Examine individual changes

'{{Short description|Country in East Africa}}{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}{{Redirect|Sudanese Republic|other uses|Sudan (disambiguation)}}{{About-distinguish|the country|South Sudan|Sudan (region)|The Sudans}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of the Sudan | common_name = Sudan | native_name = {{native name|ar|جمهورية السودان|italics=off}}<br />''{{transliteration|ar|Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān}}'' | image_flag = Flag of Sudan.svg | flag_type = [[Flag of Sudan|Flag]] | religion_year = 2020 | image_coat = Emblem of Sudan.svg | symbol_type = [[Emblem of Sudan|Emblem]] | national_motto = {{lang|ar|النصر لنا}}<br />{{transliteration|ar|an-Naṣr lanā}}<br />"Victory is ours" | national_anthem = {{lang|ar|نحن جند اللّٰه، جند الوطن}}<br />{{transliteration|ar|[[Nahnu Jund Allah Jund Al-watan|Naḥnu jund Allah, jund al-waṭan]]}}<br />"We are Soldiers of God, Soldiers of the Homeland"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Sudanese national anthem, performed by the U.S. Navy Band (instrumental).oga]]}} | image_map = File:Sudan (orthographic projection) highlighted.svg | map_caption = Sudan displayed in dark green colour, claimed territories not administered in light green | image_map2 = | capital = [[Khartoum]] | capital_exile = [[Port Sudan]]{{efn|The Sudanese government evacuated to Port Sudan due to an ongoing [[Battle of Khartoum (2023)|battle]] for Khartoum.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/paramilitary-rsf-say-they-have-seized-sudans-second-city-2023-10-26/|title=Paramilitary RSF say they have seized Sudan's second city |website=[[Reuters]] }}</ref>}} | coordinates = | largest_city = [[Khartoum]] | official_languages = {{hlist|[[Arabic]]|[[English language|English]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist |70% [[Sudanese Arabs|Sudanese Arab]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/| title = People and Society CIA world factbook| date = 10 May 2022}}</ref> |5.5% [[Beja people|Beja]]<ref name="Bej">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/bej/|title= Beja| publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=25 October 2023}}</ref> |2.5% [[Nuba peoples|Nuba]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/feature/2015/08/03/nuba-prisoners-geography|title=The Nuba people|date=3 August 2015 |access-date=28 October 2023}}</ref> |2% [[Fur people|Fur]]<ref name="Fur">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/24/language/fvr/|title=Fur| publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=11 October 2023}}</ref> |2% [[Egyptians|Egyptian]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/ShowPDF.aspx?page_id=%20/Admin/Pages%20Files/2017109143840cns.pdf| title = الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء}}</ref> |1.3% [[Nubians|Nubian]]{{Efn|<ref name="FIA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_language/FIA/| title=Nobiin| publisher=Ethnologue| accessdate=18 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_language/KNC/| title=Dongolawi| publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=18 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="Mei">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/mei/|title=Midob|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=18 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="Ghl">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/ghl/|title=Ghulfan|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=18 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kdu">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kdu/|title=Kadaru|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=18 October 2023}}</ref>}} |17.3% [[Demographics of Sudan|other]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/sudan-ethnic-groups.html|title=Demographics and Ethnic Groups of Sudan|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref>}} | government_type = [[Federation|Federal]] [[republic]] under a [[military junta]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gavin |first1=Michelle |title=Junta and Public at Odds in Sudan |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/junta-and-public-odds-sudan |access-date=20 March 2023 |work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |date=8 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Jack |title=Analysis: Year post-coup, cracks in Sudan's military junta |url=https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-africa-cairo-sudan-democracy-2b87ee19685ec2667ac05acff8b4ed9e |access-date=20 March 2023 |work=[[Associated Press]] |date=23 October 2022 |location=[[Cairo, Egypt]]}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[Transitional Sovereignty Council]] | leader_name1 = {{indented plainlist| *[[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]] (Chairman) *[[Malik Agar]] (Deputy chairman) }} | leader_title2 = [[List of heads of government of Sudan|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = {{indented plainlist|*[[Osman Hussein (politician)|Osman Hussein]] (acting)}} | legislature = ''Vacant'' | religion = {{ublist||97% [[Islam in Sudan| Sunni Islam]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/| title = People and Society CIA world factbook| date = 10 May 2022}}</ref> |1.5% [[Christianity in Sudan|Christianity]] |1.5% [[Traditional African religions|Traditional Faiths]] |0.9% [[Religion in Sudan|Others]]}} | sovereignty_type = [[History of Sudan|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Kerma culture|Kingdom of Kerma]] | established_date1 = 2500 BC | established_event2 = [[Kingdom of Kush]] | established_date2 = 1070 BC | established_event3 = [[Makuria]], [[Nobatia]], and [[Alodia]] | established_date3 = {{circa|350}} | established_event4 = [[Tunjur kingdom|Tunjur]], [[Funj Sultanate|Funj ]], and [[Sultanate of Darfur|Darfur]] Sultanates | established_date4 = {{circa|1500}} | established_event5 = [[Turco-Egyptian Sudan]] | established_date5 = 1820 | established_event6 = [[Mahdist State]] | established_date6 = 1885 | established_event7 = [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian Condominium]] | established_date7 = 1899 | established_event8 = [[Sudan independence|Independence]] | established_date8 = 1 January 1956 | established_event9 = [[Democratic Republic of the Sudan]] | established_date9 = 25 May 1969 | established_event10 = [[Republic of the Sudan (1985–2019)]] | established_date10 = 6 April 1985 | established_event11 = Secession of [[South Sudan]] | established_date11 = 9 July 2011 | established_event12 = [[Sudanese Revolution]] | established_date12 = 19 December 2018 | established_event13 = [[2019–2026 Sudanese transition to democracy#Draft Constitutional Declaration|2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration]] effective | established_date13 = 20 August 2019 | area_km2 = 1886068 | area_rank = 15th | area_sq_mi = 728215 | percent_water = | population_estimate = 50,467,278<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Sudan|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2024 | population_estimate_rank = 30th | population_density_km2 = 21.3 | population_density_sq_mi = 55.3 | population_density_rank = 202nd | GDP_PPP = {{decrease}} $172.651 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.SD">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=732,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Sudan) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=15 October 2023}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_rank = 71st | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{decrease}} $3,604<ref name="IMFWEO.SD" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 151st | GDP_nominal = {{decrease}} $25.569 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.SD" /> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 96th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $533<ref name="IMFWEO.SD" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 171st | Gini = 34.2 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2014 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url= http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.516 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2022 <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2023-24_HDR/HDR23-24_Statistical_Annex_HDI_Table.xlsx|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=13 March 2024|access-date=22 March 2023|archive-date=19 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319085123/https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2023-24_HDR/HDR23-24_Statistical_Annex_HDI_Table.xlsx|url-status=live}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 170th | currency = [[Sudanese pound]] | currency_code = SDG | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]] | utc_offset = +2 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy <!--numeric dates (dd-mm-yyyy, yyyy.mm.dd, etc.) plus era (AD, AH, etc.)--> | drives_on = Right | calling_code = [[+249]] | iso3166code = SD | cctld = [[.sd]]<br />[[سودان.]] | religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=National Profiles |url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=211c |access-date=8 October 2022 |website=[[Association of Religion Data Archives]]}}</ref> | demonym = [[Demographics of Sudan|Sudanese]] }} '''Sudan''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|lang|s|uː|ˈ|d|ɑː|n|audio=En-us-Sudan from Sudan pronunciation (Voice of America).ogg}} {{respell|soo|DAHN}} or {{IPAc-en|s|uː|ˈ|d|æ|n}} {{respell|soo|DAN}}; {{lang-ar|السودان|Sūdān}}}} officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''',{{efn|{{lang-ar|جمهورية السودان|link=no|Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān}}}} is a country in [[Northeast Africa]]. It borders the [[Central African Republic]] to the southwest, [[Chad]] to the west, [[Egypt]] to the north, [[Eritrea]] to the northeast, [[Ethiopia]] to the southeast, [[Libya]] to the northwest, [[South Sudan]] to the south, and the [[Red Sea]]. It has a population of 45.7&nbsp;million people as of 2022<ref>{{cite web |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/sudan-population/ |title=Sudan Population 2021 (Live) |website=worldpopulationreview.com |access-date=26 July 2021 }}</ref> and occupies 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles), making it Africa's [[List of African countries by area|third-largest country by area]] and the third-largest by area in the [[Arab League]]. It was the largest country by area in Africa and the Arab League until the [[2011 South Sudanese independence referendum|secession of South Sudan in 2011]];<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html#su |title=Area |work=The World Factbook |publisher=U.S. Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=13 May 2018 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226211750/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html#su |url-status=dead }}</ref> since then both titles have been held by [[Algeria]]. Its capital and most populous city is [[Khartoum]]. The area that is now Sudan witnessed the [[Khormusan]] (c. 40000–16000 BC),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goder-Goldberger |first=Mae |date=2013-06-25 |title=The Khormusan: Evidence for an MSA East African industry in Nubia |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618212033423 |journal=Quaternary International |series=The Middle Palaeolithic in the Desert |volume=300 |pages=182–194 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2012.11.031 |bibcode=2013QuInt.300..182G |issn=1040-6182}}</ref> [[Halfan culture]] (c. 20500–17000 BC),<ref>{{Cite book |title=Stone age prehistory: studies in memory of Charles McBurney |date=1986 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-521-25773-2 |editor-last=Bailey |editor-first=Geoff N. |location=Cambridge |editor-last2=McBurney |editor-first2=Charles B. M.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Halfan {{!}} archaeology {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Halfan |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Sebilian]] (c. 13000 BC–10000 BC),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction to Ancient Egypt {{!}} World Civilizations I (HIS101) – Biel |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-fmcc-boundless-worldhistory/chapter/introduction-to-ancient-egypt/ |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com}}</ref> [[Qadan culture]] (c. 15000–5000 BC),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nubia - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/nubia |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> the war of [[Jebel Sahaba]], the earliest known war in the world, around 11500 BC,<ref name="Kelly2">{{cite journal |last=Kelly |first=Raymond |date=October 2005 |title=The evolution of lethal intergroup violence |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=102 |issue=43 |pages=24–29 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0505955102 |pmc=1266108 |pmid=16129826 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Crevecoeur |first1=Isabelle |last2=Dias-Meirinho |first2=Marie-Hélène |last3=Zazzo |first3=Antoine |last4=Antoine |first4=Daniel |last5=Bon |first5=François |date=2021-05-27 |title=New insights on interpersonal violence in the Late Pleistocene based on the Nile valley cemetery of Jebel Sahaba |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=9991 |bibcode=2021NatSR..11.9991C |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-89386-y |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8159958 |pmid=34045477 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[A-Group culture]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient Nubia: A-Group 3800–3100 BC {{!}} Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures |url=https://isac.uchicago.edu/museum-exhibits/nubia/ancient-nubia-group-3800%E2%80%933100-bc |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=isac.uchicago.edu}}</ref> (c. 3800 BC–3100 BC), [[Kerma culture|Kingdom of Kerma]] ({{circa}} 2500–1500 BC), the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|Egyptian New Kingdom]] ({{circa}} 1500 BC–1070 BC), and the [[Kingdom of Kush]] ({{circa}} 785 BC–350 AD). After the fall of Kush, the [[Nubians]] formed the three Christian kingdoms of [[Nobatia]], [[Makuria]], and [[Alodia]]. Between the 14th and 15th centuries, most of Sudan was gradually settled by [[Bedouin|Arab nomads]]. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, central and eastern Sudan were dominated by the [[Sultanate of Sennar|Funj sultanate]], while [[Sultanate of Darfur|Darfur]] ruled the west and the Ottomans the east. In 1811, [[Mamluk]]s established a state at [[Dunqulah]] as a base for their [[slave trading]]. Under [[Turkish Sudan|Turco-Egyptian rule]] of Sudan after the 1820s, the practice of trading slaves was entrenched along a north–south axis, with [[Slave raiding|slave raids]] taking place in southern parts of the country and slaves being transported to Egypt and the [[Ottoman empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Walz |first1=Terence |url=https://oxfordre.com/abstract/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-8 |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-19-027773-4 |chapter=Egyptian-Sudanese Trade in the Ottoman Period to 1882 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.8}}</ref> From the 19th century, the entirety of Sudan was conquered by the Egyptians under the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]]. Religious-nationalist fervour erupted in the [[Mahdist War|Mahdist Uprising]] in which Mahdist forces were eventually defeated by a joint Egyptian-British military force. In 1899, under British pressure, Egypt agreed to share sovereignty over Sudan with the United Kingdom as a [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|condominium]]. In effect, Sudan was governed as a British possession.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Henehan |first=Alva D. Jr.|title=For Want Of A Camel: The Story of Britain's Failed Sudan Campaign, 1883–1885|date=2016|publisher=Outskirts Press|isbn=978-1-4787-6562-2|location=[Place of publication not identified]|oclc=1007048089}}</ref> The [[Egyptian revolution of 1952]] toppled the monarchy and demanded the withdrawal of British forces from all of Egypt and Sudan. [[Muhammad Naguib]], one of the two co-leaders of the revolution, and Egypt's first President, who was half-Sudanese and had been raised in Sudan, made securing Sudanese independence a priority of the revolutionary government. The following year, under Egyptian and Sudanese pressure, the British agreed to Egypt's demand for both governments to terminate their shared sovereignty over Sudan and to grant Sudan independence. On 1 January 1956, Sudan was duly declared an independent state. After Sudan became independent, the [[Gaafar Nimeiry]] regime began [[Islamism|Islamist]] rule.<ref name="sudan.gov.sd">{{cite web |title=عن السودان |url=http://sudan.gov.sd/ar/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=39&Itemid=75 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902160838/http://sudan.gov.sd/ar/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=39&Itemid=75 |archive-date=2 September 2013 |access-date=14 July 2017 |language=Arabic}}</ref> This exacerbated the rift between the Islamic North, the seat of the government, and the [[Animism|Animists]] and Christians in the South. Differences in language, religion, and political power erupted in a [[Second Sudanese Civil War|civil war]] between government forces, influenced by the [[National Islamic Front]] (NIF), and the southern rebels, whose most influential faction was the [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]] (SPLA), which eventually led to the [[2011 South Sudanese independence referendum|independence]] of [[South Sudan]] in 2011.<ref>Collins, Robert O. (2008). ''A History of Modern Sudan''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-85820-5}}.</ref> Between 1989 and 2019, a 30-year-long [[military dictatorship]] led by [[Omar al-Bashir]] ruled Sudan and committed widespread [[Human rights in Sudan|human rights abuses]], including torture, persecution of minorities, [[State Sponsors of Terrorism (U.S. list)|alleged sponsorship of global terrorism]], and [[Darfur genocide|ethnic genocide]] in [[Darfur]] from 2003&ndash;2020. Overall, the regime killed an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 people. [[Sudanese Revolution|Protests erupted]] in 2018, demanding Bashir's resignation, which resulted in a [[2019 Sudanese coup d'état|coup d'état]] on 11 April 2019 and Bashir's imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/10/world/africa/omar-al-bashir---fast-facts/index.html|title=Omar al-Bashir Fast Facts|website=CNN|date=10 December 2012}}</ref> Sudan is currently embroiled in [[War in Sudan (2023–present)|a civil war]] between two rival factions, the [[Sudanese Armed Forces]] (SAF), and the paramilitary [[Rapid Support Forces]] (RSF). [[Islam in Sudan|Islam]] was Sudan's state religion and [[Sharia|Islamic laws]] were applied from 1983 until 2020 when the country became a [[secular state]].<ref name="sudan.gov.sd" /> Sudan is a [[least developed countries|least developed country]] and ranks 172nd on the [[Human Development Index]] as of 2022. Its [[Economy of Sudan|economy]] largely relies on [[agriculture in Sudan|agriculture]] due to [[international sanctions]] and isolation, as well as a history of internal instability and factional violence. The large majority of Sudan is dry and over 60% of Sudan's population lives in poverty. Sudan is a member of the [[United Nations]], [[Arab League]], [[African Union]], [[COMESA]], [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]. ==Etymology== The country's name ''Sudan'' is a name given historically to the large [[Sahel]] region of West Africa to the immediate west of modern-day Sudan. Historically, Sudan referred to both the [[Sudan (region)|geographical region]], stretching from [[Senegal]] on the [[Atlantic]] Coast to Northeast Africa and the modern Sudan. The name derives from the Arabic ''{{transliteration|ar|bilād as-sūdān}}'' ({{lang|ar|بلاد السودان}}), or "The Land of the [[Black people|Blacks]]".<ref>{{citation |author=International Association for the History of Religions |title=Numen |publisher=EJ Brill |place=Leiden |year=1959 |page=131 |quote=West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the West to the Cameroons in the East; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the ''Bilad as-Sūdan'', 'Land of the Blacks', of the Arabs}}</ref> The name is one of various [[toponym]]s sharing similar [[Placename etymology|etymologies]], in reference to the very dark skin of the indigenous people. Prior to this, Sudan was known as ''Nubia'' and ''Ta Nehesi'' or ''Ta Seti'' by [[Ancient Egypt]]ians named for the Nubian and [[Medjay]] archers or bowmen. Since 2011, Sudan is also sometimes referred to as '''North Sudan''' to distinguish it from [[South Sudan]].<ref name="North Sudanese Culture" /> ==History== {{Main|History of Sudan}} {{For timeline|Timeline of Sudanese history}} ===Prehistoric Sudan (before c. 8000 BC)=== [[File:Western Deffufa - Kerma.jpg|thumb|The large mud brick temple, known as the Western Deffufa, in the ancient city of [[Kerma]]]] [[File:Fortress of the Middle Kingdom, reconstructed under the New Kingdom ( about 1200 B.C.).jpg|thumb|Fortress of [[Buhen]], of the Middle Kingdom, reconstructed under the New Kingdom (about 1200 BC)]] [[Affad 23]] is an [[archaeological site]] located in the [[Affad Basin|Affad]] region of southern Dongola Reach in northern Sudan,<ref name="Osypiński">{{cite journal |last1=Osypiński |first1=Piotr |last2=Osypińska |first2=Marta |last3=Gautier |first3=Achilles |title=Affad 23, a Late Middle Palaeolithic Site With Refitted Lithics and Animal Remains in the Southern Dongola Reach, Sudan |journal=Journal of African Archaeology |date=2011 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=177–188 |doi=10.3213/2191-5784-10186 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135549 |issn=1612-1651 |oclc=7787802958 |jstor=43135549 |s2cid=161078189}}</ref> which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest [[Natural environment|open-air]] [[hut]] in the world) and diverse [[hunting]] and [[Hunter-gatherer|gathering]] loci some 50,000 years old".<ref name="Osypiński II">{{cite web |last1=Osypiński |first1=Piotr |title=Unearthing Pan-African crossroad? Significance of the middle Nile valley in prehistory |url=https://projekty.ncn.gov.pl/opisy/480275-en.pdf |publisher=National Science Centre |date=2020}}</ref><ref name="Osypińska">{{cite book |last1=Osypińska |first1=Marta |title=From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw |isbn=9788395336256 |oclc=1374884636 |page=460 |chapter-url=https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |chapter=Animals in the history of the Middle Nile}}</ref><ref name="Osypińska II">{{cite book |last1=Osypińska |first1=Marta |last2=Osypiński |first2=Piotr |title=From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw |isbn=9788395336256 |oclc=1374884636 |pages=187–188 |chapter-url=https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |chapter=Exploring the oldest huts and the first cattle keepers in Africa}}</ref> By the eighth millennium BC, people of a [[Neolithic]] culture had settled into a sedentary way of life there in fortified [[mudbrick]] villages, where they supplemented hunting and fishing on the Nile with grain gathering and cattle herding.<ref name=locearlyhist>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/sudan |title=Sudan A Country Study |publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> Neolithic peoples created cemeteries such as [[R12 (cemetery)|R12]]. During the fifth millennium BC, migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed a social hierarchy over the next centuries which became the [[Kingdom of Kush]] (with the capital at Kerma) at 1700 BC. Anthropological and archaeological research indicates that during the predynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were ethnically and culturally nearly identical, and thus, simultaneously evolved systems of pharaonic kingship by 3300 BC.<ref name="Keita, S.O.Y. 1993 129–54">{{cite journal|title = Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships| author = Keita, S.O.Y. |year = 1993| journal=History in Africa|volume=20| issue = 7 |pages=129–54|jstor=317196|doi = 10.2307/3171969| s2cid = 162330365 }}</ref> ===Kingdom of Kush (c. 1070 BC–350 AD)=== {{main|Kingdom of Kush|Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt}} [[File:Sudan Meroe Pyramids 2001.JPG|thumb|[[Nubian pyramids]] in [[Meroë]]]] [[File:Xerxes detail Ethiopian.jpg|thumb|''Kušiya'' soldier of the [[Achaemenid army]], {{circa|480&nbsp;BCE}}. [[Xerxes I]] tomb relief.]] The [[Kingdom of Kush]] was an ancient [[Nubia]]n state centred on the confluences of the [[Blue Nile]] and [[White Nile]], and the [[Atbarah River]] and the [[Nile|Nile River]]. It was established after the [[Bronze Age]] collapse and the disintegration of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]]; it was centred at Napata in its early phase.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Edwards, David N.|title=Nubian Past : an Archaeology of the Sudan.|date=2005|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-203-48276-6|oclc=437079538}}</ref> After King [[Kashta]] ("the Kushite") invaded Egypt in the eighth century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as pharaohs of the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt]] for nearly a century before being defeated and driven out by the [[Assyria]]ns.<ref name=Kelsey/> At the height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an empire that stretched from what is now known as [[South Kordofan]] to the Sinai. Pharaoh [[Piye]] attempted to expand the empire into the Near East but was thwarted by the Assyrian king [[Sargon II]]. Between 800 BCE and 100 AD were built the [[Nubian pyramids]], among them can be named [[El-Kurru]], [[Kashta]], [[Piye]], [[Tantamani]], [[Shabaka]], Pyramids of [[Jebel Barkal|Gebel Barkal]], [[Pyramids of Meroe (Begarawiyah)]], the [[Sedeinga pyramids]], and [[Nuri|Pyramids of Nuri]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Takacs |first1=Sarolta Anna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ&q=%22in+fact%2C+there+are+twice+as+many+Nubian+pyramids%22&pg=PA15 |title=The Ancient World |last2=Cline |first2=Eric H. |date=17 July 2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-45839-5 |language=en}}</ref> The Kingdom of Kush is mentioned in the Bible as having saved the Israelites from the wrath of the Assyrians, although disease among the besiegers might have been one of the reasons for the failure to take the city.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roux, Georges |title=Ancient Iraq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC|date= 1992|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-0-14-193825-7}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2013}} The war that took place between Pharaoh [[Taharqa]] and the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]] was a decisive event in western history, with the Nubians being defeated in their attempts to gain a foothold in the [[Near East]] by Assyria. Sennacherib's successor [[Esarhaddon]] went further and invaded Egypt itself to secure his control of the Levant. This succeeded, as he managed to expel Taharqa from Lower Egypt. Taharqa fled back to Upper Egypt and Nubia, where he died two years later. Lower Egypt came under Assyrian vassalage but proved unruly, unsuccessfully rebelling against the Assyrians. Then, the king [[Tantamani]], a successor of Taharqa, made a final determined attempt to regain Lower Egypt from the newly reinstated Assyrian vassal [[Necho I]]. He managed to retake [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] killing Necho in the process and besieged cities in the Nile Delta. [[Ashurbanipal]], who had succeeded Esarhaddon, sent a large army in Egypt to regain control. He routed Tantamani near Memphis and, pursuing him, [[Sack of Thebes|sacked Thebes]]. Although the Assyrians immediately departed Upper Egypt after these events, weakened, Thebes peacefully submitted itself to Necho's son [[Psamtik I]] less than a decade later. This ended all hopes of a revival of the Nubian Empire, which rather continued in the form of a smaller kingdom centred on [[Napata]]. The city was raided by the Egyptian {{circa}} 590 BC, and sometime soon after to the late-3rd century BC, the Kushite resettled in [[Meroë]].<ref name=Kelsey>{{cite book|chapter=A Cultural History of Kush: Politics, Economy, and Ritual Practice|url=https://lsa.umich.edu/content/dam/kelsey-assets/kelsey-publications/pdfs/Graffiti-as-Devotion.pdf|title=Graffiti as Devotion along the Nile and Beyond|last1=Emberling|first1=Geoff|last2=Davis|first2=Suzanne|publisher=[[Kelsey Museum of Archaeology]]|date=2019|access-date=3 November 2021|pages=5–6, 10–11|isbn=978-0-9906623-9-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lh4GBNLsCUsC|title=Forgotten Africa: An Introduction to Its Archaeology|last=Connah|first=Graham|publisher=[[Routledge]]|date=2004|access-date=3 November 2021|pages=52–53|isbn=0-415-30590-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Semantic Shift on a Geographical Term|last=Unseth|first=Peter|journal=[[The Bible Translator]]|date=1 July 1998|volume=49|issue=3|pages=323–324|doi=10.1177/026009359804900302|s2cid=131916337}}</ref> ===Medieval Christian Nubian kingdoms (c. 350–1500)=== {{main|Nobatia|Makuria|Alodia|Daju kingdom}} [[File:Christian Nubia.png|thumb|upright=0.8|The three Christian Nubian kingdoms. The northern border of [[Alodia]] is unclear, but it also might have been located further north, between the fourth and fifth [[Cataracts of the Nile|Nile cataract]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=26}}]] On the turn of the fifth century the [[Blemmyes]] established a short-lived state in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia, probably centred around Talmis ([[Kalabsha]]), but before 450 they were already driven out of the Nile Valley by the Nobatians. The latter eventually founded a kingdom on their own, [[Nobatia]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=16–22}} By the sixth century there were in total three Nubian kingdoms: Nobatia in the north, which had its capital at Pachoras ([[Faras]]); the central kingdom, [[Makuria]] centred at Tungul ([[Old Dongola]]), about {{convert|13|km|mi|abbr=off|0}} south of modern [[Dongola]]; and [[Alodia]], in the heartland of the old Kushitic kingdom, which had its capital at [[Soba (city)|Soba]] (now a suburb of modern-day Khartoum).{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=24, 26}} Still in the sixth century they converted to Christianity.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=16–17}} In the seventh century, probably at some point between 628 and 642, Nobatia was incorporated into Makuria.{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=77}} Between 639 and 641 the Muslim Arabs of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|conquered]] [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Egypt. In [[First Battle of Dongola|641 or 642]] and again in [[Second Battle of Dongola|652]] they invaded Nubia but were repelled, making the Nubians one of the few who managed to defeat the Arabs during the [[Islamic expansion]]. Afterward the Makurian king and the Arabs agreed on a [[Baqt|unique non-aggression pact that also included an annual exchange of gifts]], thus acknowledging Makuria's independence.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=68–70}} While the Arabs failed to conquer Nubia they began to settle east of the Nile, where they eventually founded several port towns{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=31}} and intermarried with the local [[Beja people|Beja]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=77–78}} [[File:King Moses George of Makuria.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Moses Georgios of Makuria|Moses George]], king of Makuria and Alodia]] From the mid eighth to mid eleventh century the political power and cultural development of Christian Nubia peaked.{{sfn|Shinnie|1978|p=572}} In 747 Makuria invaded Egypt, which at this time belonged to the declining [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]],{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=84}} and it did so again in the early 960s, when it pushed as far north as [[Akhmim]].{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=101}} Makuria maintained close dynastic ties with Alodia, perhaps resulting in the temporary unification of the two kingdoms into one state.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=89}} The culture of the medieval Nubians has been described as "''Afro-Byzantine''",{{sfn|Ruffini|2012|p=264}} but was also increasingly influenced by Arab culture.{{sfn|Martens-Czarnecka|2015|pp=249–265}} The state organisation was extremely centralised,{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=254}} being based on the [[Byzantine bureaucracy]] of the sixth and seventh centuries.{{sfn|Edwards|2004|p=237}} Arts flourished in the form of pottery paintings{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=496}} and especially wall paintings.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=482}} The Nubians developed an alphabet for their language, [[Old Nubian|Old Nobiin]], basing it on the [[Coptic alphabet]], while also using [[Medieval Greek|Greek]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]] and [[Arabic]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=236–239}} Women enjoyed high social status: they had access to education, could own, buy and sell land and often used their wealth to endow churches and church paintings.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=344–345}} Even the royal succession was [[matrilineal]], with the son of the king's sister being the rightful heir.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=88}} From the late 11th/12th century, Makuria's capital Dongola was in decline, and Alodia's capital declined in the 12th century as well.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=252}} In the 14th and 15th centuries [[Bedouin]] tribes overran most of Sudan,{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=176}} migrating to the [[Butana]], the [[Gezira (state)|Gezira]], [[Kordofan]] and [[Darfur]].{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=145}} In 1365 a civil war forced the Makurian court to flee to [[Gebel Adda]] in [[Lower Nubia]], while Dongola was destroyed and left to the Arabs. Afterwards Makuria continued to exist only as a petty kingdom.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=143–145}} After the prosperous{{sfn|Lajtar|2011|pp=130–131}} reign of king [[Joel of Dotawo|Joel]] ({{flourished}} 1463–1484) Makuria collapsed.{{sfn|Ruffini|2012|p=256}} Coastal areas from southern Sudan up to the port city of [[Suakin]] was succeeded by the [[Adal Sultanate]] in the fifteenth century.<ref>{{cite thesis |type=Masters |last1=Owens |first1=Travis |date=June 2008 |title=Beleaguered Muslim Fortresses And Ethiopian Imperial Expansion From The 13th To The 16th Century |publisher=Naval Postgraduate School |page=23 |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a483490.pdf |access-date=22 June 2020 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112020204/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a483490.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Levtzion|Pouwels|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC&pg=PA229 229]}} To the south, the kingdom of Alodia fell to either the Arabs, commanded by tribal leader [[Abdallah Jamma]], or the [[Funj]], an African people originating from the south.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=255}} Datings range from the [[Hijri year|9th century after the Hijra]] ({{circa}} 1396–1494),{{sfn|Vantini|1975|pp=786–787}} the late 15th century,{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=133}} 1504{{sfn|Vantini|1975|p=784}} to 1509.{{sfn|Vantini|2006|pp=487–489}} An alodian rump state might have survived in the form of the [[kingdom of Fazughli]], lasting until 1685.{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|pp=12–30}} ===Islamic kingdoms of Sennar and Darfur (c. 1500–1821)=== {{main|Sultanate of Sennar|Tunjur kingdom|Sultanate of Darfur}} [[File:Sennar mosque (cropped).jpg|thumb|The great mosque of [[Sennar]], built in the 17th century{{sfn|Holt|Daly|2000|p=25}}]] In 1504 the Funj are recorded to have founded the [[Kingdom of Sennar]], in which Abdallah Jamma's realm was incorporated.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=25–26}} By 1523, when Jewish traveller [[David Reubeni]] visited Sudan, the Funj state already extended as far north as Dongola.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=26}} Meanwhile, Islam began to be preached on the Nile by [[Sufism|Sufi]] holy men who settled there in the 15th and 16th centuries{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|p=150}} and by David Reubeni's visit king [[Amara Dunqas]], previously a Pagan or nominal Christian, was recorded to be Muslim.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=31}} However, the Funj would retain un-Islamic customs like the divine kingship or the consumption of alcohol until the 18th century.{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|pp=151–152}} Sudanese [[Folk religion|folk Islam]] preserved many rituals stemming from Christian traditions until the recent past.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=177–184}} Soon the Funj came in conflict with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], who had occupied [[Suakin]] {{circa|1526}}{{sfn|Peacock|2012|p=98}} and eventually pushed south along the Nile, reaching the third Nile cataract area in 1583/1584. A subsequent Ottoman attempt to capture Dongola was [[battle of Hannik|repelled]] by the Funj in 1585.{{sfn|Peacock|2012|pp=96–97}} Afterwards, [[Hannik]], located just south of the third cataract, would mark the border between the two states.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=35}} The aftermath of the Ottoman invasion saw the attempted usurpation of [[Ajib the Great|Ajib]], a minor king of northern Nubia.<!--He is said to have conquered eastern Sudan http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:586255/FULLTEXT01.pdf p. 17 Paul 77,81-83--><!--In around 1580 he conquered eastern Sudan and northwestern Eritrea, --> While the Funj eventually killed him in 1611/1612 his successors, the [[Abdallabi tribe|Abdallab]], were granted to govern everything north of the confluence of Blue and White Niles with considerable autonomy.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=36–40}} <!--Afterwards the Funj state expanded To compensate for this loss and to meet the growing danger posed by the [[Dinka]] and [[Shilluk]] (the latter had founded a [[Shilluk Kingdom|kingdom]] on their own by the early 17th century), To the south, the Funj gradually expanded southwards the Gezira since the mid 16th century.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=58}} In 1685 they conquered the kingdom of Fazughli,{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|p=21}} and somewhat later, perhaps {{circa|1720}}, they established themselves in [[Benishangul-Gumuz Region|Bela Shangul]], western [[Ethiopia]].{{sfn|Triulzi|1981|p=74}} Nuba mountains mid 17th century Adams 602 Northern and central Kordofan 1736 p=63 Nuba mountains Adams 602 The 18th century saw the development of the [[Baqqara]] Djuhaina Araber 114 Juhayne east and west of Nile Adams the premise for precolonial Nuba history Shaiqiya warrior aristocracy{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=604}} Disdain for Nubian subjects {{sfn|Adams|1977|p=606}} The Shaiqiya quickly became a dominant military force and raided the Nile Valley from Dongola to the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, but proved incapable of creating a large empire, instead fracturing into four petty, infighting kingdoms.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=607}} Shilluk kingdom Blood memory p 34 Mercer late 17th century p=416 HOLT: https://books.google.de/books?id=BkO14rpfY70C&pg=PA22&hl=de&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false Decline The state disintegrated as in the late 17th century the warlike [[Shaigiya]], who lived around the fourth Nile cataract, declared independence from the Abdallab and established four independent petty kingdoms.{{sfn|Adams|1977|pp=606–607}} In the late 18th century the Abdallab,{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=608}}, Kordofan and eastern Sudan{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=383}} followed. In this period the Shaiqiya were the dominant military force of the Middle Nile, who, while proving to be uncapable of creating a functional empire, regularly raided the territory from Dongola to the confluence of the Blue and White Niles.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=607}} Spaulding 1998 p=54 In the south the Funj state came under the pressure of the [[Shilluk kingdom|Shilluk]] SOURCE and [[Dinka]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=61–63}} The decline was hastened by the economy--> During the 17th century the Funj state reached its widest extent,{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=601}} but in the following century it began to decline.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=78}} A coup in 1718 brought a dynastic change,{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=88}} while another one in 1761–1762{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|p=24-25}} resulted in the [[Hamaj Regency]], where the [[Hamaj]] (a people from the Ethiopian borderlands) effectively ruled while the Funj sultans were their mere puppets.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=94–95}} Shortly afterwards the sultanate began to fragment;{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=98}} by the early 19th century it was essentially restricted to the Gezira.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=382}} [[File:Southern Sudan - 1800.png|thumb|Southern Sudan in {{circa}} 1800. Modern boundaries are shown.]] The coup of 1718 kicked off a policy of pursuing a more orthodox Islam, which in turn promoted the [[Arabisation]] of the state.{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|p=152}} To legitimise their rule over their Arab subjects the Funj began to propagate an [[Banu Umayya|Umayyad descend]].{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|pp=210–212}} North of the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, as far downstream as [[Al Dabbah, Sudan|Al Dabbah]], the Nubians adopted the tribal identity of the Arab [[Ja'alin tribe|Jaalin]].{{sfn|Adams|1977|pp=557–558}} Until the 19th century Arabic had succeeded in becoming the dominant language of central riverine Sudan{{sfn|Edwards|2004|p=260}}{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=28–29}}{{sfn|Hesse|2002|p=50}} and most of Kordofan.{{sfn|Hesse|2002|pp=21–22}} <!-- Meanwhile, the sultanate of Darfur was at its peak,{{sfn|Holt|2000|p=35}}--> West of the Nile, in [[Darfur]], the Islamic period saw at first the rise of the [[Tunjur kingdom]], which replaced the old [[Daju kingdom]] in the 15th century{{sfn|McGregor|2011|loc=Table 1}} and extended as far west as [[Wadai Empire|Wadai]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=110}} The [[Tunjur people]] were probably Arabised [[Berbers]] and, their ruling elite at least, Muslims.{{sfn|McGregor|2011|p=132}} In the 17th century the Tunjur were driven from power by the [[Fur people|Fur]] [[Sultanate of Darfur|Keira sultanate]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=110}} The Keira state, nominally Muslim since the reign of [[Sulayman Solong]] (r. {{circa}} 1660–1680),{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=123}} was initially a small kingdom in northern [[Jebel Marra]],{{sfn|Holt|Daly|2000|p=31}} but expanded west- and northwards in the early 18th century{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=126}} and eastwards under the rule of [[Muhammad Tayrab of Darfur|Muhammad Tayrab]] (r. 1751–1786),{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=9}} peaking in the conquest of Kordofan in 1785.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=2}} The apogee of this empire, now roughly the size of present-day [[Nigeria]],{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=2}} would last until 1821.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=9}} ===Turkiyah and Mahdist Sudan (1821–1899)=== {{Main|History of Sudan (1821–1885)|Mahdist Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan}} [[File:Egypt under Muhammad Ali Dynasty map en.png|thumb|Map of Egypt and Sudan under [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]]]] [[File:Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Muhammad Ahmad]], ruler of Sudan (1881–1885)]] In 1821, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]], had invaded and conquered northern Sudan. Although technically the [[Vali (governor)|Vali]] of Egypt under the [[Ottoman Empire]], Muhammad Ali styled himself as [[Khedive]] of a virtually independent Egypt. Seeking to add Sudan to his domains, he sent his third son Ismail (not to be confused with [[Isma'il Pasha|Ismaʻil Pasha]] mentioned later) to conquer the country, and subsequently incorporate it into Egypt. With the exception of the Shaiqiya and the Darfur sultanate in Kordofan, he was met without resistance. The Egyptian policy of conquest was expanded and intensified by [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]]'s son, Ismaʻil, under whose reign most of the remainder of modern-day Sudan was conquered. The Egyptian authorities made significant improvements to the Sudanese infrastructure (mainly in the north), especially with regard to irrigation and cotton production. In 1879, the [[International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)|Great Powers]] forced the removal of Ismail and established his son [[Tewfik Pasha]] in his place. Tewfik's corruption and mismanagement resulted in the [['Urabi revolt]], which threatened the Khedive's survival. Tewfik appealed for help to the British, who subsequently occupied Egypt in 1882. Sudan was left in the hands of the Khedivial government, and the mismanagement and corruption of its officials.{{sfn|Churchill|1902|p={{page needed|date=November 2020}}}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Rudolf Carl Freiherr von Slatin |author2=Sir Francis Reginald Wingate |year=1896 |title=Fire and Sword in the Sudan |publisher=E. Arnold |url=https://archive.org/details/riverwarhistoric00chur |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref> During the Khedivial period, dissent had spread due to harsh taxes imposed on most activities. Taxation on irrigation wells and farming lands were so high most farmers abandoned their farms and livestock. During the 1870s, European initiatives against the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] had an adverse impact on the economy of northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdist]] forces.<ref>{{cite web|author=Domke, D. Michelle |title=ICE Case Studies; Case Number: 3; Case Identifier: Sudan; Case Name: Civil War in the Sudan: Resources or Religion? |publisher = [[Inventory of Conflict and Environment]] |date= November 1997 |url=http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/sudan.htm |access-date=8 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001209170400/http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/sudan.htm |archive-date=9 December 2000 |via=[[American University School of International Service]]}}</ref> [[Muhammad Ahmad|Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abd Allah]], the ''[[Mahdi]]'' (Guided One), offered to the ''ansars'' (his followers) and those who surrendered to him a choice between adopting Islam or being killed. The Mahdiyah (Mahdist regime) imposed traditional Sharia [[Sharia|Islamic law]]s. On 12 August 1881, an incident occurred at [[Battle of Aba|Aba Island]], sparking the outbreak of what became the [[Mahdist War]]. From his announcement of the Mahdiyya in June 1881 until the [[Siege of Khartoum|fall of Khartoum]] in January 1885, Muhammad Ahmad led a [[Mahdist War|successful military campaign]] against the Turco-Egyptian government of the Sudan, known as the [[Turkiyah]]. Muhammad Ahmad died on 22 June 1885, a mere six months after the conquest of Khartoum. After a power struggle amongst his deputies, [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad]], with the help primarily of the [[Baggara]] of western Sudan, overcame the opposition of the others and emerged as the unchallenged leader of the Mahdiyah. After consolidating his power, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad assumed the title of ''Khalifa'' (successor) of the Mahdi, instituted an administration, and appointed [[Ansar (Sudan)|Ansar]] (who were usually [[Baggara]]) as emirs over each of the several provinces. [[File:Battle of Omdurman-1.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|The flight of the [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad|Khalifa]] after his defeat at the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898]] Regional relations remained tense throughout much of the Mahdiyah period, largely because of the Khalifa's brutal methods to extend his rule throughout the country. In 1887, a 60,000-man Ansar army invaded [[Ethiopia]], penetrating as far as [[Gondar]]. In March 1889, king [[Yohannes IV]] of Ethiopia marched on [[Metemma]]; however, after Yohannes fell in battle, the Ethiopian forces withdrew. Abd ar-Rahman an-Nujumi, the Khalifa's general, attempted an invasion of Egypt in 1889, but British-led Egyptian troops defeated the Ansar at Tushkah. The failure of the Egyptian invasion broke the spell of the Ansar's invincibility. The [[Belgium|Belgians]] prevented the Mahdi's men from conquering [[Equatoria]], and in 1893, the Italians repelled an Ansar attack at [[Agordat]] (in [[Eritrea]]) and forced the Ansar to withdraw from Ethiopia. In the 1890s, the British sought to re-establish their control over Sudan, once more officially in the name of the Egyptian Khedive, but in actuality treating the country as a British colony. By the early 1890s, British, French, and Belgian claims had converged at the [[Nile]] headwaters. Britain feared that the other powers would take advantage of Sudan's instability to acquire territory previously annexed to Egypt. Apart from these political considerations, Britain wanted to establish control over the Nile to safeguard a planned irrigation dam at [[Aswan]]. [[Herbert Kitchener]] led military campaigns against the [[Mahdist Sudan]] from 1896 to 1898. Kitchener's campaigns culminated in a decisive victory in the [[Battle of Omdurman]] on 2 September 1898. A year later, the [[Battle of Umm Diwaykarat]] on 25 November 1899 resulted in the death of [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad]], subsequently bringing to an end the Mahdist War. ===Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)=== {{Main|Anglo-Egyptian Sudan}} [[File:The war in the Soudan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Mahdist War]] was fought between a group of Muslim dervishes called [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdists]], who had overrun much of Sudan, and the British forces.]] In 1899, Britain and Egypt reached an agreement under which Sudan was run by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Humphries |first1=Christian |title=Oxford World Encyclopedia |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=0195218183 |page=[https://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi00oxfo/page/644 644] |url=https://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi00oxfo/page/644 }}</ref> In reality, Sudan was effectively administered as a [[Crown colony]]. The British were keen to reverse the process, started under [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], of uniting the [[Nile Valley]] under Egyptian leadership and sought to frustrate all efforts aimed at further uniting the two countries.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}} Under the Delimitation, Sudan's border with Abyssinia was contested by raiding tribesmen trading slaves, breaching boundaries of the law. In 1905 local chieftain Sultan Yambio, reluctant to the end, gave up the struggle with British forces that had occupied the [[Kordofan]] region, finally ending the lawlessness. Ordinances published by Britain enacted a system of taxation. This was following the precedent set by the Khalifa. The main taxes were recognized. These taxes were on land, herds, and date-palms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holt |title=A Modern History of the Sudan |publisher=Groves Press Inc |location=New York}}</ref> The continued British administration of Sudan fuelled an increasingly strident nationalist backlash, with Egyptian nationalist leaders determined to force Britain to recognise a single independent union of Egypt and Sudan. With a formal end to Ottoman rule in 1914, Sir [[Reginald Wingate]] was sent that December to occupy Sudan as the new Military Governor. [[Hussein Kamel of Egypt|Hussein Kamel]] was declared [[Sultan of Egypt and Sudan]], as was his brother and successor, [[Fuad I of Egypt|Fuad I]]. They continued upon their insistence of a single Egyptian-Sudanese state even when the [[Sultanate of Egypt]] was retitled as the [[Kingdom of Egypt|Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan]], but it was [[Saad Zaghloul]] who continued to be frustrated in the ambitions until his death in 1927.{{sfn|Daly|p=346}} [[File:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan camel soldier of the British army.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|A camel soldier of the native forces of the British army, early 20th century]] From 1924 until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate territories; the north and south. The [[Lee Stack|assassination of a Governor-General of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in Cairo]] was the causative factor; it brought demands of the newly elected [[Wafd Party|Wafd]] government from colonial forces. A permanent establishment of two battalions in Khartoum was renamed the [[Sudan Defence Force]] acting as under the government, replacing the former garrison of Egyptian army soldiers, saw action afterward during the [[Abyssinia Crisis|Walwal Incident]].{{sfn|Morewood|2005|p=4}} The [[Wafdist]] parliamentary majority had rejected [[Abdel Khalek Sarwat Pasha|Sarwat Pasha]]'s accommodation plan with [[Austen Chamberlain]] in London; yet Cairo still needed the money. The Sudanese Government's revenue had reached a peak in 1928 at £6.6&nbsp;million, thereafter the Wafdist disruptions, and Italian borders incursions from Somaliland, London decided to reduce expenditure during the Great Depression. Cotton and gum exports were dwarfed by the necessity to import almost everything from Britain leading to a balance of payments deficit at Khartoum.{{sfn|Daly|pp=457–459}} In July 1936 the Liberal Constitutional leader, Muhammed Mahmoud was persuaded to bring Wafd delegates to London to sign the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, "the beginning of a new stage in Anglo-Egyptian relations", wrote [[Anthony Eden]].{{sfn|Morewood|1940|pp=94–95}} The British Army was allowed to return to Sudan to protect the Canal Zone. They were able to find training facilities, and the RAF was free to fly over Egyptian territory. It did not, however, resolve the problem of Sudan: the Sudanese Intelligentsia agitated for a return to metropolitan rule, conspiring with Germany's agents.<ref>[[Arthur Henderson]], 8 May 1936 quoted in {{harvnb|Daly|p=348}}</ref> [[File:Egypt sudan under british control.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Map of [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]], 1912]] Italian fascist leader [[Benito Mussolini]] made it clear that he could not invade Abyssinia without first conquering Egypt and Sudan; they intended unification of [[Italian Libya]] with [[Italian East Africa]]. The British Imperial General Staff prepared for military defence of the region, which was thin on the ground.<ref>Sir Miles Lampson, 29 September 1938; {{harvnb|Morewood|p=117}}</ref> The British ambassador blocked Italian attempts to secure a Non-Aggression Treaty with Egypt-Sudan. But Mahmoud was a supporter of the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]; the region was caught between the Empire's efforts to save the Jews, and moderate Arab calls to halt migration.{{sfn|Morewood|pp=164–165}} The Sudanese Government was directly involved militarily in the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]]. Formed in 1925, the [[Sudan Defence Force]] played an active part in responding to incursions early in World War Two. Italian troops occupied [[Kassala]] and other border areas from [[Italian East Africa|Italian Somaliland]] during 1940. In 1942, the SDF also played a part in the invasion of the Italian colony by British and Commonwealth forces. The last British [[governor-general]] was [[Robert George Howe]]. The [[Egyptian revolution of 1952]] finally heralded the beginning of the march towards Sudanese independence. Having abolished the monarchy in 1953, Egypt's new leaders, [[Mohammed Naguib]], whose mother was Sudanese, and later [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], believed the only way to end British domination in Sudan was for Egypt to officially abandon its claims of sovereignty. In addition, Nasser knew it would be difficult for Egypt to govern an impoverished Sudan after its independence. The British on the other hand continued their political and financial support for the Mahdist successor, [[Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi]], who it was believed would resist Egyptian pressure for Sudanese independence. Abd al-Rahman was capable of this, but his regime was plagued by political ineptitude, which garnered a colossal loss of support in northern and central Sudan. Both Egypt and Britain sensed a great instability fomenting, and thus opted to allow both Sudanese regions, north and south to have a free vote on whether they wished independence or a British withdrawal. ===Independence (1956–present)=== {{Main|Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)|Democratic Republic of the Sudan}} {{Missing information|section|the history of Sudan between 1956 and 1969 and between 1977 and 1989|date=January 2016}} [[File:Sudan independence 2.png|upright=1.05|thumb|Sudan's flag raised at independence ceremony on 1 January 1956 by the Prime Minister Ismail al-Azhari and in presence of opposition leader Mohamed Ahmed Almahjoub.]] A polling process was carried out resulting in the composition of a democratic parliament and [[Ismail al-Azhari]] was elected first Prime Minister and led the first modern Sudanese government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sudan-embassy.co.uk/en/content/blogcategory/28/37 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120035130/http://sudan-embassy.co.uk/en/content/blogcategory/28/37 |archive-date=20 November 2008 |title=Brief History of the Sudan |publisher=Sudan Embassy in London |date=20 November 2008 |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> On 1 January 1956, in a special ceremony held at the People's Palace, the Egyptian and British flags were lowered and the new Sudanese flag, composed of green, blue and yellow stripes, was raised in their place by the prime minister [[Ismail al-Azhari]]. Dissatisfaction culminated in a second [[1969 Sudanese coup d'état|coup d'état]] on 25 May 1969. The coup leader, Col. [[Gaafar Nimeiry]], became prime minister, and the new regime abolished parliament and outlawed all political parties. Disputes between [[Marxist]] and non-Marxist elements within the ruling military coalition resulted in [[1971 Sudanese coup d'état|a briefly successful coup in July 1971]], led by the [[Sudanese Communist Party]]. Several days later, anti-communist military elements restored Nimeiry to power. In 1972, the [[Addis Ababa Agreement (1972)|Addis Ababa Agreement]] led to a cessation of the north–south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This led to ten years hiatus in the civil war but an end to American investment in the [[Jonglei Canal]] project. This had been considered absolutely essential to irrigate the Upper Nile region and to prevent an environmental catastrophe and wide-scale famine among the local tribes, most especially the Dinka. In the civil war that followed their homeland was raided, looted, pillaged, and burned. Many of the tribe were murdered in a bloody civil war that raged for over 20 years. [[File:Hashem al Atta, 1971 Sudanese coup d'état.jpg|thumb|[[1971 Sudanese coup d'état]]]] Until the early 1970s, Sudan's agricultural output was mostly dedicated to internal consumption. In 1972, the Sudanese government became more pro-Western and made plans to export food and [[cash crop]]s. However, commodity prices declined throughout the 1970s causing economic problems for Sudan. At the same time, debt servicing costs, from the money spent mechanizing agriculture, rose. In 1978, the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] negotiated a [[Structural Adjustment Program]] with the government. This further promoted the mechanised export agriculture sector. This caused great hardship for the pastoralists of Sudan. In 1976, the Ansars had mounted a bloody but unsuccessful coup attempt. But in July 1977, President Nimeiry met with Ansar leader [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]], opening the way for a possible reconciliation. Hundreds of political prisoners were released, and in August a general amnesty was announced for all oppositionists. ====Bashir era (1989–2019)==== [[File:Omar al-Bashir (2017-11-23) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Omar al-Bashir in 2017]] {{further|Republic of the Sudan (1985–2019)}} On 30 June 1989, Colonel [[Omar al-Bashir]] led a bloodless [[1989 Sudanese coup d'état|military coup]].<ref name=reuters-factbox>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUKL1435274220080714 |title=Factbox – Sudan's President Omar Hassan al-Bashir |work=Reuters |access-date=8 January 2011 |date=14 July 2008}}</ref> The new military government suspended political parties and introduced an Islamic legal code on the national level.<ref name="Bekele">{{cite news |last=Bekele |first=Yilma |title=Chickens Are Coming Home To Roost! |url=http://www.ethiopianreview.com/content/2929 |work=[[Ethiopian Review]] |location=Addis Ababa |date=12 July 2008 |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> Later, al-Bashir carried out purges and executions in the upper ranks of the army, the banning of associations, political parties, and independent newspapers, and the imprisonment of leading political figures and journalists.<ref name="Kepel, Jihad 2002, p.181">{{cite book|last=Kepel|first=Gilles|title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/jihad00gill_0|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01090-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/jihad00gill_0/page/181 181]}}</ref> On 16 October 1993, al-Bashir appointed himself "[[President of Sudan|President]]" and disbanded the Revolutionary Command Council. The executive and legislative powers of the council were taken by al-Bashir.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/14/sudan.warcrimes3 |work=The Guardian |title=Profile: Omar al-Bashir |first=Peter |last=Walker |date=14 July 2008 |access-date=13 January 2011 |location=London}}</ref> In the [[Sudanese general election, 1996|1996 general election]], he was the only candidate by law to run for election.<ref name="New York Times 1996, p.4">''[[The New York Times]]''. 16 March 1996. p. 4.</ref> Sudan became a [[one-party state]] under the [[National Congress (Sudan)|National Congress Party]] (NCP).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa86|title=History of the Sudan |encyclopedia=HistoryWorld |date=n.d. |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> During the 1990s, [[Hassan al-Turabi]], then Speaker of the National Assembly, reached out to [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalist]] groups and invited [[Osama bin Laden]] to the country.<ref name="Shahzad">{{cite news |last=Shahzad |first=Syed Saleem |title=Bin Laden Uses Iraq To Plot New Attacks |work=[[Asia Times]] |location=Hong Kong |access-date=14 January 2011 |date=23 February 2002 |url=http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/DB23Ag02.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021020093406/http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/DB23Ag02.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=20 October 2002}}</ref> The United States subsequently listed Sudan as a [[State Sponsors of Terrorism|state sponsor of terrorism]].<ref name="foxnews">{{cite news |date=13 March 2007 |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,258413,00.html |title=Families of USS ''Cole'' Victims Sue Sudan for $105 Million |agency=Associated Press |publisher=Fox News Channel |access-date=14 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106163604/https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,258413,00.html |archive-date=6 November 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Following Al Qaeda's [[1998 United States embassy bombings|bombing of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania]], the U.S. launched [[Operation Infinite Reach]] and targeted the [[Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory]], which the U.S. government falsely believed was producing chemical weapons for the terrorist group. Al-Turabi's influence began to wane, and others in favour of more pragmatic leadership tried to change Sudan's [[international isolation]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Fuller, Graham E. |title=The Future of Political Islam|year=2004|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4039-6556-1|page=111}}</ref> The country worked to appease its critics by expelling members of the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] and encouraging bin Laden to leave.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wright|first=Lawrence|title=The Looming Tower|url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig|url-access=registration|date=2006|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-26608-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig/page/221 221]–223}}</ref> [[File:Government Militia in Darfur.PNG|thumb|Government militia in Darfur]] Before the [[Elections in Sudan|2000 presidential election]], al-Turabi introduced a bill to reduce the President's powers, prompting al-Bashir to [[dissolve parliament|order a dissolution]] and declare a [[state of emergency]]. When al-Turabi urged a boycott of the President's re-election campaign signing agreement with [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]], al-Bashir suspected they were plotting to overthrow the government.<ref name="BBC profile">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3273569.stm |title=Profile: Sudan's President Bashir |work=BBC News |date=25 November 2003 |access-date=8 January 2011}}</ref> Hassan al-Turabi was jailed later the same year.<ref name=Denies>{{cite news |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article27123 |title=Sudanese Islamist Opposition Leader Denies Link with Darfur Rebels |work=Sudan Tribune |location=Paris |author=Ali, Wasil |date=12 May 2008 |access-date=31 May 2013 |archive-date=12 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412093622/https://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article27123 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In February 2003, the [[Sudan Liberation Movement/Army]] (SLM/A) and [[Justice and Equality Movement]] (JEM) groups in Darfur took up arms, accusing the Sudanese government of oppressing non-Arab Sudanese in favour of [[Sudanese Arabs]], precipitating the [[War in Darfur]]. The conflict has since been [[Darfur genocide|described as a genocide]],<ref>{{cite press release |date=14 July 2008 |url=http://www2.icc-cpi.int/menus/icc/press%20and%20media/press%20releases/press%20releases%20%282008%29/a |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325100539/http://www2.icc-cpi.int/menus/icc/press%20and%20media/press%20releases/press%20releases%20%282008%29/a |title=ICC Prosecutor Presents Case Against Sudanese President, Hassan Ahmad al Bashir, for Genocide, Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes in Darfur |publisher=[[International Criminal Court#Office of the Prosecutor|Office of the Prosecutor]], International Criminal Court |archive-date=25 March 2009}}</ref> and the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) in The Hague has issued two [[arrest warrant]]s for al-Bashir.<ref name=BBC1>{{cite news |date=4 March 2009 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7923102.stm |title=Warrant issued for Sudan's Bashir |work=BBC News |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/articles/international-criminal-court-charges-+sudans-omar-hassan-al-bashir-genocide |author1=Lynch, Colum |author2=Hamilton, Rebecca |title=International Criminal Court Charges Sudan's Omar Hassan al-Bashir with Genocide |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=13 July 2010 |access-date=14 January 2011 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Arabic-speaking nomadic militias known as the [[Janjaweed]] stand accused of many atrocities. On 9 January 2005, the government signed the [[Naivasha Agreement|Nairobi Comprehensive Peace Agreement]] with the [[Sudan People's Liberation Movement]] (SPLM) with the objective of ending the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]]. The [[United Nations Mission in Sudan]] (UNMIS) was established under the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1590|UN Security Council Resolution 1590]] to support its implementation. The peace agreement was a prerequisite to the 2011 [[South Sudanese independence referendum, 2011|referendum]]: the result was a unanimous vote in favour of secession of [[South Sudan]]; the region of Abyei will hold [[Abyei status referendum|its own referendum]] at a future date. [[File:Southern Sudan Referendum1.jpg|thumb|Southern Sudanese wait to vote during the [[2011 South Sudanese independence referendum]].]] The [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]] (SPLA) was the primary member of the [[Eastern Front (Sudan)|Eastern Front]], a coalition of rebel groups operating in eastern Sudan. After the peace agreement, their place was taken in February 2004 after the merger of the larger [[Fulani people|fulani]] and [[Beja Congress]] with the smaller [[Rashaida Free Lions]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unmis.org/english/documents/mmr/MMR2006/MMR-jan04.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060321010542/http://www.unmis.org/english/documents/mmr/MMR2006/MMR-jan04.pdf |title=UNMIS Media Monitoring Report |publisher=United Nations Mission in Sudan |date=4 January 2006 |archive-date=21 March 2006}}</ref> A peace agreement between the Sudanese government and the Eastern Front was signed on 14 October 2006, in Asmara. On 5 May 2006, the [[Darfur Peace Agreement]] was signed, aiming at ending the conflict which had continued for three years up to this point.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2006/65972.htm |title=Darfur Peace Agreement |publisher=US Department of State |date=8 May 2006}}</ref> The Chad–Sudan Conflict (2005–2007) had erupted after the [[Battle of Adré]] triggered a declaration of war by Chad.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/AB24F0A9-8145-4E1E-96C7-3D8FC9641CC6.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010023439/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/AB24F0A9-8145-4E1E-96C7-3D8FC9641CC6.htm |archive-date=10 October 2006 |title=Restraint Plea to Sudan and Chad |date=27 December 2005 |agency=Agence France-Presse |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> The leaders of Sudan and Chad signed an agreement in [[Saudi Arabia]] on 3 May 2007 to stop fighting from the [[Darfur conflict]] spilling along their countries' {{convert|1000|km|mi|-2|adj=on}} border.<ref>{{cite news |date=4 May 2007 |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2007-05/04/content_865569.htm |title=Sudan, Chad Agree To Stop Fighting |agency=Associated Press |work=China Daily |location=Beijing}}</ref> In July 2007 the country was hit by [[2007 Sudan floods|devastating floods]],<ref>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/08/06/africa/AF-GEN-Sudan-Floods.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226201657/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/08/06/africa/AF-GEN-Sudan-Floods.php |title=UN: Situation in Sudan could deteriorate if flooding continues |date=6 August 2007 |work=[[International Herald Tribune]] |location=Paris |archive-date=26 February 2008}}</ref> with over 400,000 people being directly affected.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/LSGZ-75TGFJ?OpenDocument |title=Sudan Floods: At Least 365,000 Directly Affected, Response Ongoing |date=6 August 2007 |access-date=13 January 2011 |publisher=UN [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]] |agency=[[Relief Web]] |archive-date=20 August 2007 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070820141059/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/LSGZ-75TGFJ?OpenDocument |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since 2009, a series of [[Sudanese nomadic conflicts|ongoing conflicts]] between rival nomadic tribes in Sudan and South Sudan have caused a large number of civilian casualties. ====Partition and rehabilitation==== The [[Sudanese conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile]] in the early 2010s between [[Sudan People's Armed Forces|the Army of Sudan]] and the [[Sudan Revolutionary Front]] started as a dispute over the oil-rich region of [[Abyei]] in the months leading up to [[South Sudan|South Sudanese independence]] in 2011, though it is also related to civil war in Darfur that is nominally resolved. A year later in 2012 during the [[Heglig Crisis]] Sudan would achieve victory against South Sudan, a war over oil-rich regions between South Sudan's [[Unity (state)|Unity]] and Sudan's [[South Kordofan]] states. The events would later be known as the [[2011–2013 Sudanese protests|Sudanese Intifada]], which would end only in 2013 after al-Bashir promised he would not seek re-election in 2015. He later broke his promise and sought re-election in 2015, winning through a boycott from the opposition who believed that the elections would not be free and fair. Voter turnout was at a low 46%.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-32481013 |title=Omar al-Bashir wins Sudan elections by a landslide |work=BBC News |date=27 April 2015 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> On 13 January 2017, US president [[Barack Obama]] signed an Executive Order that lifted many sanctions placed against Sudan and assets of its government held abroad. On 6 October 2017, the following US president [[Donald Trump]] lifted most of the remaining sanctions against the country and its petroleum, export-import, and property industries.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Wadhams|first1=Nick|last2=Gebre|first2=Samuel|title=Trump Moves to Lift Most Sudan Sanctions|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-10-06/u-s-lifting-most-sudan-sanctions-on-progress-in-terrorism-fight|access-date=6 October 2017|work=Bloomberg Politics|date=6 October 2017}}</ref> ====2019 Sudanese Revolution and transitional government==== {{main|Sudanese Revolution|2019–2026 Sudanese transition to democracy}} {{see also|Sovereignty Council of Sudan}} [[File:Sudanese protestors celebrate signing of political agreement.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Sudanese protestors celebrate the 17 August 2019 signing of the [[2019 Sudanese transition to democracy#Draft Constitutional Declaration|Draft Constitutional Declaration]] between military and civilian representatives.]] On 19 December 2018, [[Sudanese protests (2018–19)|massive protests]] began after a government decision to triple the price of goods at a time when the country was suffering an acute shortage of foreign currency and inflation of 70 percent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cmi.no/news/2116-sudan-december-2018-riots-is-the-regime-crumbling|title=Sudan December 2018 riots: Is the regime crumbling?|website=CMI – Chr. Michelsen Institute|language=en|access-date=30 June 2019}}</ref> In addition, President al-Bashir, who had been in power for more than 30 years, refused to step down, resulting in the convergence of opposition groups to form a united coalition. The government retaliated by arresting more than 800 opposition figures and protesters, leading to the death of approximately 40 people according to the Human Rights Watch,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/04/09/sudan-protesters-killed-injured|title=Sudan: Protesters Killed, Injured|date=9 April 2019|website=Human Rights Watch|language=en|access-date=30 June 2019}}</ref> although the number was much higher than that according to local and civilian reports. The protests continued after the overthrow of his government on 11 April 2019 after a massive sit-in in front of the [[Sudanese Armed Forces]] main headquarters, after which the chiefs of staff decided to intervene and they ordered the arrest of President al-Bashir and declared a three-month state of emergency.<ref name="Sudan military coup topples Bashir">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47891470|title=Sudan military coup topples Bashir|date=11 April 2019|access-date=11 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/01/sudan-crowds-rally-bashir-police-tear-gas-rival-protest-190109115845545.html |title=Sudan's Omar al-Bashir vows to stay in power as protests rage &#124; News |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=9 January 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Arwa Ibrahim|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/01/future-unclear-sudan-protesters-president-loggerheads-190108135021310.html |title=Future unclear as Sudan protesters and president at loggerheads &#124; News |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=8 January 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> Over 100 people died on 3 June after security forces dispersed the sit-in using tear gas and live ammunition in what is known as the [[Khartoum massacre]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 June 2019 |title=Sudan's security forces attack long-running sit-in |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-48495713}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title="Chaos and Fire" – An Analysis of Sudan's June 3, 2019 Khartoum Massacre – Sudan |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/chaos-and-fire-analysis-sudan-s-june-3-2019-khartoum-massacre |website=ReliefWeb |date=5 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref> resulting in Sudan's suspension from the African Union.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2019/jun/06/aftermath-of-sudan-crackdown-emerges-as-death-toll-passes-100-video|title=African Union suspends Sudan over violence against protestors – video|date=7 June 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=8 June 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Sudan's youth had been reported to be driving the protests.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-48802235/sudan-dying-for-the-revolution|title='They'll have to kill all of us!'|work=BBC News|language=en|access-date=30 June 2019}}</ref> The protests came to an end when the [[Forces for Freedom and Change]] (an alliance of groups organizing the protests) and [[Transitional Military Council (2019)|Transitional Military Council]] (the ruling military government) signed the July 2019 Political Agreement and the August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration.<ref name="raisethevoices_4Aug2019_const_dec" /><ref name="Const_Dec_En_unofficial" /> [[File:Minishter of Intelligence of Israel Eli Cohen and President of Sudan Abdel Fattah al-Burhan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Sudanese leader [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]] with Israel's [[Ministry of Intelligence (Israel)|Minister of Intelligence]], [[Eli Cohen (politician born 1972)|Eli Cohen]], in January 2021]] The transitional institutions and procedures included the creation of a joint military-civilian [[Sovereignty Council of Sudan]] as head of state, a new [[Chief Justice of Sudan]] as head of the judiciary branch of power, [[Nemat Abdullah Khair]], and a new prime minister. The former Prime Minister, [[Abdalla Hamdok]], a 61-year-old economist who worked previously for the UN [[Economic Commission for Africa]], was sworn in on 21 August 2019.<ref name="SudTrib_EU_recognises_Hamdok">{{cite news | title= We recognize Hamdok as leader of Sudan's transition: EU, Troika envoys | date= 27 October 2021 |newspaper= [[Sudan Tribune]] | url= https://sudantribune.com/article222571 |access-date= 27 October 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211027175037/https://sudantribune.com/article222571 |archive-date= 27 October 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> He initiated talks with the [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]] aimed at stabilising the economy, which was in dire straits because of shortages of food, fuel and hard currency. Hamdok estimated that US$10bn over two years would suffice to halt the panic, and said that over 70% of the 2018 budget had been spent on civil war-related measures. The governments of [[Saudi Arabia]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] had invested significant sums supporting the military council since Bashir's ouster.<ref name="hamdok">{{cite news |title=Sudan needs up to $10 billion in aid to rebuild economy, new PM says |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-sudan-needs-up-to-10-billion-in-aid-to-rebuild-economy-new-pm-says/ |work=The Globe and Mail |last=Abdelaziz |first=Khalid |date=24 August 2019}}</ref> On 3 September, Hamdok appointed 14 civilian ministers, including the first female foreign minister and the first Coptic Christian, also a woman.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sudan-politics-idUSKCN1VO1KY |title=Sudan's PM selects members of first cabinet since Bashir's ouster|date=3 September 2019 |work=Reuters|access-date=4 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/africa/women-take-prominent-place-in-sudanese-politics-as-abdalla-hamdok-names-cabinet-1.906502|title=Women take prominent place in Sudanese politics as Abdalla Hamdok names cabinet |website=The National|date=4 September 2019 }}</ref> As of August 2021, the country was jointly led by Chairman of the Transitional Sovereign Council, [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]], and Prime Minister Abdallah Hamdok.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/3136536/sudan-threatens-use-military-option-regain-control-over-border-ethiopia |title=Sudan Threatens to Use Military Option to Regain Control over Border with Ethiopia |work=Asharq Al-Awsat |date=17 August 2021 |access-date=23 August 2021 }}</ref> ====2021 coup and the al-Burhan regime ==== {{main|October–November 2021 Sudanese coup d'état}} The Sudanese government announced on 21 September 2021 that there was a failed attempt at a [[coup d'état]] from the military that had led to the arrest of 40 military officers.<ref>{{Cite news|date=21 September 2021|title=Coup attempt fails in Sudan – state media|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58629978|access-date=21 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Nima Elbagir and Yasir Abdullah|title=Sudan foils coup attempt and 40 officers arrested, senior officials say|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/09/21/africa/sudan-failed-coup-attempt-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=21 September 2021|website=CNN|date=21 September 2021 }}</ref> One month after the attempted coup, another military coup on 25 October 2021 resulted in the deposition of the civilian government, including former Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok. The coup was led by general [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]] who subsequently declared a state of emergency.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudan's civilian leaders arrested – reports|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/sudan-s-civilian-leaders-arrested-reports/ar-AAPUVmO|website=www.msn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=25 October 2021|title=Sudan Officials Detained, Communication Lines Cut in Apparent Military Coup|language=en|work=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-10-25/sudanese-gov-t-officials-detained-group-sees-apparent-coup}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=25 October 2021|title=Sudan's civilian leaders arrested amid coup reports|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-59033142}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Magdy|first=Samy|title=Gov't officials detained, phones down in possible Sudan coup|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/sudanese-govt-officials-detained-group-sees-apparent-coup-80763796 |website=ABC News|language=en}}</ref> Abdel Fattah al-Burhan took office as the de facto head of state of Sudan and formed his new army backed Government on 11 November 2021.<ref name="al Jazeera 11/2021">{{cite news |title=Sudan army chief names new governing Sovereign Council |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/11/sudan-army-chief-issues-a-decree-for-new-sovereign-council |access-date=20 March 2023 |work=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] |date=11 November 2021 |archive-date=21 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321000037/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/11/sudan-army-chief-issues-a-decree-for-new-sovereign-council |url-status=live }}</ref> On 21 November 2021, Hamdok was reinstated as prime minister after a political agreement was signed by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan to restore the transition to civilian rule (although Burhan retained control). The 14-point deal called for the release of all political prisoners detained during the coup and stipulated that a 2019 constitutional declaration continued to be the basis for a political transition.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudan's Hamdok reinstated as PM after political agreement signed|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/21/sudans-hamdok-reinstated-as-pm-after-political-agreement-signed|access-date=21 November 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref> Hamdok fired the chief of police Khaled Mahdi Ibrahim al-Emam and his second in command Ali Ibrahim.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |date=27 November 2021 |title=Reinstated Sudanese PM Hamdok dismisses police chiefs |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/27/reinstated-sudanese-pm-hamdok-dismisses-police-chiefs |access-date=22 March 2022 |website=Al Jazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> On 2 January 2022, Hamdok announced his resignation from the position of Prime Minister following one of the most deadly protests to date.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudan PM Abdalla Hamdok resigns after deadly protest|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/2/sudan-pm-abdalla-hamdok-resigns-after-deadly-protest|access-date=2 January 2022|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref> He was succeeded by [[Osman Hussein (politician)|Osman Hussein]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sudantribune.com/article254282/|title=Sudan's Burhan forms caretaker government|date=20 February 2022|website=sudantribune.com|access-date=19 February 2022|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124205401/https://sudantribune.com/article254282/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.msn.com/en-xl/africa/other/acting-council-of-ministers-approves-general-budget-for-year-2022/ar-AASYiyW|title=Acting Council of Ministers Approves General Budget for Year 2022|website=MSN|access-date=2022-02-19|archive-date=2022-02-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219211159/https://www.msn.com/en-xl/africa/other/acting-council-of-ministers-approves-general-budget-for-year-2022/ar-AASYiyW|url-status=live}}</ref> By March 2022 over 1,000 people including 148 children had been detained for opposing the coup, there were 25 allegations of rape<ref name=":2" /> and 87 people had been killed<ref>{{Cite web |last=Associated Press |date=18 March 2022 |title=Sudan group says 187 wounded in latest anti-coup protests |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/sudan-group-187-wounded-latest-anti-coup-protests-83523107 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318093526/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/sudan-group-187-wounded-latest-anti-coup-protests-83523107 |archive-date=18 March 2022 |access-date=22 March 2022 |website=ABC News |language=en}}</ref> including 11 children.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Bachelet |first=Michelle |date=7 March 2022 |title=Oral update on the situation of human rights in the Sudan – Statement by United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/oral-update-situation-human-rights-sudan |access-date=22 March 2022 |website=ReliefWeb/ 49th Session of the UN Human Rights Council |language=en}}</ref> ====2023 – Present: Internal conflict==== {{main|War in Sudan (2023–present)}} [[File:War in Sudan (2023).svg|thumb|Military situation as of 8 March 2024 {{leftlegend|#FFCCCC|Controlled by [[Sudanese Armed Forces]] and allies}} {{leftlegend|#008080|Controlled by [[Rapid Support Forces]]}} {{leftlegend|#E3D975|Controlled by [[Sudan People's Liberation Movement–North#SPLM-N (al-Hilu)|SPLM-N (al-Hilu)]]}} {{leftlegend|#800033|Controlled by [[SLM (al-Nur)]]}} ([[Template:2023 Sudan war detailed map|Detailed map]]) ]] In April 2023 – as an internationally brokered plan for a transition to civilian rule was discussed – power struggles grew between army commander (and ''[[defacto|de facto]]'' national leader) [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]], and his deputy, [[Hemedti]], head of the heavily armed paramilitary [[Rapid Support Forces]] (RSF), formed from the [[Janjaweed]] militia.<ref name="fighting_2023_04_16_france27_com">[https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20230416-death-toll-mounts-in-sudan-as-army-paramilitary-fight-for-power "Fighting continues in Sudan despite humanitarian pause"], 16 April 2023, [[France24]], retrieved 16 April 2023</ref><ref name="clashes_2023_04_16_abc_news">{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/clashes-erupt-sudan-army-paramilitary-group-government-transition/story?id=98607846 |title=Clashes erupt in Sudan between army, paramilitary group over government transition |date=16 April 2023 |website=[[ABC News]] |access-date=16 April 2023 |first1=Nadine |last1=El-Bawab }}</ref> On 15 April 2023, their conflict erupted into a civil war starting with the [[Battle of Khartoum (2023)|battles in the streets of Khartoum]] between the army and the RSF – with troops, tanks and planes. By the third day, 400 people had been reported killed and at least 3,500 injured, according to the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-04-18 |title=What's behind the fighting in Sudan, and what is at stake? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/04/18/sudan-conflict-military-rsf-paramilitary/ |access-date=2023-05-03 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en |first1=Niha |last1=Masih |first2=Bryan |last2=Pietsch |first3=Sammy |last3=Westfall |first4=Miriam |last4=Berger }}</ref> Among the dead were three workers from the [[World Food Program]], triggering a suspension of the organization's work in Sudan, despite ongoing hunger afflicting much of the country.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/sudan-fighting-military-rsf-eafa3246b1e3004a1a9f2b9af9561362 | title=Sudan's generals battle for 3rd day; death toll soars to 185 | website=[[Associated Press]] | date=17 April 2023 |first1=Jack |last1=Jeffery |first2=Samy |last2=Magdy }}</ref> Sudanese General [[Yasser al-Atta]] said the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] was providing supplies to RSF, which were being used in the war.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Eltahir |first= Nafisa |date=2023-11-28 |title=Sudanese general accuses UAE of supplying paramilitary RSF |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/sudanese-general-accuses-uae-supplying-paramilitary-rsf-2023-11-28/ |access-date=2023-12-19}}</ref> Both the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces are [[War crimes during the War in Sudan (2023–present)|accused of committing war crimes]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-02 |title=War crimes and civilian suffering in Sudan |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/08/sudan-war-crimes-rampant-as-civilians-killed-in-both-deliberate-and-indiscriminate-attacks-new-report/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925175201/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/08/sudan-war-crimes-rampant-as-civilians-killed-in-both-deliberate-and-indiscriminate-attacks-new-report/ |archive-date=2023-09-25 |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=US declares warring factions in Sudan have committed war crimes |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/6/us-declares-warring-factions-in-sudan-have-committed-war-crimes |work=Al Jazeera |date=6 December 2023}}</ref> As of 29 December 2023, over 5.8 million were internally displaced and more than 1.5 million others had fled the country as refugees,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dtm.iom.int/reports/dtm-sudan-monthly-displacement-overview-04 |title=DTM Sudan – Monthly Displacement Overview (04) |date=29 December 2023 |website=IOM UN Migration |access-date=30 December 2023 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230194201/https://dtm.iom.int/reports/dtm-sudan-monthly-displacement-overview-04 |url-status=live }}</ref> and many civilians in [[Darfur]] have been reported dead as part of the [[Masalit massacres (2023–present)|Masalit massacres]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Genocide returns to Darfur |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/10/05/genocide-returns-to-darfur |access-date=11 November 2023 |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=10 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110034316/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/10/05/genocide-returns-to-darfur |url-status=live }}</ref> Up to 15,000 people were killed in the city of [[Geneina]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethnic killings in one Sudan city left up to 15,000 dead: UN report |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/worldbiz/africa/ethnic-killings-one-sudan-city-left-15000-dead-un-report-777970 |work=The Business Standard |date=20 January 2024}}</ref> As a result of the war the [[World Food Programme]] released a report on 22 February 2024 saying that more than 95% of Sudan's population could not afford a meal a day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.barrons.com/news/over-95-percent-of-sudanese-cannot-afford-a-meal-a-day-wfp-fef7c4a0|website=Barron's|title=Over 95 Percent Of Sudanese Cannot Afford A Meal A Day: WFP}}</ref> As of April 2024, the United Nations reported that more than 8.6 million people have been forced out of their homes, while 18 million are facing severe hunger, five million of them are at emergency levels.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sudan violence: The horrifying statistics behind the brutal conflict - and still the death toll is unknown |url=https://news.sky.com/story/sudan-violence-the-horrifying-statistics-behind-the-brutal-conflict-and-still-the-death-toll-is-unknown-13112932 |work=Sky News|date=17 April 2024}}</ref> ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Sudan}} [[File:Map of Sudan (New).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of Sudan. The [[Hala'ib Triangle]] has been under contested Egyptian administration since 2000.]] [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map SDN present.svg|thumb|A [[Köppen climate classification]] map of Sudan]] Sudan is situated in North Africa, with an {{convert|853|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} coastline bordering the [[Red Sea]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iss.co.za/AF/profiles/Sudan/Geog.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110513112555/http://www.iss.co.za/AF/profiles/Sudan/Geog.html |archive-date=13 May 2011 |title=Sudan geography |publisher= Institute for Security Studies |date=12 January 2005}}</ref> It has land borders with [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], [[South Sudan]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], and [[Libya]]. With an area of {{convert|1886068|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, it is the third-largest country on the continent (after [[Algeria]] and [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]) and the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|fifteenth-largest]] in the world. Sudan lies between latitudes [[8th parallel north|8°]] and [[23rd parallel north|23°N]]. The terrain is generally flat plains, broken by several mountain ranges. In the west, the [[Deriba Caldera]] ({{convert|3042|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}), located in the [[Marrah Mountains]], is the highest point in Sudan. In the east are the [[Red Sea Hills]].<ref>{{cite web |date=n.d. |url= http://www.country-studies.com/sudan/geography.html |title=Sudan |publisher=Country Studies |access-date=26 June 2010}}</ref> The [[Blue Nile]] and [[White Nile]] rivers meet in [[Khartoum]] to form the [[Nile]], which flows northwards through Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea. The Blue Nile's course through Sudan is nearly {{convert|800|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} long and is joined by the [[Dinder River|Dinder]] and [[Rahad River]]s between [[Sennar]] and [[Khartoum]]. The White Nile within Sudan has no significant tributaries. There are several dams on the Blue and White Niles. Among them are the [[Sennar Dam|Sennar]] and [[Roseires Dam]]s on the Blue Nile, and the [[Jebel Aulia Dam]] on the White Nile. There is also [[Lake Nubia]] on the Sudanese-Egyptian border. Rich mineral resources are available in Sudan including [[asbestos]], [[chromite]], [[cobalt]], copper, gold, [[granite]], [[gypsum]], iron, [[kaolin]], lead, [[manganese]], [[mica]], natural gas, [[nickel]], petroleum, silver, [[tin]], [[uranium]] and [[zinc]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sudan-embassy.co.uk/infobook/geograph.php |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20050930235450/http://www.sudan-embassy.co.uk/infobook/geograph.php |archive-date=30 September 2005 |title=Geography of Sudan |publisher=Sudan Embassy in London |date=n.d.}}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Geography of Sudan#Climate|l1=Climate of Sudan}} The amount of rainfall increases towards the south. The central and the northern part have extremely dry, semi-desert areas such as the [[Nubian Desert]] to the northeast and the [[Bayuda Desert]] to the east; in the south, there are grasslands and tropical savanna. Sudan's rainy season lasts for about four months (June to September) in the north, and up to six months (May to October) in the south. The dry regions are plagued by [[Dust storm|sandstorms]], known as [[haboob]], which can completely block out the sun. In the northern and western semi-desert areas, people rely on scarce rainfall for basic agriculture and many are [[nomad]]ic, travelling with their herds of sheep and camels. Nearer the River Nile, there are [[irrigation|well-irrigated]] farms growing [[cash crops]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/kidsweb/world/sudan/sudgeog.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121001164348/http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/kidsweb/world/sudan/sudgeog.htm |archive-date= 1 October 2012 |title=Sudan – Geography & Environment |publisher=[[Oxfam GB]] |date=n.d. |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> The sunshine duration is very high all over the country but especially in deserts where it can soar to over 4,000 hours per year. ===Environmental issues=== [[File:Water_Stress,_Top_Countries_(2020).svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Sudan is the thirteenth most water stressed country in the world.]] [[Desertification]] is a serious problem in Sudan.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://iddcs.uofk.edu/index.php?direction=ltr&lang=en |title= Desertification & Desert Cultivation Studies Institute |publisher= University of Khartoum |date= n.d. |access-date= 31 May 2013 |archive-date= 24 May 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130524140548/http://iddcs.uofk.edu/index.php?direction=ltr&lang=en |url-status= dead }}</ref> There is also concern over [[soil erosion]]. [[Agricultural expansion]], both public and private, has proceeded without [[Conservation movement|conservation]] measures. The consequences have manifested themselves in the form of [[deforestation]], soil desiccation, and the lowering of [[soil fertility]] and the [[water table]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80044e/80044E06.htm |title=Soil conservation and land reclamation in the Sudan |publisher=United Nations University |date=n.d. |access-date=26 June 2010 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528013406/http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80044e/80044E06.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The nation's wildlife is threatened by poaching. As of 2001, twenty-one mammal species and nine bird species are endangered, as well as two species of plants. Critically endangered species include: the [[northern bald ibis|waldrapp]], [[northern white rhinoceros]], [[tora hartebeest]], [[rhim gazelle|slender-horned gazelle]], and [[hawksbill turtle]]. The [[Scimitar oryx|Sahara oryx]] has become extinct in the wild.<ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2011|reason=appear to be user-generated site; how are entries vetted?}} {{cite encyclopedia |url= http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Sudan-ENVIRONMENT.html |title=Sudan – Environment |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Nations |date=n.d. |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> ===Wildlife=== {{Main|Wildlife of Sudan}} == Government and politics == {{Main|Politics of Sudan}} The politics of Sudan formally took place within the framework of a [[Federal republic|federal]] [[authoritarian]] [[Islamic republic]] until April 2019, when President [[Omar al-Bashir]]'s regime was overthrown in a [[2019 Sudanese coup d'état|military coup]] led by Vice President [[Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf]]. As an initial step he established the [[Transitional Military Council (2019)|Transitional Military Council]] to manage the country's internal affairs. He also suspended the [[Constitution of Sudan|constitution]] and dissolved the [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] parliament – the [[National Legislature of Sudan|National Legislature]], with its [[National Assembly of Sudan|National Assembly]] (lower chamber) and the [[Council of States of Sudan|Council of States]] (upper chamber). Ibn Auf however, remained in office for only a single day and then resigned, with the leadership of the Transitional Military Council then being handed to [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]]. On 4 August 2019, a new Constitutional Declaration was signed between the representatives of the Transitional Military Council and the [[Forces of Freedom and Change]], and on 21 August 2019 the Transitional Military Council was officially replaced as head of state by an 11-member Sovereignty Council, and as head of government by a civilian Prime Minister. According to 2023 [[V-Dem Democracy indices]] Sudan is 6th least [[democracy in Africa|democratic country in Africa]].<ref name="vdem_dataset">{{cite web |last=V-Dem Institute |date=2023 |title=The V-Dem Dataset |url=https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |access-date=14 October 2023}}</ref> ===Sharia law=== ==== Under Nimeiri ==== {{Main articles|1983 September laws}} In September 1983, President Jaafar Nimeiri introduced sharia law in Sudan, known as ''September laws'', symbolically disposing of alcohol and implementing [[hudud punishments]] like public amputations. Al-Turabi supported this move, differing from Al-Sadiq al-Mahdi's dissenting view. Al-Turabi and his allies within the regime also opposed self-rule in the south, a secular constitution, and non-Islamic cultural acceptance. One condition for national reconciliation was re-evaluating the [[Addis Ababa Agreement (1972)|1972 Addis Ababa Agreement]] that granted the [[Southern Sudan Autonomous Region (1972–1983)|south self-governance]], reflecting a failure to accommodate minority rights and leverage Islam's rejection of racism.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=هدهود |first=محمود |date=2019-04-15 |title=تاريخ الحركة الإسلامية في السودان |url=https://www.ida2at.com/history-islamic-movement-sudan/ |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=إضاءات |language=ar |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828194009/https://www.ida2at.com/history-islamic-movement-sudan/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Islamic economics|Islamic economy]] followed in early 1984, eliminating interest and instituting [[zakat]]. Nimeiri declared himself the imam of the Sudanese Umma in 1984.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Warburg |first=Gabriel R. |date=1990 |title=The Sharia in Sudan: Implementation and Repercussions, 1983-1989 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4328194 |url-status=live |journal=Middle East Journal |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=624–637 |issn=0026-3141 |jstor=4328194 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213030201/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4328194 |archive-date=2022-12-13 |access-date=2023-07-21}}</ref> ====Under al-Bashir==== During the regime of Omar al-Bashir, the legal system in Sudan was based on Islamic [[Sharia law]]. The 2005 [[Comprehensive Peace Agreement|Naivasha Agreement]], ending the civil war between north and south Sudan, established some protections for non-Muslims in Khartoum. Sudan's application of Sharia law is geographically inconsistent.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jun/06/sudan-sharia-legal-system|title=Sudan's haphazard Sharia legal system has claimed too many victims|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=6 June 2012|last1=Malik|first1=Nesrine}}</ref> [[Stoning]] was a judicial punishment in Sudan. Between 2009 and 2012, several women were sentenced to death by stoning.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/31/sudanese-woman-stoning-death-adultery|title=Sudanese woman sentenced to stoning death over adultery claims|newspaper=The Guardian|date=31 May 2012|last1=Smith|first1=David}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/world/woman-faces-death-by-stoning-in-sudan-250603|title=Woman faces death by stoning in Sudan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2007-03-22-voa16/342334.html|title=Rights Group Protests Stoning of Women in Sudan|date=November 2009 }}</ref> [[Flogging]] was a legal punishment. Between 2009 and 2014, many people were sentenced to 40–100 lashes.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/2009/09/06/woman_faces_40_lashes_for_wearing_trousers.html |title=Woman faces 40 lashes for wearing trousers|date=6 September 2009|newspaper=The Toronto Star|last1=Ross|first1=Oakland}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/15/sudanese-woman-married-christian-death-sentence-apostasy |title=Sudanese woman who married a non-Muslim sentenced to death|newspaper=The Guardian|date=15 May 2014|agency=Associated Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sudanreliefund.com/sudan-pregnant-woman-sentenced-to-death-and-100-lashes-while-violence-continues-in-darfur-and-south-kordofan/|title=Pregnant woman sentenced to death and 100 lashes|access-date=28 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150116183134/http://www.sudanreliefund.com/sudan-pregnant-woman-sentenced-to-death-and-100-lashes-while-violence-continues-in-darfur-and-south-kordofan/ |archive-date=16 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tvcnews.tv/|title=TVCNEWS Home page|date=25 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article52131|title=Detainee dies in custody in Port Sudan after court-ordered flogging – Sudan Tribune: Plural news and views on Sudan|website=www.sudantribune.com|access-date=11 April 2020|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807161536/https://sudantribune.com/spip.php?article52131|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/sudan-pair-accused-kissing-face-40-lashes|title=Sudan: Pair accused of kissing face 40 lashes|website=www.amnesty.org.uk}}</ref> In August 2014, several Sudanese men died in custody after being flogged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article52131|title=Detainee dies in custody in Port Sudan after court-ordered flogging|work=Sudan Tribune|access-date=21 September 2014|archive-date=24 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824003926/http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article52131|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/sudan-men-flogged-detained-died-1610871-Aug2014/|title=Two Sudanese men died after being detained and flogged 40 times each, says rights group|work=The Journal|date=8 August 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/two-sudan-men-die-floggings-rights-group-144014252.html|title=Two Sudan men die after floggings: rights group |agency=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> 53 Christians were flogged in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bgnews.com/sudanese-authorities-flog-christians-on-rioting-charges/article_7c0a61d8-dfa1-5262-937c-ad1d45263d7e.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150131190550/http://www.bgnews.com/sudanese-authorities-flog-christians-on-rioting-charges/article_7c0a61d8-dfa1-5262-937c-ad1d45263d7e.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=31 January 2015|title=Sudanese authorities flog 53 Christians on rioting charges|work=The BG News}}</ref> Sudan's public order law allowed police officers to publicly whip women who were accused of public indecency.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/shocking-video-sudanese-woman-flogged-car-man-isn-family-member-article-1.1475162|title=Shocking video: Sudanese woman flogged for getting into car with man who isn't related to her |first=Carol|last=Kuruvilla|website=nydailynews.com|date=3 October 2013 }}</ref> [[Crucifixion]] was also a legal punishment. In 2002, 88 people were sentenced to death for crimes relating to murder, armed robbery, and participating in ethnic clashes. [[Amnesty International]] wrote that they could be executed by either hanging or crucifixion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGAFR540132002 |title=Sudan: Imminent Execution/Torture/Unfair trial |publisher=Amnesty International |date=17 July 2002 |access-date=19 December 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071203091152/http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGAFR540132002|archive-date=3 December 2007 }}</ref> [[International Court of Justice]] jurisdiction is accepted, though with reservations. Under the terms of the Naivasha Agreement, Islamic law did not apply in South Sudan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html |title=Field Listing – Legal System |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=US [[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=n.d. |access-date=14 January 2011 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226012138/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since the secession of South Sudan there was some uncertainty as to whether Sharia law would apply to the non-Muslim minorities present in Sudan, especially because of contradictory statements by al-Bashir on the matter.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12033185 |title= Sharia law to be tightened if Sudan splits – president |work=BBC News |date=19 December 2010 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> The judicial branch of the Sudanese government consists of a Constitutional Court of nine justices, the National Supreme Court, the Court of Cassation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/sudanese-woman-sentenced-death-christian-freed-court-article-1.1840177|title=Court frees Sudanese woman sentenced to death for being Christian|author=Michael Sheridan|date=23 June 2014|work=nydailynews.com}}</ref><!--and National Courts of Appeal,--> and other national courts; the National Judicial Service Commission provides overall management for the judiciary. ====After al-Bashir==== {{Main|2019–2024 Sudanese transition to democracy}} Following the ouster of al-Bashir, the interim constitution signed in August 2019 contained no mention of Sharia law.<ref name="MOM 09-2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20200907-sudan-separates-religion-from-state-ending-30-years-of-islamic-rule/|title=Sudan separates religion from state ending 30 years of Islamic rule|date=7 September 2020}}</ref> As of 12 July 2020, Sudan abolished the apostasy law, public flogging and alcohol ban for non-Muslims. The draft of a new law was passed in early July. Sudan also criminalized [[female genital mutilation]] with a punishment of up to 3 years in jail.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53379733|title=Sudan scraps apostasy law and alcohol ban for non-Muslims|work=BBC News|date=12 July 2020|access-date=12 July 2020}}</ref> An accord between the transitional government and rebel group leadership was signed in September 2020, in which the government agreed to officially separate the state and religion, ending three decades of rule under Islamic law. It also agreed that no official state religion will be established.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/africa/sudan-ends-30-years-of-islamic-law-by-separating-religion-state-1.1599359147751|title=Sudan ends 30 years of Islamic law by separating religion, state|date=6 September 2020 }}</ref><ref name="MOM 09-2020"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/world/islamic-world-at-decisive-point-in-history-will-it-take-the-path-of-emirates-or-turkey-8789981.html|title=Islamic world at decisive point in history: Will it take the path of Emirates or Turkey?|date=6 September 2020}}</ref> ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Sudan}} [[File:Al bashir1.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|Bashir (right) and U.S. Deputy Secretary of State [[Robert Zoellick]], 2005]] Sudan has had a troubled relationship with many of its neighbours and much of the international community, owing to what is viewed as its radical Islamic stance. For much of the 1990s, [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]] and [[Ethiopia]] formed an ad hoc alliance called the "Front Line States" with support from the United States to check the influence of the [[National Islamic Front]] government. The Sudanese Government supported anti-Ugandan rebel groups such as the [[Lord's Resistance Army]] (LRA).<ref>"[http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-20055835-503543/the-worlds-enduring-dictators/ The world's enduring dictators] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609095126/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-20055835-503543/the-worlds-enduring-dictators/ |date=9 June 2013 }}". CBS News. 16 May 2011.</ref> As the National Islamic Front regime in Khartoum gradually emerged as a real threat to the region and the world, the U.S. began to list Sudan on its list of [[State Sponsors of Terrorism]]. After the US listed Sudan as a state sponsor of terrorism, the [[National Islamic Front|NIF]] decided to develop relations with [[Iraq]], and later [[Iran]], the two most controversial countries in the region. From the mid-1990s, Sudan gradually began to moderate its positions as a result of increased U.S. pressure following the [[1998 United States embassy bombings|1998 U.S. embassy bombings]], in [[Tanzania]] and [[Kenya]], and the new development of oil fields previously in rebel hands. Sudan also has a territorial dispute with Egypt over the [[Hala'ib Triangle]]. Since 2003, the foreign relations of Sudan had centred on the support for ending the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] and condemnation of government support for militias in the [[war in Darfur]]. Sudan has extensive economic relations with China. China obtains ten percent of its oil from Sudan. According to a former Sudanese government minister, China is Sudan's largest supplier of arms.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A21143-2004Dec22.html |title=China Invests Heavily in Sudan's Oil Industry – Beijing Supplies Arms Used on Villagers |newspaper=The Washington Post |author=Goodman, Peter S. |date=23 December 2004 |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> In December 2005, Sudan became one of the few states to recognise Moroccan sovereignty over [[Western Sahara]].<ref>{{cite news |archive-date=26 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060226210429/http://www.moroccotimes.com/paper/article.asp?idr=2&id=11765 |url=http://www.moroccotimes.com/paper/article.asp?idr=2&id=11765 |title=Sudan supports Moroccan sovereignty over Southern Provinces |newspaper=Morocco Times |location=Casablanca |date=26 December 2005}}</ref> [[File:Secretary Pompeo Meets with Sudanese Sovereign Council Chair General Fattah el-Burhan (50267527813).jpg|thumb|The chairman of Sudan's sovereign council, General [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]], with U.S. Secretary of State [[Mike Pompeo]], 2020]] In 2015, Sudan participated in the [[Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen]] against the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] [[Houthis]] and forces loyal to former President [[Ali Abdullah Saleh]],<ref>"[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-26/yemeni-bombing-led-by-saudis-is-backed-by-u-s-logistics-spying U.S. Backs Saudi-Led Yemeni Bombing With Logistics, Spying]". [[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]]. 26 March 2015.</ref> who was deposed in the 2011 uprising.<ref>"[http://edition.cnn.com/2015/03/26/middleeast/yemen-saudi-arabia-airstrikes/ Saudi-led coalition strikes rebels in Yemen, inflaming tensions in region]". [[CNN]]. 27 March 2015.</ref> In June 2019, Sudan was suspended from the [[African Union]] over the lack of progress towards the establishment of a civilian-led transitional authority since its initial meeting following the coup d'état of 11 April 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudan suspended from the African Union {{!}} African Union|url=https://au.int/en/articles/sudan-suspended-african-union|access-date=30 October 2021|website=au.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union suspends Sudan over coup|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/27/african-union-suspends-sudan-over-coup|access-date=30 October 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref> In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Sudan, have signed a joint letter to the [[UNHRC]] defending China's [[Xinjiang re-education camps|treatment of Uyghurs]] in the [[Xinjiang]] region.<ref>{{cite news |title=Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |work=[[The Diplomat]] |date=15 July 2019}}</ref> On 23 October 2020, U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] announced that Sudan will start to [[Israel–Sudan normalization agreement|normalize ties with Israel]], making it the third Arab state to do so as part of the U.S.-brokered [[Abraham Accords]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Trump Announces US-Brokered Israel-Sudan Normalization |url=https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/trump-announces-us-brokered-israel-sudan-normalization |work=Voice of America (VOA) |date=23 October 2020}}</ref> On 14 December the U.S. Government removed Sudan from its State Sponsor of Terrorism list; as part of the deal, Sudan agreed to pay $335&nbsp;million in compensation to victims of the 1998 embassy bombings.<ref>{{cite news |title=US removes Sudan from state sponsors of terrorism list |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/12/14/politics/sudan-state-sponsor-of-terrorism/index.html |access-date=16 December 2020 |work=CNN |date=14 December 2020}}</ref> The dispute between Sudan and [[Ethiopia]] over the [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]] escalated in 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sudan threatens legal action if Ethiopia dam filled without deal |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/23/sudan-threatens-legal-action-if-ethiopia-rejects-nile-dam-talks |work=Al-Jazeera |date=23 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt, Sudan conclude war games amid Ethiopia's dam dispute |url=https://apnews.com/article/sudan-middle-east-egypt-africa-ethiopia-77eda64c925ca8a71e98634537b684e4 |work=Associated Press |date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt and Sudan urge Ethiopia to negotiate seriously over giant dam |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/egypt-sudan-urge-ethiopia-negotiate-seriously-over-giant-dam-2021-06-09/ |work=Reuters |date=9 June 2021}}</ref> An advisor to the Sudanese leader [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]] spoke of a [[water war]] "that would be more horrible than one could imagine".<ref>{{cite news |title=Gerd: Sudan talks tough with Ethiopia over River Nile dam |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56799672 |work=BBC News |date=22 April 2021}}</ref> In February 2022, it is reported that a Sudanese envoy has visited Israel to promote ties between the countries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudanese envoy in Israel to promote ties – source|url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-695948|access-date=9 February 2022|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|date=9 February 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> In the early months of 2023, fighting reignited, primarily between the military forces of Gen. Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, the army chief and de facto head of state, and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces led by his rival, Gen. Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo. As a result, the U.S. and most European countries have shut down their embassies in Khartoum and have attempted evacuations. In 2023, it was estimated that there were 16,000 Americans in Sudan who needed to be evacuated. In absence of an official evacuation plan from the U.S. State Department, many Americans have been forced to turn to other nations' embassies for guidance, with many fleeing to Nairobi. Other African countries and humanitarian groups have tried to help. The Turkish embassy has reportedly allowed Americans to join its evacuation efforts for its own citizens. The TRAKboys, a South-Africa based political organization which came into conflict with the [[Wagner Group]], a Russian private military contractor operating in Sudan since 2017, has been assisting with the evacuation of both Black Americans and Sudanese citizens to safe locations in South Africa.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Americans and other foreigners struggle to flee Sudan amid fierce fighting |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/04/26/sudan-fighting-evacuation-americans-british/ |access-date=2023-05-03 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fDS8IQSdZ-E | title=Trakboys David Mbatha, Blose begin peaceful talks w/ Mayor Kaunda about Durban Port tariff increase | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref> On April 15, 2024, France is hosting an international conference on Sudan, marking the one-year anniversary of the outbreak of war in the northeast African nation, which has resulted in a humanitarian and political crisis. The country is calling for support from the global community, aiming to draw attention to a crisis that officials believe has been overshadowed by ongoing conflicts in the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-15 |title=France hosts conference on aid to war-torn Sudan |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/04/15/france-hosts-conference-on-aid-to-war-torn-sudan_6668451_4.html |access-date=2024-04-16 |work=Le Monde.fr |language=en}}</ref> ===Armed forces=== {{Main|Sudanese Armed Forces}} The Sudanese Armed Forces is the regular forces of Sudan and is divided into five branches: the Sudanese Army, Sudanese Navy (including the Marine Corps), [[Sudanese Air Force]], Border Patrol and the Internal Affairs Defence Force, totalling about 200,000 troops. The military of Sudan has become a well-equipped fighting force; a result of increasing local production of heavy and advanced arms. These forces are under the command of the National Assembly and its strategic principles include defending Sudan's external borders and preserving internal security. Since the [[War in Darfur|Darfur crisis]] in 2004, safe-keeping the central government from the armed resistance and rebellion of paramilitary rebel groups such as the [[Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] (SPLA), the [[Sudan Liberation Army|Sudanese Liberation Army]] (SLA) and the [[Justice and Equality Movement]] (JEM) have been important priorities. While not official, the Sudanese military also uses nomad militias, the most prominent being the [[Janjaweed]], in executing a counter-insurgency war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mongabay.com/reference/new_profiles/2007.html |title=Sudan: National Security |publisher=[[Mongabay]] |date=n.d. |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref> Somewhere between 200,000<ref name="conflict1">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3496731.stm |work=BBC News |title=Q&A: Sudan's Darfur Conflict |date=23 February 2010 |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> and 400,000<ref name="cia">{{cite web|title=Sudan|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/|access-date=10 July 2011|work=The World Factbook|publisher=U.S. Central Intelligence Agency|issn=1553-8133}}</ref><ref name="peopledaily1">{{cite news |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200511/28/eng20051128_224254.html |title=Darfur Peace Talks To Resume in Abuja on Tuesday: AU |agency=Xinhua News Agency |newspaper=[[People's Daily]] |location =Beijing |date=28 November 2005 |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/10/AR2007041001775.html |agency= Associated Press |newspaper=The Washington Post |title=Hundreds Killed in Attacks in Eastern Chad – U.N. Agency Says Sudanese Militia Destroyed Villages |date=11 April 2007 |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref> people have died in the violent struggles. ===International organisations in Sudan=== Several UN agents are operating in Sudan such as the [[World Food Program]] (WFP); the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO); the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP); the [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]] (UNIDO); the United Nations Children Fund ([[UNICEF]]); the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR); the United Nations Mine Service ([[UNMAS]]), the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the [[World Bank]]. Also present is the [[International Organisation for Migration]] (IOM).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/activities/africa-and-middle-east/east-africa/sudan/cache/offonce/ |title=Sudan |publisher=International Organisation for Migration |date=2 May 2013 |access-date=31 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310183842/http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/activities/africa-and-middle-east/east-africa/sudan/cache/offonce/ |archive-date=10 March 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/Eng/JUD-217124359-NT2 |title=The Sudans |publisher=Canadian International Development Agency |location=Gatineau, Quebec |date=29 January 2013 |access-date=31 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528183621/http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/eng/JUD-217124359-NT2 |archive-date=28 May 2013 }}</ref> Since Sudan has experienced civil war for many years, many non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are also involved in humanitarian efforts to help internally displaced people. The NGOs are working in every corner of Sudan, especially in the southern part and western parts. During the civil war, international non-governmental organisations such as the Red Cross were operating mostly in the south but based in the capital Khartoum.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sudan_darfuroverview.html |title=Darfur – overview |publisher=Unicef |date=n.d. |access-date=31 May 2013 |archive-date=18 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518063230/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sudan_darfuroverview.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The attention of NGOs shifted shortly after the war broke out in the western part of Sudan known as Darfur. The most visible organisation in South Sudan is the [[Operation Lifeline Sudan]] (OLS) consortium.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wfp.org/photos/south-sudan-nuba-mountains-may-2003-wfp-delivered-food-aid-road-convoy-0 |title=South Sudan, Nuba Mountains, May 2003 – WFP delivered food aid via road convoy |publisher=World Food Programme |date=8 May 2003 |access-date=31 May 2013 |archive-date=10 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810001731/http://www.wfp.org/photos/south-sudan-nuba-mountains-may-2003-wfp-delivered-food-aid-road-convoy-0 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some international trade organisations categorise Sudan as part of the [[Greater Horn of Africa]]<ref>Maxwell, Daniel, and Ben Watkins. "Humanitarian information systems and emergencies in the Greater Horn of Africa: logical components and logical linkages." Disasters 27.1 (2003): 72–90.</ref> Even though most of the international organisations are substantially concentrated in both South Sudan and the [[Darfur]] region, some of them are working in the northern part as well. For example, the [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]] is successfully operating in [[Khartoum]], the capital. It is mainly funded by the European Union and recently opened more vocational training. The Canadian International Development Agency is operating largely in northern Sudan.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.unido.org/media-centre/press-releases/news/article/date////eu-unido-set-up-centre-in-sudan-to-develop-industrial-skills-entrepreneurship-for-job-creation.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615200234/http://www.unido.org/media-centre/press-releases/news/article/date////eu-unido-set-up-centre-in-sudan-to-develop-industrial-skills-entrepreneurship-for-job-creation.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 June 2013 |title=EU, UNIDO set up Centre in Sudan to develop industrial skills, entrepreneurship for job creation |publisher=UN Industrial Development Organisation |date=8 February 2011 |access-date=4 June 2013 }}</ref> ===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Sudan|Freedom of religion in Sudan|Slavery in Sudan|Child marriage in Sudan}} Since 1983, a combination of civil war and famine has taken the lives of nearly two million people in Sudan.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 2001 |url=http://www.refugees.org/news/crisis/sudan.htm |title=Sudan: Nearly 2 Million Dead as a Result of the World's Longest Running Civil War |access-date=10 December 2004 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20041210024759/http://www.refugees.org/news/crisis/sudan.htm |archive-date= 10 December 2004 |url-status=dead |author-link=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants |author=U.S. Committee for Refugees}}</ref> It is estimated that as many as 200,000 people had been taken into [[Slavery in modern Africa|slavery]] during the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]].<ref>{{cite web |title=CSI highlights 'slavery and manifestations of racism' |work=[[The New Humanitarian]] |date=7 September 2001 |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/25987/sudan-csi-highlights-%E2%80%9Cslavery-and-manifestations-racism%E2%80%9D}}</ref> Muslims who convert to Christianity can face the death penalty for apostasy; see [[Persecution of Christians in Sudan]] and the death sentence against [[Mariam Yahia Ibrahim Ishag]] (who actually was raised as Christian). According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 88% of women in Sudan had undergone [[female genital mutilation]].<ref name=UNICEF2013p27>[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |date=5 April 2015 }}, p. 27.</ref> Sudan's [[Status (law)|Personal Status]] law on marriage has been criticised for restricting [[women's rights]] and allowing [[child marriage]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2013/07/time-to-let-sudans-girls-be-girls-not-brides/|title=Time to Let Sudan's Girls Be Girls, Not Brides|newspaper=Inter Press Service |date=10 July 2013|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trust.org/item/20131118080551-ikgwx/|title=Sudan worst in Africa with legal marriage at age 10|publisher=Thomson Reuters Foundation|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-date=15 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215215616/http://www.trust.org/item/20131118080551-ikgwx/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Evidence suggests that support for female genital mutilation remains high, especially among rural and less well educated groups, although it has been declining in recent years.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Geography and correlates of attitude toward Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Sudan: What can we learn from successive Sudan opinion poll data?|journal = Spatial and Spatio-temporal Epidemiology|volume = 16|pages = 59–76|doi = 10.1016/j.sste.2015.12.001|pmid = 26919756|first1 = Alexander|last1 = Hamilton|first2 = Ngianga-Bakwin|last2 = Kandala|date = February 2016}}</ref> [[LGBT rights in Sudan|Homosexuality]] is illegal; as of July 2020 it was no longer a capital offence, with the highest punishment being life imprisonment.<ref name="76 crimes">{{cite web |title=Sudan drops death penalty for homosexuality |url=https://76crimes.com/2020/07/15/sudan-drops-death-penalty-for-homosexuality/ |website=Erasing 76 Crimes |date=16 July 2020 |access-date=16 July 2020}}</ref> A report published by [[Human Rights Watch]] in 2018 revealed that Sudan has made no meaningful attempts to provide [[accountability]] for past and current violations. The report documented human rights abuses against civilians in [[Darfur]], [[South Kordofan|southern Kordofan]], and [[Blue Nile]]. During 2018, the [[National Intelligence and Security Service]] (NISS) used excessive force to disperse protests and detained dozens of activists and opposition members. Moreover, the Sudanese forces blocked [[United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur|United Nations-African Union]] Hybrid Operation and other international relief and [[Aid agency|aid agencies]] to access to [[Forced displacement|displaced people]] and conflict-ridden areas in Darfur.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/sudan|title=World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Sudan|chapter=Sudan: Events of 2018 |date=17 January 2019 |website=Human Rights Watch |access-date=10 July 2019}}</ref> ====Darfur==== {{Main|War in Darfur|International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur}} [[File:Darfur refugee camp in Chad.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.3|Darfur refugee camp in [[Chad]], 2005]] A 14 August 2006 letter from the executive director of [[Human Rights Watch]] found that the Sudanese government is both incapable of protecting its own citizens in [[Darfur]] and unwilling to do so, and that its [[militia]]s are guilty of [[crimes against humanity]]. The letter added that these human-rights abuses have existed since 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/08/14/sudan13973.htm |date=15 August 2006 |title=Letter to the U.N. Security Council on Sudan Sanctions and Civilian Protection in Darfur |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |access-date=4 June 2013 |archive-date=15 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015142144/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/08/14/sudan13973.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some reports attribute part of the violations to the rebels as well as the government and the [[Janjaweed]]. The U.S. State Department's human-rights report issued in March 2007 claims that "''[a]''ll parties to the conflagration committed serious abuses, including widespread killing of civilians, rape as a tool of war, systematic torture, robbery and recruitment of child soldiers."<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-03-06-human-rights_N.htm |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=USA Today |location =Washington DC |title=Darfur Tops U.S. List of Worst Human Rights Abuses |date=6 March 2007 |access-date=8 January 2011}}</ref> Over 2.8&nbsp;million civilians have been displaced and the death toll is estimated at 300,000 killed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3496731.stm |title=Q&A: Sudan's Darfur conflict |work=BBC News |date=8 February 2010}}</ref> Both government forces and militias allied with the government are known to attack not only civilians in Darfur, but also humanitarian workers. Sympathisers of rebel groups are arbitrarily detained, as are foreign journalists, [[human rights defender|human-rights defender]]s, student activists and displaced people in and around Khartoum, some of whom face torture. The rebel groups have also been accused in a report issued by the U.S. government of attacking humanitarian workers and of killing innocent civilians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.amnesty.org/report2006/sdn-summary-eng |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061103081151/http://web.amnesty.org/report2006/sdn-summary-eng|archive-date=3 November 2006|title=Sudan – Report 2006 |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] }}</ref> According to UNICEF, in 2008, there were as many as 6,000 [[child soldiers]] in Darfur.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7796507.stm|title=Africa – Sudan 'has 6,000 child soldiers'|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref> ==== Press freedom ==== {{seealso|Media in Sudan}} Under the government of Omar al-Bashir (1989–2019), Sudan's media outlets were given little freedom in their reporting.<ref name="Silencing">{{Cite news |first=Philip |last=Obaji Jr |date=2022-06-07 |title=The silencing of Sudan's journalists - again |publisher=Al Jazeera Media Institute |url=http://institute.aljazeera.net/en/ajr/article/2216 |access-date=2023-11-08 |language=en}}</ref> In 2014, [[Reporters Without Borders]]' [[freedom of the press]] rankings placed Sudan at 172th of 180 countries.<ref>{{cite press release |author=Reporters Without Borders |date=23 May 2014 |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201405231846.html |title=Sudanese Authorities Urged Not to Introduce "Censorship Bureau" |website=allAfrica.com |access-date=15 February 2015 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> After al-Bashir's ousting in 2019, there was a brief period under a civilian-led transitional government where there was some press freedom.<ref name="Silencing"/> However, the leaders of a 2021 coup quickly reversed these changes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press freedom under siege after military coup in Sudan |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |date=2021-05-11 |url=https://rsf.org/en/press-freedom-under-siege-after-military-coup-sudan |access-date=2023-11-08 |language=en}}</ref> "The sector is deeply polarised", Reporters Without Borders stated in their 2023 summary of press freedom in the country. "Journalistic critics have been arrested, and the internet is regularly shut down in order to block the flow of information."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-30 |title=Sudan |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |url=https://rsf.org/en/country/sudan |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=rsf.org |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024051256/https://rsf.org/en/country/sudan |archive-date=2023-10-24 }}</ref> Additional crackdowns occurred after the beginning of the 2023 [[War in Sudan (2023)|War in Sudan]].<ref name="Silencing"/> ===Disputed areas and zones of conflict=== * In April 2012, the South Sudanese army captured the [[Heglig]] oil field from Sudan, which the Sudanese army later recaptured. * [[Kafia Kingi]] and [[Radom National Park]] was a part of [[Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan)|Bahr el Ghazal]] in 1956.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pca-cpa.org/upload/files/GoS%20Memorial.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415073643/http://www.pca-cpa.org/upload/files/GoS%20Memorial.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2012|page=xii |title=Memorial of the Government of Sudan |publisher=Permanent Court of Arbitration |location=The Hague |date=18 December 2008}}</ref> Sudan has recognised South Sudanese independence according to the borders for 1 January 1956.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.menasborders.com/menasborders/news/article/1956/South_Sudan_ready_to_declare_independence/ |title=South Sudan ready to declare independence |publisher=Menas Associates |date=8 July 2011 |access-date=4 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529175404/http://www.menasborders.com/menasborders/news/article/1956/South_Sudan_ready_to_declare_independence/ |archive-date=29 May 2013 }}</ref> * The [[Abyei Area]] is disputed region between Sudan and [[South Sudan]]. It is currently under Sudanese rule. * The states of [[South Kurdufan]] and [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile]] are to hold "popular consultations" to determine their constitutional future within Sudan. * The [[Hala'ib Triangle]] is disputed region between Sudan and [[Egypt]]. It is currently under Egyptian administration. * [[Bir Tawil]] is a [[terra nullius]] occurring on the border between Egypt and Sudan, claimed by neither state. ===Administrative divisions=== {{main|States of Sudan|List of current state governors in Sudan|Districts of Sudan}} Sudan is divided into [[States of Sudan|18 states]] (''[[wilaya]]t'', [[Grammatical number|sing.]] ''[[wilayah]]''). They are further divided into 133 [[Districts of Sudan|districts]]. [[File:Political Regions of Sudan, July 2010.svg|thumb|{{legend|#f7931d|Central and northern states}} {{legend|#8cc63f|[[Darfur]]}} {{legend|#800080|[[Eastern Front (Sudan)|Eastern Front]]}} {{legend|#FFFF00|[[Abyei|Abyei Area]]}} {{legend|#fb6282|[[South Kurdufan]] and [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile]] states}}]] {{div col|colwidth=10em|content= * [[Gezira (state)|Gezira]] * [[Al Qadarif (state)|Al Qadarif]] * [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile]] * [[Central Darfur]] * [[East Darfur]] * [[Kassala (state)|Kassala]] * [[Khartoum (state)|Khartoum]] * [[North Darfur]] * [[North Kordofan]] * [[Northern state, Sudan|Northern]] * [[Red Sea (state)|Red Sea]] * [[River Nile (state)|River Nile]] * [[Sennar (state)|Sennar]] * [[South Darfur]] * [[South Kordofan]] * [[West Darfur]] * [[West Kordofan]] * [[White Nile (state)|White Nile]] }} ===Regional bodies=== In addition to the states, there also exist regional administrative bodies established by peace agreements between the central government and rebel groups. * The [[Darfur Regional Government]] was established by the [[Darfur Peace Agreement]] to act as a coordinating body for the states that make up the region of [[Darfur]]. * The [[Eastern Sudan States Coordinating Council]] was established by the [[Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement]] between the Sudanese Government and the rebel [[Eastern Front (Sudan)|Eastern Front]] to act as a coordinating body for the three eastern states. * The [[Abyei|Abyei Area]], located on the border between South Sudan and the Republic of the Sudan, currently has a special administrative status and is governed by an [[Abyei Area Administration]]. It was due to hold a [[Abyei status referendum, 2011|referendum]] in 2011 on whether to be part of [[South Sudan]] or part of the Republic of the Sudan. ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Sudan}} {{See also|Telecommunications in Sudan|Transport in Sudan}} [[File:Sudan Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Sudan exports, 2019]] [[File:Sudan Map Oelgas.png|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Petroleum|Oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]] concessions in Sudan – 2004]] [[File:GDP per capita development in Sudan.svg|thumb|GDP per capita development in Sudan]] In 2010, Sudan was considered the 17th-fastest-growing economy<ref>{{cite web |title=Economy |date=20 October 2009 |publisher=Government of South Sudan |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110713221231/http://www.goss-online.org/magnoliaPublic/en/about/economicalsummary.html |archive-date=13 July 2011 |url= http://www.goss-online.org/magnoliaPublic/en/about/economicalsummary.html}}</ref> in the world and the rapid development of the country largely from oil profits even when facing international sanctions was noted by ''[[The New York Times]]'' in a 2006 article.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Gettleman, Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey Gettleman |date=24 October 2006 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/24/world/africa/24sudan.html |work=The New York Times |title=War in Sudan? Not Where the Oil Wealth Flows |access-date=24 May 2010 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Because of the secession of [[South Sudan]], which contained about 75 percent of Sudan's oilfields,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afdb.org/en/countries/east-africa/sudan/sudan-economic-outlook/ |title=Sudan Economic Outlook |publisher=African Development Bank |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620030550/http://www.afdb.org/en/countries/east-africa/sudan/sudan-economic-outlook/ |archive-date=20 June 2013 |url-status=unfit}}</ref> Sudan entered a phase of [[stagflation]], GDP growth slowed to 3.4 percent in 2014, 3.1 percent in 2015 and was projected to recover slowly to 3.7 percent in 2016 while inflation remained as high as 21.8% {{as of |2015|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afdb.org/en/countries/east-africa/sudan/sudan-economic-outlook/ |title=Sudan Economic Outlook |date=29 March 2019 |publisher=African Development Bank}}</ref> Sudan's GDP fell from US$123.053&nbsp;billion in 2017 to US$40.852&nbsp;billion in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GDP (current US$) – Sudan &#124; Data |website=data.worldbank.org |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=SD&view=chart}}</ref> Even with the oil profits before the secession of South Sudan, Sudan still faced formidable economic problems, and its growth was still a rise from a very low level of per capita output. The economy of Sudan has been steadily growing over the 2000s, and according to a World Bank report the overall growth in GDP in 2010 was 5.2 percent compared to 2009 growth of 4.2 percent.<ref name="cia"/> This growth was sustained even during the [[war in Darfur]] and [[Southern Sudan Autonomous Region (2005–11)|period of southern autonomy]] preceding South Sudan's independence.<ref>{{cite news |title= South Sudan Gets Ready for Independence |date=21 June 2011 |url= http://english.aljazeera.net/video/africa/2011/06/2011621161012959115.html |access-date=23 June 2011 |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Gettleman |first=Jeffrey |title=As Secession Nears, Sudan Steps Up Drive to Stop Rebels |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/21/world/africa/21sudan.html?ref=sudan |access-date=23 June 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=20 June 2011}}</ref> [[Petroleum|Oil]] was Sudan's main export, with production increasing dramatically during the late 2000s, in the years before South Sudan gained independence in July 2011. With rising oil revenues, the Sudanese economy was booming, with a growth rate of about nine percent in 2007. The independence of oil-rich [[South Sudan]], however, placed most major [[oil fields]] out of the Sudanese government's direct control and oil production in Sudan fell from around {{convert|450000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}} to under {{convert|60000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}}. Production has since recovered to hover around {{convert|250000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}} for 2014–15.<ref>{{Citation|title=Edit Action|date=7 February 2020|work=Definitions|publisher=Qeios|doi=10.32388/3mbaw4|s2cid=243137947}}</ref> To export oil, South Sudan relies on a pipeline to [[Port Sudan]] on Sudan's [[Red Sea]] coast, as South Sudan is a [[landlocked country]], as well as the oil refining facilities in Sudan. In August 2012, Sudan and South Sudan agreed to a deal to transport South Sudanese oil through Sudanese pipelines to Port Sudan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sudan-southsudan-idUSBRE87300520120804 |title=Sudan, South Sudan reach oil deal, will hold border talks |last=Maasho |first=Aaron |date=3 August 2012 |work=Reuters}}</ref> The People's Republic of China is one of Sudan's major trading partners, China owns a 40 percent share in the [[Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company]].<ref>{{cite web |work=Amnesty International USA |url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/Business_and_Human_Rights/The_Big_4/page.do?id=1081006&n1=3&n2=26 |title=The 'Big 4' – How oil revenues are connected to Khartoum |access-date=14 March 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003091005/http://www.amnestyusa.org/Business_and_Human_Rights/The_Big_4/page.do?id=1081006&n1=3&n2=26 |archive-date=3 October 2008}}</ref> The country also sells Sudan small arms, which have been used in military operations such as the conflicts in Darfur and [[South Kordofan conflict|South Kordofan]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Herbst, Moira |date=14 March 2008 |title=Oil for China, Guns for Darfur |url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/mar2008/gb20080314_430126.htm?chan=globalbiz_asia+index+page_economics+%2Bamp%3B+policy |access-date=14 March 2009 |location=New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405181325/http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/mar2008/gb20080314_430126.htm?chan=globalbiz_asia+index+page_economics++amp%3B+policy |archive-date= 5 April 2008 |work=Bloomberg BusinessWeek |url-status=dead}}</ref> While historically agriculture remains the main source of income and employment hiring of over 80 percent of Sudanese, and makes up a third of the economic sector, oil production drove most of Sudan's post-2000 growth. Currently, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) is working hand in hand with Khartoum government to implement sound macroeconomic policies. This follows a turbulent period in the 1980s when debt-ridden Sudan's relations with the IMF and World Bank soured, culminating in its eventual suspension from the IMF.{{sfn|Brown|1992|p={{page needed|date=June 2013}}}} According to the Corruptions Perception Index, Sudan is one of the most corrupt nations in the world.<ref>Corruption Perceptions Index 2013. [http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2013/results/ Full table and rankings] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20131203061004/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2013/results/ |date=3 December 2013 }}. Transparency International. Retrieved 4 December 2013.</ref> According to the [[Global Hunger Index]] of 2013, Sudan has an GHI indicator value of 27.0 indicating that the nation has an 'Alarming Hunger Situation.' It is rated the fifth hungriest nation in the world.<ref>Welthungerhilfe, IFPRI, and Concern Worldwide: [http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ghi13.pdf 2013 Global Hunger Index – The challenge of hunger: Building Resilience to Achieve Food and Nutrition Security]. Bonn, Washington D. C., Dublin. October 2013.</ref> According to the 2015 [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) Sudan ranked the 167th place in human development, indicating Sudan still has one of the lowest human development rates in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2013/|title=The 2013 Human Development Report – "The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World"|publisher=[[Human Development Report|HDRO (Human Development Report Office)]] [[United Nations Development Programme]]|pages=144–147|access-date=15 January 2014|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226013923/http://hdr.undp.org/en/2013-report|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2014, 45% of the population lives on less than US$3.20 per day, up from 43% in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) – Sudan {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.LMIC?locations=SD|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref> === Science and research === Sudan has around 25–30 universities; instruction is primarily in Arabic or English. Education at the secondary and university levels has been seriously hampered by the requirement that most males perform military service before completing their education.<ref name="cp">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Sudan.pdf |title=Sudan country profile |publisher=Library of Congress Federal Research Division |date=December 2004 |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> In addition, the "Islamisation" encouraged by president Al-Bashir alienated many researchers: the official language of instruction in universities was changed from English to Arabic and Islamic courses became mandatory. Internal science funding withered.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Nordling|first=Linda|date=15 December 2017|title=Sudan seeks a science revival|journal=Science|volume=358|issue=6369|page=1369|doi=10.1126/science.358.6369.1369|issn=0036-8075|pmid=29242326|bibcode=2017Sci...358.1369N}}</ref> According to [[UNESCO]], more than 3,000 Sudanese researchers left the country between 2002 and 2014. By 2013, the country had a mere 19 researchers for every 100,000 citizens, or 1/30 the ratio of [[Egypt]], according to the Sudanese National Centre for Research. In 2015, Sudan published only about 500 scientific papers.<ref name=":0" /> In comparison, Poland, a country of similar population size, publishes on the order of 10,000 papers per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openaccessweek.org/profiles/blogs/the-top-20-countries-for-scientific-output|title=The top 20 countries for scientific output|website=www.openaccessweek.org|access-date=16 December 2017|archive-date=17 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317105014/http://www.openaccessweek.org/profiles/blogs/the-top-20-countries-for-scientific-output|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sudan's National Space Program has produced multiple [[CubeSat]] satellites, and has plans to produce a Sudanese communications satellite (SUDASAT-1) and a Sudanese remote sensing satellite (SRSS-1). The Sudanese government contributed to an offer pool for a private-sector ground surveying Satellite operating above Sudan, Arabsat 6A, which was successfully launched on 11 April 2019, from the Kennedy Space Center.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Africa |first=Space in |date=23 July 2019 |title=Inside Sudan's National Space Programme |url=https://africanews.space/inside-sudans-national-space-programme/ |access-date=7 March 2023 |website=Space in Africa |language=en-US}}</ref> Sudanese president Omar Hassan al-Bashir called for an African Space Agency in 2012, but plans were never made final.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Smith |first1=David |last2=correspondent |first2=Africa |date=6 September 2012 |title=Sudanese president calls for African space agency |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/sep/06/sudanese-president-african-space-agency |access-date=7 March 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Sudan}} {{see also|List of cities in Sudan}} [[File:Sudan 2010 population density2.png|thumb|Sudan 2010 estimated population density, which includes modern independent South Sudan country's territory]] In Sudan's 2008 census, the population of northern, western and eastern Sudan was recorded to be over 30 million.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE54K0CR20090521?sp=true |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110510034058/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE54K0CR20090521?sp=true |url-status= dead |archive-date= 10 May 2011 |author=Heavens, Andrew |date=21 May 2009 |title= Southerners dismiss Sudan pre-poll census count |work=Reuters |access-date=28 May 2013}}</ref> This puts present estimates of the population of Sudan after the secession of [[South Sudan]] at a little over 30 million people. This is a significant increase over the past two decades, as the 1983 census put the total population of Sudan, including present-day South Sudan, at 21.6&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/sudan/34.htm |title=Sudan – Population |publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies}}</ref> The population of Greater Khartoum (including [[Khartoum]], [[Omdurman]], and [[Khartoum North]]) is growing rapidly and was recorded to be 5.2&nbsp;million. Aside from being a refugee-generating country, Sudan also hosts a large population of refugees from other countries. According to [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] statistics, more than 1.1&nbsp;million refugees and asylum seekers lived in Sudan in August 2019. The majority of this population came from [[South Sudan]] (858,607 people), [[Eritrea]] (123,413), [[Syria]] (93,502), [[Ethiopia]] (14,201), the [[Central African Republic]] (11,713) and [[Chad]] (3,100). Apart from these, the UNHCR report 1,864,195 [[Internally displaced person]]s (IDP's).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://reporting.unhcr.org/sudan|title=Sudan {{!}} Global Focus|website=reporting.unhcr.org|access-date=13 December 2019}}</ref> Sudan is a party to the 1951 [[Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees]]. ===Ethnic groups=== [[File:Eisa shikawi.JPG|thumb|[[Sudanese Arab]] of [[manasir|Al-Manasir]]]] The [[Sudanese Arabs|Arab]] population is estimated at 70% of the national total. They are almost entirely Muslims and speak predominantly [[Sudanese Arabic]]. Other ethnicities include [[Beja people|Beja]], [[Fur people|Fur]], [[Nubians]], [[Nuba]] and [[Copts in Sudan|Copts]].<ref name="unhcr1">{{cite web |publisher= Minority Rights Group International |title= World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Sudan: Copts |year=2008 |url= http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49749ca6c.html |access-date=21 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sudanupdate.org/REPORTS/PEOPLES/COPTS.HTM |title=Copts migration |publisher=Sudanupdate.org}}</ref> Non-Arab groups are often ethnically, linguistically and to varying degrees culturally distinct. These include the Beja (over two million), Fur (over one&nbsp;million), [[Nuba]] (approx. one million), [[Moro Nuba people|Moro]], [[Masalit people|Masalit]], [[Bornu language|Bornu]], [[Tama people|Tama]], [[Fulani]], [[Hausa people|Hausa]], [[Nubians]], [[Berta people|Berta]], [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]], [[Nyimang people|Nyimang]], [[Ingessana people|Ingessana]], [[Daju people|Daju]], [[Koalib people|Koalib]], [[Gumuz people|Gumuz]], [[Midob people|Midob]] and [[Tagale people|Tagale]]. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] is used as a trade language.^[where?] There is also a small, but prominent [[Greeks in Sudan|Greek community]].{{sfn|Suliman|2010|p=115}}<ref name=ethnologue>{{cite web| url = https://www.ethnologue.com/country/SD| title = Ethnologue, Sudan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://growup.ethz.ch/atlas/pdf/Sudan.pdf|title=Sudan|website=growup.ethz.ch}}</ref> Some Arab tribes speak other regional forms of Arabic, such as the [[Awadia and Fadnia tribes]] and [[Arakieen|Bani Arak]] tribes, who speak [[Najdi Arabic]]; and the [[Beni Ḥassān]], [[Al-Ashraf (tribe)|Al-Ashraf]], [[Kawhla]] and [[Rashaida]] who speak [[Hejazi Arabic]]. A few Arab [[Bedouin]] of the northern [[Rizeigat]] speak Sudanese Arabic and share the same culture as the Sudanese Arabs. Some [[Baggara]] and [[Tunjur people|Tunjur]] speak [[Chadian Arabic]]. Sudanese Arabs of northern and eastern Sudan claim to descend primarily from migrants from the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and intermarriages with the indigenous populations of Sudan. The [[Nubia|Nubian people]] share a common history with Nubians in southern [[Egypt]]. The vast majority of Arab tribes in Sudan migrated into Sudan in the 12th century, intermarried with the indigenous Nubian and other African populations and gradually introduced Islam.<ref name="google16">{{cite book |author=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSDBkKgNgx8C&pg=PA16 |title=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |year=1888 |volume=17 |page=16 |access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref> Additionally, a few pre-Islamic Arabic tribes existed in Sudan from earlier migrations into the region from western Arabia.<ref>{{cite web |title= |script-title=ar:وزير خارجية السودان الاسبق حسين ابوصالح ل"الشرق" : التهديدات الامريكية للسودان كانت تصلنا في ورقة صغيرة دون ترويسة اوامضاء |url=http://www.almshaheer.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3339 |url-status=dead |publisher=Almshaheer.com |language=ar |access-date=26 March 2012 |archive-date=14 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714051041/http://www.almshaheer.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3339 }}</ref> In several studies on the Arabization of Sudanese people, historians have discussed the meaning of Arab versus non-Arab [[Cultural identity|cultural identities]]. For example, historian Elena Vezzadini argues that the ethnic character of different Sudanese groups depends on the way this part of Sudanese history is interpreted and that there are no clear historical arguments for this distinction. In short, she states that "Arab migrants were absorbed into local structures, that they became "Sudanized" and that "In a way, a group became Arab when it started to claim that it was."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vezzadini |first=Elena |date=2012 |title=Identity, history and power in the historiography of Sudan: some thoughts on Holt and Daly's A History of Modern Sudan |url=https://www.academia.edu/2449373 |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=442 |doi=10.1080/00083968.2012.737533 |s2cid=142624684 |issn=0008-3968}}</ref> In an article on the [[genealogy]] of different Sudanese ethnic groups, French archaeologist and linguist [[Claude Rilly]] argues that most Sudanese Arabs who claim Arab descent based on an important male ancestor ignore the fact that their DNA is largely made up of generations of African or African-Arab wives and their children, which means that these claims are rather more founded on oral traditions than on biological facts.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Rilly |author-first=Claude |title=Le Soudan, de la Préhistoire à la conquête de Méhémet Ali |publisher=Soleb Bleu autour |year=2021 |isbn=978-2-35848-186-1 |editor-last=Rilly |editor-first=Claude |publication-place=Paris |pages=543–544 |language=fr |chapter=Aux racines de la population soudanaise |oclc=1298202018 |editor-last2=Francigny |editor-first2=Vincent |editor-last3=Maillot |editor-first3=Marc |editor-last4=Cabon |editor-first4=Olivier}}</ref><ref>See also: Spaulding, J. (2000) ''The chronology of Sudanese Arabic genealogical tradition''. In History in Africa 27, Cambridge University Press, pp. 325–337</ref> ===Urban areas=== {{Further|List of cities in Sudan}} {{Largest cities of Sudan|Osman=}} ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Sudan}} Approximately 70 languages are native to Sudan.<ref name="Ethnologue">Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th ed. Dallas: SIL International. Online version: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=SD "Languages of Sudan"]</ref> Sudan has multiple regional sign languages, which are not [[mutually intelligible]]. A 2009 proposal for a unified [[Sudanese Sign Language]] had been worked out.<ref>Karen Andrae (2009) {{YouTube|v5KZm0KrnfU| ''Language for inclusion (Sign language in Sudan)''}}</ref> Prior to 2005, Arabic was the nation's sole [[official language]].<ref name="LeClerc">{{cite web |author= Leclerc, Jacques |url= http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/soudan.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121023185417/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/soudan.htm |archive-date= 23 October 2012 |title= L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde, "Soudan" |publisher=Trésor de la langue française au Québec |language=fr |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> In the 2005 constitution, Sudan's official languages became Arabic and English.<ref name=Const>{{cite web |url= http://www.mpil.de/shared/data/pdf/inc_official_electronic_version.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150809/http://www.mpil.de/shared/data/pdf/inc_official_electronic_version.pdf |archive-date= 9 June 2007 |url-status=dead |title=2005 constitution in English |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> The [[Literacy|literacy rate]] is 70.2% of the total population (male: 79.6%, female: 60.8%).<ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref> ===Religion=== {{Main|Religion in Sudan}} At the 2011 division which split off South Sudan, over 97% of the population in the remaining Sudan adhered to [[Islam]].<ref name="Islam in Sudan1">{{cite web|url=http://www.sd.undp.org/sudan%20overview.htm |title=Sudan Overview |publisher=UNDP Sudan |access-date=20 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605132439/http://www.sd.undp.org/sudan%20overview.htm |archive-date=5 June 2012 }}</ref> Most Muslims are divided between two groups: [[Sufism|Sufi]] and [[Salafi]] [[Muslims]]. Two popular divisions of [[Sufism]], the Ansar and the Khatmia, are associated with the opposition Umma and Democratic Unionist parties, respectively. Only the [[Darfur]] region has traditionally been bereft of the Sufi brotherhoods common in the rest of the country.<ref>Hamid Eltgani Ali, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4BNUBAAAQBAJ&q=warsh&pg=PA9 Darfur's Political Economy: A Quest for Development], pg. 9. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge, 2014. {{ISBN|9781317964643}}</ref> Long-established groups of [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Orthodox]] and [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox Christians]] exist in Khartoum and other northern cities. [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian]] and [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritrean Orthodox]] communities also exist in Khartoum and eastern Sudan, largely made up of refugees and migrants from the past few decades. The [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] also has a presence serving the Sudanese-Armenians. The [[Sudan Evangelical Presbyterian Church]] also has membership.{{fix|text=along with which others within current borders?}} Religious identity plays a role in the country's political divisions. Northern and western Muslims have dominated the country's political and economic system since independence. The NCP draws much of its support from [[Islamists]], [[Salafis]]/[[Wahhabis]] and other conservative [[Arab-Muslims]] in the north. The [[Ummah|Umma]] Party has traditionally attracted Arab followers of the Ansar sect of Sufism as well as non-Arab Muslims from Darfur and Kordofan. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) includes both [[Arabs|Arab]] and non-Arab [[Muslims]] in the north and east, especially those in the Khatmia Sufi sect.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} ===Health=== {{Main|Health in Sudan}} Sudan has a [[life expectancy]] of 65.1 years according to the latest data for the year 2019 from macrotrends.net<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/SDN/sudan/life-expectancy|title=Sudan Life Expectancy) {{!}} Data|website=macrotrends.net|access-date=25 November 2019}}</ref> Infant mortality in 2016 was 44.8 per 1,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=SD&year_high_desc=true|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=25 August 2018}}</ref> [[UNICEF]] estimates that 87% of Sudanese females between the ages of 15 and 49 have had [[female genital mutilation]] performed on them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Sudan/FGM_SDN.pdf|title=UNICEF FGM country profile for Sudan|website=UNICEF|access-date=3 May 2019}}</ref> ===Education=== {{Main|Education in Sudan}} [[File:Faculty of Science (University of Khartoum) 002.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[University of Khartoum]], established as [[Gordon Memorial College]] in 1902]] Education in Sudan is free and compulsory for children aged 6 to 13 years, although more than 40% of children do not go to schools due to the economic situation. Environmental and social factors also increase the difficulty of getting to school, especially for girls.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Browne |first=Angela |date=1991 |title=Female Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Key to Development? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0305006910270303 |journal=Comparative Education |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=275–285 |doi=10.1080/0305006910270303}}</ref> Primary education consists of eight years, followed by three years of secondary education. The former educational ladder 6 + 3 + 3 was changed in 1990. The primary language at all levels is Arabic. Schools are concentrated in urban areas; many in the west have been damaged or destroyed by years of civil war. In 2001 the World Bank estimated that primary enrollment was 46 percent of eligible pupils and 21 percent of secondary students. Enrollment varies widely, falling below 20 percent in some provinces. The literacy rate is 70.2% of total population, male: 79.6%, female: 60.8%.<ref name="cia" /> ==Culture== {{Further|Fashion of Sudan|Visual arts of Sudan|Architecture of Sudan|Sudanese cuisine|Sudanese literature}} Sudanese culture melds the behaviours, practices, and beliefs of about 578 ethnic groups, communicating in numerous different dialects and languages, in a region microcosmic of Africa, with geographic extremes varying from sandy desert to tropical forest. Recent evidence suggests that while most citizens of the country identify strongly with both Sudan and their religion, Arab and African supranational identities are much more polarising and contested.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/economics/research/working-papers/2014-papers/21-14.pdf|title=Hamilton, A. and Hudson, J. (2014) Bribery and Identity: Evidence from Sudan. Bath Economic Research Papers, No 21/14|access-date=30 April 2014|archive-date=2 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502003707/http://www.bath.ac.uk/economics/research/working-papers/2014-papers/21-14.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Media=== {{Main|Media of Sudan}} ===Music=== {{main|Music of Sudan}} [[File:Drummer at Hamed el-Nil Mosque (8625532075).jpg|thumb|A [[Sufi]] [[dervish]] drums up the Friday afternoon crowd in [[Omdurman]].]] Sudan has a rich and unique musical culture that has been through chronic instability and repression during the modern history of Sudan. Beginning with the imposition of strict [[Salafi]] interpretation of ''[[sharia]]'' law in 1983, many of the country's most prominent poets and artists, like [[Mahjoub Sharif]], were imprisoned while others, like [[Mohammed el Amin]] (returned to Sudan in the mid-1990s) and [[Mohammed Wardi]] (returned to Sudan 2003), fled to Cairo. Traditional music suffered too, with traditional [[Zār]] ceremonies being interrupted and drums confiscated {{ref_label|roughguide|1|a}}. At the same time European militaries contributed to the development of Sudanese music by introducing new instruments and styles; military bands, especially the Scottish [[bagpipes]], were renowned, and set traditional music to [[march (music)|military march]] music. The march ''March Shulkawi No 1'', is an example, set to the sounds of the [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]]. Northern Sudan listens to different music than the rest of Sudan. A type of music called Aldlayib uses a musical instrument called the Tambur. The Tambur has five strings, is made from wood and makes music accompanied by the voices of human applause and singing artists. ===Cinema === {{Main|Cinema of Sudan|Photography of Sudan}} The [[cinema of Sudan]] began with [[cinematography]] by the [[History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|British colonial presence]] in the early 20th century. After independence in 1956, a vigorous documentary film tradition was established, but financial pressures and serious constraints imposed by the [[Islamism|Islamist]] government led to the decline of filmmaking from the 1990s onwards. Since the 2010s, several initiatives have shown an encouraging revival of filmmaking and public interest in film shows and festivals, albeit limited mainly to Khartoum. The use of [[Photography of Sudan|photography in Sudan]] goes back to the 1880s and the [[Turkish Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian rule]]. As in other countries, the growing importance of photography for mass media like newspapers, as well as for amateur photographers led to a wider photographic [[documentation]] and [[Photojournalism#Golden age|use of photographs]] in Sudan during the 20th century and beyond. In the 21st century, photography in Sudan has undergone important changes, mainly due to [[digital photography]] and distribution through social media and the internet. ===Clothing=== {{Main articles|Clothing in Sudan}} [[File:Bedscha.jpg|thumb|Beja men wearing galabiyas]] Most Sudanese wear either traditional or western attire. A traditional garb widely worn by Sudanese men is the [[jalabiya]], which is a loose-fitting, long-sleeved, collarless ankle-length garment also common to [[Egypt]]. The jalabiya is often accompanied by a large turban and a scarf, and the garment may be white, coloured, striped, and made of fabric varying in thickness, depending on the season of the year and personal preferences. The most common dress for Sudanese women is the ''thobe'' or ''[[thawb]]'', pronounced ''tobe'' in Sudanese dialect. The thobe is a white or colourful long, one-piece cloth that women wrap around their inner garments, usually covering their head and hair. Due to a 1991 penal code (''Public Order Law''), women were not allowed to wear trousers in public, because it was interpreted as an "obscene outfit". The punishment for wearing trousers could be up to 40 lashes, but after being found guilty in 2009, one woman was fined the equivalent of 200 U.S. dollars instead.<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/08/world/africa/08sudan.html?_r=0| work=The New York Times |first1=Jeffrey |last1=Gettleman |first2=Waleed |last2=Arafat |title=Sudan Court Fines Woman for Wearing Trousers |date=8 September 2009}}</ref> ===Sport=== {{Main articles|Sudan national football team |Sudan women's national football team}} Like in many countries, football is the most popular sport also in Sudan. The [[Sudan Football Association]] was founded in 1936 and thus it became one of the oldest football associations to exist in Africa. However, before the foundation of the Football Association, Sudan had started experiencing football brought to the country by the British colonizers since early 20th century via Egypt. Other Sudanese clubs founded at that time include [[Al-Hilal (Omdurman)|Al-Hilal Omdurman]], [[Al-Merrikh SC|Al-Merrikh]], which led to popularization of football in the country. The [[Khartoum League]] became the first national league to be played in Sudan, laying ground for the future development of Sudanese football.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Almasri |first=Omar |title=World Football: The State Of Football In Sudan |url=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/992747-world-football-the-state-of-football-in-sudan |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=Bleacher Report |language=en}}</ref> Since September 2019, there has been an official national league for women's football clubs that started on the basis of informal women's clubs since the beginning of the 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 February 2006|title=Sudanese women play first competitive soccer|url=https://www.sudantribune.com/Sudanese-women-play-first,14234|access-date=28 August 2021|website=www.sudantribune.com|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828205137/https://www.sudantribune.com/Sudanese-women-play-first,14234|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2021, the [[Sudan women's national football team]] participated for the first time in the [[2021 Arab Women's Cup|Arab Women's Cup]], held in Cairo, Egypt.<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 August 2021|title=Arab Women's Cup 2021 set to kick off in Cairo|url=https://arab.news/mh8jg|access-date=28 August 2021|website=Arab News|language=en}}</ref> Sudan's national beach volleyball team competed at the [[2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup]] in both the women's and the men's section.<ref>{{cite news |title= Continental Cup Finals start in Africa|url=https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-finals-start-in-africa?id=94414 |access-date=7 August 2021 |work=[[FIVB]] |date=22 June 2021}}</ref> In June 2022, Patricia Seif El Din El Haj, the first Sudanese woman [[Wrestling|wrestler]] to participate in an African championship, was photographed by [[Reuters]] photographer Mohamed Nureldin Abdallah, as she got ready to travel to Nigeria to prepare for the [[2024 Summer Olympics|2024 Summer Olympic games]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2022 |title=Reuters Pictures – Sudan-Women/Martial art |url=https://pictures.reuters.com/CS.aspx?VP3=SearchResult&VBID=2C0BXZ1THRXCM&SMLS=1&RW=1498&RH=904&POPUPPN=25&POPUPIID=2C0FQED8J07WH |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=pictures.reuters.com}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Africa}} * [[Outline of Sudan]] * [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Sudan]] ==References== {{notelist}} {{reflist|refs= <ref name="Const_Dec_En_unofficial">{{cite web |last = Reeves |first = Eric |author-link = Eric Reeves |others=[[Forces of Freedom and Change|FFC]], [[Transitional Military Council (2019)|TMC]], [[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance|IDEA]] |title = Sudan: Draft Constitutional Charter for the 2019 Transitional Period |website= sudanreeves.org |date = 10 August 2019 |url = https://sudanreeves.org/2019/08/06/sudan-draft-constitutional-charter-for-the-2019-transitional-period/ |access-date = 10 August 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190810213233/https://sudanreeves.org/2019/08/06/sudan-draft-constitutional-charter-for-the-2019-transitional-period/ |archive-date= 10 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="raisethevoices_4Aug2019_const_dec">{{cite web |others=[[Forces of Freedom and Change|FFC]], [[Transitional Military Council (2019)|TMC]] |title = (الدستوري Declaration (العربية)) |trans-title = (Constitutional Declaration) |language = ar |website= raisethevoices.org |date =4 August 2019 |url = http://raisethevoices.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/sudan-amendment.pdf |access-date = 5 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805170905/http://raisethevoices.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/sudan-amendment.pdf |archive-date= 5 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="North Sudanese Culture">{{Cite web |last=Evason |first=Nina |date=1 July 2023 |title=North Sudanese Culture |url=https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/north-sudanese-culture/north-sudanese-culture-core-concepts |url-status=live |access-date=1 July 2023 |website=SBS Cultural Atlas |language=English |type=Article |quote="The Republic of the Sudan (also known as North Sudan) is a North African country bordering seven other nations." |ref=286 |agency=SBS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326234704/https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/north-sudanese-culture/north-sudanese-culture-core-concepts|archive-date=Mar 26, 2023}}</ref> }} {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{refbegin}} '''Books''' * {{cite book |last=Adams |first=William Y. |title=Nubia. 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Carroll & Graf (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-7867-0751-5}}. * {{cite book|last=Churchill|first=Winston|year=1902|title=The River War |chapter=The Rebellion of the Mahdi |edition=New and Revised |url=https://archive.org/stream/riverwarhistoric00chur}} * [[Paul Clammer|Clammer, Paul]] (2005). ''Sudan: The Bradt Travel Guide''. [[Bradt Travel Guides]] (Chalfont St. Peter); Globe Pequot Press. (Guilford, Connecticut). {{ISBN|978-1-84162-114-2}}. * {{cite book |last=Daly |title=Empire on the Nile}}{{full citation needed|date=November 2020}} * Evans-Pritchard, Blake; Polese, Violetta (2008). ''Sudan: The City Trail Guide''. City Trail Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-9559274-0-9}}. * {{cite book |last=Edwards |first=David |title=The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415369879}} * [[Mandour Elmahdi|El Mahdi, Mandour]]. (1965). A Short History of the Sudan. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-913158-9}}. * Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2005). ''The Problem of Dar Fur'', iUniverse (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-595-36502-9}}. * Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2004). ''Short History of Sudan''. iUniverse (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-595-31425-6}}. * Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2007). ''UN Intervention in Dar Fur'', iUniverse (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-595-42979-0}}. * {{cite book |last=Hasan |first=Yusuf Fadl| title=The Arabs and the Sudan. From the seventh to the early sixteenth century |year=1967 |publisher=Edinburgh University |oclc=33206034}} * {{cite book |last=Hesse |first=Gerhard |title=Die Jallaba und die Nuba Nordkordofans. Händler, Soziale Distinktion und Sudanisierung |year=2002 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3825858902 |language=de}} * {{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=P. M. |last2=Daly |first2=M. W. |title=History of the Sudan: From the coming of Islam to the present Day |year=2000 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0582368866 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780582368866 }} * Jok, Jok Madut (2007). ''Sudan: Race, Religion and Violence''. Oneworld Publications (Oxford). {{ISBN|978-1-85168-366-6}}. * Köndgen, Olaf (2017). ''The Codification of Islamic Criminal Law in the Sudan. Penal Codes and Supreme Court Case Law under Numayri and al-Bashir''. Brill (Leiden, Boston). {{ISBN|9789004347434}}. * {{cite book |editor-last1=Levtzion |editor-first1=Nehemia |editor-last2=Pouwels |editor-first2=Randall |year=2000 |title=The History of Islam in Africa |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=9780821444610 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC}} * {{cite book |last=Loimeier |first=Roman |title=Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology |year=2013 |publisher=Indiana University |isbn=9780253007889}} * {{cite book |last=Morewood |year=1940 |title=The British Defence of Egypt 1935–40 |publisher=Suffolk}}{{full citation needed|date=November 2020}} * {{cite book |last=Morewood |year=2005 |title=The British of Egypt |publisher=Suffolk}}{{full citation needed|date=November 2020}} * [[Godfrey Mwakikagile|Mwakikagile, Godfrey]] (2001). ''Slavery in Mauritania and Sudan: The State Against Blacks'', in ''The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation''. Nova Science Publishers (Huntington, New York). {{ISBN|978-1-56072-936-5}}. * {{cite book |last1=O'Fahey |first1=R.S. |last2=Spaulding |first2=Jay L. |title=Kingdoms of the Sudan |year=1974 |publisher=Methuen Young Books |isbn=978-0416774504}} * Peterson, Scott (2001). ''Me Against My Brother: At War in Somalia, Sudan and Rwanda—A Journalist Reports from the Battlefields of Africa''. Routledge (London; New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-203-90290-5}}. * [[Gérard Prunier|Prunier, Gérard]] (2005). ''Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide''. Cornell University Press (Ithaca, New York). {{ISBN|978-0-8014-4450-0}}. * {{cite book |last=Ruffini|first=Giovanni R. |year=2012 |title=Medieval Nubia. A Social and Economic History |publisher=Oxford University}} * {{cite book |last=Shackelford|first=Elizabeth |year=2020 |title=The Dissent Channel: American Diplomacy in a Dishonest Age |publisher=Public Affairs |isbn=978-1-5417-2448-8}} * {{cite book |last=Shinnie |first=P.L. |title=The Cambridge History of Africa. Volume 2 |chapter=Christian Nubia. |editor=J.D. Fage |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University |year=1978 |pages=556–588 |isbn=978-0-521-21592-3}} * {{cite book |last=Spaulding |first=Jay |title=The Heroic Age in Sennar |year=1985 |publisher=Red Sea |isbn=978-1569022603}} * {{cite book |last=Suliman |first=Osman |year=2010 |title=The Darfur Conflict: Geography or Institutions? |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-83616-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hrn-dkM00koC}} * {{cite book |last=Vantini |first=Giovanni |title=Oriental Sources concerning Nubia |year=1975 |publisher=Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften |url=http://www.medievalnubia.info/dev/index.php/Giovanni_Vantini%27s_Oriental_Sources_Concerning_Nubia |oclc=174917032}} * {{cite book |last=Welsby |first=Derek |title=The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile|year=2002 |publisher=British Museum |place=London |isbn=978-0714119472}} * {{cite book |last=Werner |first=Roland |title=Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche |year=2013 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3-643-12196-7|language=de}} * Zilfū, ʻIṣmat Ḥasan (translation: Clark, Peter) (1980). ''Karari: The Sudanese Account of the Battle of Omdurman''. Frederick Warne & Co (London). {{ISBN|978-0-7232-2677-2}}. * {{Cite web |last=Evason |first=Nina |date=1 July 2023 |title=North Sudanese Culture |url=https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/north-sudanese-culture/north-sudanese-culture-core-concepts |access-date=1 July 2023 |website=SBS Cultural Atlas |language=English |type=Article |quote="The Republic of the Sudan (also known as North Sudan) is a North African country bordering seven other nations." |ref=286 |agency=SBS}} {{refend}} '''Articles''' {{refbegin}} * "Sudan." Background Notes, U.S. Department of State, 2009. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A194470122/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=bb340529 online] * "Quo Vadis bilad as-Sudan? The Contemporary Framework for a National Interim Constitution". ''Law in Africa'' ([[Cologne]]; 2005). Vol. 8, pp.&nbsp;63–82. {{ISSN|1435-0963}}. * {{cite book |last=Lajtar |first=Adam |chapter=Qasr Ibrim's last land sale, AD 1463 (EA 90225) |title=Nubian Voices. Studies in Christian Nubian Culture |year=2011 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/5857688}} * {{cite journal |last=Martens-Czarnecka |first=Malgorzata |year=2015 |title=The Christian Nubia and the Arabs |url=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.hdl_11089_18404 |journal=Studia Ceranea |volume=5 |pages=249–265 |issn=2084-140X|doi=10.18778/2084-140X.05.08 |doi-access=free |hdl=11089/18404 |hdl-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last=McGregor |first=Andrew |journal=Sudan&Nubia |volume=15 |year=2011 |title=Palaces in the Mountains: An Introduction to the Archaeological Heritage of the Sultanate of Darfur |url=https://issuu.com/sudarchrs/docs/s_n15_mcgregor |pages=129–141}} * {{cite journal |last=Peacock |first=A.C.S. |title=The Ottomans and the Funj sultanate in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries |year=2012 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=75| issue=1 |pages=87–11 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X11000838}} * {{cite journal |last=Sharkey |first=Heather J. |title=Arab Identity and Ideology in Sudan: The Politics of Language, Ethnicity and Race |year=2007 |url=http://southsudanhumanitarianproject.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/formidable/Sharkey-J.-2007-Arab-Identity-and-Ideology-in-Sudan-The-Politics-of-Language-Ethnicity-and-Race2-annotated.pdf |pages=21–43 |journal=African Affairs |volume=107 |issue=426 |doi=10.1093/afraf/adm068 |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=12 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012152657/http://southsudanhumanitarianproject.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/formidable/Sharkey-J.-2007-Arab-Identity-and-Ideology-in-Sudan-The-Politics-of-Language-Ethnicity-and-Race2-annotated.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite journal |last=Spaulding |first=Jay |title=The Fate of Alodia |journal=Meroitic Newsletter |volume=15 |year=1974 |url=http://www.meroiticnewsletter.org/MeroNews15.pdf#page=13&zoom=125(0,0) |pages=12–30 |issn=1266-1635}} * {{cite book |last=Vantini |first=Giovanni |title=Acta Nubica. Proceedings of the X International Conference of Nubian Studies Rome 9–14 September 2002 |editor= Alessandro Roccati and Isabella Caneva |year=2006 |chapter=Some new light on the end of Soba |pages=487–491 |publisher=Libreria Dello Stato |isbn=978-88-240-1314-7}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|Sudan|voy=Sudan}} * [http://www.sudan.gov.sd/index.php/en Government of Sudan] website * [https://rainerebert.com/2017/08/25/archaeological-sites-in-sudan/ Archaeological sites in Sudan] * {{GovPubs|sudan}} * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Sudan}} * {{Wikiatlas|Sudan}} * {{osmrelation-inline|192789}} * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/ Sudan]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Sudan |volume= 26 |last= Cana |first= Frank Richardson |author-link= |pages = 9–19 ||short= 1}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14094995 Sudan profile] from [[BBC News]] * [https://www.scribd.com/doc/127199474/CIMIC-activities-int-he-African-Union-Mission-in-Sudan%20 CIMIC activities in the African Union Mission in Sudan] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FAYxXu53m04 The conflict in South Sudan] – ''[[The Economist]]'' * [https://unamid.unmissions.org/ UNAMID {{!}} UNITED NATIONS – AFRICAN UNION HYBRID OPERATION IN DARFUR] {{Sudan topics|state=collapsed}} {{coord|15|N|032|E|region:SD_type:country|display=title}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Sudan]] <!--Keep at top (category corresponding to article), with a blank space, to keep this article at the top of the category.--> [[Category:1956 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:North African countries]] [[Category:Federal republics]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Military dictatorships]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Saharan countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1956]]'