Examine individual changes

'{{More citations needed|date=April 2024}} {{Infobox settlement | name = Hmar Ethnic Cultural Sites | settlement_type = Location in [[Pherzawl district]] | image_map = Hmar Ethnic Cultural Sites Pherzawl.jpg | map_alt = | map_caption = | coordinates = {{coord|24|15|N|93|11|E|display=title,inline}} | coor_pinpoint = Pherzawl | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|India}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]] }} The '''Hmar Ethnic Cultural Sites''' are a series of ethno-cultural sites of the [[Hmar people]]. These sites are located within [[Pherzawl district]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Culture & Heritage {{!}} Pherzawl District {{!}} India |url=https://pherzawl.nic.in/culture-heritage/ |access-date=2024-04-29 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Manipur]], [[India]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Songate |first=Hranglien L. |title=Hmar Chanchin |date=1977 |publisher=L. Rokung}}</ref> ==Zâwllung== {{Infobox settlement | name = Zawllung | other_name = | nickname = | settlement_type = Ethno-Cultural Site | image_skyline = | image_alt = | image_caption = Zawllung | pushpin_map = India Manipur#India | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Manipur, India | coordinates = {{coord|24.13826|N|93.04043|E|display=inline,}} | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|India}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Manipur]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Pherzawl District]] }} The Zâwllung, also known as '''''Sikpui Lung''''', was constructed to accommodate the ''drummer'' and ''chanter'' during the Sikpui Festival, observed by the Zopui people in 1897. The festival, primarily celebrated by the [[Hmar people|Hmars]], hold significant cultural importance.<ref name=":6">{{cite book |last1=Faihriem |first1=Darthangluoi |title=Sikpui Ruoi (Winter Festival of the Hmars) |date= |year=2002 |location=Churachandpur}}</ref> Situated in the former Zopui village, nestled within the Zopui range, approximately one kilometer above the southern side of present-day [[Senvawn]] village, this structure served as a focal point for communal festivities. Founded by Chief Tuola Pulamte, the Zopui village comprised around 60 households. Oral tradition suggests that the Zâwllung (Sikpuilung) was established in 1897, with Ngurpuilal Inbuon (Bawnga pa) serving as ''Khuongpu Zâilâk'' during the Sikpui celebrations. Over time, the Zopui village amalgamated with neighboring settlements such as Hmunte, Lohawi, Pamṭhul, and Sâtṭhiek, forming a unified village known as '''''Kâwnzâr''''', now identified as [[Senvawn]]. This geographical location held strategic importance for British military operations. In 1870, during the British campaign to pacify Mizo chiefs, [[Senvawn]] served as a crucial base for the northern column, led by Woodthorpe. Additionally, [[Senvawn]] was considered by the missionary [[William Pettigrew (missionary)|William Pettigrew]] as a potential site for a Christian mission station in the late 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ngaihte |first=Samuel G |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2nv8pqk |title=Christianity and Empire in South Manipur Hills: Senvon Encounter and the Dialogic Zo Peoples |last2=Paulianding |first2=Reuben |date=2022 |publisher=1517 Media |isbn=978-1-5064-8892-9}}</ref> However, due to opposition from local authorities and ongoing tribal conflicts, Pettigrew's plans did not materialize. In 1910, under the leadership of Chief Kamkholun, Welsh missionary [[Watkin Roberts]] arrived in [[Senvawn]] to spread the teachings of [[Christianity]]. This event marked a significant milestone in the village's history, earning it the reputation as the "seedbed of the Gospel" among the [[Hmar people]]. The influence of Roberts' mission extended beyond [[Senvawn]], reaching neighboring regions such as South-west [[Manipur]], the Khuga valley, and even areas beyond national borders, such as Tamu in [[Myanmar]] and the Chittagong Hill Tracts in [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pangote |first1=Chawngsangvung |title=Senvawn Chanchin}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kholum |first1=Darneilal |title=Senvawn Chanchin 1896-2006 |date=2010 |location=Churachandpur}}</ref> ==Sikpui Lung (Râlvêngbûk)== {{Infobox settlement | name = Sikpui Lung (Râlvêngbûk) | other_name = | nickname = | settlement_type = Ethno-Cultural Site | image_skyline = | image_alt = | image_caption = | pushpin_map = India Manipur#India | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Manipur, India | coordinates = {{coord|24.39048|N|93.08995|E|display=inline,}} | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|India}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Manipur]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Pherzawl District]] }} This Sikpui Lung at Râlvêngbûk near Phûlpui village, [[Pherzawl district]] was erected for the 'drummer' and the 'chanter' of '''Sikpui''' song to sit when Sikpui Festival was celebrated by the Râlvêngbûk villagers during Chief Thlurolien Amo's reign in 1904.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=ASSAM INSTITUTE OF RESEARCH FOR TRIBALS AND SCHEDULED CASTES |title=Ethnographic Report On The Hmars of Assam |url=https://repository.tribal.gov.in/bitstream/123456789/74137/1/AIRT_2017_0007_report.pdf |website=TRIBAL DIGITAL DOCUMENT REPOSITORY}}</ref> The mountain where the Sikpui Lung was constructed is situated approximately one kilometer from the present-day Phûlpui village, within [[Pherzawl district]]. Referred to as 'Khawrâwtlâng,' it formerly housed around 20 households. Archeological findings of broken pottery and trivets, crafted from solid rocks, substantiate the historical presence of [[Hmar people|Hmar]] ancestors in this locality from 1850 to 1860. The region's significance stems from its strategic positioning, serving as a defensive stronghold during periods of intra- and inter-tribal conflicts. Consequently, it earned the designation 'Râlvêngbûk,' translating to "guard tower" in the local [[Hmar people|Hmar]] vernacular.<ref name=":5" /> ===Kûtpui Lungphun=== The Kutpui Lungphun or literally translated as ''Kûtpui Stone Post'', erected in 1904 alongside the Sikpuilung nearby, holds significance in Râlvêngbûk village, particularly during festivals like ''Zâwlkêu'', ''Khuonglâwm'', and ''Lâwmpui''. These festivals were marked by the tradition of erecting stone posts to commemorate the feasts held at specific locations, making Râlvêngbûk distinctive in this practice. The Sikpufeast, unique to the [[Hmar people|Hmars]] in [[Northeast India]], is celebrated in December during years of abundant harvest, known as ''fapâng râlinsân'' years. Preparations for the feast involve collecting, winnowing, and husking the previous year's yield to brew rice beer, locally known as ''zu''. During the Sikpui Feast, families bring their share of ''zu'' to partake in communal feasting. This communal sharing, termed 'Sikpui,' likely contributes to the festival's name. Additionally, some suggest that the festival's timing during the winter months led to its name. The Sikpui Feast is distinguished not only by its communal aspect but also by the songs and dances that accompany it. Nine distinct Sikpui dances, accompanied by songs collectively known as ''Sikpui Hla'', are performed during the festival. Of these, Sikpui Hlapui (Hla Ser) holds particular reverence, as the Sikpui dance traditionally begins with its rendition.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gauhati High Court |title="Sikpui Ruoi" as a restricted holiday |url=https://ghconline.gov.in/General/Notification-04-07-2022.pdf |access-date=30 April 2024}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Malsawmliana |title=A Typological Classification of Megaliths of Mizoram |journal=Journal of Neolithic Archaeology |date=2019 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/270214351.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Varte |first1=Immanuel |title=Revisited: Sikpui Ruoi of the Hmar Tribe |journal=Anthropology Today |date=2016 |volume=1}}</ref> The Sikpui Feast includes various traditional songs and dances, which contribute to its cultural heritage. Nine distinct Sikpui dances are performed, each accompanied by specific songs collectively known as ''Sikpui Hla''. These dances include ''Buontlaw Hla'', ''Hranthli Hla'', ''Lamtluong Hla'', ''Saia Ketet lam Hla'', ''Simsak Hla'', ''Tangkâwngvâilâk Hla'', ''Inran Hla'', ''Ṭînna Hla'', and ''Hla Vuina (Hla Phumna)''. Among these, ''Sikpui Hlapui'' (Hla Ser) holds particular significance, often marking the initiation of the Sikpui dance.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Dena |first1=Lal |title=In Search of Identity: Hmars of North East India |date=2008 |publisher=Akansha Publishing House}}</ref> ==Chawnlût Lungphun== {{Infobox settlement | name = Chawnlût Lungphun | other_name = | nickname = | settlement_type = Ethno-Cultural Site | image_skyline = | image_alt = | image_caption = | pushpin_map = India Manipur#India | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Manipur, India | coordinates = {{coord|24.13800|N|93.03846|E|display=inline,}} | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|India}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Manipur]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Pherzawl District]] }} This monument was erected to commemorate the achievements of '''Chawnlût Lungṭâu''', who was recognized as a ''Thangsuo''. The 'Thangsuo' title was bestowed upon individuals who demonstrated 'exceptional' hunting skills or performed ceremonial rituals to benefit their community. According to [[Hmar people|Hmar]] tradition, ''Thangsuo'' were believed to have direct entry into 'paradise.'<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=Hmar Ṭobul Nun}}</ref> '''Chawnlût Lungṭâu''', son of Thangzangûr from Zopui village, was known as a skilled hunter and warrior, earning the 'prestigious' title by hunting a 'significant' number of wild animals and hosting public feasts. Possessing this title was considered 'a pathway to paradise' in [[Hmar people|Hmar]] pre-Christian beliefs. '''Chawnlût''' had multiple wives and children, including slaves. The memorial stone was erected to honor '''Chawnlût''''s accomplishments as a ''Thangsuo''. It stood at a height of approximately 107 inches, with dimensions of 17 inches thickness and 9 and a half inches breadth. The stone served as a testament to '''Chawnlût''''s wealth, displaying his possessions such as four guns, one large [[Gong|gong]], and three small [[Gong|gongs]]. Images on the monument depicted '''Chawnlût''''s hunting exploits, including the killing of three [[Elephant|elephants]] and two wild [[Gayal|mithuns]]. One of the [[Gayal|mithun]]'s horns remains preserved at the home of his great-great-grandson in Muolvaiphei, [[Churachandpur|Tuiṭhaphâi]]. Additionally, '''Chawnlût''' was credited with taking six enemy heads and capturing a young girl who later became a member of his family. Due to the illiteracy of the [[Hmar people|Hmars]] in Zopui village at the time, '''Chawnlût''''s name was engraved on the monument by a hired individual from [[Mizoram]], who received a small [[Gong|gong]] as payment for his services.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thangsawihmang |title=(unpublished MSS) Some places of Historical importance in Pherzawl District, Pherzawl.}}</ref> ==Lungsum== {{Infobox settlement | name = Lungsum | other_name = | nickname = | settlement_type = Ethno-Cultural Site | image_skyline = | image_alt = | image_caption = Lungsum, Senvawn | pushpin_map = India Manipur#India | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Manipur, India | coordinates = {{coord|24.13845|N|93.04036|E|display=inline,}} | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|India}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Manipur]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Pherzawl District]] }} This '''Lungsum''' (stone-mortar), located in the old Zopui village, was carved from solid rock and traditionally used for husking [[Rice|rice]] during the ''Sikpui'' Festival. Typically, [[Hmar people|Hmar]] families couldn't afford such a [[Mortar and pestle|mortar]], leading to the belief that this particular one was crafted specifically for the festival. In ancient times, when the [[Hmar people|Hmar]] ancestors began agricultural practices, they commonly used wooden [[Mortar and pestle|mortars]]. It's believed that the people of Zopui village created a cavity in a solid flat rock for husking [[Rice|rice]] during the ''Sikpui'' Festival in 1897.<ref name=":6" /> This was a labor-intensive process, requiring iron tools and considerable effort to carve into solid rock. It's possible that this type of stone [[Mortar and pestle|mortar]] was used for communal purposes like ''inchawng'' and ''Sikpui'' feasts. During such events, young men and women would come together to perform tasks collectively, including rice husking, as a significant quantity of [[Rice|rice]] was needed for brewing ''zu'', a traditional alcoholic beverage. Historically, every [[Hmar people|Hmar]] family had its own wooden [[Mortar and pestle|mortar]], which they carried with them during their migrations.<ref name=":1" /> ==Vawmpalung== {{Infobox settlement | name = Vawmpalung | other_name = | nickname = | settlement_type = Ethno-Cultural Site | image_skyline = | image_alt = | image_caption = | pushpin_map = India Manipur#India | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Manipur, India | coordinates = {{coord|24.20351|N|93.08137|E|display=inline,}} | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|India}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Manipur]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Pherzawl District]] }} [[Lal Dena]] narrates it this way:<ref>{{cite book |title=Field reports of RWUS Staff members.}}</ref> {{Blockquote|text=This rocky cliff, known as '''Vawmpalung''', holds a tale of two lovers, ''Vawmpa'' and ''Vawmnu'', who sought refuge there to share their moments of happiness away from their villages. Tragically, they fell from the cliff and perished together, 'bound forever' even in death. The story begins with a young man named ''Zakap'', residing in Rbudâpzawl village, and a beautiful woman named ''Zosiel'' from nearby Lohawi village. Despite Zakap's dark complexion, he was affectionately called ''Vawmpa''. ''Zakap'' and ''Zosiel'' were deeply in love, but their relationship became the subject of village gossip, causing distress to Zosiel's family and jealousy among the young men of Lohawi. Despite warnings and violence from the villagers, Zakap continued to visit Zosiel, further fueling her affection for him. In desperation, Zakap and Zosiel decided to flee and seek refuge at the high cliff now known as Vawmpalung. Here, they enjoyed moments of intimacy, sometimes sitting atop the flat stone under the moonlight. The cliff's unique features, including two protruding flat rocks and a deep chasm between them, became the backdrop of their shared experiences. Legends speak of their jumping competitions and a flat rock resembling a bed where they spent nights together. A hole in the cliff once held Zakap's gun. Despite their attempts to remain hidden, their love couldn't endure separation. Tragically, they chose to end their lives by jumping from the protruding flat rock, forever uniting in death. Today, Vawmpalung stands as a 'testament' to their 'enduring' love, much like the Taj Mahal of Agra.|}} ==Lungthu Lien Pathum== These extraordinarily big trivets were erected by Hmar forefathers on the outskirts of the present Lungthulien village at around 1852. At the beginning, Hmar's forefathers first settled at Khurpui village and later on shifted to the present Lungthulien village which came to be named after these big trivets.<ref name=":5" /> ==Sârtuinêk and Hringtuinêk== ===Sârtuinêk=== {{Infobox settlement | name = Saituinek | other_name = | nickname = | settlement_type = Ethno-Cultural Site | image_skyline = | image_alt = | image_caption = | pushpin_map = India Manipur#India | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Manipur, India | coordinates = {{coord|24.28703|N|93.03603|E|display=inline,}} | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|India}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Manipur]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Pherzawl District]] }} is a pond believed by the Hmars, an ethnic group, to be associated with the spirits of individuals who died in circumstances deemed unnatural. The nearby village is referred to as Sârtuinêk village in accordance with this belief. In Hmar tradition, deaths are categorized into two types: sârthi (unnatural) and thi pangngâi (natural). Sârthi deaths encompass accidents such as falling from a tree, drowning, murder, suicide, and death caused by wild animals. It is believed that the spirits of those who died unnatural deaths pass through this pond, known as Sârtuinêk, where they purportedly drink its water. Consequently, the village is named after this pond. Subsequently, according to tradition, the spirits continue their journey towards Mithikhuo (world of the dead) via Thlânpielkawt near Khawlêk in Mizoram.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2014-05-31 |title=Legendary Hringtuinek River in Hmar Hills - HMARRAM |url=https://hmarram.com/important-places/legendary-hringtuinek-river-in-hmar-hills/ |access-date=2024-04-29 |language=en-US}}</ref> ===Hringtuinêk=== {{Infobox settlement | name = Hringtuinek | other_name = | nickname = | settlement_type = Ethno-Cultural Site | image_skyline = | image_alt = | image_caption = | pushpin_map = India Manipur#India | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Manipur, India | coordinates = {{coord|24.28677|N|93.09598|E|display=inline,}} | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|India}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Manipur]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Pherzawl District]] }} This is the pond of the spirit who died of natural death. Hmars in pre-Christian era believed that all the spirits of those who died of natural death passed through this pond and drank the water in it. Therefore, the pond is called Hringtuinêk.<ref name=":2" /> ==Pastor Thangngur Ṭawngṭâina Pûk== {{Infobox settlement | name = Pastor Thangngur Ṭawngṭâina Pûk | other_name = | nickname = | settlement_type = Ethno-Cultural Site | image_skyline = | image_alt = | image_caption = | pushpin_map = India Manipur#India | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Manipur, India | coordinates = {{coord|24.38611|N|93.09598|E|display=inline,}} | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|India}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Manipur]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Pherzawl District]] }} Pastor Thangngur's Prayer Cave. Born in 1891, Thangngur became one of the first converts among the Hmar tribe in 1910 and was employed as a teacher-evangelist in 1919.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Phulpui Gospel Centenary Souvenir |date=2020}}</ref> He was ordained as Pastor in 1939 and elected as Field Superintendent of Independent Church in 1943.<ref name=":5" /> He died on December 20, 1943. ==Bibliography== === Vernacular Sources === *Darneilal Kholum, ''Senvawn Chanchin'', 1896–2006, Churachandpur, 2010. *Chawngsangvung Pangote, ''Senvawn Chanchin''. *Darthangluoi Faihriem, ''Sikpui Ruoi (Winter Festival the Hmars)'', Diphu, 2002. *Hranglien Songate, ''Hmar Chanchin.'' 1977. *''Hmar Ṭobul Nun'' *John H.Pulamte, ''Thangngur Chanchin''. *Phulpui Gospel Centenary, 2020. *Thangsawihmang's (unpublished MSS); ''Some places of Historical importance in Pherzawl District'', Pherzawl. *H. V. Vara, ''Hmar Hla Hlui (The Hmar Folk Dinga, Lyrics and Chants)'', Churachandpur, 1967. *Lallungawi & V. K. Pangamte, Edited, ''Hnam Ro-2'', Hmar Writers' Club, Churachandpur, 2023. *L.Keivom & David Buhril, ''Biethu: Selected Writings of Keivom & Buhril'', Sinlung Academy of Letters, 2020. *Lienzathang, ''Parbung Chanchin''. *Pastor Chawilien, Lalkhawlien Pulamte & L. Kiemlo Pulamte, ''Leiri-Changsan Pahnam Chanchin'', Churachandpur, 2020. === Ethnographical Interviews === *Field reports of RWUS Staff members. *Lienzuol Shunate's oral information. *Oral Sources Collected through some selected Village Authority members of Lungthulien, Parbung & Senvawn. *Personal Interview with Thangsawihmang Sawngte (87), Muolhlum, Rengkai. *Personal Interview with Kama (93), Bethel, Churachandpur. == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Hmar]] [[Category:Lists of places]]'