美悶梅門}}
+|{{IPA link|n}} ⟨n⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|拿囡內男}}
+|{{IPA link|ɲ}} ⟨gn⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|粘扭泥牛}}
+|{{IPA link|ŋ}} ⟨ng⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|砑我外鵝}}
+|
+|- align="center"
+! rowspan="3" |[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
+!<small>[[Tenuis consonant|plain]]</small>
+|{{IPA link|p}} ⟨p⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|布幫北}}
+|{{IPA link|t}} ⟨t⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|膽懂德}}
+|
+|{{IPA link|k}} ⟨k⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|干公夾}}
+|({{IPA link|ʔ}})<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|鴨衣烏}}
+|- align="center"
+!<small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
+|{{IPA link|pʰ}} ⟨ph⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|怕胖劈}}
+|{{IPA link|tʰ}} ⟨th⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|透聽鐵}}
+|
+|{{IPA link|kʰ}} ⟨kh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|開擴康}}
+|
+|- align="center"
+!<small>[[voiced]]</small>
+|{{IPA link|b}} ⟨b⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|步盆拔}}
+|{{IPA link|d}} ⟨d⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|地動奪}}
+|
+|{{IPA link|ɡ}} ⟨g⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|葵共軋}}
+|
+|- align="center"
+! rowspan="3" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
+!<small>[[Tenuis consonant|plain]]</small>
+|
+|{{IPA link|ts}} ⟨ts⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|煮增質}}
+|{{IPA link|tɕ}} ⟨c⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|舉精腳}}
+|
+|
+|- align="center"
+!<small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
+|
+|{{IPA link|tsʰ}} ⟨tsh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|處倉出}}
+|{{IPA link|tɕʰ}} ⟨ch⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|丘輕切}}
+|
+|
+|- align="center"
+!<small>[[voiced]]</small>
+|
+|{{IPA link|dz}} ⟨dz⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|茶從鋤}}
+|{{IPA link|dʑ}} ⟨j⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|旗羣劇}}
+|
+|
+|- align="center"
+! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
+!<small>[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]</small>
+|{{IPA link|f}} ⟨f⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|飛粉福}}
+|{{IPA link|s}} ⟨s⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|書松色}}
+|{{IPA link|ɕ}} ⟨sh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|修血曉}}
+|
+|{{IPA link|h}} ⟨h⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|花荒忽}}
+|- align="center"
+!<small>[[voiced]]</small>
+|{{IPA link|v}} ⟨v⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|扶服浮}}
+|{{IPA link|z}} ⟨z⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|樹石十}}
+|{{IPA link|ʑ}} ⟨zh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|徐秦絕}}
+|
+|{{IPA link|ɦ}} ⟨gh⟩, ⟨y⟩, ⟨w⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|鞋移胡雨}}
+|- align="center"
+! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
+|
+|{{IPA link|l}} ⟨l⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|拉賴領}}
+|
+|
+|
+|}
+
+===Noteworthy omissions===
+Some varieties in [[Suzhou]] and [[Jiaxing]] have [[retroflex]] initials,{{sfnp|Ye|1988|pp=82}}{{sfnp|Mo|2013|pp=15}} much like some [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]] varieties. Compare the following examples.<ref name="wugniu" />
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+! !! Beijing !! Changshu !! Changzhou !! Shengzhou
+|-
+! 張
+| zhāng<br />{{IPA|/tʂaŋ⁵⁵/}} || can<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʂaŋ⁵²/}} || tsan<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsaŋ⁵⁵/}} || tsan<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsã⁵³⁴/}}
+|-
+! 常
+| cháng<br />{{IPA|/tʂʰaŋ³⁵/}} || jan<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/dʐaŋ³⁴/}} || zan<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/zaŋ²¹³/}} || dzan<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/dzã²¹³/}}
+|-
+! 船
+| chuán<br />{{IPA|/tʂʰuan³⁵/}} || zhe<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/ʐe³⁴/}} || zoe<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/zɤ²¹³/}} || zoen<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/zœ̃²¹³/}}
+|}
+
+===Characteristic preservations and innovations===
+
+Northern Wu, much like other Wu varieties, preserves [[voice (linguistics)|voicing]] in its initials.{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=3-7}} The exact mechanism in which this is realized is discussed below.
+
+Again, much like other Wu languages,{{sfnp|Li|2012}} Northern Wu preserves the Middle Chinese ''ri'' initial ({{lang|zh|日母}}) as a nasal. Compare the following, where ⟨gn⟩ is used to notate /{{IPA link|ɲ}}/:<ref name="wugniu" />
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+! !! Beijing !! Guangzhou !! Xi'an !! Seoul<br />([[Sino-Korean vocabulary|Sino-Korean]])!! Shanghai !! Beilun !! Anji
+|-
+! {{link text|日}}
+| rì || jat<sup>6</sup> || ěr || il || gniq<sup>8</sup> || gniq<sup>8</sup> || gniq<sup>8</sup>
+|-
+! {{link text|玉}}
+| yù || juk<sup>6</sup> || yǔ || ok || gnioq<sup>8</sup>, gniuq<sup>8</sup> || gnioq<sup>8</sup> || gnioq<sup>8</sup>
+|}
+
+Note that {{lang|zh|日}} here is pronounced in the [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|colloquial pronunciations]] rather than literary ones.
+
+====Palatalization====
+Many Northern Wu varieties have [[sibilant]]s that undergo [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] ({{lang|zh|尖團合流}} [<small>[[:zh:尖團合流|zh]]</small>]).{{sfnp|Qian|2007}} This process is becoming more common among younger speakers.{{sfnp|Ye|1988|pp=82}}{{sfnp|Zhou|2011|pp=12}}
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+! !! Old Suzhou !! Old Wuxi !! Shanghai !! New Suzhou !! New Wuxi
+|-
+! {{link text|精}}
+| tsin<sup>1</sup> || tsin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup>
+|-
+! {{link text|經}}
+| cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup>
+|-
+! {{link text|齊}}
+| zi<sup>2</sup> || zi<sup>6</sup> || zhi<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup>
+|-
+! {{link text|旗}}
+| ji<sup>2</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup>
+|}
+
+===Depression===
+
+The voiced initials in Northern Wu languages are realised with [[breathy voice]].{{sfnp|Rose|2021}} This functions much like a phonemic depressor and lowers the pitch of the realization.{{sfnp|Rose|2001}} Some linguists, such as [[Y. R. Chao]], transcribe these phones not as voiced consonants, but as voiceless consonants followed by /{{IPA link|ɦ}}/ or even /{{IPA link|ʢ}}/.{{sfnp|Liu|Kula|2018|pp=27}}{{sfnp|Rose|2015|pp=1}} More recently, potentially due to [[Standard Mandarin]] influence, the younger generation has merged the pronunciation of the unaspirated voiceless series with the (breathy) voiced series.{{sfnp|Gu|2008|pp=76}} However, the functional load of the breathy voice is relatively low, due to the fact that tonal distribution lends to disambiguation between historically voiced and voiceless syllables. This breathy voice is at times known as "murmur".{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999}}{{sfnp|Chappell|Lan|2017|pp=15}}
+
+Some speakers, particularly in [[Shanghai]], may constrict their throats when pronouncing voiceless (unaspirated) initials to further disambiguate breathy and [[modal voice|modal]] initials.{{sfnp|Chu|2013|pp=2}} This construction may result in the pronunciation of an [[implosive]].
+
+====Implosives====
+
+In various suburban [[Shanghainese]] varieties, the unaspirated voiceless series is realised as [[implosive]]s.{{sfnp|Xu|2015|pp=7}}{{sfnp|Chuansha Gazetteer|pp=897}}{{sfnp|Zhu|2006a|pp=19-20}}{{sfnp|Chen|1988}} This feature appears to also have been in urban ([[Puxi]]) Shanghainese, though it is lost today.{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=50}}
+
+===Glottal plosive series===
+
+The glottal fricatives /{{IPA link|h}}/ and /{{IPA link|ɦ}}/ are phonotactically part of a plosive series with /{{IPA link|ʔ}}/. Spectral analyses have found that these three phones show three-way differences parallel to stops.{{sfnp|Koenig|Shi|2014|pp=25}} Younger speakers also tend to merge {{IPA|/ɦ/}} with {{IPA|/ʔ/}}, not {{IPA|/h/}}, as would be expected if it were phonotatically a fricative.{{sfnp|Gu|2008|pp=14}} As the {{IPA|/ʔ/}} has been analyzed as a null initial in the past,{{sfnp|Qian|2007|pp=307}} it could be said that Northern Wu languages have a three-way null initial contrast.
+
+==Finals==
+Finals vary singificantly more than initials in Northern Wu languages. As such, only noteworthy phonological and diachronic features will be discussed. For detailed analyses of individual lects, refer to their specific pages.
+
+===Characteristic innovations===
+
+====''Ma'' raising====
+
+A feature found in many Wu languages, including Northern Wu, is the raising of the historical ''ma'' ({{lang|zh|麻}}) rimes.{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=18}} They are typically realised as /{{IPA link|o}}/, though some lects such as [[Shanghainese]] or [[Wuxi dialect|Wuxinese]] may raise it even higher and having it merge with /{{IPA link|u}}/.{{sfnp|Gu|2008|pp=78}} The exact sets of words that undergo raising varies from lect to lect, though in general, the southern two branches (Linshao and Yongjiang) have more raising than northern ones.<ref name="wugniu" />{{sfnp|Zheng|2013|pp=39-40}}
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+! !! Haimen !! Qingpu !! Wuxi !! Tonglu !! Ningbo !! Beijing
+|-
+! {{link text|爬}}
+|| bo<sup>2</sup> || bo<sup>2</sup> || bu<sup>2</sup> || buo<sup>2</sup> || bo<sup>2</sup> || pá
+|-
+! {{link text|茶}}
+| dzo<sup>2</sup> || zo<sup>2</sup> || zeu<sup>2</sup> || jiuo<sup>2</sup> || dzo<sup>2</sup> || chá
+|-
+! {{link text|下}}
+| gho<sup>4</sup> || gho<sup>6</sup> || wu<sup>6</sup> || wo<sup>6</sup> || gho<sup>6</sup> || xià
+|-
+! {{link text|家}}
+| ka<sup>1</sup> || ka<sup>1</sup> || ka<sup>1</sup> || kuo<sup>1</sup> || ko<sup>1</sup> || jiā
+|}
+
+Notice how the two localities in Zhejiang, Tonglu and Ningbo, both pronounce the word {{lang|zh|家}} with a raised vowel, whereas those in Jiangsu and Shanghai do not. Northern varieties tend to retain the /{{IPA|a}}/ value after velars, whereas Linshao and Yongjiang do not.{{sfnp|Zheng|2013|pp=40}}
+
+====''Hou'' fronting====
+
+Northern Wu lects along the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] tend to front the Qieyun Middle Chinese {{lang|zh|侯}} rime (ie. Wugniu eu).{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=57}} [[Y. R. Chao]] suggested that this is due to influence from [[Hangzhou dialect|Hangzhounese]].{{sfnp|Chao|1967|pp=100}} Chao raises the example of {{lang|zh|歐洲後頭的狗}} "the dog behind Europe", pronounced as {{sic}} {{IPA|[eitsei ɦeidei kə' kei]}}, taken from his native [[Changzhou dialect|Changzhounese]]. Compare Standard Mandarin ''Ōuzhōu hòutóu de gǒu''.{{sfnp|Chao|1967|pp=100}}
+
+====''Shan'' and ''xian'' rimes====
+
+The Northern Wu languages exhibit interesting behaviour regarding Qieyun Middle Chinese ''shan'' ({{lang|zh|山}}) and ''xian'' ({{lang|zh|咸}}) rimes (ie. Wugniu ae). Some varieties lose the nasal coda completely, whereas others retain it. Some also leave some sporadic nasalization.{{sfnp|van Dam|2014|pp=63-66}} They typically also have abnormally raised, rounded, or fronted vowels and more complex distribution when compared to other lects, thus resulting in noticable differences. This behaviour is also exhibited in [[Hangzhou dialect|Hangzhounese]].{{sfnp|Bao|1998|pp=12}}
+
+{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center;"
+|+ Correspondance of vernacular Shanghainese readings with Middle Chinese rime classes{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=116-117}}
+! rowspan=2|Modern reflex !! colspan=2|Historical class !! rowspan=2|Conditions !! rowspan=2|Examples
+|-
+! ''Yunshe'' ({{lang|zh|韻攝}}) and division ({{lang|zh|等}}) !! ''Yun'' ({{lang|zh|韻}})
+|-
+! rowspan=6|i
+| rowspan=2|Open III {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|鹽}} || {{lang|zh|幫}}, {{lang|zh|泥}}, {{lang|zh|精}} and {{lang|zh|日}} series; velars || {{link text|貶}}{{link text|尖}}{{link text|染}}{{link text|厭}}
+|-
+| {{lang|zh|嚴}} || ''Unconditional'' || {{link text|嚴}}{{link text|劍}}{{link text|欠}}{{link text|醃}}
+|-
+| Open IV {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|添}} || {{lang|zh|端}}, {{lang|zh|泥}}, {{lang|zh|見}} and {{lang|zh|曉}} series || {{link text|店}}{{link text|念}}{{link text|嫌}}{{link text|兼}}
+|-
+| rowspan=2|Open III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || {{lang|zh|幫}}, {{lang|zh|泥}}, {{lang|zh|精}}, {{lang|zh|見}} and {{lang|zh|影}} series || {{link text|變}}{{link text|剪}}{{link text|連}}{{link text|延}}
+|-
+| {{lang|zh|元}} || ''Unconditional'' || {{link text|建}}{{link text|言}}{{link text|軒}}{{link text|堰}}
+|-
+| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || most terms of {{lang|zh|泥}} and {{lang|zh|精}} series and two irregular {{lang|zh|以}} initial terms || {{link text|戀}}{{link text|泉}}{{link text|宣}}{{link text|沿}}
+|-
+! rowspan=10|e
+| rowspan=2|Open I {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|覃}} || ''Sporadic'' || {{link text|耽}}{{link text|堪}}{{link text|坎}}{{link text|勘}}
+|-
+| {{lang|zh|談}} || (Historical) dentialveolars || {{link text|膽}}{{link text|淡}}{{link text|籃}}{{link text|三}}
+|-
+| rowspan=2|Open II {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|咸}} || rowspan=2|''Unconditional'' || {{link text|站}}{{link text|攙}}{{link text|減}}{{link text|陷}}
+|-
+| {{lang|zh|銜}} || {{link text|攙}}{{link text|衫}}{{link text|監}}{{link text|艦}}
+|-
+| Closed III {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|凡}} || ''Unconditional'' || {{link text|凡}}{{link text|泛}}{{link text|帆}}{{link text|範}}
+|-
+| Open I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|寒}} || (Historical) dentialveolars || {{link text|丹}}{{link text|坦}}{{link text|懶}}{{link text|傘}}
+|-
+| rowspan=2|Open II {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|山}} || rowspan=2|''Unconditional'' || {{link text|扮}}{{link text|產}}{{link text|揀}}{{link text|限}}
+|-
+| {{lang|zh|刪}} || {{link text|班}}{{link text|棧}}{{link text|姦}}{{link text|晏}}
+|-
+| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || Sporadic labials || {{link text|慢}}{{link text|蔓}}{{link text|般}}{{link text|瘢}}
+|-
+| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|元}} || {{lang|zh|非}} series || {{link text|反}}{{link text|翻}}{{link text|飯}}{{link text|萬}}
+|-
+! rowspan=3|ue
+| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || ''two irregular terms'' || {{link text|慣}}{{link text|款}}
+|-
+| Closed II {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|山}} & {{lang|zh|刪}} || Velars || {{link text|關}}{{link text|慣}}{{link text|環}}{{link text|幻}}
+|-
+| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|元}} || ''one irregular term'' || {{link text|挽}}
+|-
+! rowspan=7|oe
+| Open I {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|覃}} || Velars || {{link text|甘}}{{link text|敢}}{{link text|蚶}}{{link text|酣}}
+|-
+| Open III {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|鹽}} || (Historical) retroflex || {{link text|占}}{{link text|陝}}{{link text|閃}}{{link text|禪}}
+|-
+| Open I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|寒}} || Velars || {{link text|看}}{{link text|乾}}{{link text|汗}}{{link text|安}}
+|-
+| Open III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || {{lang|zh|知}}, {{lang|zh|章}} and {{lang|zh|日}} series || {{link text|展}}{{link text|戰}}{{link text|善}}{{link text|然}}
+|-
+| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || {{lang|zh|幫}} series and (historical) dentialveolars || {{link text|搬}}{{link text|短}}{{link text|暖}}{{link text|酸}}
+|-
+| Closed II {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|刪}} || {{lang|zh|莊}} series || {{link text|篡}}{{link text|閂}}{{link text|栓}}
+|-
+| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || {{lang|zh|知}} and {{lang|zh|章}} series || {{link text|轉}}{{link text|傳}}{{link text|磚}}{{link text|船}}
+|-
+! rowspan=2|uoe
+| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || Velars || {{link text|官}}{{link text|寬}}{{link text|歡}}{{link text|碗}}
+|-
+| Closed II & III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|刪}} & {{lang|zh|元}} || ''Sporadic'' || {{link text|婉}}{{link text|宛}}
+|-
+! rowspan=3|ioe
+| rowspan=2|Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || Velars and {{lang|zh|日}} initial || {{link text|軟}}{{link text|卷}}{{link text|拳}}{{link text|院}}
+|-
+| {{lang|zh|元}} || Velars || {{link text|勸}}{{link text|願}}{{link text|怨}}{{link text|遠}}
+|-
+| Closed IV {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|先}} || Velars || {{link text|犬}}{{link text|縣}}{{link text|玄}}{{link text|淵}}
+|}
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+! !! Qieyun description !! Yixing !! Kunshan !! Jiaxing !! Wuhang !! Zhoushan
+|-
+! {{link text|山}}
+| Open Grade II {{lang|zh|山}} || sa<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup>
+|-
+! {{link text|凡}}
+| Closed Grade III {{lang|zh|咸}} || va<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup>
+|-
+! {{link text|鹽}}
+| Open Grade III {{lang|zh|咸}} || ye<sup>2</sup> || ie<sup>2</sup> || ye<sup>2</sup> || ye<sup>2</sup> || ghien<sup>2</sup>
+|-
+! {{link text|天}}
+| Open Grade IV {{lang|zh|山}} || tie<sup>1</sup> || thie<sup>1</sup> || thie<sup>1</sup> || thie<sup>1</sup> || thien<sup>1</sup>
+|-
+! {{link text|川}}
+| Closed Grade III {{lang|zh|山}} || chioe<sup>1</sup> || tshoe<sup>1</sup> || tshoe<sup>1</sup> || tshae<sup>1</sup> || tshoen<sup>1</sup>
+|-
+! {{link text|南}}
+| Open Grade I {{lang|zh|咸}} || ne<sup>2</sup> || noe<sup>2</sup> || noe<sup>2</sup> || nae<sup>2</sup> || nei<sup>2</sup>
+|}
+
+====Frication====
+Several Northern Wu varieties have a very large number of contrastive high vowels.{{sfnp|Yue|Hu|pp=2058}}{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=7}} This contrast is typically realised in the form of [[roundedness|rounding]] or frication.{{sfnp|Yue|Hu|pp=2058}}{{sfnp|Hu|2006}}{{sfnp|Cao|2003|pp=11}} This frication can be notated as a lowering or raising of the vowel or as a glide insertion. Typically, frication in non-apical vowels happens to contrast terms with historical nasal codas.<ref name="wugniu" />{{sfnp|Wang|1996}}
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+|+ Frication contrast in some high front vowels
+! rowspan=2|Syllable !! colspan=2|Suzhou !! colspan=2|Changzhou
+|-
+! Wugniu !! IPA !! Wugniu !! IPA
+|-
+| {{link text|天}} || thie<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰi⁴⁴/}} || thie<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰiɪ⁵⁵/}}
+|-
+| {{link text|梯}} || thi<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰiⱼ⁴⁴/}} || thi<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰi⁵⁵/}}
+|-
+| {{link text|鳩}} || cieu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕy⁴⁴/}} || ciou<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕy⁵⁵/}}
+|-
+| {{link text|居}} || ciu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕyⱼ⁴⁴/}} || ciu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕiɤɯ⁵⁵/}}
+|-
+| {{link text|絲}} || sy<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sɿ⁴⁴/}} || sy<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sɿ⁵⁵/}}
+|-
+| {{link text|書}} || syu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sʮ⁴⁴/}} || syu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sʮ⁵⁵/}}
+|}
+
+===Codas===
+
+Codas in Northern Wu are relatively simple compared to other Sinitic languages. In most modern Northern Wu varieties, only a single nasal phoneme and a checked coda (typically transcribed {{IPA|/ʔ/}}) are permitted in coda position.
+
+====Nasal coda====
+
+Northern Wu languages typically only have one final nasal phoneme.{{sfnp|Li|2012}}<ref name = "wugniu" />{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Wugniu|2016|pp=4}} This is typically realised as {{IPA|[n]}}, {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, {{IPA|[ȵ]}} or a [[nasalization]] of the nucleus vowel, typically in [[free variation]].{{sfnp|Akamatsu|1991|pp=34}}
+
+====Checked coda====
+
+Northern Wu languages typically only permit {{IPA|/ʔ/}} in coda position.{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|You|pp=252}} This is different to other coastal Southern Chinese languages, as they typically do not merge all checked codas into one category{{sfnp|Li|2012}} It is also noteworthy that the coda is often realised as a shortening of the vowel rather than an actual {{IPA|[ʔ]}},{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=8}}{{sfnp|Shi|Chen|2022|pp=169}} which contrasts with [[Wenzhou dialect|Oujiang]] varieties, which typically lengthen checked syllables.{{sfnp|Ye|2008|pp=30-45}} Compare the following syllables.<ref name="wugniu" />
+
+{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+|+ Checked-coda terms in various languages
+! !! Historical coda !! Shanghai !! Haining (Xiashi) !! Shangyu !! Yinzhou !! Wenzhou !! Hong Kong !! Xi'an !! Tokyo<br />([[Go'on]])
+|-
+| {{link text|立}} || rowspan=2|-p || liq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/liɪʔ˩˨/}} || liq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/liəʔ˨/}} || liq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/liɪʔ˥/}} || liq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/liʔ˩˨/}} || lei<sup>8</sup>, li<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/lei˨˩˧/}},{{IPA|/li˨˩˧/}} || laap<sup>6</sup><br />{{IPA|/laːp˨/}} || lǐ<br />{{IPA|/li˧˩/}} || ryuu<br />{{IPA|/ɾjɯː/}}
+|-
+| {{link text|法}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/faʔ˦/}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/faʔ˥/}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/fɐʔ˥/}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/faʔ/}} || ho<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/ho˨˩˧/}} || faat<sup>3</sup><br />{{IPA|/faːt˧/}} || fǎ<br />{{IPA|/fa˧˩}} || hou<br />{{IPA|/hoː/}}
+|-
+| {{link text|鐵}} || rowspan=2|-t || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiɪʔ˦/}} || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiəʔ˥/}} || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiɪʔ˥/}} || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiʔ˥/}} || thi<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰi˨˩˧/}} || tit<sup>3</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiːt˧/}} || tiě<br />{{IPA|/tʰiɛ˧˩/}} || teti<br />{{IPA|/tetɕi/}}
+|-
+| {{link text|七}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiɪʔ˦/}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiəʔ˥/}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiɪʔ˥/}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiɪʔ˥/}} || tshai<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsʰai˨˩˧/}} || cat<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsʰɐt˥/}} || qǐ<br />{{IPA|/tɕi˧˩/}} || siti<br />{{IPA|/ɕitɕi/}}
+|-
+| {{link text|角}} || rowspan=2|-k || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˦/}} || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˥/}} || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˥/}} || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˥/}} || ko<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/ko˨˩˧/}} || gok<sup>3</sup><br />{{IPA|/kɔːk˧/}} || juǒ<br />{{IPA|/tɕyɤ˧˩/}} || kaku<br />{{IPA|/kakɯ/}}
+|-
+| {{link text|落}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˩˨/}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˨/}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˧/}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˩˨/}} || lo<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/lo˨˩˧/}} || lok<sup>6</sup><br />{{IPA|/lɔːk˨/}} || luǒ<br />{{IPA|/luɤ˧˩/}} || raku<br />{{IPA|/ɾakɯ/}}
+|}
+
+==Tones==
+[[Tone (linguistics)|Tone]] plays a critical role in Northern Wu and impacts the realisation of both initials and finals.{{sfnp|Liu|Kula|2018|pp=27}}{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=34}}{{sfnp|Wang|2018|pp=462}} It disambiguates between both monosyllabic words via underlying tone{{sfnp|Su|2009|pp=20-37}} and polysyllabic terms through the use of tone sandhi.{{sfnp|Zhang|1979|pp=292-293}} Northern Wu languages can theoretically have up to twelve [[Phoneme|phonemic]] tones, depending on analysis. These lects can be found in places in [[Suzhou]] and [[Jiaxing]], such as [[Wujiang, Suzhou|Wujiang]].{{sfnp|Lin|2015|pp=79}}{{sfnp|Xu|2009|pp=7}}
+
+===Phonemic tone===
+Phonemic tones in Northern Wu is traditionally analysed based on [[Four tones (Middle Chinese)|four historical tone categories]], which are further divided in half based on the [[Voice (linguistics)|voicing]] of the initial. Those that pair with voiceless initials are known as "dark" ({{lang|zh|陰}}) tones and the opposite is true for "light" ({{lang|zh|陽}}) ones. This yields a total of eight tones. The hypothetical maximum of 12 tones are achived when [[Aspiration (linguistics)|aspiration]] conditions a further tone split through the dark tones.
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+|+ Tone contours of monosyllables in two lects in Wujiang
+! Historical<br />Category !! Phonation !! Example words !! Category !! Wugniu !! Songling !! Tongli !! Pingwang
+|-
+! rowspan=3|Level
+| Plain || {{lang|zh|剛丁三安}} || Whole dark level<br />{{lang|zh|全陰平}} || rowspan=2|1 || 55 || 55 || 55
+|-
+| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|開粗天偏}} || Partial dark level<br />{{lang|zh|次陰平}} || 33 || 33 || 33
+|-
+| Voiced || {{lang|zh|陳唐寒人}} || Light level<br />{{lang|zh|陽平}} || 2 || 13 || 13 || 24
+|-
+! rowspan=3|Rising
+| Plain || {{lang|zh|古短比好}} || Whole dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|全陰上}} || rowspan=2|3 || 51 || 51 || 51
+|-
+| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|口草體普}} || Partial dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|次陰上}} || 42 || 42 || 34
+|-
+| Voiced || {{lang|zh|近厚老染}} || Light rising<br />{{lang|zh|陽上}} || 4 || 31 || 31 || 23
+|-
+! rowspan=3|Departing
+| Plain || {{lang|zh|蓋對漢送}} || Whole dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|全陰去}} || rowspan=2|5 || 412 || 412 || 513
+|-
+| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|臭菜退戲}} || Partial dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|次陰去}} || 312 || 312 || 313
+|-
+| Voiced || {{lang|zh|樹共飯帽}} || Light rising<br />{{lang|zh|陽去}} || 6 || 212 || 212 || 213
+|-
+! rowspan=3|Checked
+| Plain || {{lang|zh|各百說發}} || Whole dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|全陰入}} || rowspan=2|7 || 5 || 5 || 5
+|-
+| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|尺切拍曲}} || Partial dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|次陰入}} || 3 || 3 || 3
+|-
+| Voiced || {{lang|zh|局服岳六}} || Light rising<br />{{lang|zh|陽入}} || 8 || 2 || 2 || 2
+|}
+
+Note that, unlike [[Yue Chinese|Yue languages]], the dark checked tone split is conditioned by aspiration, not [[vowel length]].{{sfnp|Shao|Liang|2022}}
+
+Although there are Northern Wu lects with a high number of tones, it is also noteworthy that contemporary [[Shanghainese]] in particular only has at most five phonemic tones, by merging tones 2 and 4 with 6, and tones 3 with 5.{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=8-9}} A typical Northern Wu variety has 7-8 tones.{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=10}}{{sfnp|Ningbo Gazetteer|pp=2854}}{{sfnp|Wang|2015|pp=7}}{{sfnp|Chappell|Lan|2017|pp=15}}
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+|+ Tone categories in Shanghainese
+! !! Level !! Rising !! Departing !! Checked
+|-
+! Voiceless
+| 1 || colspan=2|5 || 7
+|-
+! Voiced
+| colspan=3|6 || 8
+|}
+
+For the most part, light tones can only occur with voiced initials, and dark tones can only occur with voiceless initials. In general, the light counterpart of a dark tone tends to be a lowered (or depressed) equivalent of the dark tone, as explored above.{{sfnp|Rose|2001}} Compare the pronunciations of the dark and light departing tones in the following Wu varieties:<ref name = "wugniu" />{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Ye|1993|pp=6}}
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+! !! Tone 5 !! Tone 6
+|-
+! Jiangyin
+| 423 || 213
+|-
+! Suzhou
+| 513 || 31
+|-
+! Pinghu
+| 445 || 13
+|-
+! Haiyan
+| 35 || 213
+|-
+! Xiaoshan
+| 53 || 31
+|-
+! Ningbo
+| 44 || 213
+|-
+! Shanghai
+| 334 || 113
+|}
+
+===Neutral tones===
+Neutral tones ({{zh|輕聲}}), informally transcribed as 0 or not transcribed at all, are found in tone sandhi and in some grammatical particles. For instance, the perfective particle {{lang|zh|了|tr=leq}} in Shanghainese should be tone 8 due to its voiced and checked nature, though it in reality functions without a tone.{{sfnp|Qian|2007|pp=307}} This phenomenon can also be observed in [[Standard Mandarin]], though it is more pronounced in Northern Wu due to the grammatical nature of Northern Wu sandhi.
+
+===Tone sandhi===
+Northern Wu languages all have [[tone sandhi]], both left-prominent (hereafter LPS) and right-prominent (RPS).{{sfnp|Rose|Toda|1994}}{{efn|LPS is also known as "broad sandhi" ({{lang|zh|廣用式}}) and RPS is also known as "narrow sandhi" ({{lang|zh|窄用式}}).}} LPS is found in polysyllabic words, whereas RPS is found in verb-object constructions. This is a feature that is shared among Wu languages, though in Northern Wu, sandhi chains generally share similar contours.{{sfnp|Rose|2001|pp=159}} This, coupled with the fact that this sort of complex tone sandhi cannot be found in the [[Qieyun system]] or reconstructions of [[Middle Chinese]], would suggest that this sandhi is a Wu shared innovation, and that Northern Wu languages share a recent common origin.{{sfnp|Rose|2001|pp=159}}
+
+There are five general types of contours:{{sfnp|Rose|Toda|1994}}
+* Contour spreading, where the contour of the head syllable gets stretched over subsequent syllables
+* Default realization, where the subsequent syllables become null tones
+* Countour levelling, where a syllable removes its tone contour movement such that it becomes level
+* Citation target, where a sandhi chain rises until it matches one of the monosyllabic tones
+* Categorical shift, where the subsequent syllables change tone categories
+
+====Left-prominent sandhi====
+LPS in Northern Wu is typically regarded as highly complex. Northern Wu varieties are traditionally analysed to have unique sandhi chains for each tone category of every syllable, which results in complex charts that sprawl several pages.{{sfnp|Lau|2002|pp=7-9}} However, these analyses can usually be simplified, and not all combinations yield unique sandhi chains. Shanghainese LPS, for instance, has traditionally been analysed to only preserve phonemic tone on the first or head syllable, and drop it on all subsequent syllables,{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=24}} which may thus be considered somewhat similar to [[pitch accent]] in some languages. However, some younger speakers insert a rising tone contour on traditionally voiced initials to perhaps mimic the depression effect.
+
+This is similar to some analyses of [[Suzhou dialect|Suzhounese]] and [[Hangzhou dialect|Hangzhounese]]. Checked tones in Suzhounese can be analysed to preserve the underlying tone of the first two syllables,{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=11-13}}{{efn|[[wikt:WT:AZH/Wu#Suzhounese|This is the system used on Wiktionary.]]}}, whereas Hangzhounese sandhi is conditioned based on whether the second syllable belongs to the rising or non-rising category.{{sfnp|Akitani|1988|pp=43}}
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+|+ Suzhounese checked tone sandhi
+! colspan=2|Tone number !! rowspan=2|Disyllabic !! rowspan=2|Trisyllabic !! rowspan=2|Quadrisyllabic
+|-
+! First<br />syllable !! Second<br />syllable
+|-
+! rowspan=4|7 !! 1, 2
+| 44 23 || 44 23 0 || 44 23 44 0
+|-
+! 3
+| 22 33 || 22 33 0 || 22 33 44 0
+|-
+! 5, 6
+| 55 523 || 55 52 33 || 55 52 22 33
+|-
+! 7, 8
+| 44 44 || 44 44 0 || 44 44 22 0
+|-
+! rowspan=4|8 !! 1, 2
+| 22 33 || 22 33 0 || 22 33 44 0
+|-
+! 3
+| 22 51 || 22 51 0 || 22 51 11 0
+|-
+! 5, 6
+| 22 523 || 22 52 33 || 22 52 22 33
+|-
+! 7, 8
+| 33 44 || 33 44 0 || 33 44 22 0
+|}
+
+The tone category of the third and fourth syllables do not matter.{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=11-13}}
+
+====Right-prominent sandhi====
+RPS primarily occurs on verbs in verb-object constructions,{{sfnp|Zhang|2013}} and often is only relevant to monosyllables. They also occur in certain situations such as quantitative adjectives and a handful of irregular words. This can be used to disambiguate between certain constructions, such as the famous {{lang|zh|炒麪}} example,{{sfnp|Zhu|2006b|pp=39}} but also the following:{{sfnp|Zhang|1979|pp=292-293}}
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+|+ LPS and RPS minimal pairs in Chongmingese
+! LPS
+| {{link text|九桶}}<br />{{IPA|/tɕiɵ'''⁴²''' dõ³³/}} || {{link text|半天}}<br />{{IPA|/pie'''³³''' tʰie⁵⁵/}}
+|-
+! RPS
+| {{link text|酒桶}}<br />{{IPA|/tɕiɵ'''³³''' dõ/}} || {{link text|變天}}<br />{{IPA|/pie'''⁴²''' tʰie⁵⁵/}}
+|}
+
+== Notes ==
+{{notelist}}
+
+==References==
+===Citations===
+{{Reflist|20em}}
+===Works cited===
+{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
+
+* {{citation
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+|year=2008
+|institution=Fudan University
+|type=thesis
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
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+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
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+|trans-title=Dondac: The language with the most vowels in the world
+|publisher=Fudan University Press
+|isbn=978-7-309-09153-3
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
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+|journal=Current Issues in Sino-Tibetan Linguistics
+|year=1994
+|page=267-273
+|location=Ōsaka
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last1=Qian
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+|title={{lang|zh|上海語言發展史}}
+|trans-title=A History on Language Evolution in Shanghai
+|year=2003
+|edition=1
+|isbn=7-208-04554-2
+|publisher=Shanghai People's Press
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
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+|last1=Rose
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+|year=2001
+|publisher=New England Publishing Associates
+|location=New York
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
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+|journal=Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus
+|volume=54
+|year=2018
+|pages=17-43
+|doi=10.5842/54-0-774
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
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+|year=1996
+|publisher=Huazhong University of Science & Technology Press
+|isbn=7-5609-1131-5
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Wang
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+|trans-title=An acoustic analysis of the plosives produced by young speakers of the Wu dialect of Suzhou
+|journal=XXXIIe Journées d'Études sur la Parole
+|trans-journal=32<sup>th</sup> Journal of Speech Studies
+|year=2018
+|location=Aix-en-Provence
+|page=460-469
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
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+|first=Richard
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+|year=1999
+|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Co.
+|isbn=90-272-3694-1
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Chen
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+|publisher=China Social Sciences Press
+|title={{lang|zh|湘语与吴语音韵比较研究}}
+|trans-title=A Comparative Study on the Phonology of Xiang and Wu
+|year=2004
+|isbn=7-5004-4690-X
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Xu
+|first=Zhen
+|title={{lang|zh|吴江方言声调研究}}
+|institution=Shanghai Normal University
+|year=2009
+|trans-title=A Study on the Tones of the lect of Wujiang
+|type=thesis
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Zhang
+|first=Huiying
+|title={{lang|zh|崇明方言的连读变调}}
+|trans-title=Tone Sandhi of the lect of Chongming
+|year=1979
+|journal={{lang|zh|方言}}
+|trans-journal=Fangyan
+|issue=4
+|page=284-302
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Lin
+|first=Qijing
+|title={{lang|zh|苏州郊区方言研究}}
+|trans-title=A Study on the Lects of Suburban Suzhou
+|year=2015
+|institution=Soochow University
+|type=thesis
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last1=Shao
+|first1=Huijun
+|last2=Liang
+|first2=Shile
+|title={{lang|zh|广东粤语的入声格局及舒促对应关系}}
+|trans-title=On the ''Rusheng'' {{lang|zh|入声}} Tone Patterns of Yue Dialects in Guangdong Province and the Corresponding Relationship between ''Rusheng'' {{lang|zh|入声}} and ''Shusheng'' {{lang|zh|舒声}} Tones
+|journal={{lang|zh|方言}}
+|trans-journal=Fangyan
+|issue=3
+|year=2022
+|page=289-297
+|location=Beijing
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last1=Qian
+|first2=Nairong
+|last2=Xu
+|first2=Baohua
+|last3=Tang
+|first3=Zhenzhu
+|title={{lang|zh|上海话大词典}}
+|trans-title=The Great Dictionary of Shanghainese
+|publisher=Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House
+|year=2007
+|edition=1
+|isbn=978-7-5326-2248-1
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last1=Xu
+|first1=Baohua
+|last2=Tang
+|first2=Zhenzhu
+|title={{lang|zh|上海市区方言志}}
+|trans-title=Regiolectal Gazetteer of Urban Shanghai
+|publisher=Shanghai Education Publishing House
+|orig-date=1988
+|year=1997
+|edition=2
+|isbn=7-5320-0226-8
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last1=Canepari
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+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Ye
+|first=Changling
+|title={{lang|zh|蘇州方言詞典}}
+|publisher=Jiangsu Education Publishing House
+|year=1993
+|edition=1
+|isbn=7-5343-1996-X
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
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+|first=Sze-Lok
+|title=Tone and Tone Sandhi in Suzhou
+|institution=City University of Hong Kong
+|type=thesis
+|date=2002
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|title={{lang|zh|宁波市志}}
+|trans-title=Ningbo Gazetteer
+|year=1995
+|publisher=Zhonghua Publishing House
+|isbn=7-1010-1507-7
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Wang
+|first=Futang
+|title={{lang|zh|绍兴方言研究}}
+|trans-title=A Study on the Lect of Shaoxing
+|year=2015
+|publisher=Language & Culture Press
+|isbn=978-7-80241-845-5
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Akitani
+|first=Hiroyuki
+|title={{lang|ja|杭州方言の聲調}}
+|trans-title=Tones in Hangzhounese
+|publisher={{lang|ja|早稲田大学中国文学会}}
+|year=1988
+|issn=0385-0919
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Zhang
+|first=Jisheng
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+|trans-title=Representation of the Right-prominent Metrical Structure of the Shaoxing variety
+|journal={{lang|zh|语言科学}}
+|year=2013
+|issue=3
+|page=269-276
+|issn=1671-9484
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Bao
+|first=Shijie
+|title={{lang|zh|杭州方言詞典}}
+|trans-title=Hangzhounese Dictionary
+|publisher=Jiangsu Education Publishing House
+|year=1998
+|isbn=7-5343-3413-6
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Ye
+|first=Changling
+|year=1988
+|title={{lang|zh|苏州方言研究}}
+|trans-title=A Study on Suzhounese
+|year=1988
+|publisher=Jiangsu Education Publishing House
+|isbn=7-5343-0540-3
+|edition=1
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|first=Yuanya
+|last=Zhou
+|type=thesis
+|title={{lang|zh|无锡市区新派方言现象研究}}
+|trans-title=The Present Situation of the New Wuxi lect
+|year=2011
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|first=Wa
+|last=Mo
+|institution=Nanking University
+|type=thesis
+|title={{lang|zh|常熟方言音韵演变研究}}
+|trans-title=Research on the Phonological Evolution of the Changshu lect
+|year=2013
+|postscript=.
+}}
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+* {{citation
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+|last=Rose
+|title=Tone and Phonation Type in Wu Dialects
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+}}
+
+* {{citation
+|last=Gu
+|first=Qin
+|title={{lang|zh|最新派上海市区方言语音的研究分析}}
+|trans-title=A Study and Analysis on the Phonology of Newest Period Urban Shanghainese
+|year=2008
+|issue=2
+|journal={{lang|zh|东方语言学}}
+|institution=Shanghai Normal University
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
+* {{citation
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+|first=Bannong
+|title={{lang|zh|莘庄方言}}
+|trans-title=The Xingzhuang lect
+|year=2013
+|publisher=Shanghai Century Publishing Group
+|isbn=978-7-5486-0494-5
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
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+|first=Baohua
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+|trans-title=A Study on the lect of Songjiang
+|year=2015
+|publisher=Fudan University Press
+|isbn=978-7-309-11656-4
+|postscript=.
+}}
+
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+|postscript=.
+}}
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+|postscript=.
+}}
+
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+|trans-title=The Phonological Development of ''Ma'' and ''Jia'' Rhymes in Modern Wu Dialects Since the Time of the ''Qieyun''
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+|postscript=.
+}}
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+
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+|year=1988
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+}}
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+}}
+
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+}}
+
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+|trans-title=The Phonology of the Huzhou lect
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+}}
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+}}
+
+* {{citation
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+}}
+
+{{refend}}
' |
New page size (new_size) | 44258 |
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0 => '[[Northern Wu]], or [[Taihu Wu]], is the largest subbranch of [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] [[Sinitic languages|Chinese]],{{sfnp|Zheng|2008|pp=vi}} and is spoken in [[Shanghai]], southern [[Jiangsu]], and northern [[Zhejiang]].{{sfnp|Li|2012}} These languages are noted for their extremely high number of [[vowel]]s, even compared to some [[Germanic languages]],{{sfnp|Li|Hong|2012|pp=12}} and highly complex [[tone sandhi]].{{sfnp|Rose|Toda|1994|pp=267}} This article will use [[Romanization of Wu Chinese|Wugniu]]<ref name="wugniu">[https://wugniu.com/ {{lang|zh|吳語學堂}} (Wugniu)]</ref> and [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] for transcription.',
1 => '',
2 => '==Syllable structure==',
3 => 'Much like other Sinitic languages, Northern Wu languages almost universally have an initial-final-tone [[syllable structure]]. The final can be further split into the [[Semivowel|glide]], [[Syllable#Nucleus|nucleus]] and [[Syllable#Coda|coda]]. For the most part, contemporary Northern Wu languages only permit nasals and the glottal stop ({{IPA|/ʔ/}}) in coda position,{{sfnp|Rose|2001}} though there is evidence to suggest that this was not the case in some historical varieties.{{sfnp|Qian|2003}} There are plentiful [[Syllable#Onset|initials]] in Northern Wu,{{sfnp|Liu|Kula|2018|pp=27}} more than many other Sinitic languages such as [[Cantonese]] or [[Changsha dialect|Changshanese]], partially due to the preservation of voiced initials, which will be explained in more detail in other sections.',
4 => '',
5 => '==Initials==',
6 => 'Much like other Wu languages, Northern Wu languages tend to preserve historical voiced initials,{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=3-7}} which is a feature only found in several other lects along the [[Yangtze River]], such as [[Old Xiang]].{{sfnp|Chen|2004|pp=10-55}}',
7 => '',
8 => 'Northern Wu languages' initials are generally similar. The following is a table of all the commonly-found Northern Wu phonemic initials, with their common urban realizations, Wugniu romanization, and example syllables.<ref name="wugniu" />{{sfnp|Qian|2007|pp=386}}{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=1}}{{sfnp|Ningbo Gazetteer|pp=2853}}{{sfnp|Wang|2015|pp=3-4}}{{sfnp|Bao|1998|pp=6}}',
9 => '',
10 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"',
11 => '|+Initial Consonants',
12 => '! colspan="2" |',
13 => '![[Labial consonant|Labial]]',
14 => '![[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]',
15 => '![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]',
16 => '![[Velar consonant|Velar]]',
17 => '![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]',
18 => '|- align="center"',
19 => '! colspan="2" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]',
20 => '|{{IPA link|m}} ⟨m⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|美悶梅門}}',
21 => '|{{IPA link|n}} ⟨n⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|拿囡內男}}',
22 => '|{{IPA link|ɲ}} ⟨gn⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|粘扭泥牛}}',
23 => '|{{IPA link|ŋ}} ⟨ng⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|砑我外鵝}}',
24 => '| ',
25 => '|- align="center"',
26 => '! rowspan="3" |[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]',
27 => '!<small>[[Tenuis consonant|plain]]</small>',
28 => '|{{IPA link|p}} ⟨p⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|布幫北}}',
29 => '|{{IPA link|t}} ⟨t⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|膽懂德}}',
30 => '|',
31 => '|{{IPA link|k}} ⟨k⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|干公夾}}',
32 => '|({{IPA link|ʔ}})<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|鴨衣烏}}',
33 => '|- align="center"',
34 => '!<small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>',
35 => '|{{IPA link|pʰ}} ⟨ph⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|怕胖劈}}',
36 => '|{{IPA link|tʰ}} ⟨th⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|透聽鐵}}',
37 => '|',
38 => '|{{IPA link|kʰ}} ⟨kh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|開擴康}}',
39 => '| ',
40 => '|- align="center"',
41 => '!<small>[[voiced]]</small>',
42 => '|{{IPA link|b}} ⟨b⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|步盆拔}}',
43 => '|{{IPA link|d}} ⟨d⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|地動奪}}',
44 => '|',
45 => '|{{IPA link|ɡ}} ⟨g⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|葵共軋}}',
46 => '| ',
47 => '|- align="center"',
48 => '! rowspan="3" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]',
49 => '!<small>[[Tenuis consonant|plain]]</small>',
50 => '|',
51 => '|{{IPA link|ts}} ⟨ts⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|煮增質}}',
52 => '|{{IPA link|tɕ}} ⟨c⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|舉精腳}}',
53 => '|',
54 => '|',
55 => '|- align="center"',
56 => '!<small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>',
57 => '|',
58 => '|{{IPA link|tsʰ}} ⟨tsh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|處倉出}}',
59 => '|{{IPA link|tɕʰ}} ⟨ch⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|丘輕切}}',
60 => '|',
61 => '| ',
62 => '|- align="center"',
63 => '!<small>[[voiced]]</small>',
64 => '|',
65 => '|{{IPA link|dz}} ⟨dz⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|茶從鋤}}',
66 => '|{{IPA link|dʑ}} ⟨j⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|旗羣劇}}',
67 => '|',
68 => '| ',
69 => '|- align="center"',
70 => '! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]',
71 => '!<small>[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]</small>',
72 => '|{{IPA link|f}} ⟨f⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|飛粉福}}',
73 => '|{{IPA link|s}} ⟨s⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|書松色}}',
74 => '|{{IPA link|ɕ}} ⟨sh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|修血曉}}',
75 => '| ',
76 => '|{{IPA link|h}} ⟨h⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|花荒忽}}',
77 => '|- align="center"',
78 => '!<small>[[voiced]]</small>',
79 => '|{{IPA link|v}} ⟨v⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|扶服浮}}',
80 => '|{{IPA link|z}} ⟨z⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|樹石十}}',
81 => '|{{IPA link|ʑ}} ⟨zh⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|徐秦絕}}',
82 => '| ',
83 => '|{{IPA link|ɦ}} ⟨gh⟩, ⟨y⟩, ⟨w⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|鞋移胡雨}}',
84 => '|- align="center"',
85 => '! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]',
86 => '|',
87 => '|{{IPA link|l}} ⟨l⟩<br />{{lang|wuu-Hant|拉賴領}}',
88 => '|',
89 => '|',
90 => '|',
91 => '|}',
92 => '',
93 => '===Noteworthy omissions===',
94 => 'Some varieties in [[Suzhou]] and [[Jiaxing]] have [[retroflex]] initials,{{sfnp|Ye|1988|pp=82}}{{sfnp|Mo|2013|pp=15}} much like some [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]] varieties. Compare the following examples.<ref name="wugniu" />',
95 => '',
96 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
97 => '! !! Beijing !! Changshu !! Changzhou !! Shengzhou',
98 => '|-',
99 => '! 張',
100 => '| zhāng<br />{{IPA|/tʂaŋ⁵⁵/}} || can<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʂaŋ⁵²/}} || tsan<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsaŋ⁵⁵/}} || tsan<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsã⁵³⁴/}}',
101 => '|-',
102 => '! 常',
103 => '| cháng<br />{{IPA|/tʂʰaŋ³⁵/}} || jan<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/dʐaŋ³⁴/}} || zan<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/zaŋ²¹³/}} || dzan<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/dzã²¹³/}}',
104 => '|-',
105 => '! 船',
106 => '| chuán<br />{{IPA|/tʂʰuan³⁵/}} || zhe<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/ʐe³⁴/}} || zoe<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/zɤ²¹³/}} || zoen<sup>2</sup><br />{{IPA|/zœ̃²¹³/}}',
107 => '|}',
108 => '',
109 => '===Characteristic preservations and innovations===',
110 => '',
111 => 'Northern Wu, much like other Wu varieties, preserves [[voice (linguistics)|voicing]] in its initials.{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=3-7}} The exact mechanism in which this is realized is discussed below.',
112 => '',
113 => 'Again, much like other Wu languages,{{sfnp|Li|2012}} Northern Wu preserves the Middle Chinese ''ri'' initial ({{lang|zh|日母}}) as a nasal. Compare the following, where ⟨gn⟩ is used to notate /{{IPA link|ɲ}}/:<ref name="wugniu" />',
114 => '',
115 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
116 => '! !! Beijing !! Guangzhou !! Xi'an !! Seoul<br />([[Sino-Korean vocabulary|Sino-Korean]])!! Shanghai !! Beilun !! Anji',
117 => '|-',
118 => '! {{link text|日}}',
119 => '| rì || jat<sup>6</sup> || ěr || il || gniq<sup>8</sup> || gniq<sup>8</sup> || gniq<sup>8</sup>',
120 => '|-',
121 => '! {{link text|玉}}',
122 => '| yù || juk<sup>6</sup> || yǔ || ok || gnioq<sup>8</sup>, gniuq<sup>8</sup> || gnioq<sup>8</sup> || gnioq<sup>8</sup>',
123 => '|}',
124 => '',
125 => 'Note that {{lang|zh|日}} here is pronounced in the [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|colloquial pronunciations]] rather than literary ones.',
126 => '',
127 => '====Palatalization====',
128 => 'Many Northern Wu varieties have [[sibilant]]s that undergo [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] ({{lang|zh|尖團合流}} [<small>[[:zh:尖團合流|zh]]</small>]).{{sfnp|Qian|2007}} This process is becoming more common among younger speakers.{{sfnp|Ye|1988|pp=82}}{{sfnp|Zhou|2011|pp=12}}',
129 => '',
130 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
131 => '! !! Old Suzhou !! Old Wuxi !! Shanghai !! New Suzhou !! New Wuxi',
132 => '|-',
133 => '! {{link text|精}}',
134 => '| tsin<sup>1</sup> || tsin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup>',
135 => '|-',
136 => '! {{link text|經}}',
137 => '| cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup> || cin<sup>1</sup>',
138 => '|-',
139 => '! {{link text|齊}}',
140 => '| zi<sup>2</sup> || zi<sup>6</sup> || zhi<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup>',
141 => '|-',
142 => '! {{link text|旗}}',
143 => '| ji<sup>2</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup> || ji<sup>6</sup>',
144 => '|}',
145 => '',
146 => '===Depression===',
147 => '',
148 => 'The voiced initials in Northern Wu languages are realised with [[breathy voice]].{{sfnp|Rose|2021}} This functions much like a phonemic depressor and lowers the pitch of the realization.{{sfnp|Rose|2001}} Some linguists, such as [[Y. R. Chao]], transcribe these phones not as voiced consonants, but as voiceless consonants followed by /{{IPA link|ɦ}}/ or even /{{IPA link|ʢ}}/.{{sfnp|Liu|Kula|2018|pp=27}}{{sfnp|Rose|2015|pp=1}} More recently, potentially due to [[Standard Mandarin]] influence, the younger generation has merged the pronunciation of the unaspirated voiceless series with the (breathy) voiced series.{{sfnp|Gu|2008|pp=76}} However, the functional load of the breathy voice is relatively low, due to the fact that tonal distribution lends to disambiguation between historically voiced and voiceless syllables. This breathy voice is at times known as "murmur".{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999}}{{sfnp|Chappell|Lan|2017|pp=15}}',
149 => '',
150 => 'Some speakers, particularly in [[Shanghai]], may constrict their throats when pronouncing voiceless (unaspirated) initials to further disambiguate breathy and [[modal voice|modal]] initials.{{sfnp|Chu|2013|pp=2}} This construction may result in the pronunciation of an [[implosive]].',
151 => '',
152 => '====Implosives====',
153 => '',
154 => 'In various suburban [[Shanghainese]] varieties, the unaspirated voiceless series is realised as [[implosive]]s.{{sfnp|Xu|2015|pp=7}}{{sfnp|Chuansha Gazetteer|pp=897}}{{sfnp|Zhu|2006a|pp=19-20}}{{sfnp|Chen|1988}} This feature appears to also have been in urban ([[Puxi]]) Shanghainese, though it is lost today.{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=50}}',
155 => '',
156 => '===Glottal plosive series===',
157 => '',
158 => 'The glottal fricatives /{{IPA link|h}}/ and /{{IPA link|ɦ}}/ are phonotactically part of a plosive series with /{{IPA link|ʔ}}/. Spectral analyses have found that these three phones show three-way differences parallel to stops.{{sfnp|Koenig|Shi|2014|pp=25}} Younger speakers also tend to merge {{IPA|/ɦ/}} with {{IPA|/ʔ/}}, not {{IPA|/h/}}, as would be expected if it were phonotatically a fricative.{{sfnp|Gu|2008|pp=14}} As the {{IPA|/ʔ/}} has been analyzed as a null initial in the past,{{sfnp|Qian|2007|pp=307}} it could be said that Northern Wu languages have a three-way null initial contrast.',
159 => '',
160 => '==Finals==',
161 => 'Finals vary singificantly more than initials in Northern Wu languages. As such, only noteworthy phonological and diachronic features will be discussed. For detailed analyses of individual lects, refer to their specific pages.',
162 => '',
163 => '===Characteristic innovations===',
164 => '',
165 => '====''Ma'' raising====',
166 => '',
167 => 'A feature found in many Wu languages, including Northern Wu, is the raising of the historical ''ma'' ({{lang|zh|麻}}) rimes.{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=18}} They are typically realised as /{{IPA link|o}}/, though some lects such as [[Shanghainese]] or [[Wuxi dialect|Wuxinese]] may raise it even higher and having it merge with /{{IPA link|u}}/.{{sfnp|Gu|2008|pp=78}} The exact sets of words that undergo raising varies from lect to lect, though in general, the southern two branches (Linshao and Yongjiang) have more raising than northern ones.<ref name="wugniu" />{{sfnp|Zheng|2013|pp=39-40}}',
168 => '',
169 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
170 => '! !! Haimen !! Qingpu !! Wuxi !! Tonglu !! Ningbo !! Beijing',
171 => '|-',
172 => '! {{link text|爬}}',
173 => '|| bo<sup>2</sup> || bo<sup>2</sup> || bu<sup>2</sup> || buo<sup>2</sup> || bo<sup>2</sup> || pá',
174 => '|-',
175 => '! {{link text|茶}}',
176 => '| dzo<sup>2</sup> || zo<sup>2</sup> || zeu<sup>2</sup> || jiuo<sup>2</sup> || dzo<sup>2</sup> || chá',
177 => '|-',
178 => '! {{link text|下}}',
179 => '| gho<sup>4</sup> || gho<sup>6</sup> || wu<sup>6</sup> || wo<sup>6</sup> || gho<sup>6</sup> || xià',
180 => '|-',
181 => '! {{link text|家}}',
182 => '| ka<sup>1</sup> || ka<sup>1</sup> || ka<sup>1</sup> || kuo<sup>1</sup> || ko<sup>1</sup> || jiā',
183 => '|}',
184 => '',
185 => 'Notice how the two localities in Zhejiang, Tonglu and Ningbo, both pronounce the word {{lang|zh|家}} with a raised vowel, whereas those in Jiangsu and Shanghai do not. Northern varieties tend to retain the /{{IPA|a}}/ value after velars, whereas Linshao and Yongjiang do not.{{sfnp|Zheng|2013|pp=40}}',
186 => '',
187 => '====''Hou'' fronting====',
188 => '',
189 => 'Northern Wu lects along the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] tend to front the Qieyun Middle Chinese {{lang|zh|侯}} rime (ie. Wugniu eu).{{sfnp|VanNess Simmons|1999|pp=57}} [[Y. R. Chao]] suggested that this is due to influence from [[Hangzhou dialect|Hangzhounese]].{{sfnp|Chao|1967|pp=100}} Chao raises the example of {{lang|zh|歐洲後頭的狗}} "the dog behind Europe", pronounced as {{sic}} {{IPA|[eitsei ɦeidei kə' kei]}}, taken from his native [[Changzhou dialect|Changzhounese]]. Compare Standard Mandarin ''Ōuzhōu hòutóu de gǒu''.{{sfnp|Chao|1967|pp=100}}',
190 => '',
191 => '====''Shan'' and ''xian'' rimes====',
192 => '',
193 => 'The Northern Wu languages exhibit interesting behaviour regarding Qieyun Middle Chinese ''shan'' ({{lang|zh|山}}) and ''xian'' ({{lang|zh|咸}}) rimes (ie. Wugniu ae). Some varieties lose the nasal coda completely, whereas others retain it. Some also leave some sporadic nasalization.{{sfnp|van Dam|2014|pp=63-66}} They typically also have abnormally raised, rounded, or fronted vowels and more complex distribution when compared to other lects, thus resulting in noticable differences. This behaviour is also exhibited in [[Hangzhou dialect|Hangzhounese]].{{sfnp|Bao|1998|pp=12}} ',
194 => '',
195 => '{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center;"',
196 => '|+ Correspondance of vernacular Shanghainese readings with Middle Chinese rime classes{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=116-117}}',
197 => '! rowspan=2|Modern reflex !! colspan=2|Historical class !! rowspan=2|Conditions !! rowspan=2|Examples',
198 => '|-',
199 => '! ''Yunshe'' ({{lang|zh|韻攝}}) and division ({{lang|zh|等}}) !! ''Yun'' ({{lang|zh|韻}})',
200 => '|-',
201 => '! rowspan=6|i',
202 => '| rowspan=2|Open III {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|鹽}} || {{lang|zh|幫}}, {{lang|zh|泥}}, {{lang|zh|精}} and {{lang|zh|日}} series; velars || {{link text|貶}}{{link text|尖}}{{link text|染}}{{link text|厭}}',
203 => '|-',
204 => '| {{lang|zh|嚴}} || ''Unconditional'' || {{link text|嚴}}{{link text|劍}}{{link text|欠}}{{link text|醃}}',
205 => '|-',
206 => '| Open IV {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|添}} || {{lang|zh|端}}, {{lang|zh|泥}}, {{lang|zh|見}} and {{lang|zh|曉}} series || {{link text|店}}{{link text|念}}{{link text|嫌}}{{link text|兼}}',
207 => '|-',
208 => '| rowspan=2|Open III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || {{lang|zh|幫}}, {{lang|zh|泥}}, {{lang|zh|精}}, {{lang|zh|見}} and {{lang|zh|影}} series || {{link text|變}}{{link text|剪}}{{link text|連}}{{link text|延}}',
209 => '|-',
210 => '| {{lang|zh|元}} || ''Unconditional'' || {{link text|建}}{{link text|言}}{{link text|軒}}{{link text|堰}}',
211 => '|-',
212 => '| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || most terms of {{lang|zh|泥}} and {{lang|zh|精}} series and two irregular {{lang|zh|以}} initial terms || {{link text|戀}}{{link text|泉}}{{link text|宣}}{{link text|沿}}',
213 => '|-',
214 => '! rowspan=10|e',
215 => '| rowspan=2|Open I {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|覃}} || ''Sporadic'' || {{link text|耽}}{{link text|堪}}{{link text|坎}}{{link text|勘}}',
216 => '|-',
217 => '| {{lang|zh|談}} || (Historical) dentialveolars || {{link text|膽}}{{link text|淡}}{{link text|籃}}{{link text|三}}',
218 => '|-',
219 => '| rowspan=2|Open II {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|咸}} || rowspan=2|''Unconditional'' || {{link text|站}}{{link text|攙}}{{link text|減}}{{link text|陷}}',
220 => '|-',
221 => '| {{lang|zh|銜}} || {{link text|攙}}{{link text|衫}}{{link text|監}}{{link text|艦}}',
222 => '|-',
223 => '| Closed III {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|凡}} || ''Unconditional'' || {{link text|凡}}{{link text|泛}}{{link text|帆}}{{link text|範}}',
224 => '|-',
225 => '| Open I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|寒}} || (Historical) dentialveolars || {{link text|丹}}{{link text|坦}}{{link text|懶}}{{link text|傘}}',
226 => '|-',
227 => '| rowspan=2|Open II {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|山}} || rowspan=2|''Unconditional'' || {{link text|扮}}{{link text|產}}{{link text|揀}}{{link text|限}}',
228 => '|-',
229 => '| {{lang|zh|刪}} || {{link text|班}}{{link text|棧}}{{link text|姦}}{{link text|晏}}',
230 => '|-',
231 => '| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || Sporadic labials || {{link text|慢}}{{link text|蔓}}{{link text|般}}{{link text|瘢}}',
232 => '|-',
233 => '| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|元}} || {{lang|zh|非}} series || {{link text|反}}{{link text|翻}}{{link text|飯}}{{link text|萬}}',
234 => '|-',
235 => '! rowspan=3|ue',
236 => '| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || ''two irregular terms'' || {{link text|慣}}{{link text|款}}',
237 => '|-',
238 => '| Closed II {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|山}} & {{lang|zh|刪}} || Velars || {{link text|關}}{{link text|慣}}{{link text|環}}{{link text|幻}}',
239 => '|-',
240 => '| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|元}} || ''one irregular term'' || {{link text|挽}}',
241 => '|-',
242 => '! rowspan=7|oe',
243 => '| Open I {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|覃}} || Velars || {{link text|甘}}{{link text|敢}}{{link text|蚶}}{{link text|酣}}',
244 => '|-',
245 => '| Open III {{lang|zh|咸}} || {{lang|zh|鹽}} || (Historical) retroflex || {{link text|占}}{{link text|陝}}{{link text|閃}}{{link text|禪}}',
246 => '|-',
247 => '| Open I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|寒}} || Velars || {{link text|看}}{{link text|乾}}{{link text|汗}}{{link text|安}}',
248 => '|-',
249 => '| Open III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || {{lang|zh|知}}, {{lang|zh|章}} and {{lang|zh|日}} series || {{link text|展}}{{link text|戰}}{{link text|善}}{{link text|然}}',
250 => '|-',
251 => '| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || {{lang|zh|幫}} series and (historical) dentialveolars || {{link text|搬}}{{link text|短}}{{link text|暖}}{{link text|酸}}',
252 => '|-',
253 => '| Closed II {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|刪}} || {{lang|zh|莊}} series || {{link text|篡}}{{link text|閂}}{{link text|栓}}',
254 => '|-',
255 => '| Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || {{lang|zh|知}} and {{lang|zh|章}} series || {{link text|轉}}{{link text|傳}}{{link text|磚}}{{link text|船}}',
256 => '|-',
257 => '! rowspan=2|uoe',
258 => '| Closed I {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|桓}} || Velars || {{link text|官}}{{link text|寬}}{{link text|歡}}{{link text|碗}}',
259 => '|-',
260 => '| Closed II & III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|刪}} & {{lang|zh|元}} || ''Sporadic'' || {{link text|婉}}{{link text|宛}}',
261 => '|-',
262 => '! rowspan=3|ioe',
263 => '| rowspan=2|Closed III {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|仙}} || Velars and {{lang|zh|日}} initial || {{link text|軟}}{{link text|卷}}{{link text|拳}}{{link text|院}}',
264 => '|-',
265 => '| {{lang|zh|元}} || Velars || {{link text|勸}}{{link text|願}}{{link text|怨}}{{link text|遠}}',
266 => '|-',
267 => '| Closed IV {{lang|zh|山}} || {{lang|zh|先}} || Velars || {{link text|犬}}{{link text|縣}}{{link text|玄}}{{link text|淵}}',
268 => '|}',
269 => '',
270 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
271 => '! !! Qieyun description !! Yixing !! Kunshan !! Jiaxing !! Wuhang !! Zhoushan',
272 => '|-',
273 => '! {{link text|山}}',
274 => '| Open Grade II {{lang|zh|山}} || sa<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup> || sae<sup>1</sup>',
275 => '|-',
276 => '! {{link text|凡}}',
277 => '| Closed Grade III {{lang|zh|咸}} || va<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup> || vae<sup>2</sup>',
278 => '|-',
279 => '! {{link text|鹽}}',
280 => '| Open Grade III {{lang|zh|咸}} || ye<sup>2</sup> || ie<sup>2</sup> || ye<sup>2</sup> || ye<sup>2</sup> || ghien<sup>2</sup>',
281 => '|-',
282 => '! {{link text|天}}',
283 => '| Open Grade IV {{lang|zh|山}} || tie<sup>1</sup> || thie<sup>1</sup> || thie<sup>1</sup> || thie<sup>1</sup> || thien<sup>1</sup>',
284 => '|-',
285 => '! {{link text|川}}',
286 => '| Closed Grade III {{lang|zh|山}} || chioe<sup>1</sup> || tshoe<sup>1</sup> || tshoe<sup>1</sup> || tshae<sup>1</sup> || tshoen<sup>1</sup>',
287 => '|-',
288 => '! {{link text|南}}',
289 => '| Open Grade I {{lang|zh|咸}} || ne<sup>2</sup> || noe<sup>2</sup> || noe<sup>2</sup> || nae<sup>2</sup> || nei<sup>2</sup>',
290 => '|}',
291 => '',
292 => '====Frication====',
293 => 'Several Northern Wu varieties have a very large number of contrastive high vowels.{{sfnp|Yue|Hu|pp=2058}}{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=7}} This contrast is typically realised in the form of [[roundedness|rounding]] or frication.{{sfnp|Yue|Hu|pp=2058}}{{sfnp|Hu|2006}}{{sfnp|Cao|2003|pp=11}} This frication can be notated as a lowering or raising of the vowel or as a glide insertion. Typically, frication in non-apical vowels happens to contrast terms with historical nasal codas.<ref name="wugniu" />{{sfnp|Wang|1996}}',
294 => '',
295 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
296 => '|+ Frication contrast in some high front vowels',
297 => '! rowspan=2|Syllable !! colspan=2|Suzhou !! colspan=2|Changzhou',
298 => '|-',
299 => '! Wugniu !! IPA !! Wugniu !! IPA',
300 => '|-',
301 => '| {{link text|天}} || thie<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰi⁴⁴/}} || thie<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰiɪ⁵⁵/}}',
302 => '|-',
303 => '| {{link text|梯}} || thi<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰiⱼ⁴⁴/}} || thi<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tʰi⁵⁵/}}',
304 => '|-',
305 => '| {{link text|鳩}} || cieu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕy⁴⁴/}} || ciou<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕy⁵⁵/}}',
306 => '|-',
307 => '| {{link text|居}} || ciu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕyⱼ⁴⁴/}} || ciu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/tɕiɤɯ⁵⁵/}}',
308 => '|-',
309 => '| {{link text|絲}} || sy<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sɿ⁴⁴/}} || sy<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sɿ⁵⁵/}}',
310 => '|-',
311 => '| {{link text|書}} || syu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sʮ⁴⁴/}} || syu<sup>1</sup> || {{IPA|/sʮ⁵⁵/}}',
312 => '|}',
313 => '',
314 => '===Codas===',
315 => '',
316 => 'Codas in Northern Wu are relatively simple compared to other Sinitic languages. In most modern Northern Wu varieties, only a single nasal phoneme and a checked coda (typically transcribed {{IPA|/ʔ/}}) are permitted in coda position.',
317 => '',
318 => '====Nasal coda====',
319 => '',
320 => 'Northern Wu languages typically only have one final nasal phoneme.{{sfnp|Li|2012}}<ref name = "wugniu" />{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Wugniu|2016|pp=4}} This is typically realised as {{IPA|[n]}}, {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, {{IPA|[ȵ]}} or a [[nasalization]] of the nucleus vowel, typically in [[free variation]].{{sfnp|Akamatsu|1991|pp=34}}',
321 => '',
322 => '====Checked coda====',
323 => '',
324 => 'Northern Wu languages typically only permit {{IPA|/ʔ/}} in coda position.{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|You|pp=252}} This is different to other coastal Southern Chinese languages, as they typically do not merge all checked codas into one category{{sfnp|Li|2012}} It is also noteworthy that the coda is often realised as a shortening of the vowel rather than an actual {{IPA|[ʔ]}},{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=8}}{{sfnp|Shi|Chen|2022|pp=169}} which contrasts with [[Wenzhou dialect|Oujiang]] varieties, which typically lengthen checked syllables.{{sfnp|Ye|2008|pp=30-45}} Compare the following syllables.<ref name="wugniu" />',
325 => '',
326 => '{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
327 => '|+ Checked-coda terms in various languages',
328 => '! !! Historical coda !! Shanghai !! Haining (Xiashi) !! Shangyu !! Yinzhou !! Wenzhou !! Hong Kong !! Xi'an !! Tokyo<br />([[Go'on]])',
329 => '|- ',
330 => '| {{link text|立}} || rowspan=2|-p || liq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/liɪʔ˩˨/}} || liq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/liəʔ˨/}} || liq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/liɪʔ˥/}} || liq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/liʔ˩˨/}} || lei<sup>8</sup>, li<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/lei˨˩˧/}},{{IPA|/li˨˩˧/}} || laap<sup>6</sup><br />{{IPA|/laːp˨/}} || lǐ<br />{{IPA|/li˧˩/}} || ryuu<br />{{IPA|/ɾjɯː/}}',
331 => '|-',
332 => '| {{link text|法}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/faʔ˦/}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/faʔ˥/}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/fɐʔ˥/}} || faq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/faʔ/}} || ho<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/ho˨˩˧/}} || faat<sup>3</sup><br />{{IPA|/faːt˧/}} || fǎ<br />{{IPA|/fa˧˩}} || hou<br />{{IPA|/hoː/}}',
333 => '|-',
334 => '| {{link text|鐵}} || rowspan=2|-t || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiɪʔ˦/}} || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiəʔ˥/}} || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiɪʔ˥/}} || thiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiʔ˥/}} || thi<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰi˨˩˧/}} || tit<sup>3</sup><br />{{IPA|/tʰiːt˧/}} || tiě<br />{{IPA|/tʰiɛ˧˩/}} || teti<br />{{IPA|/tetɕi/}}',
335 => '|-',
336 => '| {{link text|七}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiɪʔ˦/}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiəʔ˥/}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiɪʔ˥/}} || chiq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tɕiɪʔ˥/}} || tshai<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsʰai˨˩˧/}} || cat<sup>1</sup><br />{{IPA|/tsʰɐt˥/}} || qǐ<br />{{IPA|/tɕi˧˩/}} || siti<br />{{IPA|/ɕitɕi/}}',
337 => '|-',
338 => '| {{link text|角}} || rowspan=2|-k || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˦/}} || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˥/}} || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˥/}} || koq<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/koʔ˥/}} || ko<sup>7</sup><br />{{IPA|/ko˨˩˧/}} || gok<sup>3</sup><br />{{IPA|/kɔːk˧/}} || juǒ<br />{{IPA|/tɕyɤ˧˩/}} || kaku<br />{{IPA|/kakɯ/}}',
339 => '|-',
340 => '| {{link text|落}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˩˨/}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˨/}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˧/}} || loq<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/loʔ˩˨/}} || lo<sup>8</sup><br />{{IPA|/lo˨˩˧/}} || lok<sup>6</sup><br />{{IPA|/lɔːk˨/}} || luǒ<br />{{IPA|/luɤ˧˩/}} || raku<br />{{IPA|/ɾakɯ/}}',
341 => '|}',
342 => '',
343 => '==Tones==',
344 => '[[Tone (linguistics)|Tone]] plays a critical role in Northern Wu and impacts the realisation of both initials and finals.{{sfnp|Liu|Kula|2018|pp=27}}{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=34}}{{sfnp|Wang|2018|pp=462}} It disambiguates between both monosyllabic words via underlying tone{{sfnp|Su|2009|pp=20-37}} and polysyllabic terms through the use of tone sandhi.{{sfnp|Zhang|1979|pp=292-293}} Northern Wu languages can theoretically have up to twelve [[Phoneme|phonemic]] tones, depending on analysis. These lects can be found in places in [[Suzhou]] and [[Jiaxing]], such as [[Wujiang, Suzhou|Wujiang]].{{sfnp|Lin|2015|pp=79}}{{sfnp|Xu|2009|pp=7}}',
345 => '',
346 => '===Phonemic tone===',
347 => 'Phonemic tones in Northern Wu is traditionally analysed based on [[Four tones (Middle Chinese)|four historical tone categories]], which are further divided in half based on the [[Voice (linguistics)|voicing]] of the initial. Those that pair with voiceless initials are known as "dark" ({{lang|zh|陰}}) tones and the opposite is true for "light" ({{lang|zh|陽}}) ones. This yields a total of eight tones. The hypothetical maximum of 12 tones are achived when [[Aspiration (linguistics)|aspiration]] conditions a further tone split through the dark tones.',
348 => '',
349 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
350 => '|+ Tone contours of monosyllables in two lects in Wujiang',
351 => '! Historical<br />Category !! Phonation !! Example words !! Category !! Wugniu !! Songling !! Tongli !! Pingwang',
352 => '|-',
353 => '! rowspan=3|Level',
354 => '| Plain || {{lang|zh|剛丁三安}} || Whole dark level<br />{{lang|zh|全陰平}} || rowspan=2|1 || 55 || 55 || 55',
355 => '|-',
356 => '| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|開粗天偏}} || Partial dark level<br />{{lang|zh|次陰平}} || 33 || 33 || 33',
357 => '|-',
358 => '| Voiced || {{lang|zh|陳唐寒人}} || Light level<br />{{lang|zh|陽平}} || 2 || 13 || 13 || 24',
359 => '|-',
360 => '! rowspan=3|Rising',
361 => '| Plain || {{lang|zh|古短比好}} || Whole dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|全陰上}} || rowspan=2|3 || 51 || 51 || 51',
362 => '|-',
363 => '| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|口草體普}} || Partial dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|次陰上}} || 42 || 42 || 34',
364 => '|-',
365 => '| Voiced || {{lang|zh|近厚老染}} || Light rising<br />{{lang|zh|陽上}} || 4 || 31 || 31 || 23',
366 => '|-',
367 => '! rowspan=3|Departing',
368 => '| Plain || {{lang|zh|蓋對漢送}} || Whole dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|全陰去}} || rowspan=2|5 || 412 || 412 || 513',
369 => '|-',
370 => '| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|臭菜退戲}} || Partial dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|次陰去}} || 312 || 312 || 313',
371 => '|-',
372 => '| Voiced || {{lang|zh|樹共飯帽}} || Light rising<br />{{lang|zh|陽去}} || 6 || 212 || 212 || 213',
373 => '|-',
374 => '! rowspan=3|Checked',
375 => '| Plain || {{lang|zh|各百說發}} || Whole dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|全陰入}} || rowspan=2|7 || 5 || 5 || 5',
376 => '|-',
377 => '| Aspirate || {{lang|zh|尺切拍曲}} || Partial dark rising<br />{{lang|zh|次陰入}} || 3 || 3 || 3',
378 => '|-',
379 => '| Voiced || {{lang|zh|局服岳六}} || Light rising<br />{{lang|zh|陽入}} || 8 || 2 || 2 || 2',
380 => '|}',
381 => '',
382 => 'Note that, unlike [[Yue Chinese|Yue languages]], the dark checked tone split is conditioned by aspiration, not [[vowel length]].{{sfnp|Shao|Liang|2022}}',
383 => '',
384 => 'Although there are Northern Wu lects with a high number of tones, it is also noteworthy that contemporary [[Shanghainese]] in particular only has at most five phonemic tones, by merging tones 2 and 4 with 6, and tones 3 with 5.{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=8-9}} A typical Northern Wu variety has 7-8 tones.{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=10}}{{sfnp|Ningbo Gazetteer|pp=2854}}{{sfnp|Wang|2015|pp=7}}{{sfnp|Chappell|Lan|2017|pp=15}}',
385 => '',
386 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
387 => '|+ Tone categories in Shanghainese',
388 => '! !! Level !! Rising !! Departing !! Checked',
389 => '|-',
390 => '! Voiceless',
391 => '| 1 || colspan=2|5 || 7',
392 => '|-',
393 => '! Voiced',
394 => '| colspan=3|6 || 8',
395 => '|}',
396 => '',
397 => 'For the most part, light tones can only occur with voiced initials, and dark tones can only occur with voiceless initials. In general, the light counterpart of a dark tone tends to be a lowered (or depressed) equivalent of the dark tone, as explored above.{{sfnp|Rose|2001}} Compare the pronunciations of the dark and light departing tones in the following Wu varieties:<ref name = "wugniu" />{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Ye|1993|pp=6}}',
398 => '',
399 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
400 => '! !! Tone 5 !! Tone 6',
401 => '|-',
402 => '! Jiangyin',
403 => '| 423 || 213',
404 => '|-',
405 => '! Suzhou',
406 => '| 513 || 31',
407 => '|-',
408 => '! Pinghu',
409 => '| 445 || 13',
410 => '|-',
411 => '! Haiyan',
412 => '| 35 || 213',
413 => '|-',
414 => '! Xiaoshan',
415 => '| 53 || 31',
416 => '|-',
417 => '! Ningbo',
418 => '| 44 || 213',
419 => '|-',
420 => '! Shanghai',
421 => '| 334 || 113',
422 => '|}',
423 => '',
424 => '===Neutral tones===',
425 => 'Neutral tones ({{zh|輕聲}}), informally transcribed as 0 or not transcribed at all, are found in tone sandhi and in some grammatical particles. For instance, the perfective particle {{lang|zh|了|tr=leq}} in Shanghainese should be tone 8 due to its voiced and checked nature, though it in reality functions without a tone.{{sfnp|Qian|2007|pp=307}} This phenomenon can also be observed in [[Standard Mandarin]], though it is more pronounced in Northern Wu due to the grammatical nature of Northern Wu sandhi.',
426 => '',
427 => '===Tone sandhi===',
428 => 'Northern Wu languages all have [[tone sandhi]], both left-prominent (hereafter LPS) and right-prominent (RPS).{{sfnp|Rose|Toda|1994}}{{efn|LPS is also known as "broad sandhi" ({{lang|zh|廣用式}}) and RPS is also known as "narrow sandhi" ({{lang|zh|窄用式}}).}} LPS is found in polysyllabic words, whereas RPS is found in verb-object constructions. This is a feature that is shared among Wu languages, though in Northern Wu, sandhi chains generally share similar contours.{{sfnp|Rose|2001|pp=159}} This, coupled with the fact that this sort of complex tone sandhi cannot be found in the [[Qieyun system]] or reconstructions of [[Middle Chinese]], would suggest that this sandhi is a Wu shared innovation, and that Northern Wu languages share a recent common origin.{{sfnp|Rose|2001|pp=159}}',
429 => '',
430 => 'There are five general types of contours:{{sfnp|Rose|Toda|1994}}',
431 => '* Contour spreading, where the contour of the head syllable gets stretched over subsequent syllables',
432 => '* Default realization, where the subsequent syllables become null tones',
433 => '* Countour levelling, where a syllable removes its tone contour movement such that it becomes level',
434 => '* Citation target, where a sandhi chain rises until it matches one of the monosyllabic tones',
435 => '* Categorical shift, where the subsequent syllables change tone categories',
436 => '',
437 => '====Left-prominent sandhi====',
438 => 'LPS in Northern Wu is typically regarded as highly complex. Northern Wu varieties are traditionally analysed to have unique sandhi chains for each tone category of every syllable, which results in complex charts that sprawl several pages.{{sfnp|Lau|2002|pp=7-9}} However, these analyses can usually be simplified, and not all combinations yield unique sandhi chains. Shanghainese LPS, for instance, has traditionally been analysed to only preserve phonemic tone on the first or head syllable, and drop it on all subsequent syllables,{{sfnp|Qian|2007}}{{sfnp|Xu|Tang|1988|pp=24}} which may thus be considered somewhat similar to [[pitch accent]] in some languages. However, some younger speakers insert a rising tone contour on traditionally voiced initials to perhaps mimic the depression effect.',
439 => '',
440 => 'This is similar to some analyses of [[Suzhou dialect|Suzhounese]] and [[Hangzhou dialect|Hangzhounese]]. Checked tones in Suzhounese can be analysed to preserve the underlying tone of the first two syllables,{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=11-13}}{{efn|[[wikt:WT:AZH/Wu#Suzhounese|This is the system used on Wiktionary.]]}}, whereas Hangzhounese sandhi is conditioned based on whether the second syllable belongs to the rising or non-rising category.{{sfnp|Akitani|1988|pp=43}}',
441 => '',
442 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
443 => '|+ Suzhounese checked tone sandhi',
444 => '! colspan=2|Tone number !! rowspan=2|Disyllabic !! rowspan=2|Trisyllabic !! rowspan=2|Quadrisyllabic',
445 => '|-',
446 => '! First<br />syllable !! Second<br />syllable',
447 => '|-',
448 => '! rowspan=4|7 !! 1, 2',
449 => '| 44 23 || 44 23 0 || 44 23 44 0',
450 => '|-',
451 => '! 3',
452 => '| 22 33 || 22 33 0 || 22 33 44 0',
453 => '|-',
454 => '! 5, 6',
455 => '| 55 523 || 55 52 33 || 55 52 22 33',
456 => '|-',
457 => '! 7, 8',
458 => '| 44 44 || 44 44 0 || 44 44 22 0',
459 => '|-',
460 => '! rowspan=4|8 !! 1, 2',
461 => '| 22 33 || 22 33 0 || 22 33 44 0',
462 => '|-',
463 => '! 3',
464 => '| 22 51 || 22 51 0 || 22 51 11 0',
465 => '|-',
466 => '! 5, 6',
467 => '| 22 523 || 22 52 33 || 22 52 22 33',
468 => '|-',
469 => '! 7, 8',
470 => '| 33 44 || 33 44 0 || 33 44 22 0',
471 => '|}',
472 => '',
473 => 'The tone category of the third and fourth syllables do not matter.{{sfnp|Wang|1996|pp=11-13}}',
474 => '',
475 => '====Right-prominent sandhi====',
476 => 'RPS primarily occurs on verbs in verb-object constructions,{{sfnp|Zhang|2013}} and often is only relevant to monosyllables. They also occur in certain situations such as quantitative adjectives and a handful of irregular words. This can be used to disambiguate between certain constructions, such as the famous {{lang|zh|炒麪}} example,{{sfnp|Zhu|2006b|pp=39}} but also the following:{{sfnp|Zhang|1979|pp=292-293}}',
477 => '',
478 => '{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"',
479 => '|+ LPS and RPS minimal pairs in Chongmingese',
480 => '! LPS',
481 => '| {{link text|九桶}}<br />{{IPA|/tɕiɵ'''⁴²''' dõ³³/}} || {{link text|半天}}<br />{{IPA|/pie'''³³''' tʰie⁵⁵/}}',
482 => '|-',
483 => '! RPS',
484 => '| {{link text|酒桶}}<br />{{IPA|/tɕiɵ'''³³''' dõ/}} || {{link text|變天}}<br />{{IPA|/pie'''⁴²''' tʰie⁵⁵/}}',
485 => '|}',
486 => '',
487 => '== Notes ==',
488 => '{{notelist}}',
489 => '',
490 => '==References==',
491 => '===Citations===',
492 => '{{Reflist|20em}}',
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500 => '|trans-title=The Phonological Evolution of Taihu Lake group of Wu dialects',
501 => '|year=2008',
502 => '|institution=Fudan University',
503 => '|type=thesis',
504 => '|postscript=.',
505 => '}}',
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513 => '|publisher=The Commercial Press',
514 => '|year=2012',
515 => '|isbn=978-7-100-07054-6',
516 => '|postscript=.',
517 => '}}',
518 => '',
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523 => '|first2=Yulong',
524 => '|year=2012',
525 => '|title={{lang|zh|偒傣話：世界上元音最多的語言}}',
526 => '|trans-title=Dondac: The language with the most vowels in the world',
527 => '|publisher=Fudan University Press',
528 => '|isbn=978-7-309-09153-3',
529 => '|postscript=.',
530 => '}}',
531 => '',
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535 => '|first2=Takako',
536 => '|last2=Toda',
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538 => '|journal=Current Issues in Sino-Tibetan Linguistics',
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540 => '|page=267-273',
541 => '|location=Ōsaka',
542 => '|postscript=.',
543 => '}}',
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553 => '|publisher=Shanghai People's Press',
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555 => '}}',
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567 => '}}',
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580 => '|postscript=.',
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601 => '|year=2018',
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605 => '}}',
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623 => '|year=2004',
624 => '|isbn=7-5004-4690-X',
625 => '|postscript=.',
626 => '}}',
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632 => '|institution=Shanghai Normal University',
633 => '|year=2009',
634 => '|trans-title=A Study on the Tones of the lect of Wujiang',
635 => '|type=thesis',
636 => '|postscript=.',
637 => '}}',
638 => '',
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641 => '|first=Huiying',
642 => '|title={{lang|zh|崇明方言的连读变调}}',
643 => '|trans-title=Tone Sandhi of the lect of Chongming',
644 => '|year=1979',
645 => '|journal={{lang|zh|方言}}',
646 => '|trans-journal=Fangyan',
647 => '|issue=4',
648 => '|page=284-302',
649 => '|postscript=.',
650 => '}}',
651 => '',
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657 => '|year=2015',
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660 => '|postscript=.',
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670 => '|journal={{lang|zh|方言}}',
671 => '|trans-journal=Fangyan',
672 => '|issue=3',
673 => '|year=2022',
674 => '|page=289-297',
675 => '|location=Beijing',
676 => '|postscript=.',
677 => '}}',
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690 => '|edition=1',
691 => '|isbn=978-7-5326-2248-1',
692 => '|postscript=.',
693 => '}}',
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698 => '|last2=Tang',
699 => '|first2=Zhenzhu',
700 => '|title={{lang|zh|上海市区方言志}}',
701 => '|trans-title=Regiolectal Gazetteer of Urban Shanghai',
702 => '|publisher=Shanghai Education Publishing House',
703 => '|orig-date=1988',
704 => '|year=1997',
705 => '|edition=2',
706 => '|isbn=7-5320-0226-8',
707 => '|postscript=.',
708 => '}}',
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713 => '|title=Shanghainese Pronunciation with Examples',
714 => '|year=2021',
715 => '|postscript=.',
716 => '}}',
717 => '',
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720 => '|first=Changling',
721 => '|title={{lang|zh|蘇州方言詞典}}',
722 => '|publisher=Jiangsu Education Publishing House',
723 => '|year=1993',
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Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wu">Northern Wu</a>, or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu Wu</a>, is the largest subbranch of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Chinese</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZheng2008vi_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZheng2008vi-1">[1]</a></sup> and is spoken in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, southern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>, and northern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">[2]</a></sup> These languages are noted for their extremely high number of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>, even compared to some <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiHong201212_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiHong201212-3">[3]</a></sup> and highly complex <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994267_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994267-4">[4]</a></sup> This article will use <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Wugniu</a><sup id="cite_ref-wugniu_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wugniu-5">[5]</a></sup> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> for transcription.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Syllable_structure"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Syllable structure</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Initials"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Initials</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Noteworthy_omissions"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Noteworthy omissions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Characteristic_preservations_and_innovations"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Characteristic preservations and innovations</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Palatalization"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Palatalization</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Depression"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Depression</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Implosives"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Implosives</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Glottal_plosive_series"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Glottal plosive series</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Finals"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Finals</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Characteristic_innovations"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Characteristic innovations</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Ma_raising"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Ma</i> raising</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Hou_fronting"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Hou</i> fronting</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Shan_and_xian_rimes"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.3</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Shan</i> and <i>xian</i> rimes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Frication"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Frication</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Codas"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Codas</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Nasal_coda"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Nasal coda</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Checked_coda"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Checked coda</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Tones"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Tones</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Phonemic_tone"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Phonemic tone</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Neutral_tones"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Neutral tones</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Tone_sandhi"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Tone sandhi</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Left-prominent_sandhi"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Left-prominent sandhi</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Right-prominent_sandhi"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Right-prominent sandhi</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Works_cited"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Works cited</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Syllable_structure">Syllable structure</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Syllable structure"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Much like other Sinitic languages, Northern Wu languages almost universally have an initial-final-tone <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syllable_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable structure">syllable structure</a>. The final can be further split into the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">glide</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syllable#Nucleus" title="Syllable">nucleus</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syllable#Coda" title="Syllable">coda</a>. For the most part, contemporary Northern Wu languages only permit nasals and the glottal stop (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span>) in coda position,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2001_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001-6">[6]</a></sup> though there is evidence to suggest that this was not the case in some historical varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2003_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2003-7">[7]</a></sup> There are plentiful <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syllable#Onset" title="Syllable">initials</a> in Northern Wu,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827-8">[8]</a></sup> more than many other Sinitic languages such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changshanese</a>, partially due to the preservation of voiced initials, which will be explained in more detail in other sections.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Initials">Initials</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Initials"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Much like other Wu languages, Northern Wu languages tend to preserve historical voiced initials,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons19993–7_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons19993–7-9">[9]</a></sup> which is a feature only found in several other lects along the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old Xiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen200410–55_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen200410–55-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Northern Wu languages' initials are generally similar. The following is a table of all the commonly-found Northern Wu phonemic initials, with their common urban realizations, Wugniu romanization, and example syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-wugniu_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wugniu-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007386_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007386-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang19961_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang19961-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENingbo_Gazetteer2853_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENingbo_Gazetteer2853-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20153–4_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20153–4-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBao19986_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao19986-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center">
<caption>Initial Consonants
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th colspan="2">
</th>
<th><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a>
</th>
<th><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/<br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a>
</th>
<th><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a>
</th>
<th><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a>
</th>
<th><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a>
</th></tr>
<tr align="center">
<th colspan="2"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a>
</th>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> ⟨m⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">美悶梅門</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> ⟨n⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">拿囡內男</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a></span> ⟨gn⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">粘扭泥牛</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span> ⟨ng⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">砑我外鵝</span></span>
</td>
<td> 
</td></tr>
<tr align="center">
<th rowspan="3"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a>
</th>
<th><small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">plain</a></small>
</th>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> ⟨p⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">布幫北</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> ⟨t⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">膽懂德</span></span>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> ⟨k⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">干公夾</span></span>
</td>
<td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span>)<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">鴨衣烏</span></span>
</td></tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a></small>
</th>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a></span> ⟨ph⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">怕胖劈</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a></span> ⟨th⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">透聽鐵</span></span>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a></span> ⟨kh⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">開擴康</span></span>
</td>
<td> 
</td></tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a></small>
</th>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> ⟨b⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">步盆拔</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> ⟨d⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">地動奪</span></span>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> ⟨g⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">葵共軋</span></span>
</td>
<td> 
</td></tr>
<tr align="center">
<th rowspan="3"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a>
</th>
<th><small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">plain</a></small>
</th>
<td>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a></span> ⟨ts⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">煮增質</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a></span> ⟨c⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">舉精腳</span></span>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a></small>
</th>
<td>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tsʰ</a></span> ⟨tsh⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">處倉出</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tɕʰ</a></span> ⟨ch⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">丘輕切</span></span>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td> 
</td></tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a></small>
</th>
<td>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">dz</a></span> ⟨dz⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">茶從鋤</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">dʑ</a></span> ⟨j⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">旗羣劇</span></span>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td> 
</td></tr>
<tr align="center">
<th rowspan="2"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a>
</th>
<th><small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a></small>
</th>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span> ⟨f⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">飛粉福</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> ⟨s⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">書松色</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a></span> ⟨sh⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">修血曉</span></span>
</td>
<td> 
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> ⟨h⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">花荒忽</span></span>
</td></tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a></small>
</th>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span> ⟨v⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">扶服浮</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> ⟨z⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">樹石十</span></span>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a></span> ⟨zh⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">徐秦絕</span></span>
</td>
<td> 
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">ɦ</a></span> ⟨gh⟩, ⟨y⟩, ⟨w⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">鞋移胡雨</span></span>
</td></tr>
<tr align="center">
<th colspan="2"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a>
</th>
<td>
</td>
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> ⟨l⟩<br /><span title="Wu Chinese-language text"><span lang="wuu-Hant">拉賴領</span></span>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Noteworthy_omissions">Noteworthy omissions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Noteworthy omissions"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Some varieties in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jiaxing" title="Jiaxing">Jiaxing</a> have <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Retroflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex">retroflex</a> initials,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYe198882_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYe198882-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMo201315_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMo201315-17">[17]</a></sup> much like some <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mandarin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin language">Mandarin</a> varieties. Compare the following examples.<sup id="cite_ref-wugniu_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wugniu-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th></th>
<th>Beijing</th>
<th>Changshu</th>
<th>Changzhou</th>
<th>Shengzhou
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th>張
</th>
<td>zhāng<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʂaŋ⁵⁵/</span></td>
<td>can<sup>1</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʂaŋ⁵²/</span></td>
<td>tsan<sup>1</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tsaŋ⁵⁵/</span></td>
<td>tsan<sup>1</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tsã⁵³⁴/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>常
</th>
<td>cháng<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʂʰaŋ³⁵/</span></td>
<td>jan<sup>2</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʐaŋ³⁴/</span></td>
<td>zan<sup>2</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/zaŋ²¹³/</span></td>
<td>dzan<sup>2</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dzã²¹³/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>船
</th>
<td>chuán<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʂʰuan³⁵/</span></td>
<td>zhe<sup>2</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʐe³⁴/</span></td>
<td>zoe<sup>2</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/zɤ²¹³/</span></td>
<td>zoen<sup>2</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/zœ̃²¹³/</span>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Characteristic_preservations_and_innovations">Characteristic preservations and innovations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Characteristic preservations and innovations"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Northern Wu, much like other Wu varieties, preserves <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voice_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Voice (linguistics)">voicing</a> in its initials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons19993–7_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons19993–7-9">[9]</a></sup> The exact mechanism in which this is realized is discussed below.
</p><p>Again, much like other Wu languages,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">[2]</a></sup> Northern Wu preserves the Middle Chinese <i>ri</i> initial (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">日母</span></span>) as a nasal. Compare the following, where ⟨gn⟩ is used to notate /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a></span>/:<sup id="cite_ref-wugniu_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wugniu-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th></th>
<th>Beijing</th>
<th>Guangzhou</th>
<th>Xi'an</th>
<th>Seoul<br />(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Korean_vocabulary" title="Sino-Korean vocabulary">Sino-Korean</a>)</th>
<th>Shanghai</th>
<th>Beilun</th>
<th>Anji
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5" class="extiw" title="wikt:日">日</a>
</th>
<td>rì</td>
<td>jat<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>ěr</td>
<td>il</td>
<td>gniq<sup>8</sup></td>
<td>gniq<sup>8</sup></td>
<td>gniq<sup>8</sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8E%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:玉">玉</a>
</th>
<td>yù</td>
<td>juk<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>yǔ</td>
<td>ok</td>
<td>gnioq<sup>8</sup>, gniuq<sup>8</sup></td>
<td>gnioq<sup>8</sup></td>
<td>gnioq<sup>8</sup>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Note that <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">日</span></span> here is pronounced in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">colloquial pronunciations</a> rather than literary ones.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Palatalization">Palatalization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Palatalization"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Many Northern Wu varieties have <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilants</a> that undergo <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalization</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">尖團合流</span></span> [<small><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%96%E5%9C%98%E5%90%88%E6%B5%81" class="extiw" title="zh:尖團合流">zh</a></small>]).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007-18">[18]</a></sup> This process is becoming more common among younger speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYe198882_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYe198882-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou201112_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou201112-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th></th>
<th>Old Suzhou</th>
<th>Old Wuxi</th>
<th>Shanghai</th>
<th>New Suzhou</th>
<th>New Wuxi
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B2%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:精">精</a>
</th>
<td>tsin<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>tsin<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>cin<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>cin<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>cin<sup>1</sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B6%93" class="extiw" title="wikt:經">經</a>
</th>
<td>cin<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>cin<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>cin<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>cin<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>cin<sup>1</sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BD%8A" class="extiw" title="wikt:齊">齊</a>
</th>
<td>zi<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>zi<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>zhi<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>ji<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>ji<sup>6</sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:旗">旗</a>
</th>
<td>ji<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>ji<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>ji<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>ji<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>ji<sup>6</sup>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Depression">Depression</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Depression"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The voiced initials in Northern Wu languages are realised with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2021_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2021-20">[20]</a></sup> This functions much like a phonemic depressor and lowers the pitch of the realization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2001_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001-6">[6]</a></sup> Some linguists, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Y._R._Chao" class="mw-redirect" title="Y. R. Chao">Y. R. Chao</a>, transcribe these phones not as voiced consonants, but as voiceless consonants followed by /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">ɦ</a></span>/ or even /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_epiglottal_trill" title="Voiced epiglottal trill">ʢ</a></span>/.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose20151_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose20151-21">[21]</a></sup> More recently, potentially due to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Standard Mandarin</a> influence, the younger generation has merged the pronunciation of the unaspirated voiceless series with the (breathy) voiced series.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGu200876_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGu200876-22">[22]</a></sup> However, the functional load of the breathy voice is relatively low, due to the fact that tonal distribution lends to disambiguation between historically voiced and voiceless syllables. This breathy voice is at times known as "murmur".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChappellLan201715_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLan201715-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some speakers, particularly in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, may constrict their throats when pronouncing voiceless (unaspirated) initials to further disambiguate breathy and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">modal</a> initials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChu20132_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChu20132-25">[25]</a></sup> This construction may result in the pronunciation of an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosive">implosive</a>.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Implosives">Implosives</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Implosives"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In various suburban <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a> varieties, the unaspirated voiceless series is realised as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosive">implosives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu20157_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu20157-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChuansha_Gazetteer897_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChuansha_Gazetteer897-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhu2006a19–20_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhu2006a19–20-28">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1988_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1988-29">[29]</a></sup> This feature appears to also have been in urban (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puxi" title="Puxi">Puxi</a>) Shanghainese, though it is lost today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTang198850_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang198850-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Glottal_plosive_series">Glottal plosive series</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Glottal plosive series"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The glottal fricatives /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span>/ and /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">ɦ</a></span>/ are phonotactically part of a plosive series with /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span>/. Spectral analyses have found that these three phones show three-way differences parallel to stops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoenigShi201425_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoenigShi201425-31">[31]</a></sup> Younger speakers also tend to merge <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɦ/</span> with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span>, not <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>, as would be expected if it were phonotatically a fricative.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGu200814_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGu200814-32">[32]</a></sup> As the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span> has been analyzed as a null initial in the past,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007307_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007307-33">[33]</a></sup> it could be said that Northern Wu languages have a three-way null initial contrast.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Finals">Finals</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Finals"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Finals vary singificantly more than initials in Northern Wu languages. As such, only noteworthy phonological and diachronic features will be discussed. For detailed analyses of individual lects, refer to their specific pages.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Characteristic_innovations">Characteristic innovations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Characteristic innovations"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ma_raising"><i>Ma</i> raising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Ma raising"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>A feature found in many Wu languages, including Northern Wu, is the raising of the historical <i>ma</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">麻</span></span>) rimes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons199918_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons199918-34">[34]</a></sup> They are typically realised as /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span>/, though some lects such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wuxi_dialect" title="Wuxi dialect">Wuxinese</a> may raise it even higher and having it merge with /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>/.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGu200878_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGu200878-35">[35]</a></sup> The exact sets of words that undergo raising varies from lect to lect, though in general, the southern two branches (Linshao and Yongjiang) have more raising than northern ones.<sup id="cite_ref-wugniu_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wugniu-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZheng201339–40_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZheng201339–40-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th></th>
<th>Haimen</th>
<th>Qingpu</th>
<th>Wuxi</th>
<th>Tonglu</th>
<th>Ningbo</th>
<th>Beijing
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:爬">爬</a>
</th>
<td>bo<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>bo<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>bu<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>buo<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>bo<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>pá
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8C%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:茶">茶</a>
</th>
<td>dzo<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>zo<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>zeu<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>jiuo<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>dzo<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>chá
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:下">下</a>
</th>
<td>gho<sup>4</sup></td>
<td>gho<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>wu<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>wo<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>gho<sup>6</sup></td>
<td>xià
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:家">家</a>
</th>
<td>ka<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>ka<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>ka<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>kuo<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>ko<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>jiā
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Notice how the two localities in Zhejiang, Tonglu and Ningbo, both pronounce the word <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">家</span></span> with a raised vowel, whereas those in Jiangsu and Shanghai do not. Northern varieties tend to retain the /<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a</span>/ value after velars, whereas Linshao and Yongjiang do not.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZheng201340_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZheng201340-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Hou_fronting"><i>Hou</i> fronting</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Hou fronting"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Northern Wu lects along the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> tend to front the Qieyun Middle Chinese <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">侯</span></span> rime (ie. Wugniu eu).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons199957_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons199957-38">[38]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Y._R._Chao" class="mw-redirect" title="Y. R. Chao">Y. R. Chao</a> suggested that this is due to influence from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhounese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChao1967100_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChao1967100-39">[39]</a></sup> Chao raises the example of <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">歐洲後頭的狗</span></span> "the dog behind Europe", pronounced as  [<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[eitsei<span class="wrap"> </span>ɦeidei<span class="wrap"> </span>kə'<span class="wrap"> </span>kei]</span>, taken from his native <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhounese</a>. Compare Standard Mandarin <i>Ōuzhōu hòutóu de gǒu</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChao1967100_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChao1967100-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Shan_and_xian_rimes"><i>Shan</i> and <i>xian</i> rimes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Shan and xian rimes"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The Northern Wu languages exhibit interesting behaviour regarding Qieyun Middle Chinese <i>shan</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span>) and <i>xian</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span>) rimes (ie. Wugniu ae). Some varieties lose the nasal coda completely, whereas others retain it. Some also leave some sporadic nasalization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Dam201463–66_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Dam201463–66-40">[40]</a></sup> They typically also have abnormally raised, rounded, or fronted vowels and more complex distribution when compared to other lects, thus resulting in noticable differences. This behaviour is also exhibited in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhounese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBao199812_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao199812-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center;">
<caption>Correspondance of vernacular Shanghainese readings with Middle Chinese rime classes<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTang1988116–117_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang1988116–117-42">[42]</a></sup>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th rowspan="2">Modern reflex</th>
<th colspan="2">Historical class</th>
<th rowspan="2">Conditions</th>
<th rowspan="2">Examples
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><i>Yunshe</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">韻攝</span></span>) and division (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">等</span></span>)</th>
<th><i>Yun</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">韻</span></span>)
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="6">i
</th>
<td rowspan="2">Open III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">鹽</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">幫</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">泥</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">精</span></span> and <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">日</span></span> series; velars</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B2%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:貶">貶</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B0%96" class="extiw" title="wikt:尖">尖</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9F%93" class="extiw" title="wikt:染">染</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8E%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:厭">厭</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">嚴</span></span></td>
<td><i>Unconditional</i></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9A%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:嚴">嚴</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8A%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:劍">劍</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AC%A0" class="extiw" title="wikt:欠">欠</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%86%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:醃">醃</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Open IV <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">添</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">端</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">泥</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">見</span></span> and <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">曉</span></span> series</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BA%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:店">店</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:念">念</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AB%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:嫌">嫌</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%BC" class="extiw" title="wikt:兼">兼</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">Open III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">仙</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">幫</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">泥</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">精</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">見</span></span> and <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">影</span></span> series</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AE%8A" class="extiw" title="wikt:變">變</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%89%AA" class="extiw" title="wikt:剪">剪</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%80%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:連">連</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BB%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:延">延</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">元</span></span></td>
<td><i>Unconditional</i></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BB%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:建">建</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A8%80" class="extiw" title="wikt:言">言</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BB%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:軒">軒</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A0%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:堰">堰</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">仙</span></span></td>
<td>most terms of <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">泥</span></span> and <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">精</span></span> series and two irregular <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">以</span></span> initial terms</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%80" class="extiw" title="wikt:戀">戀</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B3%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:泉">泉</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:宣">宣</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B2%BF" class="extiw" title="wikt:沿">沿</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="10">e
</th>
<td rowspan="2">Open I <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">覃</span></span></td>
<td><i>Sporadic</i></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:耽">耽</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A0%AA" class="extiw" title="wikt:堪">堪</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9D%8E" class="extiw" title="wikt:坎">坎</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8B%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:勘">勘</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">談</span></span></td>
<td>(Historical) dentialveolars</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%86%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:膽">膽</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B7%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:淡">淡</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B1%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:籃">籃</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:三">三</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">Open II <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td rowspan="2"><i>Unconditional</i></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AB%99" class="extiw" title="wikt:站">站</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%94%99" class="extiw" title="wikt:攙">攙</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%9B" class="extiw" title="wikt:減">減</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%99%B7" class="extiw" title="wikt:陷">陷</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">銜</span></span></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%94%99" class="extiw" title="wikt:攙">攙</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A1%AB" class="extiw" title="wikt:衫">衫</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9B%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:監">監</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%89%A6" class="extiw" title="wikt:艦">艦</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">凡</span></span></td>
<td><i>Unconditional</i></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%87%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:凡">凡</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B3%9B" class="extiw" title="wikt:泛">泛</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B8%86" class="extiw" title="wikt:帆">帆</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AF%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:範">範</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Open I <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">寒</span></span></td>
<td>(Historical) dentialveolars</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%B9" class="extiw" title="wikt:丹">丹</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9D%A6" class="extiw" title="wikt:坦">坦</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%87%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:懶">懶</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%82%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:傘">傘</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">Open II <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td rowspan="2"><i>Unconditional</i></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%89%AE" class="extiw" title="wikt:扮">扮</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%94%A2" class="extiw" title="wikt:產">產</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%8F%80" class="extiw" title="wikt:揀">揀</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%99%90" class="extiw" title="wikt:限">限</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">刪</span></span></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8F%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:班">班</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A3%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:棧">棧</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A7%A6" class="extiw" title="wikt:姦">姦</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%99%8F" class="extiw" title="wikt:晏">晏</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed I <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">桓</span></span></td>
<td>Sporadic labials</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%85%A2" class="extiw" title="wikt:慢">慢</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%94%93" class="extiw" title="wikt:蔓">蔓</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%88%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:般">般</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%98%A2" class="extiw" title="wikt:瘢">瘢</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">元</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">非</span></span> series</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:反">反</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BF%BB" class="extiw" title="wikt:翻">翻</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A3%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:飯">飯</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%90%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:萬">萬</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="3">ue
</th>
<td>Closed I <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">桓</span></span></td>
<td><i>two irregular terms</i></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%85%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:慣">慣</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AC%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:款">款</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed II <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span> & <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">刪</span></span></td>
<td>Velars</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%97%9C" class="extiw" title="wikt:關">關</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%85%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:慣">慣</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%92%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:環">環</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B9%BB" class="extiw" title="wikt:幻">幻</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">元</span></span></td>
<td><i>one irregular term</i></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%8C%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:挽">挽</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="7">oe
</th>
<td>Open I <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">覃</span></span></td>
<td>Velars</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%94%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:甘">甘</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%95%A2" class="extiw" title="wikt:敢">敢</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9A%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:蚶">蚶</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%85%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:酣">酣</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Open III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">鹽</span></span></td>
<td>(Historical) retroflex</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%A0" class="extiw" title="wikt:占">占</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%99%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:陝">陝</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%96%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:閃">閃</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A6%AA" class="extiw" title="wikt:禪">禪</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Open I <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">寒</span></span></td>
<td>Velars</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:看">看</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:乾">乾</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:汗">汗</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:安">安</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Open III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">仙</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">知</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">章</span></span> and <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">日</span></span> series</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%95" class="extiw" title="wikt:展">展</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:戰">戰</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%96%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:善">善</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%84%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:然">然</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed I <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">桓</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">幫</span></span> series and (historical) dentialveolars</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%90%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:搬">搬</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9F%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:短">短</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9A%96" class="extiw" title="wikt:暖">暖</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%85%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:酸">酸</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed II <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">刪</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">莊</span></span> series</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AF%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:篡">篡</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%96%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:閂">閂</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A0%93" class="extiw" title="wikt:栓">栓</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">仙</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">知</span></span> and <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">章</span></span> series</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BD%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:轉">轉</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%82%B3" class="extiw" title="wikt:傳">傳</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A3%9A" class="extiw" title="wikt:磚">磚</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%88%B9" class="extiw" title="wikt:船">船</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="2">uoe
</th>
<td>Closed I <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">桓</span></span></td>
<td>Velars</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:官">官</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AF%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:寬">寬</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AD%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:歡">歡</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A2%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:碗">碗</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed II & III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">刪</span></span> & <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">元</span></span></td>
<td><i>Sporadic</i></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A9%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:婉">婉</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%9B" class="extiw" title="wikt:宛">宛</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="3">ioe
</th>
<td rowspan="2">Closed III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">仙</span></span></td>
<td>Velars and <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">日</span></span> initial</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BB%9F" class="extiw" title="wikt:軟">軟</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B7" class="extiw" title="wikt:卷">卷</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%8B%B3" class="extiw" title="wikt:拳">拳</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%99%A2" class="extiw" title="wikt:院">院</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">元</span></span></td>
<td>Velars</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8B%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:勸">勸</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A1%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:願">願</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%80%A8" class="extiw" title="wikt:怨">怨</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%81%A0" class="extiw" title="wikt:遠">遠</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed IV <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">先</span></span></td>
<td>Velars</td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8A%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:犬">犬</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B8%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:縣">縣</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8E%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:玄">玄</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:淵">淵</a>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th></th>
<th>Qieyun description</th>
<th>Yixing</th>
<th>Kunshan</th>
<th>Jiaxing</th>
<th>Wuhang</th>
<th>Zhoushan
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:山">山</a>
</th>
<td>Open Grade II <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td>sa<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>sae<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>sae<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>sae<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>sae<sup>1</sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%87%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:凡">凡</a>
</th>
<td>Closed Grade III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td>va<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>vae<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>vae<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>vae<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>vae<sup>2</sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B9%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:鹽">鹽</a>
</th>
<td>Open Grade III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td>ye<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>ie<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>ye<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>ye<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>ghien<sup>2</sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:天">天</a>
</th>
<td>Open Grade IV <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td>tie<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>thie<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>thie<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>thie<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>thien<sup>1</sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B7%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:川">川</a>
</th>
<td>Closed Grade III <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山</span></span></td>
<td>chioe<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>tshoe<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>tshoe<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>tshae<sup>1</sup></td>
<td>tshoen<sup>1</sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:南">南</a>
</th>
<td>Open Grade I <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸</span></span></td>
<td>ne<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>noe<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>noe<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>nae<sup>2</sup></td>
<td>nei<sup>2</sup>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Frication">Frication</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Frication"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Several Northern Wu varieties have a very large number of contrastive high vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYueHu2058_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYueHu2058-43">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang19967_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang19967-44">[44]</a></sup> This contrast is typically realised in the form of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">rounding</a> or frication.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYueHu2058_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYueHu2058-43">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHu2006_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHu2006-45">[45]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao200311_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECao200311-46">[46]</a></sup> This frication can be notated as a lowering or raising of the vowel or as a glide insertion. Typically, frication in non-apical vowels happens to contrast terms with historical nasal codas.<sup id="cite_ref-wugniu_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wugniu-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang1996_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1996-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<caption>Frication contrast in some high front vowels
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th rowspan="2">Syllable</th>
<th colspan="2">Suzhou</th>
<th colspan="2">Changzhou
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th>Wugniu</th>
<th>IPA</th>
<th>Wugniu</th>
<th>IPA
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:天">天</a></td>
<td>thie<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰi⁴⁴/</span></td>
<td>thie<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰiɪ⁵⁵/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A2%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:梯">梯</a></td>
<td>thi<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰiⱼ⁴⁴/</span></td>
<td>thi<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰi⁵⁵/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B3%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:鳩">鳩</a></td>
<td>cieu<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕy⁴⁴/</span></td>
<td>ciou<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕy⁵⁵/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:居">居</a></td>
<td>ciu<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕyⱼ⁴⁴/</span></td>
<td>ciu<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕiɤɯ⁵⁵/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B5%B2" class="extiw" title="wikt:絲">絲</a></td>
<td>sy<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sɿ⁴⁴/</span></td>
<td>sy<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sɿ⁵⁵/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:書">書</a></td>
<td>syu<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʮ⁴⁴/</span></td>
<td>syu<sup>1</sup></td>
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʮ⁵⁵/</span>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Codas">Codas</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Codas"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Codas in Northern Wu are relatively simple compared to other Sinitic languages. In most modern Northern Wu varieties, only a single nasal phoneme and a checked coda (typically transcribed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span>) are permitted in coda position.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Nasal_coda">Nasal coda</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Nasal coda"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Northern Wu languages typically only have one final nasal phoneme.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wugniu_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wugniu-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWugniu20164_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWugniu20164-48">[48]</a></sup> This is typically realised as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ȵ]</span> or a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasalization</a> of the nucleus vowel, typically in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Free_variation" title="Free variation">free variation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkamatsu199134_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkamatsu199134-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Checked_coda">Checked coda</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Checked coda"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Northern Wu languages typically only permit <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span> in coda position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTangYou252_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTangYou252-50">[50]</a></sup> This is different to other coastal Southern Chinese languages, as they typically do not merge all checked codas into one category<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2">[2]</a></sup> It is also noteworthy that the coda is often realised as a shortening of the vowel rather than an actual <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ]</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTang19888_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang19888-51">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShiChen2022169_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShiChen2022169-52">[52]</a></sup> which contrasts with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wenzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenzhou dialect">Oujiang</a> varieties, which typically lengthen checked syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYe200830–45_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYe200830–45-53">[53]</a></sup> Compare the following syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-wugniu_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wugniu-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<caption>Checked-coda terms in various languages
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th></th>
<th>Historical coda</th>
<th>Shanghai</th>
<th>Haining (Xiashi)</th>
<th>Shangyu</th>
<th>Yinzhou</th>
<th>Wenzhou</th>
<th>Hong Kong</th>
<th>Xi'an</th>
<th>Tokyo<br />(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Go%27on" class="mw-redirect" title="Go'on">Go'on</a>)
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AB%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:立">立</a></td>
<td rowspan="2">-p</td>
<td>liq<sup>8</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/liɪʔ˩˨/</span></td>
<td>liq<sup>8</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/liəʔ˨/</span></td>
<td>liq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/liɪʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>liq<sup>8</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/liʔ˩˨/</span></td>
<td>lei<sup>8</sup>, li<sup>8</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lei˨˩˧/</span>,<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/li˨˩˧/</span></td>
<td>laap<sup>6</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/laːp˨/</span></td>
<td>lǐ<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/li˧˩/</span></td>
<td>ryuu<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾjɯː/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95" class="extiw" title="wikt:法">法</a></td>
<td>faq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/faʔ˦/</span></td>
<td>faq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/faʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>faq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fɐʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>faq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/faʔ/</span></td>
<td>ho<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ho˨˩˧/</span></td>
<td>faat<sup>3</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/faːt˧/</span></td>
<td>fǎ<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fa˧˩</span></td>
<td>hou<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hoː/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%90%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:鐵">鐵</a></td>
<td rowspan="2">-t</td>
<td>thiq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰiɪʔ˦/</span></td>
<td>thiq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰiəʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>thiq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰiɪʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>thiq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰiʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>thi<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰi˨˩˧/</span></td>
<td>tit<sup>3</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰiːt˧/</span></td>
<td>tiě<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰiɛ˧˩/</span></td>
<td>teti<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tetɕi/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:七">七</a></td>
<td>chiq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕiɪʔ˦/</span></td>
<td>chiq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕiəʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>chiq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕiɪʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>chiq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕiɪʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>tshai<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tsʰai˨˩˧/</span></td>
<td>cat<sup>1</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tsʰɐt˥/</span></td>
<td>qǐ<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕi˧˩/</span></td>
<td>siti<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɕitɕi/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A7%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:角">角</a></td>
<td rowspan="2">-k</td>
<td>koq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/koʔ˦/</span></td>
<td>koq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/koʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>koq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/koʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>koq<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/koʔ˥/</span></td>
<td>ko<sup>7</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ko˨˩˧/</span></td>
<td>gok<sup>3</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kɔːk˧/</span></td>
<td>juǒ<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕyɤ˧˩/</span></td>
<td>kaku<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kakɯ/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%90%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:落">落</a></td>
<td>loq<sup>8</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/loʔ˩˨/</span></td>
<td>loq<sup>8</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/loʔ˨/</span></td>
<td>loq<sup>8</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/loʔ˧/</span></td>
<td>loq<sup>8</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/loʔ˩˨/</span></td>
<td>lo<sup>8</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lo˨˩˧/</span></td>
<td>lok<sup>6</sup><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lɔːk˨/</span></td>
<td>luǒ<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/luɤ˧˩/</span></td>
<td>raku<br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾakɯ/</span>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Tones">Tones</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Tones"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tone</a> plays a critical role in Northern Wu and impacts the realisation of both initials and finals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang199634_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang199634-54">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2018462_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2018462-55">[55]</a></sup> It disambiguates between both monosyllabic words via underlying tone<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESu200920–37_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESu200920–37-56">[56]</a></sup> and polysyllabic terms through the use of tone sandhi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhang1979292–293_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang1979292–293-57">[57]</a></sup> Northern Wu languages can theoretically have up to twelve <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> tones, depending on analysis. These lects can be found in places in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jiaxing" title="Jiaxing">Jiaxing</a>, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wujiang,_Suzhou" title="Wujiang, Suzhou">Wujiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin201579_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELin201579-58">[58]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu20097_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu20097-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Phonemic_tone">Phonemic tone</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Phonemic tone"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Phonemic tones in Northern Wu is traditionally analysed based on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Four_tones_(Middle_Chinese)" title="Four tones (Middle Chinese)">four historical tone categories</a>, which are further divided in half based on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voice_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Voice (linguistics)">voicing</a> of the initial. Those that pair with voiceless initials are known as "dark" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">陰</span></span>) tones and the opposite is true for "light" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">陽</span></span>) ones. This yields a total of eight tones. The hypothetical maximum of 12 tones are achived when <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspiration_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (linguistics)">aspiration</a> conditions a further tone split through the dark tones.
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<caption>Tone contours of monosyllables in two lects in Wujiang
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Historical<br />Category</th>
<th>Phonation</th>
<th>Example words</th>
<th>Category</th>
<th>Wugniu</th>
<th>Songling</th>
<th>Tongli</th>
<th>Pingwang
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="3">Level
</th>
<td>Plain</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">剛丁三安</span></span></td>
<td>Whole dark level<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">全陰平</span></span></td>
<td rowspan="2">1</td>
<td>55</td>
<td>55</td>
<td>55
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Aspirate</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">開粗天偏</span></span></td>
<td>Partial dark level<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">次陰平</span></span></td>
<td>33</td>
<td>33</td>
<td>33
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Voiced</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">陳唐寒人</span></span></td>
<td>Light level<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">陽平</span></span></td>
<td>2</td>
<td>13</td>
<td>13</td>
<td>24
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="3">Rising
</th>
<td>Plain</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">古短比好</span></span></td>
<td>Whole dark rising<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">全陰上</span></span></td>
<td rowspan="2">3</td>
<td>51</td>
<td>51</td>
<td>51
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Aspirate</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">口草體普</span></span></td>
<td>Partial dark rising<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">次陰上</span></span></td>
<td>42</td>
<td>42</td>
<td>34
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Voiced</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">近厚老染</span></span></td>
<td>Light rising<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">陽上</span></span></td>
<td>4</td>
<td>31</td>
<td>31</td>
<td>23
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="3">Departing
</th>
<td>Plain</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">蓋對漢送</span></span></td>
<td>Whole dark rising<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">全陰去</span></span></td>
<td rowspan="2">5</td>
<td>412</td>
<td>412</td>
<td>513
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Aspirate</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">臭菜退戲</span></span></td>
<td>Partial dark rising<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">次陰去</span></span></td>
<td>312</td>
<td>312</td>
<td>313
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Voiced</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">樹共飯帽</span></span></td>
<td>Light rising<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">陽去</span></span></td>
<td>6</td>
<td>212</td>
<td>212</td>
<td>213
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="3">Checked
</th>
<td>Plain</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">各百說發</span></span></td>
<td>Whole dark rising<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">全陰入</span></span></td>
<td rowspan="2">7</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>5
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Aspirate</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">尺切拍曲</span></span></td>
<td>Partial dark rising<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">次陰入</span></span></td>
<td>3</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>3
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Voiced</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">局服岳六</span></span></td>
<td>Light rising<br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">陽入</span></span></td>
<td>8</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>2
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Note that, unlike <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue languages</a>, the dark checked tone split is conditioned by aspiration, not <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel length</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaoLiang2022_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaoLiang2022-60">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although there are Northern Wu lects with a high number of tones, it is also noteworthy that contemporary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a> in particular only has at most five phonemic tones, by merging tones 2 and 4 with 6, and tones 3 with 5.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTang19888–9_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang19888–9-61">[61]</a></sup> A typical Northern Wu variety has 7-8 tones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang199610_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang199610-62">[62]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENingbo_Gazetteer2854_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENingbo_Gazetteer2854-63">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20157_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20157-64">[64]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChappellLan201715_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLan201715-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<caption>Tone categories in Shanghainese
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th></th>
<th>Level</th>
<th>Rising</th>
<th>Departing</th>
<th>Checked
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th>Voiceless
</th>
<td>1</td>
<td colspan="2">5</td>
<td>7
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Voiced
</th>
<td colspan="3">6</td>
<td>8
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>For the most part, light tones can only occur with voiced initials, and dark tones can only occur with voiceless initials. In general, the light counterpart of a dark tone tends to be a lowered (or depressed) equivalent of the dark tone, as explored above.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2001_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001-6">[6]</a></sup> Compare the pronunciations of the dark and light departing tones in the following Wu varieties:<sup id="cite_ref-wugniu_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wugniu-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYe19936_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYe19936-65">[65]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th></th>
<th>Tone 5</th>
<th>Tone 6
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th>Jiangyin
</th>
<td>423</td>
<td>213
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Suzhou
</th>
<td>513</td>
<td>31
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Pinghu
</th>
<td>445</td>
<td>13
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Haiyan
</th>
<td>35</td>
<td>213
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Xiaoshan
</th>
<td>53</td>
<td>31
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Ningbo
</th>
<td>44</td>
<td>213
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Shanghai
</th>
<td>334</td>
<td>113
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Neutral_tones">Neutral tones</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section's source code: Neutral tones"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Neutral tones (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">輕聲</span>), informally transcribed as 0 or not transcribed at all, are found in tone sandhi and in some grammatical particles. For instance, the perfective particle <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">了</span></span> in Shanghainese should be tone 8 due to its voiced and checked nature, though it in reality functions without a tone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007307_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007307-33">[33]</a></sup> This phenomenon can also be observed in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Standard Mandarin</a>, though it is more pronounced in Northern Wu due to the grammatical nature of Northern Wu sandhi.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Tone_sandhi">Tone sandhi</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section's source code: Tone sandhi"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Northern Wu languages all have <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">tone sandhi</a>, both left-prominent (hereafter LPS) and right-prominent (RPS).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994-66">[66]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[a]</a></sup> LPS is found in polysyllabic words, whereas RPS is found in verb-object constructions. This is a feature that is shared among Wu languages, though in Northern Wu, sandhi chains generally share similar contours.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2001159_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001159-68">[67]</a></sup> This, coupled with the fact that this sort of complex tone sandhi cannot be found in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qieyun_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Qieyun system">Qieyun system</a> or reconstructions of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>, would suggest that this sandhi is a Wu shared innovation, and that Northern Wu languages share a recent common origin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2001159_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001159-68">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>There are five general types of contours:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>Contour spreading, where the contour of the head syllable gets stretched over subsequent syllables</li>
<li>Default realization, where the subsequent syllables become null tones</li>
<li>Countour levelling, where a syllable removes its tone contour movement such that it becomes level</li>
<li>Citation target, where a sandhi chain rises until it matches one of the monosyllabic tones</li>
<li>Categorical shift, where the subsequent syllables change tone categories</li></ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Left-prominent_sandhi">Left-prominent sandhi</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section's source code: Left-prominent sandhi"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>LPS in Northern Wu is typically regarded as highly complex. Northern Wu varieties are traditionally analysed to have unique sandhi chains for each tone category of every syllable, which results in complex charts that sprawl several pages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELau20027–9_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELau20027–9-69">[68]</a></sup> However, these analyses can usually be simplified, and not all combinations yield unique sandhi chains. Shanghainese LPS, for instance, has traditionally been analysed to only preserve phonemic tone on the first or head syllable, and drop it on all subsequent syllables,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTang198824_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang198824-70">[69]</a></sup> which may thus be considered somewhat similar to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a> in some languages. However, some younger speakers insert a rising tone contour on traditionally voiced initials to perhaps mimic the depression effect.
</p><p>This is similar to some analyses of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhounese</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhounese</a>. Checked tones in Suzhounese can be analysed to preserve the underlying tone of the first two syllables,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang199611–13_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang199611–13-71">[70]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[b]</a></sup>, whereas Hangzhounese sandhi is conditioned based on whether the second syllable belongs to the rising or non-rising category.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkitani198843_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkitani198843-73">[71]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<caption>Suzhounese checked tone sandhi
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th colspan="2">Tone number</th>
<th rowspan="2">Disyllabic</th>
<th rowspan="2">Trisyllabic</th>
<th rowspan="2">Quadrisyllabic
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th>First<br />syllable</th>
<th>Second<br />syllable
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="4">7</th>
<th>1, 2
</th>
<td>44 23</td>
<td>44 23 0</td>
<td>44 23 44 0
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>3
</th>
<td>22 33</td>
<td>22 33 0</td>
<td>22 33 44 0
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>5, 6
</th>
<td>55 523</td>
<td>55 52 33</td>
<td>55 52 22 33
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>7, 8
</th>
<td>44 44</td>
<td>44 44 0</td>
<td>44 44 22 0
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="4">8</th>
<th>1, 2
</th>
<td>22 33</td>
<td>22 33 0</td>
<td>22 33 44 0
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>3
</th>
<td>22 51</td>
<td>22 51 0</td>
<td>22 51 11 0
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>5, 6
</th>
<td>22 523</td>
<td>22 52 33</td>
<td>22 52 22 33
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>7, 8
</th>
<td>33 44</td>
<td>33 44 0</td>
<td>33 44 22 0
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The tone category of the third and fourth syllables do not matter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang199611–13_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang199611–13-71">[70]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Right-prominent_sandhi">Right-prominent sandhi</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section's source code: Right-prominent sandhi"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>RPS primarily occurs on verbs in verb-object constructions,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhang2013_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang2013-74">[72]</a></sup> and often is only relevant to monosyllables. They also occur in certain situations such as quantitative adjectives and a handful of irregular words. This can be used to disambiguate between certain constructions, such as the famous <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">炒麪</span></span> example,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhu2006b39_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhu2006b39-75">[73]</a></sup> but also the following:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhang1979292–293_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang1979292–293-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
<caption>LPS and RPS minimal pairs in Chongmingese
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>LPS
</th>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%9D%E6%A1%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:九桶">九桶</a><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕiɵ<b>⁴²</b><span class="wrap"> </span>dõ³³/</span></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E5%A4%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:半天">半天</a><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pie<b>³³</b><span class="wrap"> </span>tʰie⁵⁵/</span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>RPS
</th>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%85%92%E6%A1%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:酒桶">酒桶</a><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tɕiɵ<b>³³</b><span class="wrap"> </span>dõ/</span></td>
<td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AE%8A%E5%A4%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:變天">變天</a><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pie<b>⁴²</b><span class="wrap"> </span>tʰie⁵⁵/</span>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section's source code: Notes"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha">
<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">LPS is also known as "broad sandhi" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">廣用式</span></span>) and RPS is also known as "narrow sandhi" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">窄用式</span></span>).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/WT:AZH/Wu#Suzhounese" class="extiw" title="wikt:WT:AZH/Wu">This is the system used on Wiktionary.</a></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section's source code: References"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section's source code: Citations"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZheng2008vi-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZheng2008vi_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZheng2008">Zheng (2008)</a>, pp. vi.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2012-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2012_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2012">Li (2012)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiHong201212-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiHong201212_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiHong2012">Li & Hong (2012)</a>, pp. 12.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994267-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994267_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoseToda1994">Rose & Toda (1994)</a>, pp. 267.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-wugniu-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wugniu_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wugniu_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wugniu_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wugniu_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wugniu_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wugniu_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wugniu_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wugniu_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wugniu_5-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wugniu.com/"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">吳語學堂</span></span> (Wugniu)</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2001_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2001_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2001_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRose2001">Rose (2001)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2003-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2003_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQian2003">Qian (2003)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuKula201827_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuKula2018">Liu & Kula (2018)</a>, pp. 27.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons19993–7-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons19993–7_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons19993–7_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVanNess_Simmons1999">VanNess Simmons (1999)</a>, pp. 3–7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen200410–55-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen200410–55_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen2004">Chen (2004)</a>, pp. 10–55.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007386-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007386_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQian2007">Qian (2007)</a>, pp. 386.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFQian2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang19961-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang19961_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang1996">Wang (1996)</a>, pp. 1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENingbo_Gazetteer2853-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENingbo_Gazetteer2853_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNingbo_Gazetteer">Ningbo Gazetteer</a>, pp. 2853.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFNingbo_Gazetteer (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20153–4-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20153–4_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang2015">Wang (2015)</a>, pp. 3–4.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao19986-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBao19986_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBao1998">Bao (1998)</a>, pp. 6.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYe198882-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYe198882_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYe198882_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYe1988">Ye (1988)</a>, pp. 82.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMo201315-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMo201315_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMo2013">Mo (2013)</a>, pp. 15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQian2007">Qian (2007)</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFQian2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou201112-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou201112_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhou2011">Zhou (2011)</a>, pp. 12.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2021-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2021_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRose2021">Rose (2021)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERose20151-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose20151_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRose2015">Rose (2015)</a>, pp. 1.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFRose2015 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGu200876-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGu200876_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGu2008">Gu (2008)</a>, pp. 76.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons1999_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVanNess_Simmons1999">VanNess Simmons (1999)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChappellLan201715-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChappellLan201715_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChappellLan201715_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChappellLan2017">Chappell & Lan (2017)</a>, pp. 15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChu20132-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChu20132_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChu2013">Chu (2013)</a>, pp. 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu20157-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu20157_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2015">Xu (2015)</a>, pp. 7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChuansha_Gazetteer897-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChuansha_Gazetteer897_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChuansha_Gazetteer">Chuansha Gazetteer</a>, pp. 897.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFChuansha_Gazetteer (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhu2006a19–20-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhu2006a19–20_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhu2006a">Zhu (2006a)</a>, pp. 19–20.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1988-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1988_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen1988">Chen (1988)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang198850-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTang198850_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXuTang1988">Xu & Tang (1988)</a>, pp. 50.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFXuTang1988 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoenigShi201425-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoenigShi201425_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoenigShi2014">Koenig & Shi (2014)</a>, pp. 25.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGu200814-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGu200814_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGu2008">Gu (2008)</a>, pp. 14.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQian2007307-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007307_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQian2007307_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQian2007">Qian (2007)</a>, pp. 307.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFQian2007 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons199918-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons199918_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVanNess_Simmons1999">VanNess Simmons (1999)</a>, pp. 18.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGu200878-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGu200878_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGu2008">Gu (2008)</a>, pp. 78.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZheng201339–40-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZheng201339–40_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZheng2013">Zheng (2013)</a>, pp. 39–40.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZheng201340-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZheng201340_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZheng2013">Zheng (2013)</a>, pp. 40.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons199957-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanNess_Simmons199957_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVanNess_Simmons1999">VanNess Simmons (1999)</a>, pp. 57.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChao1967100-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChao1967100_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChao1967100_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChao1967">Chao (1967)</a>, pp. 100.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Dam201463–66-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Dam201463–66_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_Dam2014">van Dam (2014)</a>, pp. 63–66.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBao199812-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBao199812_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBao1998">Bao (1998)</a>, pp. 12.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang1988116–117-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTang1988116–117_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXuTang1988">Xu & Tang (1988)</a>, pp. 116–117.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFXuTang1988 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYueHu2058-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYueHu2058_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYueHu2058_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYueHu">Yue & Hu</a>, pp. 2058.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang19967-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang19967_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang1996">Wang (1996)</a>, pp. 7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHu2006-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHu2006_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHu2006">Hu (2006)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECao200311-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECao200311_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCao2003">Cao (2003)</a>, pp. 11.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1996-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang1996_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang1996">Wang (1996)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWugniu20164-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWugniu20164_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWugniu2016">Wugniu (2016)</a>, pp. 4.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkamatsu199134-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkamatsu199134_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAkamatsu1991">Akamatsu (1991)</a>, pp. 34.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTangYou252-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTangYou252_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXuTangYou">Xu, Tang & You</a>, pp. 252.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFXuTangYou (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang19888-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTang19888_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXuTang1988">Xu & Tang (1988)</a>, pp. 8.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFXuTang1988 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShiChen2022169-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShiChen2022169_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShiChen2022">Shi & Chen (2022)</a>, pp. 169.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYe200830–45-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYe200830–45_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYe2008">Ye (2008)</a>, pp. 30–45.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang199634-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang199634_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang1996">Wang (1996)</a>, pp. 34.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2018462-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2018462_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang2018">Wang (2018)</a>, pp. 462.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESu200920–37-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESu200920–37_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSu2009">Su (2009)</a>, pp. 20–37.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFSu2009 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang1979292–293-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhang1979292–293_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhang1979292–293_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhang1979">Zhang (1979)</a>, pp. 292–293.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELin201579-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin201579_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLin2015">Lin (2015)</a>, pp. 79.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu20097-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXu20097_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXu2009">Xu (2009)</a>, pp. 7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaoLiang2022-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaoLiang2022_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaoLiang2022">Shao & Liang (2022)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang19888–9-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTang19888–9_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXuTang1988">Xu & Tang (1988)</a>, pp. 8–9.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFXuTang1988 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang199610-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang199610_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang1996">Wang (1996)</a>, pp. 10.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENingbo_Gazetteer2854-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENingbo_Gazetteer2854_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNingbo_Gazetteer">Ningbo Gazetteer</a>, pp. 2854.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFNingbo_Gazetteer (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20157-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20157_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang2015">Wang (2015)</a>, pp. 7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYe19936-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYe19936_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYe1993">Ye (1993)</a>, pp. 6.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoseToda1994_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoseToda1994">Rose & Toda (1994)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERose2001159-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2001159_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERose2001159_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRose2001">Rose (2001)</a>, pp. 159.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELau20027–9-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELau20027–9_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLau2002">Lau (2002)</a>, pp. 7–9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXuTang198824-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXuTang198824_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXuTang1988">Xu & Tang (1988)</a>, pp. 24.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFXuTang1988 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang199611–13-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang199611–13_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang199611–13_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang1996">Wang (1996)</a>, pp. 11–13.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkitani198843-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkitani198843_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAkitani1988">Akitani (1988)</a>, pp. 43.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang2013-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhang2013_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhang2013">Zhang (2013)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhu2006b39-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhu2006b39_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhu2006b">Zhu (2006b)</a>, pp. 39.</span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Works_cited">Works cited</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Northern_Wu_phonology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section's source code: Works cited"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em">
<ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFZheng2008" class="citation cs2">Zheng, Wei (2008), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">吴语太湖片的音韵演变研究</span></span></i> [<i>The Phonological Evolution of Taihu Lake group of Wu dialects</i>] (thesis), Fudan University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E5%90%B4%E8%AF%AD%E5%A4%AA%E6%B9%96%E7%89%87%E7%9A%84%E9%9F%B3%E9%9F%B5%E6%BC%94%E5%8F%98%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Fudan+University&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Zheng&rft.aufirst=Wei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLi2012" class="citation cs2">Li, Rong (2012), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">中國語言地圖集</span></span></i> [<i>Language Atlas of China</i>] (2 ed.), The Commercial Press, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-100-07054-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-100-07054-6"><bdi>978-7-100-07054-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%9C%B0%E5%9C%96%E9%9B%86%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=The+Commercial+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-7-100-07054-6&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Rong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLiHong2012" class="citation cs2">Li, Hui; Hong, Yulong (2012), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">偒傣話：世界上元音最多的語言</span></span></i> [<i>Dondac: The language with the most vowels in the world</i>], Fudan University Press, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-309-09153-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-309-09153-3"><bdi>978-7-309-09153-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E5%81%92%E5%82%A3%E8%A9%B1%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E4%B8%8A%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3%E6%9C%80%E5%A4%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Fudan+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-7-309-09153-3&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Hui&rft.au=Hong%2C+Yulong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRoseToda1994" class="citation cs2">Rose, Phil; Toda, Takako (1994), "A Typology of Tone Sandhi Rules in Northern Wu", <i>Current Issues in Sino-Tibetan Linguistics</i>, Ōsaka: 267-273.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Issues+in+Sino-Tibetan+Linguistics&rft.atitle=A+Typology+of+Tone+Sandhi+Rules+in+Northern+Wu&rft.pages=267-273&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft.au=Toda%2C+Takako&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFQian2003" class="citation cs2">Qian, Nairong (2003), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">上海語言發展史</span></span></i> [<i>A History on Language Evolution in Shanghai</i>] (1 ed.), Shanghai People's Press, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-208-04554-2" title="Special:BookSources/7-208-04554-2"><bdi>7-208-04554-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E5%8F%B2%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Shanghai+People%27s+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=7-208-04554-2&rft.aulast=Qian&rft.aufirst=Nairong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRose2001" class="citation cs2">Rose, Phil (2001), "Chinese Languages: Wu", <i>Facts About the World's Languages: an encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present.</i>, New York: New England Publishing Associates, p. 158-161.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chinese+Languages%3A+Wu&rft.btitle=Facts+About+the+World%27s+Languages%3A+an+encyclopedia+of+the+world%27s+major+languages%2C+past+and+present.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=158-161&rft.pub=New+England+Publishing+Associates&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Phil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLiuKula2018" class="citation cs2">Liu, Xiaoxi; Kula, Nancy C. (2018), "A comparative study of depression in Bantu, Khoisan and Chinese Wu — laryngeal settings and feature specifications", <i>Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus</i>, <b>54</b>: 17–43, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5842%2F54-0-774">10.5842/54-0-774</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stellenbosch+Papers+in+Linguistics+Plus&rft.atitle=A+comparative+study+of+depression+in+Bantu%2C+Khoisan+and+Chinese+Wu+%E2%80%94+laryngeal+settings+and+feature+specifications&rft.volume=54&rft.pages=17-43&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5842%2F54-0-774&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Xiaoxi&rft.au=Kula%2C+Nancy+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWang1996" class="citation cs2">Wang, Ping (1996), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">蘇州方言語音研究</span></span></i> [<i>A Study on the Phonology of Suzhounese</i>], Huazhong University of Science & Technology Press, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5609-1131-5" title="Special:BookSources/7-5609-1131-5"><bdi>7-5609-1131-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E8%98%87%E5%B7%9E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E9%9F%B3%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Huazhong+University+of+Science+%26+Technology+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=7-5609-1131-5&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Ping&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWang2018" class="citation cs2">Wang, Ning (2018), "Analyse acoustique des occlusives produites par des jeundes locuteurs en dialecte wu de Suzhou" [An acoustic analysis of the plosives produced by young speakers of the Wu dialect of Suzhou], <i>XXXIIe Journées d'Études sur la Parole</i> [<i>32<sup>th</sup> Journal of Speech Studies</i>], Aix-en-Provence: 460-469.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=XXXIIe+Journ%C3%A9es+d%27%C3%89tudes+sur+la+Parole&rft.atitle=Analyse+acoustique+des+occlusives+produites+par+des+jeundes+locuteurs+en+dialecte+wu+de+Suzhou&rft.pages=460-469&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Ning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFVanNess_Simmons1999" class="citation cs2">VanNess Simmons, Richard (1999), <i>Chinese Dialect Classification: A comparative approach to Harngjou, Old Jintarn and Common Northern Wu</i>, John Benjamins Publishing Co., <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-3694-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-3694-1"><bdi>90-272-3694-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Dialect+Classification%3A+A+comparative+approach+to+Harngjou%2C+Old+Jintarn+and+Common+Northern+Wu&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=90-272-3694-1&rft.aulast=VanNess+Simmons&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFChen2004" class="citation cs2">Chen, Lizhong (2004), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">湘语与吴语音韵比较研究</span></span></i> [<i>A Comparative Study on the Phonology of Xiang and Wu</i>], China Social Sciences Press, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5004-4690-X" title="Special:BookSources/7-5004-4690-X"><bdi>7-5004-4690-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%B9%98%E8%AF%AD%E4%B8%8E%E5%90%B4%E8%AF%AD%E9%9F%B3%E9%9F%B5%E6%AF%94%E8%BE%83%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=China+Social+Sciences+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=7-5004-4690-X&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Lizhong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFXu2009" class="citation cs2">Xu, Zhen (2009), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">吴江方言声调研究</span></span></i> [<i>A Study on the Tones of the lect of Wujiang</i>] (thesis), Shanghai Normal University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E5%90%B4%E6%B1%9F%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%A3%B0%E8%B0%83%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Shanghai+Normal+University&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Zhen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFZhang1979" class="citation cs2">Zhang, Huiying (1979), "<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">崇明方言的连读变调</span></span>" [Tone Sandhi of the lect of Chongming], <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">方言</span></span></i> [<i>Fangyan</i>] (4): 284-302.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E5%B4%87%E6%98%8E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E7%9A%84%E8%BF%9E%E8%AF%BB%E5%8F%98%E8%B0%83%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=284-302&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Huiying&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLin2015" class="citation cs2">Lin, Qijing (2015), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">苏州郊区方言研究</span></span></i> [<i>A Study on the Lects of Suburban Suzhou</i>] (thesis), Soochow University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E8%8B%8F%E5%B7%9E%E9%83%8A%E5%8C%BA%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Soochow+University&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Qijing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFShaoLiang2022" class="citation cs2">Shao, Huijun; Liang, Shile (2022), "<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">广东粤语的入声格局及舒促对应关系</span></span>" [On the <i>Rusheng</i> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">入声</span></span> Tone Patterns of Yue Dialects in Guangdong Province and the Corresponding Relationship between <i>Rusheng</i> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">入声</span></span> and <i>Shusheng</i> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">舒声</span></span> Tones], <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">方言</span></span></i> [<i>Fangyan</i>], Beijing (3): 289-297.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E5%B9%BF%E4%B8%9C%E7%B2%A4%E8%AF%AD%E7%9A%84%E5%85%A5%E5%A3%B0%E6%A0%BC%E5%B1%80%E5%8F%8A%E8%88%92%E4%BF%83%E5%AF%B9%E5%BA%94%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=289-297&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Shao&rft.aufirst=Huijun&rft.au=Liang%2C+Shile&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFQianXuTang2007" class="citation cs2">Qian; Xu, Baohua; Tang, Zhenzhu (2007), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">上海话大词典</span></span></i> [<i>The Great Dictionary of Shanghainese</i>] (1 ed.), Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5326-2248-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5326-2248-1"><bdi>978-7-5326-2248-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E8%AF%9D%E5%A4%A7%E8%AF%8D%E5%85%B8%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Shanghai+Lexicographical+Publishing+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-7-5326-2248-1&rft.au=Qian&rft.au=Xu%2C+Baohua&rft.au=Tang%2C+Zhenzhu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFXuTang1997" class="citation cs2">Xu, Baohua; Tang, Zhenzhu (1997) [1988], <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">上海市区方言志</span></span></i> [<i>Regiolectal Gazetteer of Urban Shanghai</i>] (2 ed.), Shanghai Education Publishing House, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5320-0226-8" title="Special:BookSources/7-5320-0226-8"><bdi>7-5320-0226-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E5%B8%82%E5%8C%BA%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%BF%97%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Shanghai+Education+Publishing+House&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=7-5320-0226-8&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Baohua&rft.au=Tang%2C+Zhenzhu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCanepari2021" class="citation cs2">Canepari, Luciano (2021), <i>Shanghainese Pronunciation with Examples</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shanghainese+Pronunciation+with+Examples&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Canepari&rft.aufirst=Luciano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFYe1993" class="citation cs2">Ye, Changling (1993), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">蘇州方言詞典</span></span></i> (1 ed.), Jiangsu Education Publishing House, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5343-1996-X" title="Special:BookSources/7-5343-1996-X"><bdi>7-5343-1996-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E8%98%87%E5%B7%9E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E8%A9%9E%E5%85%B8%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Jiangsu+Education+Publishing+House&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=7-5343-1996-X&rft.aulast=Ye&rft.aufirst=Changling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLau2002" class="citation cs2">Lau, Sze-Lok (2002), <i>Tone and Tone Sandhi in Suzhou</i> (thesis), City University of Hong Kong.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tone+and+Tone+Sandhi+in+Suzhou&rft.pub=City+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Lau&rft.aufirst=Sze-Lok&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation cs2"><i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">宁波市志</span></span></i> [<i>Ningbo Gazetteer</i>], Zhonghua Publishing House, 1995, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-1010-1507-7" title="Special:BookSources/7-1010-1507-7"><bdi>7-1010-1507-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E5%AE%81%E6%B3%A2%E5%B8%82%E5%BF%97%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Zhonghua+Publishing+House&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=7-1010-1507-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWang2015" class="citation cs2">Wang, Futang (2015), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">绍兴方言研究</span></span></i> [<i>A Study on the Lect of Shaoxing</i>], Language & Culture Press, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-80241-845-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-80241-845-5"><bdi>978-7-80241-845-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E7%BB%8D%E5%85%B4%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Language+%26+Culture+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-7-80241-845-5&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Futang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAkitani1988" class="citation cs2">Akitani, Hiroyuki (1988), <i><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">杭州方言の聲調</span></span></i> [<i>Tones in Hangzhounese</i>], <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">早稲田大学中国文学会</span></span>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0385-0919">0385-0919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Japanese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22ja%22%3E%E6%9D%AD%E5%B7%9E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E3%81%AE%E8%81%B2%E8%AA%BF%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Japanese-language+text&rft.pub=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Japanese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22ja%22%3E%E6%97%A9%E7%A8%B2%E7%94%B0%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6%E4%BC%9A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Japanese-language+text&rft.date=1988&rft.issn=0385-0919&rft.aulast=Akitani&rft.aufirst=Hiroyuki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2013" class="citation cs2">Zhang, Jisheng (2013), "<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">绍兴方言右重韵律结构的表现形式</span></span>" [Representation of the Right-prominent Metrical Structure of the Shaoxing variety], <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">语言科学</span></span></i> (3): 269-276, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1671-9484">1671-9484</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E7%BB%8D%E5%85%B4%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%8F%B3%E9%87%8D%E9%9F%B5%E5%BE%8B%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E7%9A%84%E8%A1%A8%E7%8E%B0%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=269-276&rft.date=2013&rft.issn=1671-9484&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Jisheng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBao1998" class="citation cs2">Bao, Shijie (1998), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">杭州方言詞典</span></span></i> [<i>Hangzhounese Dictionary</i>], Jiangsu Education Publishing House, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5343-3413-6" title="Special:BookSources/7-5343-3413-6"><bdi>7-5343-3413-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%9D%AD%E5%B7%9E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E8%A9%9E%E5%85%B8%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Jiangsu+Education+Publishing+House&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=7-5343-3413-6&rft.aulast=Bao&rft.aufirst=Shijie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFYe1988" class="citation cs2">Ye, Changling (1988), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">苏州方言研究</span></span></i> [<i>A Study on Suzhounese</i>] (1 ed.), Jiangsu Education Publishing House, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5343-0540-3" title="Special:BookSources/7-5343-0540-3"><bdi>7-5343-0540-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E8%8B%8F%E5%B7%9E%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Jiangsu+Education+Publishing+House&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=7-5343-0540-3&rft.aulast=Ye&rft.aufirst=Changling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFZhou2011" class="citation cs2">Zhou, Yuanya (2011), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">无锡市区新派方言现象研究</span></span></i> [<i>The Present Situation of the New Wuxi lect</i>] (thesis).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E6%97%A0%E9%94%A1%E5%B8%82%E5%8C%BA%E6%96%B0%E6%B4%BE%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E7%8E%B0%E8%B1%A1%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Zhou&rft.aufirst=Yuanya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMo2013" class="citation cs2">Mo, Wa (2013), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">常熟方言音韵演变研究</span></span></i> [<i>Research on the Phonological Evolution of the Changshu lect</i>] (thesis), Nanking University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E5%B8%B8%E7%86%9F%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E9%9F%B3%E9%9F%B5%E6%BC%94%E5%8F%98%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Nanking+University&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Mo&rft.aufirst=Wa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFChu2013" class="citation cs2">Chu, Bannong (2013), <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">莘庄方言</span></span></i> [<i>The Xingzhuang lect</i>], Shanghai Century Publishing Group, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5486-0494-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5486-0494-5"><bdi>978-7-5486-0494-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E8%8E%98%E5%BA%84%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.pub=Shanghai+Century+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-7-5486-0494-5&rft.aulast=Chu&rft.aufirst=Bannong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+Wu+phonology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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</div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1710077489' |