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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Ancient kingdom in Xinjiang, China}}
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Loulan (Lolan)
|native_name = Kroraïna
|alternate_name = Krorän
|image = LoulanCarvedWoodenBeam.JPG
|alt =
|caption = A carved wooden beam from Loulan in the [[British Museum]], 3rd–4th century. The patterns show influences from ancient western civilizations.
|map_type = China Xinjiang#China
|map_alt =
|relief=yes
|coordinates = {{coord|40|31|39.48|N|89|50|26.32|E|display=inline,title}}
|location = [[Xinjiang]], [[China]]
|region =
|type = Settlement
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built =
|abandoned =
|epochs =
|cultures =
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event =
|excavations =
|archaeologists =
|condition = In ruins
|ownership =
|management =
|public_access =
|notes =
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
<!-- Chinese -->
| t = 樓蘭
| s = 楼兰
| p = Lóulán
<!-- Uyghur -->
| uig = كروران
| uly = Kroran
| usy = Кроран
}}
'''Loulan''' ({{lang-zh|t={{linktext|樓蘭}}|p=Lóulán}} < [[Eastern Han Chinese]] ''lo-lɑn'' < [[Old Chinese]] ''rô-rân''<ref>Schuessler, Axel. (2009) ''Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 152, 246</ref>), also known as '''Kroraïna''' (Krorayina) in native [[Gandhari language|Gandhari]] documents or '''Krorän''' in later Uyghur ({{lang-ug|كروران}}), was an ancient kingdom based around an important [[oasis]] city along the [[Silk Road]] already known in the 2nd century BCE on the northeastern edge of the [[Lop Desert]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=233}}<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Language Log » Prakritic "Kroraina" and Old Sinitic reconstructions of "Loulan"
| author = Victor Mair
| work = languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu
| date = May 14, 2019
| access-date = 26 February 2024
| url = https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=42724
| language =
| quote =
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
| title = Catalog – CKD 696
| author =
| publisher = gandhari.org
| date =
| access-date = 26 February 2024
| url = https://gandhari.org/catalog?itemID=1845
| quote =
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary
| title = A Dictionary of Gāndhārī – Krorayina
| author = Stefan Baums and Andrew Glass
| date =
| publisher = Gandhari.org
| access-date = 1 March 2024
| url = https://gandhari.org/dictionary/krorayina
| quote =
}}</ref> The term Loulan is the Chinese transcription of the native name Kroraïna and is used to refer to the city near Lop Nur as well as the kingdom.
The kingdom was renamed [[Shanshan]] ([[wikt:鄯善|鄯善]]) after its king was assassinated by an envoy of the [[Han dynasty]] in 77 BCE;{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=89}} however, the town at the northwestern corner of the brackish desert lake [[Lop Nur]] retained the name of Loulan. The kingdom included at various times settlements such as [[Niya ruins|Niya]], [[Charklik (ancient settlement)|Charklik]], [[Miran (Xinjiang)|Miran]] and [[Qiemo Town|Qiemo]]. It was intermittently under Chinese control from the early Han dynasty onward until its abandonment centuries later. The ruins of Loulan are near the now-desiccated Lop Nur in the [[Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture]], [[Xinjiang]] and they are now completely surrounded by desert.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=81–87}}
==History==
[[Image:Tarimbecken 3. Jahrhundert.png|thumb|350px|The Tarim Basin in the 3rd century, showing two sites of the town of Loulan, the Shanshan kingdom, and the related states]]
===Pre-Han Kingdom===
By the 2nd century BC, Loulan had grown to dominate the region around the [[Tarim Basin]]. Archeological evidence suggests a sophisticated culture with major importance in the trade between central Asia and India. Southern merchants passed through mountain ranges such as the [[Karakoram]], [[Himalayas]] and [[Hindu Kush]] as far north as the Taklamakan desert, to important trading cities like Loulan and its commercial rival Niya. This is evidenced by graffiti carved on stones along the route in Indic scripts such as [[Kharosti]] and [[Brahmi]], while there are depictions of [[Siddhartha Gautama]] (evidencing the spread of [[Buddhism]] along the trade route). From here,
Loulan was on the main route from [[Dunhuang]] to [[Korla]], where it joined the so-called "northern route," and was also connected by a route southwest to the kingdom's seat of government in the town of Wuni in the Charkhlik/[[Ruoqiang County|Ruoqiang]] oasis, and from thence to [[Khotan]] and [[Yarkant County|Yarkand]].{{sfn|Hill|2009|page=88}}
A number of mummies, now known as the [[Tarim mummies]], have been found in Loulan and in its surrounding areas. One female mummy has been dated to c. 1800 BCE (3,800-year-old), indicating very early settlement of the region.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=181–188}} The disinterred corpses were not Chinese or Indian but had fair hair and light skin, some over six feet in length; this has led to suggestions that those from the Shanshan kingdoms were descendants of migrants from the [[Eurasian Steppe]]. Genetic analysis of the mummies, however, suggests that the Early–Middle Bronze Age population may have arisen from an ancient genetically isolated local population but were possibly influenced by the pastoralist and agriculturalist practices of their neighbours.<ref name=zhang>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Fan |last2=Ning |first2=Chao |last3=Scott |first3=Ashley |last4=Fu |first4=Qiaomei |last5=Bjørn |first5=Rasmus |last6=Li |first6=Wenying |last7=Wei |first7=Dong |last8=Wang |first8=Wenjun |last9=Fan |first9=Linyuan |last10=Abuduresule |first10=Idilisi |last11=Hu |first11=Xingjun |last12=Ruan |first12=Qiurong |last13=Niyazi |first13=Alipujiang |last14=Dong |first14=Guanghui |last15=Cao |first15=Peng |last16=Liu |first16=Feng |last17=Dai |first17=Qingyan |last18=Feng |first18=Xiaotian |last19=Yang |first19=Ruowei |last20=Tang |first20=Zihua |last21=Ma |first21=Pengcheng |last22=Li |first22=Chunxiang |last23=Gao |first23=Shizhu |last24=Xu |first24=Yang |last25=Wu |first25=Sihao |last26=Wen |first26=Shaoqing |last27=Zhu |first27=Hong |last28=Zhou |first28=Hui |last29=Robbeets |first29=Martine |last30=Kumar |first30=Vikas |last31=Krause |first31=Johannes |last32=Warinner |first32=Christina |last33=Jeong |first33=Choongwon |last34=Cui |first34=Yinqiu |title=The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies |journal=Nature |date=27 October 2021 |volume=599 |issue=7884 |pages=256–261 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7 |pmid=34707286 |pmc=8580821 |bibcode=2021Natur.599..256Z |id=Zhang2021}}</ref> The mummies were wrapped in cotton and silk, the former from the west and latter from the east, further providing evidence as to Loulan's commercial importance.
===Early Han dynasty===
[[File:Loulan silk fragment.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sichuan embroidery|Sichuan brocade]] fragment uncovered in Loulan Kingdom<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdmuseum.com/xinwen/201903/462.html |title=锦漆铜铁茶——丝绸之路上的天府制造 |trans-title=Brocade, lacquer, bronze, iron, and tea: Artifacts made in Sichuan unearthed along the Silk Road |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=March 28, 2017 |website=[[Chengdu Museum|cdmuseum.com]] |language=zh-hans |access-date=March 27, 2023}}</ref>]]
The interactions between Loulan and the [[Han dynasty|Han]] court (206 BCE – 220 CE) were described in some detail in the ''[[Book of Han]]'' (completed in 111 CE).<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7096%E4%B8%8A Hanshu] Chapter 96a, translation from Hulsewé 1979.</ref>
The first contemporaneous mention of Loulan, in Chinese records, are from 126 BCE. A letter from the ''[[Chanyu]]'' of the [[Xiongnu]] to the Chinese emperor, in which the Chanyu boasted of conquering Loulan, as well as the [[Yuezhi]], [[Wusun]], Hujie (呼揭) and another "26 states nearby". In the same year, the Chinese envoy [[Zhang Qian]] described Loulan as a [[Defensive wall|fortified]] city near the great salt lake or marsh known as [[Lop Nur]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=140}}
[[File:Han Expansion.png|thumb|350px|Krořän/Loulan and several other Indo-European oases kingdoms as Western Region Protectorate of the Han.]]
During the late 2nd century BCE, [[Emperor Wu of Han]] ([[reign|r.]] 141 BCE – 87 BCE) was interested in extending contact with [[Dayuan]] ([[Fergana]]), following the reports of it by the Chinese envoy, [[Zhang Qian]]. However, according to Chinese sources, Han envoys to Fergana were harassed by Loulan and the kingdom of [[Gushi culture|Gushi]] (or Jushi). Consequently, in 108 BCE,<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Atlas of the Classical World, 500 BC—AD 600|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOzKGAAACAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Barnes & Noble Books|isbn=978-0-7607-1973-2|page=2.24}}</ref> Loulan was attacked by a Han force led by Zhao Ponu (趙破奴) and its king captured, after which Loulan agreed to pay a tribute to Han China.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=86–87}} The Xiongnu, on hearing of these events, also attacked Loulan. The king of Loulan therefore elected to send one of his sons as a hostage to the Xiongnu and another to the Han court. Due to Loulan's association with the Xiongnu, the ''Book of Han'' records:
{{quote|The Emperor commanded [Jen] Wen to lead the troops by a suitable route, to arrest the king of Lou-lan and to bring him to the palace at the capital city. [Jen Wen] interrogated by presenting him with a bill of indictment, which he answered by claiming that [Lou-lan] was a small state lying between large states, and that unless it subjected itself to both parties, there would be no means of keeping itself in safety; he therefore wished to remove his kingdom and take up residence within the Han territory.|''Hanshu'', chapter 96a, translation from Hulsewé 1979.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=87–88}}
}}
The Han emperor was satisfied with the statement and released the king, but retained his son as hostage. When this particular king of Loulan died, in 92 BCE, his court requested that the Han court release the king's son and heir be returned to Loulan. In the meantime, however, this prince from Loulan had been castrated for infringing Han law, without the knowledge of Loulan. The Han court replied that its Emperor had grown too fond of the prince to release him, and that another son should be enthroned in Loulan. The son of the new king was also sent to the Han court as a hostage, yet another was sent to the Xiongnu. After the death of this king of Loulan, the Xiongnu returned the hostage sent previously by Loulan – a prince named Chang Gui or An Gui (嘗歸 or 安歸), who became king of Loulan. When the Han court heard of this, it demanded that the new king present himself to the Han court. Chang Gui refused, on his wife's advice – because the Han court had previously failed to return hostages.
[[File:Oxhide boots. Loulan, Xinjiang. Early Han 220 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Oxhide boots from Loulan. [[Han dynasty|Former Han dynasty]] 220 BCE-8 CE.]]
In 77 BCE, after several Han envoys had been intercepted and killed in or near Loulan, a Chinese delegation was sent with orders to assassinate the king of Loulan, including an envoy named [[Fu Jiezi]]. Fu Jiezi gained entry to Loulan by claiming to carry silk and valuables as gifts for the king. After the king of Loulan became drunk after receiving his gifts, Fu Jiezi's guard stabbed him to death, severed his head and had it hung from a tower above the northern gate. Upon completing the assassination, the guard supposedly proclaimed: "The Son of Heaven (Han Emperor Zhao) has sent me to punish the king, by reason of his crime in turning against the Han...Han troops are about the arrive here; do not dare to make any move which would result in yourselves bringing about the destruction of your state." {{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=90}} While the king's younger brother Weituqi (尉屠耆) succeeded him as king, the Han court apparently tightened its grip on Loulan from this point – a step symbolized by the Han court obliging Loulan to adopt a new official name, the non-native [[exonym]] [[Shanshan]].{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=90–91}}
Because of its strategic position on what became the main route from China to the West, during the Han dynasty, control of it was regularly contested between the Chinese and the Xiongnu until well into the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Hill|2009|pages=3, 7, 9, 11, 35, 37, 85–101}}
===Shanshan===
{{main|Shanshan}}
[[File:Loulan Mural Tomb (mural).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Loulan tomb mural, 220–420 CE. [[Loulan Museum]]]]
[[File:Textile fragment from Loulan Xinjiang China.jpg|thumb|Fragment of carpet discovered by Aurel Stein in a refuse pit at Loulan. 3rd–4th century.]]
After the Han dynasty had gained control of Loulan, the renamed kingdom of Shanshan became a Chinese puppet state.<ref name="lopnor"/> The newly installed king, fearing retribution from the sons of the assassinated king, requested that a contingent of Han forces be established in Yixun (伊循, variously identified as Charklik or Miran). Chinese army officers were sent to colonize the area, and an office of commandant was established at Yixun.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=91–92}} A number of settlements in the Tarim Basin such as Qiemo and Niya were described in the ''Book of Han'' as independent states, but these later became part of Shanshan. While the name of the kingdom was changed to Shanshan by the Chinese, the Loulan region continued to be known as Kroran by the locals.
The region remained under Chinese control intermittently, and when China was weak in the [[Western Regions]], Loulan was essentially independent. In 25 CE it was recorded that Loulan was in league with the Xiongnu. In 73 CE, the Han army officer [[Ban Chao]] went with a small group of followers to Shanshan, which was also receiving a delegation from the Xiongnu at the same time. Ban Chao killed the Xiongnu envoys and presented their heads to the King, after which King Guang of Shanshan submitted to Han authority.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) |author=Rafe de Crespigny |date= 14 May 2014|publisher= Brill Academic Publishers|isbn= 9789047411840 |pages=4–5}}</ref> This would ensure the first step of the '[[Silk Road]]' from central China to Shanshan would be under stable Chinese control. Around 119, [[Ban Yong]] recommended that a Chinese colony of 500 men be established in Loulan.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=86}} A later military colony was established at Loulan by General Suo Man. It was recorded that in 222 CE, Shanshan sent tribute to China, and that in 283, the son of the king was sent as a hostage to the Chinese court during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Jin]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilization |editor=Charles F.W. Higham |publisher=Fact on Files, Inc |year=2004 |pages=309–311 |isbn=0-8160-4640-9 }}</ref> Loulan was also recorded as a dependent kingdom of Shanshan in the 3rd century ''[[Book of Wei]]''.<ref>[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html Annotated translation of the ''Weilüe'' by John E. Hill]</ref>
The town of Loulan was abandoned in 330 CE, likely due to lack of water when the [[Tarim River]], which supported the settlement, changed course; the military garrison was moved {{convert|50|km}} south to Haitou (海頭). The fort of Yingpan to the northwest remained under Chinese control until the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>Baumer, Christoph. (2000), pp. 125–126, 135–136. ''Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin''. Bangkok, White Orchid Books.</ref> According to the ''Book of Wei'', King Bilong of Shanshan fled to Qiemo together with half of his countrymen after an attack by [[Juqu Anzhou]] in 442 CE so Shanshan came to be ruled by Qiemo.<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7102 Weishu] Original text: 真君三年，鄯善王比龍避沮渠安周之難，率國人之半奔且末，後役屬鄯善。 Translation: In the third year of [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei|Zhenjun]], the Loulan king Bilong, so as to avoid troubles from Juqu Anzhou, led half his countrymen and fled to Qiemo, which later controlled Shanshan.</ref> In 445 Shanshan submitted to the [[Northern Wei]]. At the end of the 6th century, the [[Sui dynasty]] reestablished the city state of Shanshan.<ref name="lopnor"/>
After the 5th century, however, the land was frequently invaded by nomadic states such as [[Tuyuhun]], the [[Rouran Khaganate]], and the [[Dingling]] and the area gradually was abandoned. {{Circa|630}}, at the beginning of the Tang period, Shanfutuo (鄯伏陁) led the remaining Shanshan people to [[Kumul, Xinjiang|Hami]].<ref name="lopnor">{{cite web |url=http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/rarebook/06/index.html.en |title=Hedin, the Man Who Solved the Mystery of the Wandering Lake: Lop Nor and Lou-lan |author1=Makiko Onishi |author2=Asanobu Kitamoto |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Digital Silk Road }}</ref>
The Buddhist pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] passed through this region in 644 on his return from India to China, visited a town called Nafubo (納縛波, thought to be Charklik) of Loulan, and wrote of Qiemo, "A fortress exists, but not a trace of man".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=77cc9HpdiCIC&pg=PA876 Da Tang Xiyu Ji] Original text: 从此东行六百余里至折摩驮那故国。即涅末地也。城郭岿然人烟断绝。复此东北行千余里至纳缚波故国。即楼兰地也。</ref>
==Descriptions in historical accounts ==
[[File:Felt hat from Loulan. Early Han 202 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Felt and feather hat from Loulan. Early Han dynasty 202 BCE–8 CE]]
According to the ''Book of Han'', Han envoys described the troops of Loulan as weak and easy to attack.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=86}} Shanshan was said to have 1,570 households and 14,000 individuals, with 2,912 persons able to bear arms.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=83}} It further described the region thus:
{{quote|The land is sandy and salt, and there are few cultivated fields. The state hopes to obtain [the produce of] cultivated fields and look to neighbouring states for field-crops. It produces jade and there is an abundance of [[Juncaceae|rushes]], [[tamarix|tamarisk]], the [[Populus balsamifera|balsam poplar]], and [[Solanum dulcamara|white grass]]. In company with their flocks and herds the inhabitants go in search of water and pasture, and there are asses, horses and large number of camels. [The inhabitants] are capable of making military weapons in the same way as the Ch'o of the [[Qiang (historical people)|Ch'iang]] tribes.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=85}} }}
According to the ''[[Commentary on the Water Classic]]'', General Suo Mai (索勱, also Suo Man) of [[Dunhuang]] introduced irrigation techniques to the region by damming the Zhubin (possibly the [[Kaidu River]]) to irrigate the fields and produced bumper harvests for the next three years.<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E7%B6%93%E6%B3%A8/02 Shui Jing Zhu]</ref>
The Buddhist pilgrim [[Faxian]] who stayed in Shanshan in 399 on the way to India, described the country:{{quote|[A] country rugged and hilly, with a thin and barren soil. The clothes of the common people are coarse, and like those worn in our land of Han, some wearing felt and others coarse serge or cloth of hair; — this was the only difference seen among them. The king professed (our) Law, and there might be in the country more than four thousand monks who were all students of the [[Hinayana|hînayâna]]. The common people of this and other kingdoms (in that region), as well as the [[Sramana|śramans]], all practise the rules of India, only that the latter do so more exactly, and the former more loosely.|''A Record of the Buddhist Countries'', translation by James Legge<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/recordofbuddhist00fahsuoft#page/12/mode/2up |title=Fa-Hien's Record Of Buddistic Kingdoms |author=James Legge |publisher=Oxford University Press Warehouse |pages=12–15 |year=1886}}</ref>}}The famous historical short story by acclaimed Japanese author [[Yasushi Inoue]] entitled "Lou-lan" recounts the continual flux of control in the area and how the inhabitants dealt with Chinese & nomadic invaders throughout its relatively short history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Inoue |first=Yasushi |title=Lou-lan and other stories: Transl. by James T[omomasa] Araki & Edward [G.] Seidensticker |last2=Araki |first2=James Tomomasa |last3=Seidensticker |first3=Edward G. |date=1981 |publisher=Kodansha Internat |isbn=978-0-87011-472-4 |edition=2. print |location=Tokyo [usw.]}}</ref>
==Ethnolinguistic identity==
[[File:Miran fresco 12.jpg|thumb|300px|Winged male figure, with [[Hellenistic]] influences, from the mural paintings signed ''Tita'' in the Loulan site of [[Miran (Xinjiang)]], 3rd century CE]]
The earliest known residents in Loulan are thought to have been a subgroup of the [[Tocharians]], an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]] of the Tarim Basin. Excavations in Loulan and the surrounding areas have found [[Tarim mummies|mummies]] believed to be remains of these people, for example the so-called "Beauty of Loulan" which was found by Chinese archaeologists in 1979–1980 at [[Qäwrighul]] (Gumugou), around 70 km west-north-west of Loulan. The mummies have been dated to as early as 1800 BCE.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=181–188}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qMZCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 |title=The Silk Road – China and the Karakorum Highway: A Travel Companion |first= Jonathan |last=Tucker |page=162 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=18 December 2013 |isbn=978-1780763569 }}</ref> Genetic and proteomic analyses of the mummies, however, suggests that the local population were genetically isolated but were influenced by practices of neighbouring populations.<ref name=zhang />
The official language found in 3rd century CE documents in this region is [[Gāndhārī language|Gandhari]] [[Prakrit]] written in [[Kharosthi]] script; their use in Loulan and elsewhere in the Tarim Basin was most likely due to the cultural legacy of the [[Kushan Empire]],<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171" /> and introduced by [[Gandharan]] migrants from the Kushan Empire.<ref name="Hansen">{{cite book |title= The Silk Road: A New History |author=Valerie Hansen |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318 |url-access= registration |chapter=Chapter 1: At the Crossroads of Central Asia – The Kingdom of Kroraina |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318/page/26 26] |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2012 |isbn=978-0195159318 }}</ref> These Gandharan migrants are also believed to have introduced [[Buddhism]] to Loulan.<ref name="Hansen" /> Although Gandhari was used as the administrative language, some words generally thought to be of Tocharian origin are found in the documents, suggesting that the locals spoke a language that belongs to the Tocharian group of languages.<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171" /><ref name="tocharian origin">{{cite journal |url=http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp259_tocharian_origins.pdf |title=The Problem of Tocharian Origins: An Archaeological Perspective|author=J. P. Mallory |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |number= 259 |page=6 |date=November 2015 }}</ref> This original language of Loulan is referred to as Krorainic or "[[Tocharian languages|Tocharian C]]", due to its relatedness to the two other Tocharian languages.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mallory|first=J.P.|title=Bronze Age languages of the Tarim Basin|url=http://penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf|journal=Expedition|volume=52|issue=3|pages=44–53|access-date=2012-08-30|archive-date=2021-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109090710/https://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> It has been partially reconstructed from around 100 loanwords and over a thousand proper names used in these Prakrit documents that cannot be ascribed to Indic.<ref name="tocharian origin"/> In 2018, documents from Loulan written in Tocharian C were published, indicating a relationship to Tocharian A and B, but transcription of the texts in this study has been rejected by other scholars.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=42318|title=Language Log » Tocharian C: its discovery and implications|access-date=2019-04-04}}</ref><ref name="adams-tocharian-c-again" >{{cite web |last1=Adams |first1=Douglas Q. |title='Tocharian C' Again: The Plot Thickens and the Mystery Deepens |url=https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44503 |website=Language Log |access-date=25 September 2019}}</ref>
The native name of Loulan was "Kroraina" or "Krorän",<ref name="enoki 1998 200-257">Kazuo Enoki (1998), "Yü-ni-ch’êng and the Site of Lou-Lan," and "The Location of the Capital of Lou-Lan and the Date of the Kharoshthi Inscriptions," in Rokuro Kono (ed), ''Studia Asiatica: The Collected Papers in Western Languages of the Late Dr. Kazuo Enoki'', Tokyo: Kyu-Shoin, pp 200, 211–57.</ref><ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171"/> written in Chinese as Loulan 樓蘭 (''*glu-glân'' in reconstructed Han dynasty pronunciation, an approximation of Krorän).{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=81}} Centuries later in 664 CE the Tang Chinese Buddhist monk [[Xuanzang]] mentioned a place in Loulan named "Nafupo" (納縛溥), which according to Dr. Hisao Matsuda is a transliteration of the [[Sogdia|Sogdian word]] ''Navapa'' meaning "new water."<ref name="christopoulos 2012 footnote38">Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 20–21 footnote #38, ISSN 2157-9687.</ref> Sogdians, an [[Eastern Iranian people]], maintained minority communities in various places in China at the time,<ref>Howard, Michael C. (2012), ''Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel'', McFarland & Company, p. 134.</ref> especially [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu]] and [[Turfan]] in the Tarim Basin.<ref>Hansen, Valerie (2012), ''The Silk Road: A New History'', Oxford University Press, p. 98, {{ISBN|978-0-19-993921-3}}.</ref><ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Leiden & Boston: Brill, pp 870–72.</ref> Documents found in Loulan showed that [[Sogdia]]ns were present in the area in 313 CE, as well as Han Chinese and Tibetan tribesmen, indicating an ethnically diverse population in Loulan.<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA170 |first=Mariner |last=Padwa |title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith |editor=Susan Whitfield |editor-link=Susan Whitfield |editor2=Ursula Sims-Williams |pages=170–171 |publisher=British Library |date=August 2004|isbn= 978-1932476132 }}</ref>
==Archaeology==
[[File:Male face with a caduceus - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Male face with a [[caduceus]] 200–400 AD. The staff suggests the Greek deity [[Hermes]].<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=24049192 |title=Review – ''Sources pour l'histoire et la géographie du monde iranien (224–710)''. ''Res Orientales 18'' by Rika Gyselen |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |volume=20 |pages=136–138 |last=Bromberg |first=Carol |date=2006}}</ref>]]
===Sven Hedin===
The ruined city of Loulan was discovered by [[Sven Hedin]], who excavated some houses and found a wooden [[Kharosthi]] tablet and many Chinese manuscripts from the [[Western Jin dynasty]] (266–420), which recorded that the area was called "Krorän" by the locals in Kharosthi but was rendered as "Lou-lan" in Chinese.<ref name="lopnor"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Hedin|first=Sven|title=Through Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106896|year=1898|publisher=Methuen & Co|location=London}}</ref> Hedin also proposed that a change in the course of the [[Tarim river]] resulted in Lop Nur drying up may be the reason why Loulan had perished.<ref name="lopnor"/>
===Aurel Stein===
[[File:Loulan kharosthi document.jpg|thumb|[[Kharosthi]] document found in Loulan by Aurel Stein]]
[[Aurel Stein]] made further excavations in 1906 and 1914 around the old lake of [[Lop Nur]] and identified many sites in the area. He designated these sites with the letter L (for Loulan), followed by a letter of the alphabet (A to T) allocated in the chronological order the sites were visited.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.explorers.org/flag_reports/Christoph_Baumer_Flag_60_Report.pdf |title=Explorer Club Flag 60 report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307065024/http://www.explorers.org/flag_reports/Christoph_Baumer_Flag_60_Report.pdf |archive-date=March 7, 2014 |author=Christoph Baumer |work=The Explorers Club }}</ref> Stein recovered many artifacts, including various documents, a wool-pile carpet fragment, some yellow [[silk]], and [[Gandhara]]n architectural wood carvings.
'''L.A.''' – A walled settlement lying to the north of the lake. The thick wall is made of packed earth and straw and was over {{convert|1000|ft|m}} on each side and {{convert|20|ft|m}} thick at the base. It contains a large stupa and some administrative buildings and was occupied for a long time. It is usually thought to be the city of Loulan.<br />
'''L.B.''' – A site with stupas at 13 km to the northwest of the L.A. <br />
'''L.E.''' – A fortified town lying 30 km to the northeast of L.A. It is the only known city in the region with a northern gate. Since a northern gate was mentioned in the Han Chinese text about the assassination of the king of Loulan, it has therefore been suggested to be the capital of Loulan in the 1st century BCE, before the Han Chinese gained control the region. Others, however, argue that the northern gate does not refer to Loulan but [[Chang'an]]. The site was occupied until the late 3rd century CE.<br />
'''L.F.''' – 10 km to the northwest of L.A., containing building foundations and a cemetery. Archaeologists discovered the body of a young man in a wooden coffin, wearing a felt hat and leather boots and lying under a woolen blanket. A bunch of ephedra twigs was placed beside him in a similar fashion to many much older burials found in the region.<br />
'''L.K.''' – A walled city to the west of the lake with only a gateway in the city wall. It has been identified as Haitou by some archaeologists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.travel-silkroad.com/english/dongfanwenming/history/llwgyz/flwsywx1.htm |title=Unclosed the Mystery of the Ancient City LK |publisher=travel-silkroad.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040455/http://www.travel-silkroad.com/english/dongfanwenming/history/llwgyz/flwsywx1.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
'''L.L.''' – A fortress lying 5 km northwest of L.K., similar in construction but smaller.
=== Chinese archaeological expedition, 1979–1980 ===
[[File:Loulan Museum, Charklik.jpg|thumb|[[Commons:Category:Loulan Museum|Loulan Museum]], Charklik]]
In 1979 and 1980, three archaeological expeditions sponsored by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Xinjiang Branch performed excavations in Loulan.<ref>Ma Dazheng. [http://bic.cass.cn/english/infoShow/Arcitle_Show_Forum2_Show.asp?ID=243&Title=The%20Humanities%20Study&strNavigation=Home-%3EForum-%3EEthnography&BigClassID=4&SmallClassID=8 An Overview of 20th Century Xinjiang Explorations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724021554/http://bic.cass.cn/english/infoShow/Arcitle_Show_Forum2_Show.asp?ID=243&Title=The%20Humanities%20Study&strNavigation=Home-%3EForum-%3EEthnography&BigClassID=4&SmallClassID=8 |date=2011-07-24 }}. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Web site, 2003 May 22</ref> They discovered a [[canal]] {{convert|15|ft|m}} deep and {{convert|55|ft|m}} wide running through Loulan from northwest to southeast, a {{convert|32|ft|m|sing=on}} high earthen [[dome]]-shaped [[Buddhist]] [[stupa]]; and a home {{convert|41|ft|m}} long by {{convert|28|ft|m}} wide, apparently for a Chinese official, housing 3 rooms and supported by wooden [[column|pillar]]s. They also collected 797 objects from the area, including [[packaging and labelling|vessel]]s of wood, [[bronze]] objects, [[jewellery]] and [[coin]]s, and [[Mesolithic]] [[stone tool]]s<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/world/20050113-104224-1613r.htm |title=Loulan vanished in sand |work=Washington Times |date= 2005-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Mallory, J. P. |author2=Mair, Victor H. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West |publisher=Thames & Hudson. London |isbn=0-500-05101-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall }}</ref> Other reported (2003) finds in the area include additional [[mummy|mummies]] and [[burial]] grounds, [[Ephedra (plant)|ephedra]] sticks, a string [[bracelet]] that holds a hollowed [[jade]] stone, a [[leather]] [[bag|pouch]], a [[wool]]en [[loincloth]], a wooden [[mask]] painted red and with large nose and teeth, [[boat]]-shaped [[coffin]]s, a [[bow (weapon)|bow]] with [[arrow]]s and a straw [[basket]].{{cn|date=May 2019}}
==See also==
{{Continental Asia in 100 BCE|right|The Loulan kingdom and contemporary polities circa 100 BCE}}
*[[Charklik (ancient settlement)|Charklik]]
*[[Cherchen]]
*[[Endere]]
*[[Gushi culture]]
*[[Lop Nur]]
*[[Miran (China)|Miran]]
*[[Niya (Tarim Basin)|Niya]]
*[[Xiaohe Tomb complex]]
{{clear}}
==Footnotes==
{{reflist|25em}}
==Sources==
{{refbegin|colwidth=25em|small=yes}}
* {{cite book
|last=Hill |first=John E.
|year=2009
|title=Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A study of the silk routes during the later Han, 1st to 2nd centuries CE
|place=Charleston, SC
|publisher=Book Surge
|isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G0AJQgAACAAJ
|via=Google Books
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Hulsewé |first=A.F.P.
|year=1979
|title=China in Central Asia: The early stage 125 BC – AD 23
|place=Leiden, NL
|publisher=Brill
|isbn=978-9004058842
|quote=annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the ''History of the Former Han Dynasty''
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HzhCAAAAIAAJ
|via=Google Books
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Mallory |first1=J.P.
|last2=Mair |first2=Victor H.
|year=2000
|title=The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the mystery of the earliest peoples from the west
|place=London, UK
|publisher=Thames & Hudson
|isbn=0-500-05101-1
|url=https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall
|via=Internet Archive (archive.org)
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Watson |first=Burton
|year=1993
|title=Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II |edition=revised
|place=New York, NY
|publisher=Columbia University Press
|isbn=0-231-08166-9
}}
{{refend}}
== Further reading ==
*Ma Dazheng. 2003. The Tarim Basin. Ch. 7 in: History of Civilizations of Central Asia. [http://www.unesco.org/culture/asia/html_eng/volume5.htm Volume 5: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century]. Edited by Chahryar Adle and Irfan Habib. UNESCO Publications.
*Peter Hopkirk. ''Foreign Devils on the Silk Road: The Search for the Lost Cities and Treasures of Chinese Central Asia'' (London: John Murray, 1980). (An approachable account of twentieth-century archaeology in the Taklamakan desert.)
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Loulan}} (Lolan)
*Downloadable article: "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age" Li et al. ''BMC Biology'' 2010, 8:15. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110427172440/http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1741-7007-8-15.pdf]
*[http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/jan/13/20050113-104224-1613r/ Loulan, vanished in sand]
{{Historical polities in Xinjiang}}
{{Central Asian history}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Ancient peoples of China]]
[[Category:Former countries in Chinese history]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Central Asia]]
[[Category:History of Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures of China]]
[[Category:Buddhism in China]]
[[Category:Central Asian Buddhist sites]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Oases of China]]
[[Category:Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Tarim mummies]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Ancient kingdom in Xinjiang, China}}
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Loulan (Lolan)
|native_name = Kroraïna
|alternate_name = Krorän
|image = LoulanCarvedWoodenBeam.JPG
|alt =
|caption = A carved wooden beam from Loulan in the [[British Museum]], 3rd–4th century. The patterns show influences from ancient western civilizations.
|map_type = China Xinjiang#China
|map_alt =
|relief=yes
|coordinates = {{coord|40|31|39.48|N|89|50|26.32|E|display=inline,title}}
|location = [[Xinjiang]], [[China]]
|region =
|type = Settlement
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built =
|abandoned =
|epochs =
|cultures =
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event =
|excavations =
|archaeologists =
|condition = In ruins
|ownership =
|management =
|public_access =
|notes =
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
<!-- Chinese -->
| t = 樓蘭
| s = 楼兰
| p = Lóulán (Lolan)
<!-- Uyghur -->
| uig = كروران
| uly = Kroran
| usy = Кроран
}}
'''Loulan''' (Lolan) ({{lang-zh|t={{linktext|樓蘭}}|p=Lóulán}} < [[Eastern Han Chinese]] ''lo-lɑn'' < [[Old Chinese]] ''rô-rân''<ref>Schuessler, Axel. (2009) ''Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 152, 246</ref>), also known as '''Kroraïna''' (Krorayina) in native [[Gandhari language|Gandhari]] documents or '''Krorän''' in later Uyghur ({{lang-ug|كروران}}), was an ancient kingdom based around an important [[oasis]] city along the [[Silk Road]] already known in the 2nd century BCE on the northeastern edge of the [[Lop Desert]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=233}}<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Language Log » Prakritic "Kroraina" and Old Sinitic reconstructions of "Loulan"
| author = Victor Mair
| work = languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu
| date = May 14, 2019
| access-date = 26 February 2024
| url = https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=42724
| language =
| quote =
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
| title = Catalog – CKD 696
| author =
| publisher = gandhari.org
| date =
| access-date = 26 February 2024
| url = https://gandhari.org/catalog?itemID=1845
| quote =
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary
| title = A Dictionary of Gāndhārī – Krorayina
| author = Stefan Baums and Andrew Glass
| date =
| publisher = Gandhari.org
| access-date = 1 March 2024
| url = https://gandhari.org/dictionary/krorayina
| quote =
}}</ref> The term Loulan (Lolan) is the Chinese transcription of the native name Kroraïna and is used to refer to the city near Lop Nur as well as the kingdom.
The kingdom was renamed [[Shanshan]] ([[wikt:鄯善|鄯善]]) after its king was assassinated by an envoy of the [[Han dynasty]] in 77 BCE;{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=89}} however, the town at the northwestern corner of the brackish desert lake [[Lop Nur]] retained the name of Loulan. The kingdom included at various times settlements such as [[Niya ruins|Niya]], [[Charklik (ancient settlement)|Charklik]], [[Miran (Xinjiang)|Miran]] and [[Qiemo Town|Qiemo]]. It was intermittently under Chinese control from the early Han dynasty onward until its abandonment centuries later. The ruins of Loulan are near the now-desiccated Lop Nur in the [[Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture]], [[Xinjiang]] and they are now completely surrounded by desert.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=81–87}}
==History==
[[Image:Tarimbecken 3. Jahrhundert.png|thumb|350px|The Tarim Basin in the 3rd century, showing two sites of the town of Loulan, the Shanshan kingdom, and the related states]]
===Pre-Han Kingdom===
By the 2nd century BC, Loulan (Lolan) had grown to dominate the region around the [[Tarim Basin]]. Archeological evidence suggests a sophisticated culture with major importance in the trade between central Asia and India. Southern merchants passed through mountain ranges such as the [[Karakoram]], [[Himalayas]] and [[Hindu Kush]] as far north as the Taklamakan desert, to important trading cities like Loulan and its commercial rival Niya. This is evidenced by graffiti carved on stones along the route in Indic scripts such as [[Kharosti]] and [[Brahmi]], while there are depictions of [[Siddhartha Gautama]] (evidencing the spread of [[Buddhism]] along the trade route). From here,
Loulan was on the main route from [[Dunhuang]] to [[Korla]], where it joined the so-called "northern route," and was also connected by a route southwest to the kingdom's seat of government in the town of Wuni in the Charkhlik/[[Ruoqiang County|Ruoqiang]] oasis, and from thence to [[Khotan]] and [[Yarkant County|Yarkand]].{{sfn|Hill|2009|page=88}}
A number of mummies, now known as the [[Tarim mummies]], have been found in Loulan and in its surrounding areas. One female mummy has been dated to c. 1800 BCE (3,800-year-old), indicating very early settlement of the region.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=181–188}} The disinterred corpses were not Chinese or Indian but had fair hair and light skin, some over six feet in length; this has led to suggestions that those from the Shanshan kingdoms were descendants of migrants from the [[Eurasian Steppe]]. Genetic analysis of the mummies, however, suggests that the Early–Middle Bronze Age population may have arisen from an ancient genetically isolated local population but were possibly influenced by the pastoralist and agriculturalist practices of their neighbours.<ref name=zhang>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Fan |last2=Ning |first2=Chao |last3=Scott |first3=Ashley |last4=Fu |first4=Qiaomei |last5=Bjørn |first5=Rasmus |last6=Li |first6=Wenying |last7=Wei |first7=Dong |last8=Wang |first8=Wenjun |last9=Fan |first9=Linyuan |last10=Abuduresule |first10=Idilisi |last11=Hu |first11=Xingjun |last12=Ruan |first12=Qiurong |last13=Niyazi |first13=Alipujiang |last14=Dong |first14=Guanghui |last15=Cao |first15=Peng |last16=Liu |first16=Feng |last17=Dai |first17=Qingyan |last18=Feng |first18=Xiaotian |last19=Yang |first19=Ruowei |last20=Tang |first20=Zihua |last21=Ma |first21=Pengcheng |last22=Li |first22=Chunxiang |last23=Gao |first23=Shizhu |last24=Xu |first24=Yang |last25=Wu |first25=Sihao |last26=Wen |first26=Shaoqing |last27=Zhu |first27=Hong |last28=Zhou |first28=Hui |last29=Robbeets |first29=Martine |last30=Kumar |first30=Vikas |last31=Krause |first31=Johannes |last32=Warinner |first32=Christina |last33=Jeong |first33=Choongwon |last34=Cui |first34=Yinqiu |title=The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies |journal=Nature |date=27 October 2021 |volume=599 |issue=7884 |pages=256–261 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7 |pmid=34707286 |pmc=8580821 |bibcode=2021Natur.599..256Z |id=Zhang2021}}</ref> The mummies were wrapped in cotton and silk, the former from the west and latter from the east, further providing evidence as to Loulan's commercial importance.
===Early Han dynasty===
[[File:Loulan (Lolan) silk fragment.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sichuan embroidery|Sichuan brocade]] fragment uncovered in Loulan (Lolan) Kingdom<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdmuseum.com/xinwen/201903/462.html |title=锦漆铜铁茶——丝绸之路上的天府制造 |trans-title=Brocade, lacquer, bronze, iron, and tea: Artifacts made in Sichuan unearthed along the Silk Road |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=March 28, 2017 |website=[[Chengdu Museum|cdmuseum.com]] |language=zh-hans |access-date=March 27, 2023}}</ref>]]
The interactions between Loulan and the [[Han dynasty|Han]] court (206 BCE – 220 CE) were described in some detail in the ''[[Book of Han]]'' (completed in 111 CE).<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7096%E4%B8%8A Hanshu] Chapter 96a, translation from Hulsewé 1979.</ref>
The first contemporaneous mention of Loulan (Lolan), in Chinese records, are from 126 BCE. A letter from the ''[[Chanyu]]'' of the [[Xiongnu]] to the Chinese emperor, in which the Chanyu boasted of conquering Loulan, as well as the [[Yuezhi]], [[Wusun]], Hujie (呼揭) and another "26 states nearby". In the same year, the Chinese envoy [[Zhang Qian]] described Loulan (Lolan) as a [[Defensive wall|fortified]] city near the great salt lake or marsh known as [[Lop Nur]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=140}}
[[File:Han Expansion.png|thumb|350px|Krořän/Loulan and several other Indo-European oases kingdoms as Western Region Protectorate of the Han.]]
During the late 2nd century BCE, [[Emperor Wu of Han]] ([[reign|r.]] 141 BCE – 87 BCE) was interested in extending contact with [[Dayuan]] ([[Fergana]]), following the reports of it by the Chinese envoy, [[Zhang Qian]]. However, according to Chinese sources, Han envoys to Fergana were harassed by Loulan and the kingdom of [[Gushi culture|Gushi]] (or Jushi). Consequently, in 108 BCE,<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Atlas of the Classical World, 500 BC—AD 600|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOzKGAAACAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Barnes & Noble Books|isbn=978-0-7607-1973-2|page=2.24}}</ref> Loulan was attacked by a Han force led by Zhao Ponu (趙破奴) and its king captured, after which Loulan agreed to pay a tribute to Han China.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=86–87}} The Xiongnu, on hearing of these events, also attacked Loulan. The king of Loulan therefore elected to send one of his sons as a hostage to the Xiongnu and another to the Han court. Due to Loulan's association with the Xiongnu, the ''Book of Han'' records:
{{quote|The Emperor commanded [Jen] Wen to lead the troops by a suitable route, to arrest the king of Lou-lan and to bring him to the palace at the capital city. [Jen Wen] interrogated by presenting him with a bill of indictment, which he answered by claiming that [Lou-lan] was a small state lying between large states, and that unless it subjected itself to both parties, there would be no means of keeping itself in safety; he therefore wished to remove his kingdom and take up residence within the Han territory.|''Hanshu'', chapter 96a, translation from Hulsewé 1979.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=87–88}}
}}
The Han emperor was satisfied with the statement and released the king, but retained his son as hostage. When this particular king of Loulan died, in 92 BCE, his court requested that the Han court release the king's son and heir be returned to Loulan (Lolan). In the meantime, however, this prince from Loulan had been castrated for infringing Han law, without the knowledge of Loulan. The Han court replied that its Emperor had grown too fond of the prince to release him, and that another son should be enthroned in Loulan. The son of the new king was also sent to the Han court as a hostage, yet another was sent to the Xiongnu. After the death of this king of Loulan, the Xiongnu returned the hostage sent previously by Loulan – a prince named Chang Gui or An Gui (嘗歸 or 安歸), who became king of Loulan. When the Han court heard of this, it demanded that the new king present himself to the Han court. Chang Gui refused, on his wife's advice – because the Han court had previously failed to return hostages.
[[File:Oxhide boots. Loulan (Lolan), Xinjiang. Early Han 220 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Oxhide boots from Loulan. [[Han dynasty|Former Han dynasty]] 220 BCE-8 CE.]]
In 77 BCE, after several Han envoys had been intercepted and killed in or near Loulan, a Chinese delegation was sent with orders to assassinate the king of Loulan, including an envoy named [[Fu Jiezi]]. Fu Jiezi gained entry to Loulan (Lolan) by claiming to carry silk and valuables as gifts for the king. After the king of Loulan became drunk after receiving his gifts, Fu Jiezi's guard stabbed him to death, severed his head and had it hung from a tower above the northern gate. Upon completing the assassination, the guard supposedly proclaimed: "The Son of Heaven (Han Emperor Zhao) has sent me to punish the king, by reason of his crime in turning against the Han...Han troops are about the arrive here; do not dare to make any move which would result in yourselves bringing about the destruction of your state." {{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=90}} While the king's younger brother Weituqi (尉屠耆) succeeded him as king, the Han court apparently tightened its grip on Loulan from this point – a step symbolized by the Han court obliging Loulan (Lolan) to adopt a new official name, the non-native [[exonym]] [[Shanshan]].{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=90–91}}
Because of its strategic position on what became the main route from China to the West, during the Han dynasty, control of it was regularly contested between the Chinese and the Xiongnu until well into the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Hill|2009|pages=3, 7, 9, 11, 35, 37, 85–101}}
===Shanshan===
{{main|Shanshan}}
[[File:Loulan (Lolan) Mural Tomb (mural).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Loulan tomb mural, 220–420 CE. [[Loulan Museum]]]]
[[File:Textile fragment from Loulan Xinjiang China.jpg|thumb|Fragment of carpet discovered by Aurel Stein in a refuse pit at Loulan. 3rd–4th century.]]
After the Han dynasty had gained control of Loulan (Lolan), the renamed kingdom of Shanshan became a Chinese puppet state.<ref name="lopnor"/> The newly installed king, fearing retribution from the sons of the assassinated king, requested that a contingent of Han forces be established in Yixun (伊循, variously identified as Charklik or Miran). Chinese army officers were sent to colonize the area, and an office of commandant was established at Yixun.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=91–92}} A number of settlements in the Tarim Basin such as Qiemo and Niya were described in the ''Book of Han'' as independent states, but these later became part of Shanshan. While the name of the kingdom was changed to Shanshan by the Chinese, the Loulan (Lolan) region continued to be known as Kroran by the locals.
The region remained under Chinese control intermittently, and when China was weak in the [[Western Regions]], Loulan (Lolan) was essentially independent. In 25 CE it was recorded that Loulan (Lolan) was in league with the Xiongnu. In 73 CE, the Han army officer [[Ban Chao]] went with a small group of followers to Shanshan, which was also receiving a delegation from the Xiongnu at the same time. Ban Chao killed the Xiongnu envoys and presented their heads to the King, after which King Guang of Shanshan submitted to Han authority.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) |author=Rafe de Crespigny |date= 14 May 2014|publisher= Brill Academic Publishers|isbn= 9789047411840 |pages=4–5}}</ref> This would ensure the first step of the '[[Silk Road]]' from central China to Shanshan would be under stable Chinese control. Around 119, [[Ban Yong]] recommended that a Chinese colony of 500 men be established in Loulan.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=86}} A later military colony was established at Loulan (Lolan) by General Suo Man. It was recorded that in 222 CE, Shanshan sent tribute to China, and that in 283, the son of the king was sent as a hostage to the Chinese court during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Jin]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilization |editor=Charles F.W. Higham |publisher=Fact on Files, Inc |year=2004 |pages=309–311 |isbn=0-8160-4640-9 }}</ref> Loulan was also recorded as a dependent kingdom of Shanshan in the 3rd century ''[[Book of Wei]]''.<ref>[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html Annotated translation of the ''Weilüe'' by John E. Hill]</ref>
The town of Loulan (Lolan) was abandoned in 330 CE, likely due to lack of water when the [[Tarim River]], which supported the settlement, changed course; the military garrison was moved {{convert|50|km}} south to Haitou (海頭). The fort of Yingpan to the northwest remained under Chinese control until the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>Baumer, Christoph. (2000), pp. 125–126, 135–136. ''Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin''. Bangkok, White Orchid Books.</ref> According to the ''Book of Wei'', King Bilong of Shanshan fled to Qiemo together with half of his countrymen after an attack by [[Juqu Anzhou]] in 442 CE so Shanshan came to be ruled by Qiemo.<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7102 Weishu] Original text: 真君三年，鄯善王比龍避沮渠安周之難，率國人之半奔且末，後役屬鄯善。 Translation: In the third year of [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei|Zhenjun]], the Loulan (Lolan) king Bilong, so as to avoid troubles from Juqu Anzhou, led half his countrymen and fled to Qiemo, which later controlled Shanshan.</ref> In 445 Shanshan submitted to the [[Northern Wei]]. At the end of the 6th century, the [[Sui dynasty]] reestablished the city state of Shanshan.<ref name="lopnor"/>
After the 5th century, however, the land was frequently invaded by nomadic states such as [[Tuyuhun]], the [[Rouran Khaganate]], and the [[Dingling]] and the area gradually was abandoned. {{Circa|630}}, at the beginning of the Tang period, Shanfutuo (鄯伏陁) led the remaining Shanshan people to [[Kumul, Xinjiang|Hami]].<ref name="lopnor">{{cite web |url=http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/rarebook/06/index.html.en |title=Hedin, the Man Who Solved the Mystery of the Wandering Lake: Lop Nor and Lou-lan |author1=Makiko Onishi |author2=Asanobu Kitamoto |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Digital Silk Road }}</ref>
The Buddhist pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] passed through this region in 644 on his return from India to China, visited a town called Nafubo (納縛波, thought to be Charklik) of Loulan, and wrote of Qiemo, "A fortress exists, but not a trace of man".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=77cc9HpdiCIC&pg=PA876 Da Tang Xiyu Ji] Original text: 从此东行六百余里至折摩驮那故国。即涅末地也。城郭岿然人烟断绝。复此东北行千余里至纳缚波故国。即楼兰地也。</ref>
==Descriptions in historical accounts ==
[[File:Felt hat from Loulan (Lolan). Early Han 202 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Felt and feather hat from Loulan. Early Han dynasty 202 BCE–8 CE]]
According to the ''Book of Han'', Han envoys described the troops of Loulan as weak and easy to attack.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=86}} Shanshan was said to have 1,570 households and 14,000 individuals, with 2,912 persons able to bear arms.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=83}} It further described the region thus:
{{quote|The land is sandy and salt, and there are few cultivated fields. The state hopes to obtain [the produce of] cultivated fields and look to neighbouring states for field-crops. It produces jade and there is an abundance of [[Juncaceae|rushes]], [[tamarix|tamarisk]], the [[Populus balsamifera|balsam poplar]], and [[Solanum dulcamara|white grass]]. In company with their flocks and herds the inhabitants go in search of water and pasture, and there are asses, horses and large number of camels. [The inhabitants] are capable of making military weapons in the same way as the Ch'o of the [[Qiang (historical people)|Ch'iang]] tribes.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=85}} }}
According to the ''[[Commentary on the Water Classic]]'', General Suo Mai (索勱, also Suo Man) of [[Dunhuang]] introduced irrigation techniques to the region by damming the Zhubin (possibly the [[Kaidu River]]) to irrigate the fields and produced bumper harvests for the next three years.<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E7%B6%93%E6%B3%A8/02 Shui Jing Zhu]</ref>
The Buddhist pilgrim [[Faxian]] who stayed in Shanshan in 399 on the way to India, described the country:{{quote|[A] country rugged and hilly, with a thin and barren soil. The clothes of the common people are coarse, and like those worn in our land of Han, some wearing felt and others coarse serge or cloth of hair; — this was the only difference seen among them. The king professed (our) Law, and there might be in the country more than four thousand monks who were all students of the [[Hinayana|hînayâna]]. The common people of this and other kingdoms (in that region), as well as the [[Sramana|śramans]], all practise the rules of India, only that the latter do so more exactly, and the former more loosely.|''A Record of the Buddhist Countries'', translation by James Legge<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/recordofbuddhist00fahsuoft#page/12/mode/2up |title=Fa-Hien's Record Of Buddistic Kingdoms |author=James Legge |publisher=Oxford University Press Warehouse |pages=12–15 |year=1886}}</ref>}}The famous historical short story by acclaimed Japanese author [[Yasushi Inoue]] entitled "Lou-lan" recounts the continual flux of control in the area and how the inhabitants dealt with Chinese & nomadic invaders throughout its relatively short history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Inoue |first=Yasushi |title=Lou-lan and other stories: Transl. by James T[omomasa] Araki & Edward [G.] Seidensticker |last2=Araki |first2=James Tomomasa |last3=Seidensticker |first3=Edward G. |date=1981 |publisher=Kodansha Internat |isbn=978-0-87011-472-4 |edition=2. print |location=Tokyo [usw.]}}</ref>
==Ethnolinguistic identity==
[[File:Miran fresco 12.jpg|thumb|300px|Winged male figure, with [[Hellenistic]] influences, from the mural paintings signed ''Tita'' in the Loulan site of [[Miran (Xinjiang)]], 3rd century CE]]
The earliest known residents in Loulan (Lolan) are thought to have been a subgroup of the [[Tocharians]], an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]] of the Tarim Basin. Excavations in Loulan (Lolan) and the surrounding areas have found [[Tarim mummies|mummies]] believed to be remains of these people, for example the so-called "Beauty of Loulan" which was found by Chinese archaeologists in 1979–1980 at [[Qäwrighul]] (Gumugou), around 70 km west-north-west of Loulan. The mummies have been dated to as early as 1800 BCE.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=181–188}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qMZCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 |title=The Silk Road – China and the Karakorum Highway: A Travel Companion |first= Jonathan |last=Tucker |page=162 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=18 December 2013 |isbn=978-1780763569 }}</ref> Genetic and proteomic analyses of the mummies, however, suggests that the local population were genetically isolated but were influenced by practices of neighbouring populations.<ref name=zhang />
The official language found in 3rd century CE documents in this region is [[Gāndhārī language|Gandhari]] [[Prakrit]] written in [[Kharosthi]] script; their use in Loulan and elsewhere in the Tarim Basin was most likely due to the cultural legacy of the [[Kushan Empire]],<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171" /> and introduced by [[Gandharan]] migrants from the Kushan Empire.<ref name="Hansen">{{cite book |title= The Silk Road: A New History |author=Valerie Hansen |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318 |url-access= registration |chapter=Chapter 1: At the Crossroads of Central Asia – The Kingdom of Kroraina |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318/page/26 26] |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2012 |isbn=978-0195159318 }}</ref> These Gandharan migrants are also believed to have introduced [[Buddhism]] to Loulan.<ref name="Hansen" /> Although Gandhari was used as the administrative language, some words generally thought to be of Tocharian origin are found in the documents, suggesting that the locals spoke a language that belongs to the Tocharian group of languages.<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171" /><ref name="tocharian origin">{{cite journal |url=http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp259_tocharian_origins.pdf |title=The Problem of Tocharian Origins: An Archaeological Perspective|author=J. P. Mallory |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |number= 259 |page=6 |date=November 2015 }}</ref> This original language of Loulan is referred to as Krorainic or "[[Tocharian languages|Tocharian C]]", due to its relatedness to the two other Tocharian languages.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mallory|first=J.P.|title=Bronze Age languages of the Tarim Basin|url=http://penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf|journal=Expedition|volume=52|issue=3|pages=44–53|access-date=2012-08-30|archive-date=2021-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109090710/https://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> It has been partially reconstructed from around 100 loanwords and over a thousand proper names used in these Prakrit documents that cannot be ascribed to Indic.<ref name="tocharian origin"/> In 2018, documents from Loulan written in Tocharian C were published, indicating a relationship to Tocharian A and B, but transcription of the texts in this study has been rejected by other scholars.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=42318|title=Language Log » Tocharian C: its discovery and implications|access-date=2019-04-04}}</ref><ref name="adams-tocharian-c-again" >{{cite web |last1=Adams |first1=Douglas Q. |title='Tocharian C' Again: The Plot Thickens and the Mystery Deepens |url=https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44503 |website=Language Log |access-date=25 September 2019}}</ref>
The native name of Loulan (Lolan) was "Kroraina" or "Krorän",<ref name="enoki 1998 200-257">Kazuo Enoki (1998), "Yü-ni-ch’êng and the Site of Lou-Lan," and "The Location of the Capital of Lou-Lan and the Date of the Kharoshthi Inscriptions," in Rokuro Kono (ed), ''Studia Asiatica: The Collected Papers in Western Languages of the Late Dr. Kazuo Enoki'', Tokyo: Kyu-Shoin, pp 200, 211–57.</ref><ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171"/> written in Chinese as Loulan 樓蘭 (''*glu-glân'' in reconstructed Han dynasty pronunciation, an approximation of Krorän).{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=81}} Centuries later in 664 CE the Tang Chinese Buddhist monk [[Xuanzang]] mentioned a place in Loulan named "Nafupo" (納縛溥), which according to Dr. Hisao Matsuda is a transliteration of the [[Sogdia|Sogdian word]] ''Navapa'' meaning "new water."<ref name="christopoulos 2012 footnote38">Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 20–21 footnote #38, ISSN 2157-9687.</ref> Sogdians, an [[Eastern Iranian people]], maintained minority communities in various places in China at the time,<ref>Howard, Michael C. (2012), ''Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel'', McFarland & Company, p. 134.</ref> especially [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu]] and [[Turfan]] in the Tarim Basin.<ref>Hansen, Valerie (2012), ''The Silk Road: A New History'', Oxford University Press, p. 98, {{ISBN|978-0-19-993921-3}}.</ref><ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Leiden & Boston: Brill, pp 870–72.</ref> Documents found in Loulan showed that [[Sogdia]]ns were present in the area in 313 CE, as well as Han Chinese and Tibetan tribesmen, indicating an ethnically diverse population in Loulan.<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA170 |first=Mariner |last=Padwa |title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith |editor=Susan Whitfield |editor-link=Susan Whitfield |editor2=Ursula Sims-Williams |pages=170–171 |publisher=British Library |date=August 2004|isbn= 978-1932476132 }}</ref>
==Archaeology==
[[File:Male face with a caduceus - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Male face with a [[caduceus]] 200–400 AD. The staff suggests the Greek deity [[Hermes]].<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=24049192 |title=Review – ''Sources pour l'histoire et la géographie du monde iranien (224–710)''. ''Res Orientales 18'' by Rika Gyselen |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |volume=20 |pages=136–138 |last=Bromberg |first=Carol |date=2006}}</ref>]]
===Sven Hedin===
The ruined city of Loulan (Lolan) was discovered by [[Sven Hedin]], who excavated some houses and found a wooden [[Kharosthi]] tablet and many Chinese manuscripts from the [[Western Jin dynasty]] (266–420), which recorded that the area was called "Krorän" by the locals in Kharosthi but was rendered as "Lou-lan" in Chinese.<ref name="lopnor"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Hedin|first=Sven|title=Through Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106896|year=1898|publisher=Methuen & Co|location=London}}</ref> Hedin also proposed that a change in the course of the [[Tarim river]] resulted in Lop Nur drying up may be the reason why Loulan had perished.<ref name="lopnor"/>
===Aurel Stein===
[[File:Loulan kharosthi document.jpg|thumb|[[Kharosthi]] document found in Loulan by Aurel Stein]]
[[Aurel Stein]] made further excavations in 1906 and 1914 around the old lake of [[Lop Nur]] and identified many sites in the area. He designated these sites with the letter L (for Loulan), followed by a letter of the alphabet (A to T) allocated in the chronological order the sites were visited.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.explorers.org/flag_reports/Christoph_Baumer_Flag_60_Report.pdf |title=Explorer Club Flag 60 report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307065024/http://www.explorers.org/flag_reports/Christoph_Baumer_Flag_60_Report.pdf |archive-date=March 7, 2014 |author=Christoph Baumer |work=The Explorers Club }}</ref> Stein recovered many artifacts, including various documents, a wool-pile carpet fragment, some yellow [[silk]], and [[Gandhara]]n architectural wood carvings.
'''L.A.''' – A walled settlement lying to the north of the lake. The thick wall is made of packed earth and straw and was over {{convert|1000|ft|m}} on each side and {{convert|20|ft|m}} thick at the base. It contains a large stupa and some administrative buildings and was occupied for a long time. It is usually thought to be the city of Loulan.<br />
'''L.B.''' – A site with stupas at 13 km to the northwest of the L.A. <br />
'''L.E.''' – A fortified town lying 30 km to the northeast of L.A. It is the only known city in the region with a northern gate. Since a northern gate was mentioned in the Han Chinese text about the assassination of the king of Loulan, it has therefore been suggested to be the capital of Loulan in the 1st century BCE, before the Han Chinese gained control the region. Others, however, argue that the northern gate does not refer to Loulan but [[Chang'an]]. The site was occupied until the late 3rd century CE.<br />
'''L.F.''' – 10 km to the northwest of L.A., containing building foundations and a cemetery. Archaeologists discovered the body of a young man in a wooden coffin, wearing a felt hat and leather boots and lying under a woolen blanket. A bunch of ephedra twigs was placed beside him in a similar fashion to many much older burials found in the region.<br />
'''L.K.''' – A walled city to the west of the lake with only a gateway in the city wall. It has been identified as Haitou by some archaeologists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.travel-silkroad.com/english/dongfanwenming/history/llwgyz/flwsywx1.htm |title=Unclosed the Mystery of the Ancient City LK |publisher=travel-silkroad.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040455/http://www.travel-silkroad.com/english/dongfanwenming/history/llwgyz/flwsywx1.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
'''L.L.''' – A fortress lying 5 km northwest of L.K., similar in construction but smaller.
=== Chinese archaeological expedition, 1979–1980 ===
[[File:Loulan (Lolan) Museum, Charklik.jpg|thumb|[[Commons:Category:Loulan Museum|Loulan Museum]], Charklik]]
In 1979 and 1980, three archaeological expeditions sponsored by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Xinjiang Branch performed excavations in Loulan.<ref>Ma Dazheng. [http://bic.cass.cn/english/infoShow/Arcitle_Show_Forum2_Show.asp?ID=243&Title=The%20Humanities%20Study&strNavigation=Home-%3EForum-%3EEthnography&BigClassID=4&SmallClassID=8 An Overview of 20th Century Xinjiang Explorations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724021554/http://bic.cass.cn/english/infoShow/Arcitle_Show_Forum2_Show.asp?ID=243&Title=The%20Humanities%20Study&strNavigation=Home-%3EForum-%3EEthnography&BigClassID=4&SmallClassID=8 |date=2011-07-24 }}. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Web site, 2003 May 22</ref> They discovered a [[canal]] {{convert|15|ft|m}} deep and {{convert|55|ft|m}} wide running through Loulan from northwest to southeast, a {{convert|32|ft|m|sing=on}} high earthen [[dome]]-shaped [[Buddhist]] [[stupa]]; and a home {{convert|41|ft|m}} long by {{convert|28|ft|m}} wide, apparently for a Chinese official, housing 3 rooms and supported by wooden [[column|pillar]]s. They also collected 797 objects from the area, including [[packaging and labelling|vessel]]s of wood, [[bronze]] objects, [[jewellery]] and [[coin]]s, and [[Mesolithic]] [[stone tool]]s<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/world/20050113-104224-1613r.htm |title=Loulan vanished in sand |work=Washington Times |date= 2005-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Mallory, J. P. |author2=Mair, Victor H. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West |publisher=Thames & Hudson. London |isbn=0-500-05101-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall }}</ref> Other reported (2003) finds in the area include additional [[mummy|mummies]] and [[burial]] grounds, [[Ephedra (plant)|ephedra]] sticks, a string [[bracelet]] that holds a hollowed [[jade]] stone, a [[leather]] [[bag|pouch]], a [[wool]]en [[loincloth]], a wooden [[mask]] painted red and with large nose and teeth, [[boat]]-shaped [[coffin]]s, a [[bow (weapon)|bow]] with [[arrow]]s and a straw [[basket]].{{cn|date=May 2019}}
==See also==
{{Continental Asia in 100 BCE|right|The Loulan kingdom and contemporary polities circa 100 BCE}}
*[[Charklik (ancient settlement)|Charklik]]
*[[Cherchen]]
*[[Endere]]
*[[Gushi culture]]
*[[Lop Nur]]
*[[Miran (China)|Miran]]
*[[Niya (Tarim Basin)|Niya]]
*[[Xiaohe Tomb complex]]
{{clear}}
==Footnotes==
{{reflist|25em}}
==Sources==
{{refbegin|colwidth=25em|small=yes}}
* {{cite book
|last=Hill |first=John E.
|year=2009
|title=Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A study of the silk routes during the later Han, 1st to 2nd centuries CE
|place=Charleston, SC
|publisher=Book Surge
|isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G0AJQgAACAAJ
|via=Google Books
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Hulsewé |first=A.F.P.
|year=1979
|title=China in Central Asia: The early stage 125 BC – AD 23
|place=Leiden, NL
|publisher=Brill
|isbn=978-9004058842
|quote=annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the ''History of the Former Han Dynasty''
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HzhCAAAAIAAJ
|via=Google Books
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Mallory |first1=J.P.
|last2=Mair |first2=Victor H.
|year=2000
|title=The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the mystery of the earliest peoples from the west
|place=London, UK
|publisher=Thames & Hudson
|isbn=0-500-05101-1
|url=https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall
|via=Internet Archive (archive.org)
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Watson |first=Burton
|year=1993
|title=Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II |edition=revised
|place=New York, NY
|publisher=Columbia University Press
|isbn=0-231-08166-9
}}
{{refend}}
== Further reading ==
*Ma Dazheng. 2003. The Tarim Basin. Ch. 7 in: History of Civilizations of Central Asia. [http://www.unesco.org/culture/asia/html_eng/volume5.htm Volume 5: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century]. Edited by Chahryar Adle and Irfan Habib. UNESCO Publications.
*Peter Hopkirk. ''Foreign Devils on the Silk Road: The Search for the Lost Cities and Treasures of Chinese Central Asia'' (London: John Murray, 1980). (An approachable account of twentieth-century archaeology in the Taklamakan desert.)
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Loulan}} (Lolan)
*Downloadable article: "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age" Li et al. ''BMC Biology'' 2010, 8:15. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110427172440/http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1741-7007-8-15.pdf]
*[http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/jan/13/20050113-104224-1613r/ Loulan, vanished in sand]
{{Historical polities in Xinjiang}}
{{Central Asian history}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Ancient peoples of China]]
[[Category:Former countries in Chinese history]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Central Asia]]
[[Category:History of Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures of China]]
[[Category:Buddhism in China]]
[[Category:Central Asian Buddhist sites]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Oases of China]]
[[Category:Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Tarim mummies]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -40,5 +40,5 @@
| t = 樓蘭
| s = 楼兰
-| p = Lóulán
+| p = Lóulán (Lolan)
<!-- Uyghur -->
| uig = كروران
@@ -47,5 +47,5 @@
}}
-'''Loulan''' ({{lang-zh|t={{linktext|樓蘭}}|p=Lóulán}} < [[Eastern Han Chinese]] ''lo-lɑn'' < [[Old Chinese]] ''rô-rân''<ref>Schuessler, Axel. (2009) ''Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 152, 246</ref>), also known as '''Kroraïna''' (Krorayina) in native [[Gandhari language|Gandhari]] documents or '''Krorän''' in later Uyghur ({{lang-ug|كروران}}), was an ancient kingdom based around an important [[oasis]] city along the [[Silk Road]] already known in the 2nd century BCE on the northeastern edge of the [[Lop Desert]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=233}}<ref>{{Cite web
+'''Loulan''' (Lolan) ({{lang-zh|t={{linktext|樓蘭}}|p=Lóulán}} < [[Eastern Han Chinese]] ''lo-lɑn'' < [[Old Chinese]] ''rô-rân''<ref>Schuessler, Axel. (2009) ''Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 152, 246</ref>), also known as '''Kroraïna''' (Krorayina) in native [[Gandhari language|Gandhari]] documents or '''Krorän''' in later Uyghur ({{lang-ug|كروران}}), was an ancient kingdom based around an important [[oasis]] city along the [[Silk Road]] already known in the 2nd century BCE on the northeastern edge of the [[Lop Desert]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=233}}<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Language Log » Prakritic "Kroraina" and Old Sinitic reconstructions of "Loulan"
| author = Victor Mair
@@ -72,5 +72,5 @@
| url = https://gandhari.org/dictionary/krorayina
| quote =
-}}</ref> The term Loulan is the Chinese transcription of the native name Kroraïna and is used to refer to the city near Lop Nur as well as the kingdom.
+}}</ref> The term Loulan (Lolan) is the Chinese transcription of the native name Kroraïna and is used to refer to the city near Lop Nur as well as the kingdom.
The kingdom was renamed [[Shanshan]] ([[wikt:鄯善|鄯善]]) after its king was assassinated by an envoy of the [[Han dynasty]] in 77 BCE;{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=89}} however, the town at the northwestern corner of the brackish desert lake [[Lop Nur]] retained the name of Loulan. The kingdom included at various times settlements such as [[Niya ruins|Niya]], [[Charklik (ancient settlement)|Charklik]], [[Miran (Xinjiang)|Miran]] and [[Qiemo Town|Qiemo]]. It was intermittently under Chinese control from the early Han dynasty onward until its abandonment centuries later. The ruins of Loulan are near the now-desiccated Lop Nur in the [[Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture]], [[Xinjiang]] and they are now completely surrounded by desert.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=81–87}}
@@ -81,5 +81,5 @@
===Pre-Han Kingdom===
-By the 2nd century BC, Loulan had grown to dominate the region around the [[Tarim Basin]]. Archeological evidence suggests a sophisticated culture with major importance in the trade between central Asia and India. Southern merchants passed through mountain ranges such as the [[Karakoram]], [[Himalayas]] and [[Hindu Kush]] as far north as the Taklamakan desert, to important trading cities like Loulan and its commercial rival Niya. This is evidenced by graffiti carved on stones along the route in Indic scripts such as [[Kharosti]] and [[Brahmi]], while there are depictions of [[Siddhartha Gautama]] (evidencing the spread of [[Buddhism]] along the trade route). From here,
+By the 2nd century BC, Loulan (Lolan) had grown to dominate the region around the [[Tarim Basin]]. Archeological evidence suggests a sophisticated culture with major importance in the trade between central Asia and India. Southern merchants passed through mountain ranges such as the [[Karakoram]], [[Himalayas]] and [[Hindu Kush]] as far north as the Taklamakan desert, to important trading cities like Loulan and its commercial rival Niya. This is evidenced by graffiti carved on stones along the route in Indic scripts such as [[Kharosti]] and [[Brahmi]], while there are depictions of [[Siddhartha Gautama]] (evidencing the spread of [[Buddhism]] along the trade route). From here,
Loulan was on the main route from [[Dunhuang]] to [[Korla]], where it joined the so-called "northern route," and was also connected by a route southwest to the kingdom's seat of government in the town of Wuni in the Charkhlik/[[Ruoqiang County|Ruoqiang]] oasis, and from thence to [[Khotan]] and [[Yarkant County|Yarkand]].{{sfn|Hill|2009|page=88}}
@@ -88,8 +88,8 @@
===Early Han dynasty===
-[[File:Loulan silk fragment.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sichuan embroidery|Sichuan brocade]] fragment uncovered in Loulan Kingdom<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdmuseum.com/xinwen/201903/462.html |title=锦漆铜铁茶——丝绸之路上的天府制造 |trans-title=Brocade, lacquer, bronze, iron, and tea: Artifacts made in Sichuan unearthed along the Silk Road |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=March 28, 2017 |website=[[Chengdu Museum|cdmuseum.com]] |language=zh-hans |access-date=March 27, 2023}}</ref>]]
+[[File:Loulan (Lolan) silk fragment.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sichuan embroidery|Sichuan brocade]] fragment uncovered in Loulan (Lolan) Kingdom<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdmuseum.com/xinwen/201903/462.html |title=锦漆铜铁茶——丝绸之路上的天府制造 |trans-title=Brocade, lacquer, bronze, iron, and tea: Artifacts made in Sichuan unearthed along the Silk Road |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=March 28, 2017 |website=[[Chengdu Museum|cdmuseum.com]] |language=zh-hans |access-date=March 27, 2023}}</ref>]]
The interactions between Loulan and the [[Han dynasty|Han]] court (206 BCE – 220 CE) were described in some detail in the ''[[Book of Han]]'' (completed in 111 CE).<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7096%E4%B8%8A Hanshu] Chapter 96a, translation from Hulsewé 1979.</ref>
-The first contemporaneous mention of Loulan, in Chinese records, are from 126 BCE. A letter from the ''[[Chanyu]]'' of the [[Xiongnu]] to the Chinese emperor, in which the Chanyu boasted of conquering Loulan, as well as the [[Yuezhi]], [[Wusun]], Hujie (呼揭) and another "26 states nearby". In the same year, the Chinese envoy [[Zhang Qian]] described Loulan as a [[Defensive wall|fortified]] city near the great salt lake or marsh known as [[Lop Nur]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=140}}
+The first contemporaneous mention of Loulan (Lolan), in Chinese records, are from 126 BCE. A letter from the ''[[Chanyu]]'' of the [[Xiongnu]] to the Chinese emperor, in which the Chanyu boasted of conquering Loulan, as well as the [[Yuezhi]], [[Wusun]], Hujie (呼揭) and another "26 states nearby". In the same year, the Chinese envoy [[Zhang Qian]] described Loulan (Lolan) as a [[Defensive wall|fortified]] city near the great salt lake or marsh known as [[Lop Nur]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=140}}
[[File:Han Expansion.png|thumb|350px|Krořän/Loulan and several other Indo-European oases kingdoms as Western Region Protectorate of the Han.]]
@@ -100,9 +100,9 @@
}}
-The Han emperor was satisfied with the statement and released the king, but retained his son as hostage. When this particular king of Loulan died, in 92 BCE, his court requested that the Han court release the king's son and heir be returned to Loulan. In the meantime, however, this prince from Loulan had been castrated for infringing Han law, without the knowledge of Loulan. The Han court replied that its Emperor had grown too fond of the prince to release him, and that another son should be enthroned in Loulan. The son of the new king was also sent to the Han court as a hostage, yet another was sent to the Xiongnu. After the death of this king of Loulan, the Xiongnu returned the hostage sent previously by Loulan – a prince named Chang Gui or An Gui (嘗歸 or 安歸), who became king of Loulan. When the Han court heard of this, it demanded that the new king present himself to the Han court. Chang Gui refused, on his wife's advice – because the Han court had previously failed to return hostages.
+The Han emperor was satisfied with the statement and released the king, but retained his son as hostage. When this particular king of Loulan died, in 92 BCE, his court requested that the Han court release the king's son and heir be returned to Loulan (Lolan). In the meantime, however, this prince from Loulan had been castrated for infringing Han law, without the knowledge of Loulan. The Han court replied that its Emperor had grown too fond of the prince to release him, and that another son should be enthroned in Loulan. The son of the new king was also sent to the Han court as a hostage, yet another was sent to the Xiongnu. After the death of this king of Loulan, the Xiongnu returned the hostage sent previously by Loulan – a prince named Chang Gui or An Gui (嘗歸 or 安歸), who became king of Loulan. When the Han court heard of this, it demanded that the new king present himself to the Han court. Chang Gui refused, on his wife's advice – because the Han court had previously failed to return hostages.
-[[File:Oxhide boots. Loulan, Xinjiang. Early Han 220 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Oxhide boots from Loulan. [[Han dynasty|Former Han dynasty]] 220 BCE-8 CE.]]
+[[File:Oxhide boots. Loulan (Lolan), Xinjiang. Early Han 220 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Oxhide boots from Loulan. [[Han dynasty|Former Han dynasty]] 220 BCE-8 CE.]]
-In 77 BCE, after several Han envoys had been intercepted and killed in or near Loulan, a Chinese delegation was sent with orders to assassinate the king of Loulan, including an envoy named [[Fu Jiezi]]. Fu Jiezi gained entry to Loulan by claiming to carry silk and valuables as gifts for the king. After the king of Loulan became drunk after receiving his gifts, Fu Jiezi's guard stabbed him to death, severed his head and had it hung from a tower above the northern gate. Upon completing the assassination, the guard supposedly proclaimed: "The Son of Heaven (Han Emperor Zhao) has sent me to punish the king, by reason of his crime in turning against the Han...Han troops are about the arrive here; do not dare to make any move which would result in yourselves bringing about the destruction of your state." {{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=90}} While the king's younger brother Weituqi (尉屠耆) succeeded him as king, the Han court apparently tightened its grip on Loulan from this point – a step symbolized by the Han court obliging Loulan to adopt a new official name, the non-native [[exonym]] [[Shanshan]].{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=90–91}}
+In 77 BCE, after several Han envoys had been intercepted and killed in or near Loulan, a Chinese delegation was sent with orders to assassinate the king of Loulan, including an envoy named [[Fu Jiezi]]. Fu Jiezi gained entry to Loulan (Lolan) by claiming to carry silk and valuables as gifts for the king. After the king of Loulan became drunk after receiving his gifts, Fu Jiezi's guard stabbed him to death, severed his head and had it hung from a tower above the northern gate. Upon completing the assassination, the guard supposedly proclaimed: "The Son of Heaven (Han Emperor Zhao) has sent me to punish the king, by reason of his crime in turning against the Han...Han troops are about the arrive here; do not dare to make any move which would result in yourselves bringing about the destruction of your state." {{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=90}} While the king's younger brother Weituqi (尉屠耆) succeeded him as king, the Han court apparently tightened its grip on Loulan from this point – a step symbolized by the Han court obliging Loulan (Lolan) to adopt a new official name, the non-native [[exonym]] [[Shanshan]].{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=90–91}}
Because of its strategic position on what became the main route from China to the West, during the Han dynasty, control of it was regularly contested between the Chinese and the Xiongnu until well into the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Hill|2009|pages=3, 7, 9, 11, 35, 37, 85–101}}
@@ -110,11 +110,11 @@
===Shanshan===
{{main|Shanshan}}
-[[File:Loulan Mural Tomb (mural).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Loulan tomb mural, 220–420 CE. [[Loulan Museum]]]]
+[[File:Loulan (Lolan) Mural Tomb (mural).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Loulan tomb mural, 220–420 CE. [[Loulan Museum]]]]
[[File:Textile fragment from Loulan Xinjiang China.jpg|thumb|Fragment of carpet discovered by Aurel Stein in a refuse pit at Loulan. 3rd–4th century.]]
-After the Han dynasty had gained control of Loulan, the renamed kingdom of Shanshan became a Chinese puppet state.<ref name="lopnor"/> The newly installed king, fearing retribution from the sons of the assassinated king, requested that a contingent of Han forces be established in Yixun (伊循, variously identified as Charklik or Miran). Chinese army officers were sent to colonize the area, and an office of commandant was established at Yixun.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=91–92}} A number of settlements in the Tarim Basin such as Qiemo and Niya were described in the ''Book of Han'' as independent states, but these later became part of Shanshan. While the name of the kingdom was changed to Shanshan by the Chinese, the Loulan region continued to be known as Kroran by the locals.
+After the Han dynasty had gained control of Loulan (Lolan), the renamed kingdom of Shanshan became a Chinese puppet state.<ref name="lopnor"/> The newly installed king, fearing retribution from the sons of the assassinated king, requested that a contingent of Han forces be established in Yixun (伊循, variously identified as Charklik or Miran). Chinese army officers were sent to colonize the area, and an office of commandant was established at Yixun.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=91–92}} A number of settlements in the Tarim Basin such as Qiemo and Niya were described in the ''Book of Han'' as independent states, but these later became part of Shanshan. While the name of the kingdom was changed to Shanshan by the Chinese, the Loulan (Lolan) region continued to be known as Kroran by the locals.
-The region remained under Chinese control intermittently, and when China was weak in the [[Western Regions]], Loulan was essentially independent. In 25 CE it was recorded that Loulan was in league with the Xiongnu. In 73 CE, the Han army officer [[Ban Chao]] went with a small group of followers to Shanshan, which was also receiving a delegation from the Xiongnu at the same time. Ban Chao killed the Xiongnu envoys and presented their heads to the King, after which King Guang of Shanshan submitted to Han authority.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) |author=Rafe de Crespigny |date= 14 May 2014|publisher= Brill Academic Publishers|isbn= 9789047411840 |pages=4–5}}</ref> This would ensure the first step of the '[[Silk Road]]' from central China to Shanshan would be under stable Chinese control. Around 119, [[Ban Yong]] recommended that a Chinese colony of 500 men be established in Loulan.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=86}} A later military colony was established at Loulan by General Suo Man. It was recorded that in 222 CE, Shanshan sent tribute to China, and that in 283, the son of the king was sent as a hostage to the Chinese court during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Jin]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilization |editor=Charles F.W. Higham |publisher=Fact on Files, Inc |year=2004 |pages=309–311 |isbn=0-8160-4640-9 }}</ref> Loulan was also recorded as a dependent kingdom of Shanshan in the 3rd century ''[[Book of Wei]]''.<ref>[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html Annotated translation of the ''Weilüe'' by John E. Hill]</ref>
+The region remained under Chinese control intermittently, and when China was weak in the [[Western Regions]], Loulan (Lolan) was essentially independent. In 25 CE it was recorded that Loulan (Lolan) was in league with the Xiongnu. In 73 CE, the Han army officer [[Ban Chao]] went with a small group of followers to Shanshan, which was also receiving a delegation from the Xiongnu at the same time. Ban Chao killed the Xiongnu envoys and presented their heads to the King, after which King Guang of Shanshan submitted to Han authority.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) |author=Rafe de Crespigny |date= 14 May 2014|publisher= Brill Academic Publishers|isbn= 9789047411840 |pages=4–5}}</ref> This would ensure the first step of the '[[Silk Road]]' from central China to Shanshan would be under stable Chinese control. Around 119, [[Ban Yong]] recommended that a Chinese colony of 500 men be established in Loulan.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=86}} A later military colony was established at Loulan (Lolan) by General Suo Man. It was recorded that in 222 CE, Shanshan sent tribute to China, and that in 283, the son of the king was sent as a hostage to the Chinese court during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Jin]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilization |editor=Charles F.W. Higham |publisher=Fact on Files, Inc |year=2004 |pages=309–311 |isbn=0-8160-4640-9 }}</ref> Loulan was also recorded as a dependent kingdom of Shanshan in the 3rd century ''[[Book of Wei]]''.<ref>[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html Annotated translation of the ''Weilüe'' by John E. Hill]</ref>
-The town of Loulan was abandoned in 330 CE, likely due to lack of water when the [[Tarim River]], which supported the settlement, changed course; the military garrison was moved {{convert|50|km}} south to Haitou (海頭). The fort of Yingpan to the northwest remained under Chinese control until the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>Baumer, Christoph. (2000), pp. 125–126, 135–136. ''Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin''. Bangkok, White Orchid Books.</ref> According to the ''Book of Wei'', King Bilong of Shanshan fled to Qiemo together with half of his countrymen after an attack by [[Juqu Anzhou]] in 442 CE so Shanshan came to be ruled by Qiemo.<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7102 Weishu] Original text: 真君三年，鄯善王比龍避沮渠安周之難，率國人之半奔且末，後役屬鄯善。 Translation: In the third year of [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei|Zhenjun]], the Loulan king Bilong, so as to avoid troubles from Juqu Anzhou, led half his countrymen and fled to Qiemo, which later controlled Shanshan.</ref> In 445 Shanshan submitted to the [[Northern Wei]]. At the end of the 6th century, the [[Sui dynasty]] reestablished the city state of Shanshan.<ref name="lopnor"/>
+The town of Loulan (Lolan) was abandoned in 330 CE, likely due to lack of water when the [[Tarim River]], which supported the settlement, changed course; the military garrison was moved {{convert|50|km}} south to Haitou (海頭). The fort of Yingpan to the northwest remained under Chinese control until the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>Baumer, Christoph. (2000), pp. 125–126, 135–136. ''Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin''. Bangkok, White Orchid Books.</ref> According to the ''Book of Wei'', King Bilong of Shanshan fled to Qiemo together with half of his countrymen after an attack by [[Juqu Anzhou]] in 442 CE so Shanshan came to be ruled by Qiemo.<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7102 Weishu] Original text: 真君三年，鄯善王比龍避沮渠安周之難，率國人之半奔且末，後役屬鄯善。 Translation: In the third year of [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei|Zhenjun]], the Loulan (Lolan) king Bilong, so as to avoid troubles from Juqu Anzhou, led half his countrymen and fled to Qiemo, which later controlled Shanshan.</ref> In 445 Shanshan submitted to the [[Northern Wei]]. At the end of the 6th century, the [[Sui dynasty]] reestablished the city state of Shanshan.<ref name="lopnor"/>
After the 5th century, however, the land was frequently invaded by nomadic states such as [[Tuyuhun]], the [[Rouran Khaganate]], and the [[Dingling]] and the area gradually was abandoned. {{Circa|630}}, at the beginning of the Tang period, Shanfutuo (鄯伏陁) led the remaining Shanshan people to [[Kumul, Xinjiang|Hami]].<ref name="lopnor">{{cite web |url=http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/rarebook/06/index.html.en |title=Hedin, the Man Who Solved the Mystery of the Wandering Lake: Lop Nor and Lou-lan |author1=Makiko Onishi |author2=Asanobu Kitamoto |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Digital Silk Road }}</ref>
@@ -123,5 +123,5 @@
==Descriptions in historical accounts ==
-[[File:Felt hat from Loulan. Early Han 202 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Felt and feather hat from Loulan. Early Han dynasty 202 BCE–8 CE]]
+[[File:Felt hat from Loulan (Lolan). Early Han 202 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Felt and feather hat from Loulan. Early Han dynasty 202 BCE–8 CE]]
According to the ''Book of Han'', Han envoys described the troops of Loulan as weak and easy to attack.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=86}} Shanshan was said to have 1,570 households and 14,000 individuals, with 2,912 persons able to bear arms.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=83}} It further described the region thus:
@@ -135,9 +135,9 @@
[[File:Miran fresco 12.jpg|thumb|300px|Winged male figure, with [[Hellenistic]] influences, from the mural paintings signed ''Tita'' in the Loulan site of [[Miran (Xinjiang)]], 3rd century CE]]
-The earliest known residents in Loulan are thought to have been a subgroup of the [[Tocharians]], an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]] of the Tarim Basin. Excavations in Loulan and the surrounding areas have found [[Tarim mummies|mummies]] believed to be remains of these people, for example the so-called "Beauty of Loulan" which was found by Chinese archaeologists in 1979–1980 at [[Qäwrighul]] (Gumugou), around 70 km west-north-west of Loulan. The mummies have been dated to as early as 1800 BCE.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=181–188}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qMZCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 |title=The Silk Road – China and the Karakorum Highway: A Travel Companion |first= Jonathan |last=Tucker |page=162 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=18 December 2013 |isbn=978-1780763569 }}</ref> Genetic and proteomic analyses of the mummies, however, suggests that the local population were genetically isolated but were influenced by practices of neighbouring populations.<ref name=zhang />
+The earliest known residents in Loulan (Lolan) are thought to have been a subgroup of the [[Tocharians]], an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]] of the Tarim Basin. Excavations in Loulan (Lolan) and the surrounding areas have found [[Tarim mummies|mummies]] believed to be remains of these people, for example the so-called "Beauty of Loulan" which was found by Chinese archaeologists in 1979–1980 at [[Qäwrighul]] (Gumugou), around 70 km west-north-west of Loulan. The mummies have been dated to as early as 1800 BCE.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=181–188}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qMZCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 |title=The Silk Road – China and the Karakorum Highway: A Travel Companion |first= Jonathan |last=Tucker |page=162 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=18 December 2013 |isbn=978-1780763569 }}</ref> Genetic and proteomic analyses of the mummies, however, suggests that the local population were genetically isolated but were influenced by practices of neighbouring populations.<ref name=zhang />
The official language found in 3rd century CE documents in this region is [[Gāndhārī language|Gandhari]] [[Prakrit]] written in [[Kharosthi]] script; their use in Loulan and elsewhere in the Tarim Basin was most likely due to the cultural legacy of the [[Kushan Empire]],<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171" /> and introduced by [[Gandharan]] migrants from the Kushan Empire.<ref name="Hansen">{{cite book |title= The Silk Road: A New History |author=Valerie Hansen |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318 |url-access= registration |chapter=Chapter 1: At the Crossroads of Central Asia – The Kingdom of Kroraina |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318/page/26 26] |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2012 |isbn=978-0195159318 }}</ref> These Gandharan migrants are also believed to have introduced [[Buddhism]] to Loulan.<ref name="Hansen" /> Although Gandhari was used as the administrative language, some words generally thought to be of Tocharian origin are found in the documents, suggesting that the locals spoke a language that belongs to the Tocharian group of languages.<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171" /><ref name="tocharian origin">{{cite journal |url=http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp259_tocharian_origins.pdf |title=The Problem of Tocharian Origins: An Archaeological Perspective|author=J. P. Mallory |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |number= 259 |page=6 |date=November 2015 }}</ref> This original language of Loulan is referred to as Krorainic or "[[Tocharian languages|Tocharian C]]", due to its relatedness to the two other Tocharian languages.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mallory|first=J.P.|title=Bronze Age languages of the Tarim Basin|url=http://penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf|journal=Expedition|volume=52|issue=3|pages=44–53|access-date=2012-08-30|archive-date=2021-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109090710/https://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> It has been partially reconstructed from around 100 loanwords and over a thousand proper names used in these Prakrit documents that cannot be ascribed to Indic.<ref name="tocharian origin"/> In 2018, documents from Loulan written in Tocharian C were published, indicating a relationship to Tocharian A and B, but transcription of the texts in this study has been rejected by other scholars.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=42318|title=Language Log » Tocharian C: its discovery and implications|access-date=2019-04-04}}</ref><ref name="adams-tocharian-c-again" >{{cite web |last1=Adams |first1=Douglas Q. |title='Tocharian C' Again: The Plot Thickens and the Mystery Deepens |url=https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44503 |website=Language Log |access-date=25 September 2019}}</ref>
-The native name of Loulan was "Kroraina" or "Krorän",<ref name="enoki 1998 200-257">Kazuo Enoki (1998), "Yü-ni-ch’êng and the Site of Lou-Lan," and "The Location of the Capital of Lou-Lan and the Date of the Kharoshthi Inscriptions," in Rokuro Kono (ed), ''Studia Asiatica: The Collected Papers in Western Languages of the Late Dr. Kazuo Enoki'', Tokyo: Kyu-Shoin, pp 200, 211–57.</ref><ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171"/> written in Chinese as Loulan 樓蘭 (''*glu-glân'' in reconstructed Han dynasty pronunciation, an approximation of Krorän).{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=81}} Centuries later in 664 CE the Tang Chinese Buddhist monk [[Xuanzang]] mentioned a place in Loulan named "Nafupo" (納縛溥), which according to Dr. Hisao Matsuda is a transliteration of the [[Sogdia|Sogdian word]] ''Navapa'' meaning "new water."<ref name="christopoulos 2012 footnote38">Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 20–21 footnote #38, ISSN 2157-9687.</ref> Sogdians, an [[Eastern Iranian people]], maintained minority communities in various places in China at the time,<ref>Howard, Michael C. (2012), ''Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel'', McFarland & Company, p. 134.</ref> especially [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu]] and [[Turfan]] in the Tarim Basin.<ref>Hansen, Valerie (2012), ''The Silk Road: A New History'', Oxford University Press, p. 98, {{ISBN|978-0-19-993921-3}}.</ref><ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Leiden & Boston: Brill, pp 870–72.</ref> Documents found in Loulan showed that [[Sogdia]]ns were present in the area in 313 CE, as well as Han Chinese and Tibetan tribesmen, indicating an ethnically diverse population in Loulan.<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA170 |first=Mariner |last=Padwa |title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith |editor=Susan Whitfield |editor-link=Susan Whitfield |editor2=Ursula Sims-Williams |pages=170–171 |publisher=British Library |date=August 2004|isbn= 978-1932476132 }}</ref>
+The native name of Loulan (Lolan) was "Kroraina" or "Krorän",<ref name="enoki 1998 200-257">Kazuo Enoki (1998), "Yü-ni-ch’êng and the Site of Lou-Lan," and "The Location of the Capital of Lou-Lan and the Date of the Kharoshthi Inscriptions," in Rokuro Kono (ed), ''Studia Asiatica: The Collected Papers in Western Languages of the Late Dr. Kazuo Enoki'', Tokyo: Kyu-Shoin, pp 200, 211–57.</ref><ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171"/> written in Chinese as Loulan 樓蘭 (''*glu-glân'' in reconstructed Han dynasty pronunciation, an approximation of Krorän).{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=81}} Centuries later in 664 CE the Tang Chinese Buddhist monk [[Xuanzang]] mentioned a place in Loulan named "Nafupo" (納縛溥), which according to Dr. Hisao Matsuda is a transliteration of the [[Sogdia|Sogdian word]] ''Navapa'' meaning "new water."<ref name="christopoulos 2012 footnote38">Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 20–21 footnote #38, ISSN 2157-9687.</ref> Sogdians, an [[Eastern Iranian people]], maintained minority communities in various places in China at the time,<ref>Howard, Michael C. (2012), ''Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel'', McFarland & Company, p. 134.</ref> especially [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu]] and [[Turfan]] in the Tarim Basin.<ref>Hansen, Valerie (2012), ''The Silk Road: A New History'', Oxford University Press, p. 98, {{ISBN|978-0-19-993921-3}}.</ref><ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Leiden & Boston: Brill, pp 870–72.</ref> Documents found in Loulan showed that [[Sogdia]]ns were present in the area in 313 CE, as well as Han Chinese and Tibetan tribesmen, indicating an ethnically diverse population in Loulan.<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA170 |first=Mariner |last=Padwa |title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith |editor=Susan Whitfield |editor-link=Susan Whitfield |editor2=Ursula Sims-Williams |pages=170–171 |publisher=British Library |date=August 2004|isbn= 978-1932476132 }}</ref>
==Archaeology==
@@ -145,5 +145,5 @@
===Sven Hedin===
-The ruined city of Loulan was discovered by [[Sven Hedin]], who excavated some houses and found a wooden [[Kharosthi]] tablet and many Chinese manuscripts from the [[Western Jin dynasty]] (266–420), which recorded that the area was called "Krorän" by the locals in Kharosthi but was rendered as "Lou-lan" in Chinese.<ref name="lopnor"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Hedin|first=Sven|title=Through Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106896|year=1898|publisher=Methuen & Co|location=London}}</ref> Hedin also proposed that a change in the course of the [[Tarim river]] resulted in Lop Nur drying up may be the reason why Loulan had perished.<ref name="lopnor"/>
+The ruined city of Loulan (Lolan) was discovered by [[Sven Hedin]], who excavated some houses and found a wooden [[Kharosthi]] tablet and many Chinese manuscripts from the [[Western Jin dynasty]] (266–420), which recorded that the area was called "Krorän" by the locals in Kharosthi but was rendered as "Lou-lan" in Chinese.<ref name="lopnor"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Hedin|first=Sven|title=Through Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106896|year=1898|publisher=Methuen & Co|location=London}}</ref> Hedin also proposed that a change in the course of the [[Tarim river]] resulted in Lop Nur drying up may be the reason why Loulan had perished.<ref name="lopnor"/>
===Aurel Stein===
@@ -159,5 +159,5 @@
=== Chinese archaeological expedition, 1979–1980 ===
-[[File:Loulan Museum, Charklik.jpg|thumb|[[Commons:Category:Loulan Museum|Loulan Museum]], Charklik]]
+[[File:Loulan (Lolan) Museum, Charklik.jpg|thumb|[[Commons:Category:Loulan Museum|Loulan Museum]], Charklik]]
In 1979 and 1980, three archaeological expeditions sponsored by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Xinjiang Branch performed excavations in Loulan.<ref>Ma Dazheng. [http://bic.cass.cn/english/infoShow/Arcitle_Show_Forum2_Show.asp?ID=243&Title=The%20Humanities%20Study&strNavigation=Home-%3EForum-%3EEthnography&BigClassID=4&SmallClassID=8 An Overview of 20th Century Xinjiang Explorations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724021554/http://bic.cass.cn/english/infoShow/Arcitle_Show_Forum2_Show.asp?ID=243&Title=The%20Humanities%20Study&strNavigation=Home-%3EForum-%3EEthnography&BigClassID=4&SmallClassID=8 |date=2011-07-24 }}. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Web site, 2003 May 22</ref> They discovered a [[canal]] {{convert|15|ft|m}} deep and {{convert|55|ft|m}} wide running through Loulan from northwest to southeast, a {{convert|32|ft|m|sing=on}} high earthen [[dome]]-shaped [[Buddhist]] [[stupa]]; and a home {{convert|41|ft|m}} long by {{convert|28|ft|m}} wide, apparently for a Chinese official, housing 3 rooms and supported by wooden [[column|pillar]]s. They also collected 797 objects from the area, including [[packaging and labelling|vessel]]s of wood, [[bronze]] objects, [[jewellery]] and [[coin]]s, and [[Mesolithic]] [[stone tool]]s<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/world/20050113-104224-1613r.htm |title=Loulan vanished in sand |work=Washington Times |date= 2005-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Mallory, J. P. |author2=Mair, Victor H. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West |publisher=Thames & Hudson. London |isbn=0-500-05101-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall }}</ref> Other reported (2003) finds in the area include additional [[mummy|mummies]] and [[burial]] grounds, [[Ephedra (plant)|ephedra]] sticks, a string [[bracelet]] that holds a hollowed [[jade]] stone, a [[leather]] [[bag|pouch]], a [[wool]]en [[loincloth]], a wooden [[mask]] painted red and with large nose and teeth, [[boat]]-shaped [[coffin]]s, a [[bow (weapon)|bow]] with [[arrow]]s and a straw [[basket]].{{cn|date=May 2019}}
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0 => '| p = Lóulán (Lolan)',
1 => ''''Loulan''' (Lolan) ({{lang-zh|t={{linktext|樓蘭}}|p=Lóulán}} < [[Eastern Han Chinese]] ''lo-lɑn'' < [[Old Chinese]] ''rô-rân''<ref>Schuessler, Axel. (2009) ''Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 152, 246</ref>), also known as '''Kroraïna''' (Krorayina) in native [[Gandhari language|Gandhari]] documents or '''Krorän''' in later Uyghur ({{lang-ug|كروران}}), was an ancient kingdom based around an important [[oasis]] city along the [[Silk Road]] already known in the 2nd century BCE on the northeastern edge of the [[Lop Desert]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=233}}<ref>{{Cite web',
2 => '}}</ref> The term Loulan (Lolan) is the Chinese transcription of the native name Kroraïna and is used to refer to the city near Lop Nur as well as the kingdom.',
3 => 'By the 2nd century BC, Loulan (Lolan) had grown to dominate the region around the [[Tarim Basin]]. Archeological evidence suggests a sophisticated culture with major importance in the trade between central Asia and India. Southern merchants passed through mountain ranges such as the [[Karakoram]], [[Himalayas]] and [[Hindu Kush]] as far north as the Taklamakan desert, to important trading cities like Loulan and its commercial rival Niya. This is evidenced by graffiti carved on stones along the route in Indic scripts such as [[Kharosti]] and [[Brahmi]], while there are depictions of [[Siddhartha Gautama]] (evidencing the spread of [[Buddhism]] along the trade route). From here,',
4 => '[[File:Loulan (Lolan) silk fragment.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sichuan embroidery|Sichuan brocade]] fragment uncovered in Loulan (Lolan) Kingdom<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdmuseum.com/xinwen/201903/462.html |title=锦漆铜铁茶——丝绸之路上的天府制造 |trans-title=Brocade, lacquer, bronze, iron, and tea: Artifacts made in Sichuan unearthed along the Silk Road |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=March 28, 2017 |website=[[Chengdu Museum|cdmuseum.com]] |language=zh-hans |access-date=March 27, 2023}}</ref>]]',
5 => 'The first contemporaneous mention of Loulan (Lolan), in Chinese records, are from 126 BCE. A letter from the ''[[Chanyu]]'' of the [[Xiongnu]] to the Chinese emperor, in which the Chanyu boasted of conquering Loulan, as well as the [[Yuezhi]], [[Wusun]], Hujie (呼揭) and another "26 states nearby". In the same year, the Chinese envoy [[Zhang Qian]] described Loulan (Lolan) as a [[Defensive wall|fortified]] city near the great salt lake or marsh known as [[Lop Nur]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=140}}',
6 => 'The Han emperor was satisfied with the statement and released the king, but retained his son as hostage. When this particular king of Loulan died, in 92 BCE, his court requested that the Han court release the king's son and heir be returned to Loulan (Lolan). In the meantime, however, this prince from Loulan had been castrated for infringing Han law, without the knowledge of Loulan. The Han court replied that its Emperor had grown too fond of the prince to release him, and that another son should be enthroned in Loulan. The son of the new king was also sent to the Han court as a hostage, yet another was sent to the Xiongnu. After the death of this king of Loulan, the Xiongnu returned the hostage sent previously by Loulan – a prince named Chang Gui or An Gui (嘗歸 or 安歸), who became king of Loulan. When the Han court heard of this, it demanded that the new king present himself to the Han court. Chang Gui refused, on his wife's advice – because the Han court had previously failed to return hostages.',
7 => '[[File:Oxhide boots. Loulan (Lolan), Xinjiang. Early Han 220 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Oxhide boots from Loulan. [[Han dynasty|Former Han dynasty]] 220 BCE-8 CE.]]',
8 => 'In 77 BCE, after several Han envoys had been intercepted and killed in or near Loulan, a Chinese delegation was sent with orders to assassinate the king of Loulan, including an envoy named [[Fu Jiezi]]. Fu Jiezi gained entry to Loulan (Lolan) by claiming to carry silk and valuables as gifts for the king. After the king of Loulan became drunk after receiving his gifts, Fu Jiezi's guard stabbed him to death, severed his head and had it hung from a tower above the northern gate. Upon completing the assassination, the guard supposedly proclaimed: "The Son of Heaven (Han Emperor Zhao) has sent me to punish the king, by reason of his crime in turning against the Han...Han troops are about the arrive here; do not dare to make any move which would result in yourselves bringing about the destruction of your state." {{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=90}} While the king's younger brother Weituqi (尉屠耆) succeeded him as king, the Han court apparently tightened its grip on Loulan from this point – a step symbolized by the Han court obliging Loulan (Lolan) to adopt a new official name, the non-native [[exonym]] [[Shanshan]].{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=90–91}}',
9 => '[[File:Loulan (Lolan) Mural Tomb (mural).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Loulan tomb mural, 220–420 CE. [[Loulan Museum]]]]',
10 => 'After the Han dynasty had gained control of Loulan (Lolan), the renamed kingdom of Shanshan became a Chinese puppet state.<ref name="lopnor"/> The newly installed king, fearing retribution from the sons of the assassinated king, requested that a contingent of Han forces be established in Yixun (伊循, variously identified as Charklik or Miran). Chinese army officers were sent to colonize the area, and an office of commandant was established at Yixun.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=91–92}} A number of settlements in the Tarim Basin such as Qiemo and Niya were described in the ''Book of Han'' as independent states, but these later became part of Shanshan. While the name of the kingdom was changed to Shanshan by the Chinese, the Loulan (Lolan) region continued to be known as Kroran by the locals.',
11 => 'The region remained under Chinese control intermittently, and when China was weak in the [[Western Regions]], Loulan (Lolan) was essentially independent. In 25 CE it was recorded that Loulan (Lolan) was in league with the Xiongnu. In 73 CE, the Han army officer [[Ban Chao]] went with a small group of followers to Shanshan, which was also receiving a delegation from the Xiongnu at the same time. Ban Chao killed the Xiongnu envoys and presented their heads to the King, after which King Guang of Shanshan submitted to Han authority.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) |author=Rafe de Crespigny |date= 14 May 2014|publisher= Brill Academic Publishers|isbn= 9789047411840 |pages=4–5}}</ref> This would ensure the first step of the '[[Silk Road]]' from central China to Shanshan would be under stable Chinese control. Around 119, [[Ban Yong]] recommended that a Chinese colony of 500 men be established in Loulan.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=86}} A later military colony was established at Loulan (Lolan) by General Suo Man. It was recorded that in 222 CE, Shanshan sent tribute to China, and that in 283, the son of the king was sent as a hostage to the Chinese court during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Jin]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilization |editor=Charles F.W. Higham |publisher=Fact on Files, Inc |year=2004 |pages=309–311 |isbn=0-8160-4640-9 }}</ref> Loulan was also recorded as a dependent kingdom of Shanshan in the 3rd century ''[[Book of Wei]]''.<ref>[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html Annotated translation of the ''Weilüe'' by John E. Hill]</ref>',
12 => 'The town of Loulan (Lolan) was abandoned in 330 CE, likely due to lack of water when the [[Tarim River]], which supported the settlement, changed course; the military garrison was moved {{convert|50|km}} south to Haitou (海頭). The fort of Yingpan to the northwest remained under Chinese control until the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>Baumer, Christoph. (2000), pp. 125–126, 135–136. ''Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin''. Bangkok, White Orchid Books.</ref> According to the ''Book of Wei'', King Bilong of Shanshan fled to Qiemo together with half of his countrymen after an attack by [[Juqu Anzhou]] in 442 CE so Shanshan came to be ruled by Qiemo.<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7102 Weishu] Original text: 真君三年，鄯善王比龍避沮渠安周之難，率國人之半奔且末，後役屬鄯善。 Translation: In the third year of [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei|Zhenjun]], the Loulan (Lolan) king Bilong, so as to avoid troubles from Juqu Anzhou, led half his countrymen and fled to Qiemo, which later controlled Shanshan.</ref> In 445 Shanshan submitted to the [[Northern Wei]]. At the end of the 6th century, the [[Sui dynasty]] reestablished the city state of Shanshan.<ref name="lopnor"/>',
13 => '[[File:Felt hat from Loulan (Lolan). Early Han 202 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Felt and feather hat from Loulan. Early Han dynasty 202 BCE–8 CE]]',
14 => 'The earliest known residents in Loulan (Lolan) are thought to have been a subgroup of the [[Tocharians]], an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]] of the Tarim Basin. Excavations in Loulan (Lolan) and the surrounding areas have found [[Tarim mummies|mummies]] believed to be remains of these people, for example the so-called "Beauty of Loulan" which was found by Chinese archaeologists in 1979–1980 at [[Qäwrighul]] (Gumugou), around 70 km west-north-west of Loulan. The mummies have been dated to as early as 1800 BCE.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=181–188}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qMZCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 |title=The Silk Road – China and the Karakorum Highway: A Travel Companion |first= Jonathan |last=Tucker |page=162 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=18 December 2013 |isbn=978-1780763569 }}</ref> Genetic and proteomic analyses of the mummies, however, suggests that the local population were genetically isolated but were influenced by practices of neighbouring populations.<ref name=zhang />',
15 => 'The native name of Loulan (Lolan) was "Kroraina" or "Krorän",<ref name="enoki 1998 200-257">Kazuo Enoki (1998), "Yü-ni-ch’êng and the Site of Lou-Lan," and "The Location of the Capital of Lou-Lan and the Date of the Kharoshthi Inscriptions," in Rokuro Kono (ed), ''Studia Asiatica: The Collected Papers in Western Languages of the Late Dr. Kazuo Enoki'', Tokyo: Kyu-Shoin, pp 200, 211–57.</ref><ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171"/> written in Chinese as Loulan 樓蘭 (''*glu-glân'' in reconstructed Han dynasty pronunciation, an approximation of Krorän).{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=81}} Centuries later in 664 CE the Tang Chinese Buddhist monk [[Xuanzang]] mentioned a place in Loulan named "Nafupo" (納縛溥), which according to Dr. Hisao Matsuda is a transliteration of the [[Sogdia|Sogdian word]] ''Navapa'' meaning "new water."<ref name="christopoulos 2012 footnote38">Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 20–21 footnote #38, ISSN 2157-9687.</ref> Sogdians, an [[Eastern Iranian people]], maintained minority communities in various places in China at the time,<ref>Howard, Michael C. (2012), ''Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel'', McFarland & Company, p. 134.</ref> especially [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu]] and [[Turfan]] in the Tarim Basin.<ref>Hansen, Valerie (2012), ''The Silk Road: A New History'', Oxford University Press, p. 98, {{ISBN|978-0-19-993921-3}}.</ref><ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Leiden & Boston: Brill, pp 870–72.</ref> Documents found in Loulan showed that [[Sogdia]]ns were present in the area in 313 CE, as well as Han Chinese and Tibetan tribesmen, indicating an ethnically diverse population in Loulan.<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA170 |first=Mariner |last=Padwa |title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith |editor=Susan Whitfield |editor-link=Susan Whitfield |editor2=Ursula Sims-Williams |pages=170–171 |publisher=British Library |date=August 2004|isbn= 978-1932476132 }}</ref>',
16 => 'The ruined city of Loulan (Lolan) was discovered by [[Sven Hedin]], who excavated some houses and found a wooden [[Kharosthi]] tablet and many Chinese manuscripts from the [[Western Jin dynasty]] (266–420), which recorded that the area was called "Krorän" by the locals in Kharosthi but was rendered as "Lou-lan" in Chinese.<ref name="lopnor"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Hedin|first=Sven|title=Through Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106896|year=1898|publisher=Methuen & Co|location=London}}</ref> Hedin also proposed that a change in the course of the [[Tarim river]] resulted in Lop Nur drying up may be the reason why Loulan had perished.<ref name="lopnor"/>',
17 => '[[File:Loulan (Lolan) Museum, Charklik.jpg|thumb|[[Commons:Category:Loulan Museum|Loulan Museum]], Charklik]]'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '| p = Lóulán',
1 => ''''Loulan''' ({{lang-zh|t={{linktext|樓蘭}}|p=Lóulán}} < [[Eastern Han Chinese]] ''lo-lɑn'' < [[Old Chinese]] ''rô-rân''<ref>Schuessler, Axel. (2009) ''Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 152, 246</ref>), also known as '''Kroraïna''' (Krorayina) in native [[Gandhari language|Gandhari]] documents or '''Krorän''' in later Uyghur ({{lang-ug|كروران}}), was an ancient kingdom based around an important [[oasis]] city along the [[Silk Road]] already known in the 2nd century BCE on the northeastern edge of the [[Lop Desert]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=233}}<ref>{{Cite web',
2 => '}}</ref> The term Loulan is the Chinese transcription of the native name Kroraïna and is used to refer to the city near Lop Nur as well as the kingdom.',
3 => 'By the 2nd century BC, Loulan had grown to dominate the region around the [[Tarim Basin]]. Archeological evidence suggests a sophisticated culture with major importance in the trade between central Asia and India. Southern merchants passed through mountain ranges such as the [[Karakoram]], [[Himalayas]] and [[Hindu Kush]] as far north as the Taklamakan desert, to important trading cities like Loulan and its commercial rival Niya. This is evidenced by graffiti carved on stones along the route in Indic scripts such as [[Kharosti]] and [[Brahmi]], while there are depictions of [[Siddhartha Gautama]] (evidencing the spread of [[Buddhism]] along the trade route). From here,',
4 => '[[File:Loulan silk fragment.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sichuan embroidery|Sichuan brocade]] fragment uncovered in Loulan Kingdom<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdmuseum.com/xinwen/201903/462.html |title=锦漆铜铁茶——丝绸之路上的天府制造 |trans-title=Brocade, lacquer, bronze, iron, and tea: Artifacts made in Sichuan unearthed along the Silk Road |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=March 28, 2017 |website=[[Chengdu Museum|cdmuseum.com]] |language=zh-hans |access-date=March 27, 2023}}</ref>]]',
5 => 'The first contemporaneous mention of Loulan, in Chinese records, are from 126 BCE. A letter from the ''[[Chanyu]]'' of the [[Xiongnu]] to the Chinese emperor, in which the Chanyu boasted of conquering Loulan, as well as the [[Yuezhi]], [[Wusun]], Hujie (呼揭) and another "26 states nearby". In the same year, the Chinese envoy [[Zhang Qian]] described Loulan as a [[Defensive wall|fortified]] city near the great salt lake or marsh known as [[Lop Nur]].{{sfn|Watson|1993|page=140}}',
6 => 'The Han emperor was satisfied with the statement and released the king, but retained his son as hostage. When this particular king of Loulan died, in 92 BCE, his court requested that the Han court release the king's son and heir be returned to Loulan. In the meantime, however, this prince from Loulan had been castrated for infringing Han law, without the knowledge of Loulan. The Han court replied that its Emperor had grown too fond of the prince to release him, and that another son should be enthroned in Loulan. The son of the new king was also sent to the Han court as a hostage, yet another was sent to the Xiongnu. After the death of this king of Loulan, the Xiongnu returned the hostage sent previously by Loulan – a prince named Chang Gui or An Gui (嘗歸 or 安歸), who became king of Loulan. When the Han court heard of this, it demanded that the new king present himself to the Han court. Chang Gui refused, on his wife's advice – because the Han court had previously failed to return hostages.',
7 => '[[File:Oxhide boots. Loulan, Xinjiang. Early Han 220 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Oxhide boots from Loulan. [[Han dynasty|Former Han dynasty]] 220 BCE-8 CE.]]',
8 => 'In 77 BCE, after several Han envoys had been intercepted and killed in or near Loulan, a Chinese delegation was sent with orders to assassinate the king of Loulan, including an envoy named [[Fu Jiezi]]. Fu Jiezi gained entry to Loulan by claiming to carry silk and valuables as gifts for the king. After the king of Loulan became drunk after receiving his gifts, Fu Jiezi's guard stabbed him to death, severed his head and had it hung from a tower above the northern gate. Upon completing the assassination, the guard supposedly proclaimed: "The Son of Heaven (Han Emperor Zhao) has sent me to punish the king, by reason of his crime in turning against the Han...Han troops are about the arrive here; do not dare to make any move which would result in yourselves bringing about the destruction of your state." {{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|page=90}} While the king's younger brother Weituqi (尉屠耆) succeeded him as king, the Han court apparently tightened its grip on Loulan from this point – a step symbolized by the Han court obliging Loulan to adopt a new official name, the non-native [[exonym]] [[Shanshan]].{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=90–91}}',
9 => '[[File:Loulan Mural Tomb (mural).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Loulan tomb mural, 220–420 CE. [[Loulan Museum]]]]',
10 => 'After the Han dynasty had gained control of Loulan, the renamed kingdom of Shanshan became a Chinese puppet state.<ref name="lopnor"/> The newly installed king, fearing retribution from the sons of the assassinated king, requested that a contingent of Han forces be established in Yixun (伊循, variously identified as Charklik or Miran). Chinese army officers were sent to colonize the area, and an office of commandant was established at Yixun.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1979|pages=91–92}} A number of settlements in the Tarim Basin such as Qiemo and Niya were described in the ''Book of Han'' as independent states, but these later became part of Shanshan. While the name of the kingdom was changed to Shanshan by the Chinese, the Loulan region continued to be known as Kroran by the locals.',
11 => 'The region remained under Chinese control intermittently, and when China was weak in the [[Western Regions]], Loulan was essentially independent. In 25 CE it was recorded that Loulan was in league with the Xiongnu. In 73 CE, the Han army officer [[Ban Chao]] went with a small group of followers to Shanshan, which was also receiving a delegation from the Xiongnu at the same time. Ban Chao killed the Xiongnu envoys and presented their heads to the King, after which King Guang of Shanshan submitted to Han authority.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) |author=Rafe de Crespigny |date= 14 May 2014|publisher= Brill Academic Publishers|isbn= 9789047411840 |pages=4–5}}</ref> This would ensure the first step of the '[[Silk Road]]' from central China to Shanshan would be under stable Chinese control. Around 119, [[Ban Yong]] recommended that a Chinese colony of 500 men be established in Loulan.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=86}} A later military colony was established at Loulan by General Suo Man. It was recorded that in 222 CE, Shanshan sent tribute to China, and that in 283, the son of the king was sent as a hostage to the Chinese court during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Jin]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilization |editor=Charles F.W. Higham |publisher=Fact on Files, Inc |year=2004 |pages=309–311 |isbn=0-8160-4640-9 }}</ref> Loulan was also recorded as a dependent kingdom of Shanshan in the 3rd century ''[[Book of Wei]]''.<ref>[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html Annotated translation of the ''Weilüe'' by John E. Hill]</ref>',
12 => 'The town of Loulan was abandoned in 330 CE, likely due to lack of water when the [[Tarim River]], which supported the settlement, changed course; the military garrison was moved {{convert|50|km}} south to Haitou (海頭). The fort of Yingpan to the northwest remained under Chinese control until the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>Baumer, Christoph. (2000), pp. 125–126, 135–136. ''Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin''. Bangkok, White Orchid Books.</ref> According to the ''Book of Wei'', King Bilong of Shanshan fled to Qiemo together with half of his countrymen after an attack by [[Juqu Anzhou]] in 442 CE so Shanshan came to be ruled by Qiemo.<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7102 Weishu] Original text: 真君三年，鄯善王比龍避沮渠安周之難，率國人之半奔且末，後役屬鄯善。 Translation: In the third year of [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei|Zhenjun]], the Loulan king Bilong, so as to avoid troubles from Juqu Anzhou, led half his countrymen and fled to Qiemo, which later controlled Shanshan.</ref> In 445 Shanshan submitted to the [[Northern Wei]]. At the end of the 6th century, the [[Sui dynasty]] reestablished the city state of Shanshan.<ref name="lopnor"/>',
13 => '[[File:Felt hat from Loulan. Early Han 202 BCE - 8 CE.jpg|thumb|Felt and feather hat from Loulan. Early Han dynasty 202 BCE–8 CE]]',
14 => 'The earliest known residents in Loulan are thought to have been a subgroup of the [[Tocharians]], an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]] of the Tarim Basin. Excavations in Loulan and the surrounding areas have found [[Tarim mummies|mummies]] believed to be remains of these people, for example the so-called "Beauty of Loulan" which was found by Chinese archaeologists in 1979–1980 at [[Qäwrighul]] (Gumugou), around 70 km west-north-west of Loulan. The mummies have been dated to as early as 1800 BCE.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|pages=181–188}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qMZCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 |title=The Silk Road – China and the Karakorum Highway: A Travel Companion |first= Jonathan |last=Tucker |page=162 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=18 December 2013 |isbn=978-1780763569 }}</ref> Genetic and proteomic analyses of the mummies, however, suggests that the local population were genetically isolated but were influenced by practices of neighbouring populations.<ref name=zhang />',
15 => 'The native name of Loulan was "Kroraina" or "Krorän",<ref name="enoki 1998 200-257">Kazuo Enoki (1998), "Yü-ni-ch’êng and the Site of Lou-Lan," and "The Location of the Capital of Lou-Lan and the Date of the Kharoshthi Inscriptions," in Rokuro Kono (ed), ''Studia Asiatica: The Collected Papers in Western Languages of the Late Dr. Kazuo Enoki'', Tokyo: Kyu-Shoin, pp 200, 211–57.</ref><ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171"/> written in Chinese as Loulan 樓蘭 (''*glu-glân'' in reconstructed Han dynasty pronunciation, an approximation of Krorän).{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000|page=81}} Centuries later in 664 CE the Tang Chinese Buddhist monk [[Xuanzang]] mentioned a place in Loulan named "Nafupo" (納縛溥), which according to Dr. Hisao Matsuda is a transliteration of the [[Sogdia|Sogdian word]] ''Navapa'' meaning "new water."<ref name="christopoulos 2012 footnote38">Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 20–21 footnote #38, ISSN 2157-9687.</ref> Sogdians, an [[Eastern Iranian people]], maintained minority communities in various places in China at the time,<ref>Howard, Michael C. (2012), ''Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel'', McFarland & Company, p. 134.</ref> especially [[Dunhuang]] in [[Gansu]] and [[Turfan]] in the Tarim Basin.<ref>Hansen, Valerie (2012), ''The Silk Road: A New History'', Oxford University Press, p. 98, {{ISBN|978-0-19-993921-3}}.</ref><ref>Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, ''A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture'', Leiden & Boston: Brill, pp 870–72.</ref> Documents found in Loulan showed that [[Sogdia]]ns were present in the area in 313 CE, as well as Han Chinese and Tibetan tribesmen, indicating an ethnically diverse population in Loulan.<ref name="whitfield sims 2004 p170-171">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA170 |first=Mariner |last=Padwa |title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith |editor=Susan Whitfield |editor-link=Susan Whitfield |editor2=Ursula Sims-Williams |pages=170–171 |publisher=British Library |date=August 2004|isbn= 978-1932476132 }}</ref>',
16 => 'The ruined city of Loulan was discovered by [[Sven Hedin]], who excavated some houses and found a wooden [[Kharosthi]] tablet and many Chinese manuscripts from the [[Western Jin dynasty]] (266–420), which recorded that the area was called "Krorän" by the locals in Kharosthi but was rendered as "Lou-lan" in Chinese.<ref name="lopnor"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Hedin|first=Sven|title=Through Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106896|year=1898|publisher=Methuen & Co|location=London}}</ref> Hedin also proposed that a change in the course of the [[Tarim river]] resulted in Lop Nur drying up may be the reason why Loulan had perished.<ref name="lopnor"/>',
17 => '[[File:Loulan Museum, Charklik.jpg|thumb|[[Commons:Category:Loulan Museum|Loulan Museum]], Charklik]]'
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31 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5',
32 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=3qMZCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162',
33 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA170',
34 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049192',
35 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=77cc9HpdiCIC&pg=PA876',
36 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8580821',
37 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Natur.599..256Z',
38 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04052-7',
39 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34707286',
40 => 'https://cdmuseum.com/xinwen/201903/462.html',
41 => 'https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nb2014004738',
42 => 'https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Loulan_Kingdom¶ms=40_31_39.48_N_89_50_26.32_E_',
43 => 'https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Loulan_Kingdom¶ms=40_31_39.48_N_89_50_26.32_E_type:landmark',
44 => 'https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=42724',
45 => 'https://gandhari.org/catalog?itemID=1845',
46 => 'https://gandhari.org/dictionary/krorayina',
47 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20210109090710/https://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient kingdom in Xinjiang, China</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1229112069">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Loulan (Lolan)</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="nickname">Kroraïna</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:LoulanCarvedWoodenBeam.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/LoulanCarvedWoodenBeam.JPG/220px-LoulanCarvedWoodenBeam.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/LoulanCarvedWoodenBeam.JPG/330px-LoulanCarvedWoodenBeam.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/LoulanCarvedWoodenBeam.JPG/440px-LoulanCarvedWoodenBeam.JPG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="409" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A carved wooden beam from Loulan in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, 3rd–4th century. The patterns show influences from ancient western civilizations.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="switcher-container"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1226520648">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:China_Xinjiang_rel_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Loulan Kingdom is located in Xinjiang"><img alt="Loulan Kingdom is located in Xinjiang" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/China_Xinjiang_rel_location_map.svg/250px-China_Xinjiang_rel_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/China_Xinjiang_rel_location_map.svg/375px-China_Xinjiang_rel_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/China_Xinjiang_rel_location_map.svg/500px-China_Xinjiang_rel_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2220" data-file-height="1939" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:58.371%;left:70.811%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Loulan Kingdom"><img alt="Loulan Kingdom" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Shown within Xinjiang</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Xinjiang</span></div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1226520648"><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Loulan Kingdom is located in China"><img alt="Loulan Kingdom is located in China" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg/250px-China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg/375px-China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg/500px-China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1968" data-file-height="1567" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:40.289%;left:28.189%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Loulan Kingdom"><img alt="Loulan Kingdom" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Loulan Kingdom (China)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of China</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alternative name</th><td class="infobox-data nickname">Krorän</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Loulan_Kingdom&params=40_31_39.48_N_89_50_26.32_E_type:landmark"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">40°31′39.48″N</span> <span class="longitude">89°50′26.32″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">40.5276333°N 89.8406444°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">40.5276333; 89.8406444</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data category">Settlement</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">Site notes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Condition</th><td class="infobox-data">In ruins</td></tr></tbody></table>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Loulan Kingdom</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">樓蘭</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">楼兰</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"><table class="infobox-subbox collapsible collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Lóulán (Lolan)</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Uyghur name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1074196468">.mw-parser-output .font-uig{font-family:"UKIJ Tuz","UKIJ Nasq","UKIJ Basma","UKIJ_Mac Basma","UKIJ Zilwa","UKIJ Esliye","UKIJ Tuz Basma","UKIJ Tuz Kitab","UKIJ Tuz Gezit","UKIJ Tuz Qara","UKIJ Tuz Qara","UKIJ Tuz Tor","UKIJ Kesme","UKIJ Kesme Tuz","UKIJ Qara","UKIJ Basma Aq","UKIJ Basma Qara","UKIJ Basma Tuz","UKIJ Putuk","UKIJ Tuz Xet","UKIJ Tom Xet","UKIJ Tuz Jurnal","UKIJ Arabic","UKIJ CJK","UKIJ Ekran","UKIJ_Mac Ekran","UKIJ Teng","UKIJ Tor","UKIJ Tuz Tom","UKIJ Mono Keng","UKIJ Mono Tar","UKIJ Nokia","UKIJ SimSun","UKIJ Yanfon","UKIJ Qolyazma","UKIJ Saet","UKIJ Nasq Zilwa","UKIJ Sulus","UKIJ Sulus Tom","UKIJ 3D","UKIJ Diwani","UKIJ Diwani Yantu","UKIJ Diwani Tom","UKIJ Esliye Tom","UKIJ Esliye Qara","UKIJ Jelliy","UKIJ Kufi","UKIJ Kufi Tar","UKIJ Kufi Uz","UKIJ Kufi Yay","UKIJ Merdane","UKIJ Ruqi","UKIJ Mejnuntal","UKIJ Junun","UKIJ Moy Qelem","UKIJ Chiwer Kesme","UKIJ Orxun-Yensey","UKIJ Elipbe","UKIJ Qolyazma Tez","UKIJ Qolyazma Tuz","UKIJ Qolyazma Yantu","UKIJ Ruqi Tuz",FZWWBBOT_Unicode,FZWWHQHTOT_Unicode,"Scheherazade New",Scheherazade,Lateef,LateefGR,"Microsoft Uighur","Noto Naskh Arabic","Times New Roman",Arial,"Microsoft Sans Serif";font-feature-settings:"cv50"1}</style><span lang="ug" class="font-uig" style="font-size:125%;">كروران</span>‎</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"><table class="infobox-subbox collapsible collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uyghur_Latin_alphabet" title="Uyghur Latin alphabet">Latin Yëziqi</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Uyghur-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ug-Latn">Kroran</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uyghur_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet">Siril Yëziqi</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Uyghur-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ug-Latn">Кроран</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Loulan</b> (Lolan) (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A8%93%E8%98%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:樓蘭">樓蘭</a></span>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Lóulán</span></i> < <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han Chinese</a> <i>lo-lɑn</i> < <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> <i>rô-rân</i><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>), also known as <b>Kroraïna</b> (Krorayina) in native <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhari_language" title="Gandhari language">Gandhari</a> documents or <b>Krorän</b> in later Uyghur (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a>: <span lang="ug" dir="rtl">كروران</span>), was an ancient kingdom based around an important <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">oasis</a> city along the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> already known in the 2nd century BCE on the northeastern edge of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lop_Desert" title="Lop Desert">Lop Desert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson1993233_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson1993233-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> The term Loulan (Lolan) is the Chinese transcription of the native name Kroraïna and is used to refer to the city near Lop Nur as well as the kingdom.
</p><p>The kingdom was renamed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shanshan</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%84%AF%E5%96%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:鄯善">鄯善</a>) after its king was assassinated by an envoy of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> in 77 BCE;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197989_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197989-6">[6]</a></sup> however, the town at the northwestern corner of the brackish desert lake <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lop_Nur" title="Lop Nur">Lop Nur</a> retained the name of Loulan. The kingdom included at various times settlements such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niya_ruins" title="Niya ruins">Niya</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charklik_(ancient_settlement)" title="Charklik (ancient settlement)">Charklik</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miran_(Xinjiang)" title="Miran (Xinjiang)">Miran</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qiemo_Town" title="Qiemo Town">Qiemo</a>. It was intermittently under Chinese control from the early Han dynasty onward until its abandonment centuries later. The ruins of Loulan are near the now-desiccated Lop Nur in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bayingolin_Mongol_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture">Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> and they are now completely surrounded by desert.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200081–87_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200081–87-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Pre-Han_Kingdom"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pre-Han Kingdom</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Early_Han_dynasty"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Early Han dynasty</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Shanshan"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Shanshan</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Descriptions_in_historical_accounts"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Descriptions in historical accounts</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Ethnolinguistic_identity"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Ethnolinguistic identity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Archaeology"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Archaeology</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Sven_Hedin"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sven Hedin</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Aurel_Stein"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Aurel Stein</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Chinese_archaeological_expedition,_1979–1980"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Chinese archaeological expedition, 1979–1980</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Footnotes"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Footnotes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tarimbecken_3._Jahrhundert.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Tarimbecken_3._Jahrhundert.png/350px-Tarimbecken_3._Jahrhundert.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Tarimbecken_3._Jahrhundert.png/525px-Tarimbecken_3._Jahrhundert.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Tarimbecken_3._Jahrhundert.png/700px-Tarimbecken_3._Jahrhundert.png 2x" data-file-width="2114" data-file-height="1059" /></a><figcaption>The Tarim Basin in the 3rd century, showing two sites of the town of Loulan, the Shanshan kingdom, and the related states</figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Pre-Han_Kingdom">Pre-Han Kingdom</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pre-Han Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>By the 2nd century BC, Loulan (Lolan) had grown to dominate the region around the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>. Archeological evidence suggests a sophisticated culture with major importance in the trade between central Asia and India. Southern merchants passed through mountain ranges such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karakoram" title="Karakoram">Karakoram</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> as far north as the Taklamakan desert, to important trading cities like Loulan and its commercial rival Niya. This is evidenced by graffiti carved on stones along the route in Indic scripts such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kharosti" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharosti">Kharosti</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brahmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmi">Brahmi</a>, while there are depictions of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siddhartha_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhartha Gautama">Siddhartha Gautama</a> (evidencing the spread of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> along the trade route). From here,
Loulan was on the main route from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Korla" title="Korla">Korla</a>, where it joined the so-called "northern route," and was also connected by a route southwest to the kingdom's seat of government in the town of Wuni in the Charkhlik/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ruoqiang_County" title="Ruoqiang County">Ruoqiang</a> oasis, and from thence to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khotan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan">Khotan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yarkant_County" title="Yarkant County">Yarkand</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill200988_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill200988-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>A number of mummies, now known as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tarim_mummies" title="Tarim mummies">Tarim mummies</a>, have been found in Loulan and in its surrounding areas. One female mummy has been dated to c. 1800 BCE (3,800-year-old), indicating very early settlement of the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000181–188_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000181–188-9">[9]</a></sup> The disinterred corpses were not Chinese or Indian but had fair hair and light skin, some over six feet in length; this has led to suggestions that those from the Shanshan kingdoms were descendants of migrants from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" title="Eurasian Steppe">Eurasian Steppe</a>. Genetic analysis of the mummies, however, suggests that the Early–Middle Bronze Age population may have arisen from an ancient genetically isolated local population but were possibly influenced by the pastoralist and agriculturalist practices of their neighbours.<sup id="cite_ref-zhang_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhang-10">[10]</a></sup> The mummies were wrapped in cotton and silk, the former from the west and latter from the east, further providing evidence as to Loulan's commercial importance.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_Han_dynasty">Early Han dynasty</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Han dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Loulan_(Lolan)_silk_fragment.jpg" class="new" title="File:Loulan (Lolan) silk fragment.jpg"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media" data-width="180">File:Loulan (Lolan) silk fragment.jpg</span></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sichuan_embroidery" title="Sichuan embroidery">Sichuan brocade</a> fragment uncovered in Loulan (Lolan) Kingdom<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>The interactions between Loulan and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> court (206 BCE – 220 CE) were described in some detail in the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a></i> (completed in 111 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>The first contemporaneous mention of Loulan (Lolan), in Chinese records, are from 126 BCE. A letter from the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chanyu" title="Chanyu">Chanyu</a></i> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> to the Chinese emperor, in which the Chanyu boasted of conquering Loulan, as well as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a>, Hujie (呼揭) and another "26 states nearby". In the same year, the Chinese envoy <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Qian" title="Zhang Qian">Zhang Qian</a> described Loulan (Lolan) as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">fortified</a> city near the great salt lake or marsh known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lop_Nur" title="Lop Nur">Lop Nur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson1993140_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson1993140-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Han_Expansion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Han_Expansion.png/350px-Han_Expansion.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Han_Expansion.png/525px-Han_Expansion.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Han_Expansion.png/700px-Han_Expansion.png 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="902" /></a><figcaption>Krořän/Loulan and several other Indo-European oases kingdoms as Western Region Protectorate of the Han.</figcaption></figure>
<p>During the late 2nd century BCE, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu of Han</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reign" title="Reign">r.</a> 141 BCE – 87 BCE) was interested in extending contact with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dayuan" title="Dayuan">Dayuan</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fergana" title="Fergana">Fergana</a>), following the reports of it by the Chinese envoy, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Qian" title="Zhang Qian">Zhang Qian</a>. However, according to Chinese sources, Han envoys to Fergana were harassed by Loulan and the kingdom of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gushi_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Gushi culture">Gushi</a> (or Jushi). Consequently, in 108 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> Loulan was attacked by a Han force led by Zhao Ponu (趙破奴) and its king captured, after which Loulan agreed to pay a tribute to Han China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197986–87_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197986–87-15">[15]</a></sup> The Xiongnu, on hearing of these events, also attacked Loulan. The king of Loulan therefore elected to send one of his sons as a hostage to the Xiongnu and another to the Han court. Due to Loulan's association with the Xiongnu, the <i>Book of Han</i> records:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1211633275">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Emperor commanded [Jen] Wen to lead the troops by a suitable route, to arrest the king of Lou-lan and to bring him to the palace at the capital city. [Jen Wen] interrogated by presenting him with a bill of indictment, which he answered by claiming that [Lou-lan] was a small state lying between large states, and that unless it subjected itself to both parties, there would be no means of keeping itself in safety; he therefore wished to remove his kingdom and take up residence within the Han territory.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Hanshu</i>, chapter 96a, translation from Hulsewé 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197987–88_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197987–88-16">[16]</a></sup></cite></div></blockquote>
<p>The Han emperor was satisfied with the statement and released the king, but retained his son as hostage. When this particular king of Loulan died, in 92 BCE, his court requested that the Han court release the king's son and heir be returned to Loulan (Lolan). In the meantime, however, this prince from Loulan had been castrated for infringing Han law, without the knowledge of Loulan. The Han court replied that its Emperor had grown too fond of the prince to release him, and that another son should be enthroned in Loulan. The son of the new king was also sent to the Han court as a hostage, yet another was sent to the Xiongnu. After the death of this king of Loulan, the Xiongnu returned the hostage sent previously by Loulan – a prince named Chang Gui or An Gui (嘗歸 or 安歸), who became king of Loulan. When the Han court heard of this, it demanded that the new king present himself to the Han court. Chang Gui refused, on his wife's advice – because the Han court had previously failed to return hostages.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Oxhide_boots._Loulan_(Lolan),_Xinjiang._Early_Han_220_BCE_-_8_CE.jpg" class="new" title="File:Oxhide boots. Loulan (Lolan), Xinjiang. Early Han 220 BCE - 8 CE.jpg"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media" data-width="180">File:Oxhide boots. Loulan (Lolan), Xinjiang. Early Han 220 BCE - 8 CE.jpg</span></a><figcaption>Oxhide boots from Loulan. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Former Han dynasty</a> 220 BCE-8 CE.</figcaption></figure>
<p>In 77 BCE, after several Han envoys had been intercepted and killed in or near Loulan, a Chinese delegation was sent with orders to assassinate the king of Loulan, including an envoy named <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fu_Jiezi" title="Fu Jiezi">Fu Jiezi</a>. Fu Jiezi gained entry to Loulan (Lolan) by claiming to carry silk and valuables as gifts for the king. After the king of Loulan became drunk after receiving his gifts, Fu Jiezi's guard stabbed him to death, severed his head and had it hung from a tower above the northern gate. Upon completing the assassination, the guard supposedly proclaimed: "The Son of Heaven (Han Emperor Zhao) has sent me to punish the king, by reason of his crime in turning against the Han...Han troops are about the arrive here; do not dare to make any move which would result in yourselves bringing about the destruction of your state." <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197990_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197990-17">[17]</a></sup> While the king's younger brother Weituqi (尉屠耆) succeeded him as king, the Han court apparently tightened its grip on Loulan from this point – a step symbolized by the Han court obliging Loulan (Lolan) to adopt a new official name, the non-native <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Exonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym">exonym</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shanshan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197990–91_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197990–91-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>Because of its strategic position on what became the main route from China to the West, during the Han dynasty, control of it was regularly contested between the Chinese and the Xiongnu until well into the 2nd century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill20093,_7,_9,_11,_35,_37,_85–101_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill20093,_7,_9,_11,_35,_37,_85–101-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Shanshan">Shanshan</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Shanshan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shanshan</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Loulan_(Lolan)_Mural_Tomb_(mural).jpg" class="new" title="File:Loulan (Lolan) Mural Tomb (mural).jpg"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media" data-width="130">File:Loulan (Lolan) Mural Tomb (mural).jpg</span></a><figcaption>Loulan tomb mural, 220–420 CE. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Loulan_Museum" title="Loulan Museum">Loulan Museum</a></figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Textile_fragment_from_Loulan_Xinjiang_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Textile_fragment_from_Loulan_Xinjiang_China.jpg/220px-Textile_fragment_from_Loulan_Xinjiang_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Textile_fragment_from_Loulan_Xinjiang_China.jpg/330px-Textile_fragment_from_Loulan_Xinjiang_China.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Textile_fragment_from_Loulan_Xinjiang_China.jpg/440px-Textile_fragment_from_Loulan_Xinjiang_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption>Fragment of carpet discovered by Aurel Stein in a refuse pit at Loulan. 3rd–4th century.</figcaption></figure>
<p>After the Han dynasty had gained control of Loulan (Lolan), the renamed kingdom of Shanshan became a Chinese puppet state.<sup id="cite_ref-lopnor_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lopnor-20">[20]</a></sup> The newly installed king, fearing retribution from the sons of the assassinated king, requested that a contingent of Han forces be established in Yixun (伊循, variously identified as Charklik or Miran). Chinese army officers were sent to colonize the area, and an office of commandant was established at Yixun.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197991–92_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197991–92-21">[21]</a></sup> A number of settlements in the Tarim Basin such as Qiemo and Niya were described in the <i>Book of Han</i> as independent states, but these later became part of Shanshan. While the name of the kingdom was changed to Shanshan by the Chinese, the Loulan (Lolan) region continued to be known as Kroran by the locals.
</p><p>The region remained under Chinese control intermittently, and when China was weak in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a>, Loulan (Lolan) was essentially independent. In 25 CE it was recorded that Loulan (Lolan) was in league with the Xiongnu. In 73 CE, the Han army officer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ban_Chao" title="Ban Chao">Ban Chao</a> went with a small group of followers to Shanshan, which was also receiving a delegation from the Xiongnu at the same time. Ban Chao killed the Xiongnu envoys and presented their heads to the King, after which King Guang of Shanshan submitted to Han authority.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> This would ensure the first step of the '<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>' from central China to Shanshan would be under stable Chinese control. Around 119, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ban_Yong" title="Ban Yong">Ban Yong</a> recommended that a Chinese colony of 500 men be established in Loulan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200086_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200086-23">[23]</a></sup> A later military colony was established at Loulan (Lolan) by General Suo Man. It was recorded that in 222 CE, Shanshan sent tribute to China, and that in 283, the son of the king was sent as a hostage to the Chinese court during the reign of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Jin" title="Emperor Wu of Jin">Emperor Wu of Jin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Loulan was also recorded as a dependent kingdom of Shanshan in the 3rd century <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book_of_Wei" title="Book of Wei">Book of Wei</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>The town of Loulan (Lolan) was abandoned in 330 CE, likely due to lack of water when the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tarim_River" title="Tarim River">Tarim River</a>, which supported the settlement, changed course; the military garrison was moved 50 kilometres (31 mi) south to Haitou (海頭). The fort of Yingpan to the northwest remained under Chinese control until the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> According to the <i>Book of Wei</i>, King Bilong of Shanshan fled to Qiemo together with half of his countrymen after an attack by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Juqu_Anzhou" title="Juqu Anzhou">Juqu Anzhou</a> in 442 CE so Shanshan came to be ruled by Qiemo.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> In 445 Shanshan submitted to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a>. At the end of the 6th century, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> reestablished the city state of Shanshan.<sup id="cite_ref-lopnor_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lopnor-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the 5th century, however, the land was frequently invaded by nomadic states such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tuyuhun" title="Tuyuhun">Tuyuhun</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran Khaganate</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dingling" title="Dingling">Dingling</a> and the area gradually was abandoned. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 630</span>, at the beginning of the Tang period, Shanfutuo (鄯伏陁) led the remaining Shanshan people to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kumul,_Xinjiang" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumul, Xinjiang">Hami</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lopnor_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lopnor-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Buddhist pilgrim <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> passed through this region in 644 on his return from India to China, visited a town called Nafubo (納縛波, thought to be Charklik) of Loulan, and wrote of Qiemo, "A fortress exists, but not a trace of man".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Descriptions_in_historical_accounts">Descriptions in historical accounts</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Descriptions in historical accounts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Felt_hat_from_Loulan_(Lolan)._Early_Han_202_BCE_-_8_CE.jpg" class="new" title="File:Felt hat from Loulan (Lolan). Early Han 202 BCE - 8 CE.jpg"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media" data-width="180">File:Felt hat from Loulan (Lolan). Early Han 202 BCE - 8 CE.jpg</span></a><figcaption>Felt and feather hat from Loulan. Early Han dynasty 202 BCE–8 CE</figcaption></figure>
<p>According to the <i>Book of Han</i>, Han envoys described the troops of Loulan as weak and easy to attack.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197986_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197986-29">[29]</a></sup> Shanshan was said to have 1,570 households and 14,000 individuals, with 2,912 persons able to bear arms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197983_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197983-30">[30]</a></sup> It further described the region thus:
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The land is sandy and salt, and there are few cultivated fields. The state hopes to obtain [the produce of] cultivated fields and look to neighbouring states for field-crops. It produces jade and there is an abundance of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Juncaceae" title="Juncaceae">rushes</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tamarix" title="Tamarix">tamarisk</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Populus_balsamifera" title="Populus balsamifera">balsam poplar</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solanum_dulcamara" title="Solanum dulcamara">white grass</a>. In company with their flocks and herds the inhabitants go in search of water and pasture, and there are asses, horses and large number of camels. [The inhabitants] are capable of making military weapons in the same way as the Ch'o of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Ch'iang</a> tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197985_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197985-31">[31]</a></sup> </p></blockquote>
<p>According to the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commentary_on_the_Water_Classic" title="Commentary on the Water Classic">Commentary on the Water Classic</a></i>, General Suo Mai (索勱, also Suo Man) of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> introduced irrigation techniques to the region by damming the Zhubin (possibly the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaidu_River" title="Kaidu River">Kaidu River</a>) to irrigate the fields and produced bumper harvests for the next three years.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>
The Buddhist pilgrim <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Faxian" title="Faxian">Faxian</a> who stayed in Shanshan in 399 on the way to India, described the country:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[A] country rugged and hilly, with a thin and barren soil. The clothes of the common people are coarse, and like those worn in our land of Han, some wearing felt and others coarse serge or cloth of hair; — this was the only difference seen among them. The king professed (our) Law, and there might be in the country more than four thousand monks who were all students of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">hînayâna</a>. The common people of this and other kingdoms (in that region), as well as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sramana">śramans</a>, all practise the rules of India, only that the latter do so more exactly, and the former more loosely.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>A Record of the Buddhist Countries</i>, translation by James Legge<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup></cite></div></blockquote><p>The famous historical short story by acclaimed Japanese author <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yasushi_Inoue" title="Yasushi Inoue">Yasushi Inoue</a> entitled "Lou-lan" recounts the continual flux of control in the area and how the inhabitants dealt with Chinese & nomadic invaders throughout its relatively short history.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethnolinguistic_identity">Ethnolinguistic identity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ethnolinguistic identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Miran_fresco_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Miran_fresco_12.jpg/300px-Miran_fresco_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Miran_fresco_12.jpg/450px-Miran_fresco_12.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Miran_fresco_12.jpg/600px-Miran_fresco_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>Winged male figure, with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> influences, from the mural paintings signed <i>Tita</i> in the Loulan site of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miran_(Xinjiang)" title="Miran (Xinjiang)">Miran (Xinjiang)</a>, 3rd century CE</figcaption></figure>
<p>The earliest known residents in Loulan (Lolan) are thought to have been a subgroup of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a>, an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European people</a> of the Tarim Basin. Excavations in Loulan (Lolan) and the surrounding areas have found <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tarim_mummies" title="Tarim mummies">mummies</a> believed to be remains of these people, for example the so-called "Beauty of Loulan" which was found by Chinese archaeologists in 1979–1980 at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Q%C3%A4wrighul" class="mw-redirect" title="Qäwrighul">Qäwrighul</a> (Gumugou), around 70 km west-north-west of Loulan. The mummies have been dated to as early as 1800 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000181–188_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000181–188-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Genetic and proteomic analyses of the mummies, however, suggests that the local population were genetically isolated but were influenced by practices of neighbouring populations.<sup id="cite_ref-zhang_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhang-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>The official language found in 3rd century CE documents in this region is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gandhari</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> written in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a> script; their use in Loulan and elsewhere in the Tarim Basin was most likely due to the cultural legacy of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171-36">[36]</a></sup> and introduced by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandharan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandharan">Gandharan</a> migrants from the Kushan Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-37">[37]</a></sup> These Gandharan migrants are also believed to have introduced <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> to Loulan.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-37">[37]</a></sup> Although Gandhari was used as the administrative language, some words generally thought to be of Tocharian origin are found in the documents, suggesting that the locals spoke a language that belongs to the Tocharian group of languages.<sup id="cite_ref-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171-36">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tocharian_origin_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tocharian_origin-38">[38]</a></sup> This original language of Loulan is referred to as Krorainic or "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian C</a>", due to its relatedness to the two other Tocharian languages.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> It has been partially reconstructed from around 100 loanwords and over a thousand proper names used in these Prakrit documents that cannot be ascribed to Indic.<sup id="cite_ref-tocharian_origin_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tocharian_origin-38">[38]</a></sup> In 2018, documents from Loulan written in Tocharian C were published, indicating a relationship to Tocharian A and B, but transcription of the texts in this study has been rejected by other scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-adams-tocharian-c-again_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adams-tocharian-c-again-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p><p>The native name of Loulan (Lolan) was "Kroraina" or "Krorän",<sup id="cite_ref-enoki_1998_200-257_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enoki_1998_200-257-42">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171-36">[36]</a></sup> written in Chinese as Loulan 樓蘭 (<i>*glu-glân</i> in reconstructed Han dynasty pronunciation, an approximation of Krorän).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200081_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200081-43">[43]</a></sup> Centuries later in 664 CE the Tang Chinese Buddhist monk <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> mentioned a place in Loulan named "Nafupo" (納縛溥), which according to Dr. Hisao Matsuda is a transliteration of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdian word</a> <i>Navapa</i> meaning "new water."<sup id="cite_ref-christopoulos_2012_footnote38_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christopoulos_2012_footnote38-44">[44]</a></sup> Sogdians, an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Iranian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Iranian people">Eastern Iranian people</a>, maintained minority communities in various places in China at the time,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> especially <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan">Turfan</a> in the Tarim Basin.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> Documents found in Loulan showed that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdians</a> were present in the area in 313 CE, as well as Han Chinese and Tibetan tribesmen, indicating an ethnically diverse population in Loulan.<sup id="cite_ref-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Archaeology">Archaeology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Archaeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Male_face_with_a_caduceus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Male_face_with_a_caduceus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Male_face_with_a_caduceus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Male_face_with_a_caduceus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Male_face_with_a_caduceus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Male_face_with_a_caduceus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Male_face_with_a_caduceus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2883" data-file-height="3115" /></a><figcaption>Male face with a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caduceus" title="Caduceus">caduceus</a> 200–400 AD. The staff suggests the Greek deity <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hermes" title="Hermes">Hermes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sven_Hedin">Sven Hedin</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sven Hedin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The ruined city of Loulan (Lolan) was discovered by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sven_Hedin" title="Sven Hedin">Sven Hedin</a>, who excavated some houses and found a wooden <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a> tablet and many Chinese manuscripts from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Jin_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Jin dynasty">Western Jin dynasty</a> (266–420), which recorded that the area was called "Krorän" by the locals in Kharosthi but was rendered as "Lou-lan" in Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-lopnor_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lopnor-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> Hedin also proposed that a change in the course of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tarim_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarim river">Tarim river</a> resulted in Lop Nur drying up may be the reason why Loulan had perished.<sup id="cite_ref-lopnor_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lopnor-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Aurel_Stein">Aurel Stein</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aurel Stein"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Loulan_kharosthi_document.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Loulan_kharosthi_document.jpg/220px-Loulan_kharosthi_document.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Loulan_kharosthi_document.jpg/330px-Loulan_kharosthi_document.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Loulan_kharosthi_document.jpg/440px-Loulan_kharosthi_document.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1403" data-file-height="481" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a> document found in Loulan by Aurel Stein</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aurel_Stein" title="Aurel Stein">Aurel Stein</a> made further excavations in 1906 and 1914 around the old lake of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lop_Nur" title="Lop Nur">Lop Nur</a> and identified many sites in the area. He designated these sites with the letter L (for Loulan), followed by a letter of the alphabet (A to T) allocated in the chronological order the sites were visited.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Stein recovered many artifacts, including various documents, a wool-pile carpet fragment, some yellow <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandharan</a> architectural wood carvings.
</p><p><b>L.A.</b> – A walled settlement lying to the north of the lake. The thick wall is made of packed earth and straw and was over 1,000 feet (300 m) on each side and 20 feet (6.1 m) thick at the base. It contains a large stupa and some administrative buildings and was occupied for a long time. It is usually thought to be the city of Loulan.<br />
<b>L.B.</b> – A site with stupas at 13 km to the northwest of the L.A. <br />
<b>L.E.</b> – A fortified town lying 30 km to the northeast of L.A. It is the only known city in the region with a northern gate. Since a northern gate was mentioned in the Han Chinese text about the assassination of the king of Loulan, it has therefore been suggested to be the capital of Loulan in the 1st century BCE, before the Han Chinese gained control the region. Others, however, argue that the northern gate does not refer to Loulan but <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a>. The site was occupied until the late 3rd century CE.<br />
<b>L.F.</b> – 10 km to the northwest of L.A., containing building foundations and a cemetery. Archaeologists discovered the body of a young man in a wooden coffin, wearing a felt hat and leather boots and lying under a woolen blanket. A bunch of ephedra twigs was placed beside him in a similar fashion to many much older burials found in the region.<br />
<b>L.K.</b> – A walled city to the west of the lake with only a gateway in the city wall. It has been identified as Haitou by some archaeologists.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup><br />
<b>L.L.</b> – A fortress lying 5 km northwest of L.K., similar in construction but smaller.
</p>
<h3><span id="Chinese_archaeological_expedition.2C_1979.E2.80.931980"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Chinese_archaeological_expedition,_1979–1980">Chinese archaeological expedition, 1979–1980</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chinese archaeological expedition, 1979–1980"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Loulan_(Lolan)_Museum,_Charklik.jpg" class="new" title="File:Loulan (Lolan) Museum, Charklik.jpg"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media" data-width="180">File:Loulan (Lolan) Museum, Charklik.jpg</span></a><figcaption><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Loulan_Museum" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Loulan Museum">Loulan Museum</a>, Charklik</figcaption></figure>
<p>In 1979 and 1980, three archaeological expeditions sponsored by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Xinjiang Branch performed excavations in Loulan.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> They discovered a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canal</a> 15 feet (4.6 m) deep and 55 feet (17 m) wide running through Loulan from northwest to southeast, a 32-foot (9.8 m) high earthen <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a>-shaped <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a>; and a home 41 feet (12 m) long by 28 feet (8.5 m) wide, apparently for a Chinese official, housing 3 rooms and supported by wooden <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Column" title="Column">pillars</a>. They also collected 797 objects from the area, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Packaging_and_labelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Packaging and labelling">vessels</a> of wood, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> objects, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">jewellery</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coins</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> Other reported (2003) finds in the area include additional <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummies</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burial" title="Burial">burial</a> grounds, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ephedra_(plant)" title="Ephedra (plant)">ephedra</a> sticks, a string <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bracelet" title="Bracelet">bracelet</a> that holds a hollowed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a> stone, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">leather</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bag" title="Bag">pouch</a>, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wool" title="Wool">woolen</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Loincloth" title="Loincloth">loincloth</a>, a wooden <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mask" title="Mask">mask</a> painted red and with large nose and teeth, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boat</a>-shaped <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffin" title="Coffin">coffins</a>, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bow_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow (weapon)">bow</a> with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">arrows</a> and a straw <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">basket</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1226520648"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;border-color:lightgrey"><div style="position:relative;width:300px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Loulan Kingdom is located in Continental Asia"><img alt="Loulan Kingdom is located in Continental Asia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/300px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/450px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/600px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a></span><div id="annotation_275x03" style="position:absolute; left:275px; top:03px; font-size:10px; font-weight:bold; font-size:10; line-height:12px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=BCE_100&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BCE 100 (page does not exist)"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">-100</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_125x89" style="position:absolute; left:125px; top:89px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indo-Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greeks"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">INDO-<br />GREEKS</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_99x95" style="position:absolute; left:99px; top:95px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sakastan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakastan"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">SAKAS</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_115x27" style="position:absolute; 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left:177px; top:30px; font-size:6.5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6.5; line-height:8.5px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tagar_culture" title="Tagar culture"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Tesinsky</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_135x59" style="position:absolute; left:135px; top:59px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">WUSUN</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_148x82" style="position:absolute; left:148px; top:82px; font-size:6.5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6.5; line-height:8.5px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khotan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan Kingdom"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Khotan</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_170x75" style="position:absolute; left:170px; top:75px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">LOULAN</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_225x74" style="position:absolute; left:225px; top:74px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ordos_culture" title="Ordos culture"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i>Ordos<br />culture</i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_285x80" style="position:absolute; left:285px; top:80px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jin_(Korean_state)" title="Jin (Korean state)"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">JIN</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_245x60" style="position:absolute; left:245px; top:60px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Donghu_people" title="Donghu people"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i>DONGHU</i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_100x78" style="position:absolute; left:100px; top:78px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">YUEZHI</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_100x65" style="position:absolute; left:100px; top:65px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kangju" title="Kangju"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">KANGJU</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_155x43" style="position:absolute; left:155px; top:43px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dinlings" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinlings"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Dinglings</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_20x42" style="position:absolute; left:20px; top:42px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Sarmatians</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_25x87" style="position:absolute; left:25px; top:87px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">SELEU-<br />CIDS</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_02x100" style="position:absolute; left:02px; top:100px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemaic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Empire"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">PTOLE-<br />MIES</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_58x87" style="position:absolute; left:58px; top:87px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">PARTHIAN<br />EMPIRE</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_150x113" style="position:absolute; left:150px; top:113px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sunga_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunga Empire"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">SUNGAS</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_135x125" style="position:absolute; left:135px; top:125px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">SATAVA-<br />HANAS</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_235x94" style="position:absolute; left:235px; top:94px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Han_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Dynasty"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">HAN<br />DYNASTY</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_200x52" style="position:absolute; left:200px; top:52px; font-size:8px; font-weight:bold; font-size:8; line-height:10px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#4F311CFF;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">XIONGNU</span></a></span></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" title="File:Map Asia physical (continental).png">class=notpageimage| </a></div>The Loulan kingdom and contemporary polities circa 100 BCE</div></div></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charklik_(ancient_settlement)" title="Charklik (ancient settlement)">Charklik</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cherchen" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherchen">Cherchen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Endere" title="Endere">Endere</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gushi_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Gushi culture">Gushi culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lop_Nur" title="Lop Nur">Lop Nur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miran_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Miran (China)">Miran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niya_(Tarim_Basin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niya (Tarim Basin)">Niya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xiaohe_Tomb_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiaohe Tomb complex">Xiaohe Tomb complex</a></li></ul>
<div style="clear:both;" class=""></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Footnotes">Footnotes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schuessler, Axel. (2009) <i>Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 152, 246</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson1993233-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson1993233_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatson1993">Watson 1993</a>, p. 233.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVictor_Mair2019" class="citation web cs1">Victor Mair (May 14, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=42724">"Language Log » Prakritic "Kroraina" and Old Sinitic reconstructions of "Loulan"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu&rft.atitle=Language+Log+%C2%BB+Prakritic+%22Kroraina%22+and+Old+Sinitic+reconstructions+of+%22Loulan%22&rft.date=2019-05-14&rft.au=Victor+Mair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flanguagelog.ldc.upenn.edu%2Fnll%2F%3Fp%3D42724&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gandhari.org/catalog?itemID=1845">"Catalog – CKD 696"</a>. gandhari.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catalog+%E2%80%93+CKD+696&rft.pub=gandhari.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgandhari.org%2Fcatalog%3FitemID%3D1845&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFStefan_Baums_and_Andrew_Glass" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Stefan Baums and Andrew Glass. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gandhari.org/dictionary/krorayina"><i>A Dictionary of Gāndhārī – Krorayina</i></a>. Gandhari.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB+%E2%80%93+Krorayina&rft.pub=Gandhari.org&rft.au=Stefan+Baums+and+Andrew+Glass&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgandhari.org%2Fdictionary%2Fkrorayina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197989-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197989_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHulsewé1979">Hulsewé 1979</a>, p. 89.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200081–87-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200081–87_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair 2000</a>, pp. 81–87.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill200988-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill200988_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2009">Hill 2009</a>, p. 88.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000181–188-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000181–188_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair2000181–188_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair 2000</a>, pp. 181–188.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-zhang-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zhang_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zhang_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFZhangNingScottFu2021" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Fan; Ning, Chao; Scott, Ashley; Fu, Qiaomei; Bjørn, Rasmus; Li, Wenying; Wei, Dong; Wang, Wenjun; Fan, Linyuan; Abuduresule, Idilisi; Hu, Xingjun; Ruan, Qiurong; Niyazi, Alipujiang; Dong, Guanghui; Cao, Peng; Liu, Feng; Dai, Qingyan; Feng, Xiaotian; Yang, Ruowei; Tang, Zihua; Ma, Pengcheng; Li, Chunxiang; Gao, Shizhu; Xu, Yang; Wu, Sihao; Wen, Shaoqing; Zhu, Hong; Zhou, Hui; Robbeets, Martine; Kumar, Vikas; Krause, Johannes; Warinner, Christina; Jeong, Choongwon; Cui, Yinqiu (27 October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8580821">"The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>599</b> (7884): 256–261. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Natur.599..256Z">2021Natur.599..256Z</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04052-7">10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8580821">8580821</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34707286">34707286</a>. Zhang2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+genomic+origins+of+the+Bronze+Age+Tarim+Basin+mummies&rft.volume=599&rft.issue=7884&rft.pages=256-261&rft.date=2021-10-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8580821%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34707286&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04052-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Natur.599..256Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Fan&rft.au=Ning%2C+Chao&rft.au=Scott%2C+Ashley&rft.au=Fu%2C+Qiaomei&rft.au=Bj%C3%B8rn%2C+Rasmus&rft.au=Li%2C+Wenying&rft.au=Wei%2C+Dong&rft.au=Wang%2C+Wenjun&rft.au=Fan%2C+Linyuan&rft.au=Abuduresule%2C+Idilisi&rft.au=Hu%2C+Xingjun&rft.au=Ruan%2C+Qiurong&rft.au=Niyazi%2C+Alipujiang&rft.au=Dong%2C+Guanghui&rft.au=Cao%2C+Peng&rft.au=Liu%2C+Feng&rft.au=Dai%2C+Qingyan&rft.au=Feng%2C+Xiaotian&rft.au=Yang%2C+Ruowei&rft.au=Tang%2C+Zihua&rft.au=Ma%2C+Pengcheng&rft.au=Li%2C+Chunxiang&rft.au=Gao%2C+Shizhu&rft.au=Xu%2C+Yang&rft.au=Wu%2C+Sihao&rft.au=Wen%2C+Shaoqing&rft.au=Zhu%2C+Hong&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Hui&rft.au=Robbeets%2C+Martine&rft.au=Kumar%2C+Vikas&rft.au=Krause%2C+Johannes&rft.au=Warinner%2C+Christina&rft.au=Jeong%2C+Choongwon&rft.au=Cui%2C+Yinqiu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8580821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdmuseum.com/xinwen/201903/462.html">"锦漆铜铁茶——丝绸之路上的天府制造"</a> [Brocade, lacquer, bronze, iron, and tea: Artifacts made in Sichuan unearthed along the Silk Road]. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chengdu_Museum" title="Chengdu Museum">cdmuseum.com</a></i> (in Simplified Chinese). March 28, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 27,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cdmuseum.com&rft.atitle=%E9%94%A6%E6%BC%86%E9%93%9C%E9%93%81%E8%8C%B6%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E4%B8%9D%E7%BB%B8%E4%B9%8B%E8%B7%AF%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E5%A4%A9%E5%BA%9C%E5%88%B6%E9%80%A0&rft.date=2017-03-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdmuseum.com%2Fxinwen%2F201903%2F462.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7096%E4%B8%8A">Hanshu</a> Chapter 96a, translation from Hulsewé 1979.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson1993140-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson1993140_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatson1993">Watson 1993</a>, p. 140.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SOzKGAAACAAJ"><i>Historical Atlas of the Classical World, 500 BC—AD 600</i></a>. Barnes & Noble Books. 2000. p. 2.24. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-1973-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-1973-2"><bdi>978-0-7607-1973-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Atlas+of+the+Classical+World%2C+500+BC%E2%80%94AD+600&rft.pages=2.24&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7607-1973-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSOzKGAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197986–87-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197986–87_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHulsewé1979">Hulsewé 1979</a>, pp. 86–87.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197987–88-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197987–88_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHulsewé1979">Hulsewé 1979</a>, pp. 87–88.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197990-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197990_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHulsewé1979">Hulsewé 1979</a>, p. 90.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197990–91-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197990–91_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHulsewé1979">Hulsewé 1979</a>, pp. 90–91.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill20093,_7,_9,_11,_35,_37,_85–101-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill20093,_7,_9,_11,_35,_37,_85–101_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2009">Hill 2009</a>, pp. 3, 7, 9, 11, 35, 37, 85–101.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-lopnor-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lopnor_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lopnor_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lopnor_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lopnor_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lopnor_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMakiko_OnishiAsanobu_Kitamoto" class="citation web cs1">Makiko Onishi & Asanobu Kitamoto. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/rarebook/06/index.html.en">"Hedin, the Man Who Solved the Mystery of the Wandering Lake: Lop Nor and Lou-lan"</a>. Digital Silk Road.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hedin%2C+the+Man+Who+Solved+the+Mystery+of+the+Wandering+Lake%3A+Lop+Nor+and+Lou-lan&rft.pub=Digital+Silk+Road&rft.au=Makiko+Onishi&rft.au=Asanobu+Kitamoto&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsr.nii.ac.jp%2Frarebook%2F06%2Findex.html.en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197991–92-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197991–92_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHulsewé1979">Hulsewé 1979</a>, pp. 91–92.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRafe_de_Crespigny2014" class="citation book cs1">Rafe de Crespigny (14 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5"><i>A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)</i></a>. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 4–5. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789047411840" title="Special:BookSources/9789047411840"><bdi>9789047411840</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Later+Han+to+the+Three+Kingdoms+%2823%E2%80%93220+AD%29&rft.pages=4-5&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2014-05-14&rft.isbn=9789047411840&rft.au=Rafe+de+Crespigny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D49OvCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200086-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200086_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair 2000</a>, p. 86.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_F.W._Higham2004" class="citation book cs1">Charles F.W. Higham, ed. (2004). <i>Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilization</i>. Fact on Files, Inc. pp. 309–311. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-4640-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-4640-9"><bdi>0-8160-4640-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Asian+Civilization&rft.pages=309-311&rft.pub=Fact+on+Files%2C+Inc&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8160-4640-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html">Annotated translation of the <i>Weilüe</i> by John E. Hill</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baumer, Christoph. (2000), pp. 125–126, 135–136. <i>Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin</i>. Bangkok, White Orchid Books.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7102">Weishu</a> Original text: 真君三年，鄯善王比龍避沮渠安周之難，率國人之半奔且末，後役屬鄯善。 Translation: In the third year of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emperor_Taiwu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei">Zhenjun</a>, the Loulan (Lolan) king Bilong, so as to avoid troubles from Juqu Anzhou, led half his countrymen and fled to Qiemo, which later controlled Shanshan.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=77cc9HpdiCIC&pg=PA876">Da Tang Xiyu Ji</a> Original text: 从此东行六百余里至折摩驮那故国。即涅末地也。城郭岿然人烟断绝。复此东北行千余里至纳缚波故国。即楼兰地也。</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197986-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197986_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHulsewé1979">Hulsewé 1979</a>, p. 86.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197983-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197983_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHulsewé1979">Hulsewé 1979</a>, p. 83.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197985-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsewé197985_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHulsewé1979">Hulsewé 1979</a>, p. 85.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E7%B6%93%E6%B3%A8/02">Shui Jing Zhu</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Legge1886" class="citation book cs1">James Legge (1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/recordofbuddhist00fahsuoft#page/12/mode/2up"><i>Fa-Hien's Record Of Buddistic Kingdoms</i></a>. Oxford University Press Warehouse. pp. 12–15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fa-Hien%27s+Record+Of+Buddistic+Kingdoms&rft.pages=12-15&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+Warehouse&rft.date=1886&rft.au=James+Legge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Frecordofbuddhist00fahsuoft%23page%2F12%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFInoueArakiSeidensticker1981" class="citation book cs1">Inoue, Yasushi; Araki, James Tomomasa; Seidensticker, Edward G. (1981). <i>Lou-lan and other stories: Transl. by James T[omomasa] Araki & Edward [G.] Seidensticker</i> (2. print ed.). Tokyo [usw.]: Kodansha Internat. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87011-472-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87011-472-4"><bdi>978-0-87011-472-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lou-lan+and+other+stories%3A+Transl.+by+James+T%5Bomomasa%5D+Araki+%26+Edward+%5BG.%5D+Seidensticker&rft.place=Tokyo+%5Busw.%5D&rft.edition=2.+print&rft.pub=Kodansha+Internat&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-87011-472-4&rft.aulast=Inoue&rft.aufirst=Yasushi&rft.au=Araki%2C+James+Tomomasa&rft.au=Seidensticker%2C+Edward+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2013" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Jonathan (18 December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3qMZCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162"><i>The Silk Road – China and the Karakorum Highway: A Travel Companion</i></a>. I.B.Tauris. p. 162. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1780763569" title="Special:BookSources/978-1780763569"><bdi>978-1780763569</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road+%E2%80%93+China+and+the+Karakorum+Highway%3A+A+Travel+Companion&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2013-12-18&rft.isbn=978-1780763569&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3qMZCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-whitfield_sims_2004_p170-171_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPadwa2004" class="citation book cs1">Padwa, Mariner (August 2004). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Susan_Whitfield" title="Susan Whitfield">Susan Whitfield</a>; Ursula Sims-Williams (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA170"><i>The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith</i></a>. British Library. pp. 170–171. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1932476132" title="Special:BookSources/978-1932476132"><bdi>978-1932476132</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road%3A+Trade%2C+Travel%2C+War+and+Faith&rft.pages=170-171&rft.pub=British+Library&rft.date=2004-08&rft.isbn=978-1932476132&rft.aulast=Padwa&rft.aufirst=Mariner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DArWLD4Qop38C%26pg%3DPA170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hansen-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hansen_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hansen_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFValerie_Hansen2012" class="citation book cs1">Valerie Hansen (2012). "Chapter 1: At the Crossroads of Central Asia – The Kingdom of Kroraina". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318"><i>The Silk Road: A New History</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press, USA. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318/page/26">26</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195159318" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195159318"><bdi>978-0195159318</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+At+the+Crossroads+of+Central+Asia+%E2%80%93+The+Kingdom+of+Kroraina&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0195159318&rft.au=Valerie+Hansen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195159318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-tocharian_origin-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tocharian_origin_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tocharian_origin_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJ._P._Mallory2015" class="citation journal cs1">J. P. Mallory (November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp259_tocharian_origins.pdf">"The Problem of Tocharian Origins: An Archaeological Perspective"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i> (259): 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Tocharian+Origins%3A+An+Archaeological+Perspective&rft.issue=259&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2015-11&rft.au=J.+P.+Mallory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp259_tocharian_origins.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMallory" class="citation journal cs1">Mallory, J.P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210109090710/https://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf">"Bronze Age languages of the Tarim Basin"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Expedition</i>. <b>52</b> (3): 44–53. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-01-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Expedition&rft.atitle=Bronze+Age+languages+of+the+Tarim+Basin&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=44-53&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpenn.museum%2Fdocuments%2Fpublications%2Fexpedition%2FPDFs%2F52-3%2Fmallory.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=42318">"Language Log » Tocharian C: its discovery and implications"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Language+Log+%C2%BB+Tocharian+C%3A+its+discovery+and+implications&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flanguagelog.ldc.upenn.edu%2Fnll%2F%3Fp%3D42318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-adams-tocharian-c-again-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-adams-tocharian-c-again_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAdams" class="citation web cs1">Adams, Douglas Q. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44503">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Tocharian C' Again: The Plot Thickens and the Mystery Deepens"</a>. <i>Language Log</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Language+Log&rft.atitle=%27Tocharian+C%27+Again%3A+The+Plot+Thickens+and+the+Mystery+Deepens&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Douglas+Q.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flanguagelog.ldc.upenn.edu%2Fnll%2F%3Fp%3D44503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-enoki_1998_200-257-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-enoki_1998_200-257_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kazuo Enoki (1998), "Yü-ni-ch’êng and the Site of Lou-Lan," and "The Location of the Capital of Lou-Lan and the Date of the Kharoshthi Inscriptions," in Rokuro Kono (ed), <i>Studia Asiatica: The Collected Papers in Western Languages of the Late Dr. Kazuo Enoki</i>, Tokyo: Kyu-Shoin, pp 200, 211–57.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200081-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalloryMair200081_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalloryMair2000">Mallory & Mair 2000</a>, p. 81.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-christopoulos_2012_footnote38-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-christopoulos_2012_footnote38_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 20–21 footnote #38, ISSN 2157-9687.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard, Michael C. (2012), <i>Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel</i>, McFarland & Company, p. 134.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hansen, Valerie (2012), <i>The Silk Road: A New History</i>, Oxford University Press, p. 98, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993921-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993921-3">978-0-19-993921-3</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, <i>A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture</i>, Leiden & Boston: Brill, pp 870–72.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBromberg2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bromberg, Carol (2006). "Review – <i>Sources pour l'histoire et la géographie du monde iranien (224–710)</i>. <i>Res Orientales 18</i> by Rika Gyselen". <i>Bulletin of the Asia Institute</i>. <b>20</b>: 136–138. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049192">24049192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Asia+Institute&rft.atitle=Review+%E2%80%93+Sources+pour+l%27histoire+et+la+g%C3%A9ographie+du+monde+iranien+%28224%E2%80%93710%29.+Res+Orientales+18+by+Rika+Gyselen&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=136-138&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24049192%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bromberg&rft.aufirst=Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHedin1898" class="citation book cs1">Hedin, Sven (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106896"><i>Through Asia</i></a>. London: Methuen & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Through+Asia&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen+%26+Co&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Hedin&rft.aufirst=Sven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.106896&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFChristoph_Baumer" class="citation web cs1">Christoph Baumer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140307065024/http://www.explorers.org/flag_reports/Christoph_Baumer_Flag_60_Report.pdf">"Explorer Club Flag 60 report"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Explorers Club</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.explorers.org/flag_reports/Christoph_Baumer_Flag_60_Report.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 7, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Explorers+Club&rft.atitle=Explorer+Club+Flag+60+report&rft.au=Christoph+Baumer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.explorers.org%2Fflag_reports%2FChristoph_Baumer_Flag_60_Report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040455/http://www.travel-silkroad.com/english/dongfanwenming/history/llwgyz/flwsywx1.htm">"Unclosed the Mystery of the Ancient City LK"</a>. travel-silkroad.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.travel-silkroad.com/english/dongfanwenming/history/llwgyz/flwsywx1.htm">the original</a> on 4 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unclosed+the+Mystery+of+the+Ancient+City+LK&rft.pub=travel-silkroad.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.travel-silkroad.com%2Fenglish%2Fdongfanwenming%2Fhistory%2Fllwgyz%2Fflwsywx1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ma Dazheng. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bic.cass.cn/english/infoShow/Arcitle_Show_Forum2_Show.asp?ID=243&Title=The%20Humanities%20Study&strNavigation=Home-%3EForum-%3EEthnography&BigClassID=4&SmallClassID=8">An Overview of 20th Century Xinjiang Explorations</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110724021554/http://bic.cass.cn/english/infoShow/Arcitle_Show_Forum2_Show.asp?ID=243&Title=The%20Humanities%20Study&strNavigation=Home-%3EForum-%3EEthnography&BigClassID=4&SmallClassID=8">Archived</a> 2011-07-24 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Web site, 2003 May 22</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/world/20050113-104224-1613r.htm">"Loulan vanished in sand"</a>. <i>Washington Times</i>. 2005-01-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Times&rft.atitle=Loulan+vanished+in+sand&rft.date=2005-01-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtontimes.com%2Fworld%2F20050113-104224-1613r.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMallory,_J._P.Mair,_Victor_H.2000" class="citation book cs1">Mallory, J. P. & Mair, Victor H. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall"><i>The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West</i></a>. Thames & Hudson. London. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-05101-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-05101-1"><bdi>0-500-05101-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tarim+Mummies%3A+Ancient+China+and+the+Mystery+of+the+Earliest+Peoples+from+the+West&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson.+London&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-500-05101-1&rft.au=Mallory%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Mair%2C+Victor+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftarimmummiesanci00mall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHill2009" class="citation book cs1">Hill, John E. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G0AJQgAACAAJ"><i>Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A study of the silk routes during the later Han, 1st to 2nd centuries CE</i></a>. Charleston, SC: Book Surge. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4392-2134-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4392-2134-1"><bdi>978-1-4392-2134-1</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Through+the+Jade+Gate+to+Rome%3A+A+study+of+the+silk+routes+during+the+later+Han%2C+1st+to+2nd+centuries+CE&rft.place=Charleston%2C+SC&rft.pub=Book+Surge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG0AJQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHulsewé1979" class="citation book cs1">Hulsewé, A.F.P. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HzhCAAAAIAAJ"><i>China in Central Asia: The early stage 125 BC – AD 23</i></a>. Leiden, NL: Brill. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004058842" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004058842"><bdi>978-9004058842</bdi></a> – via Google Books. <q>annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the <i>History of the Former Han Dynasty</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+in+Central+Asia%3A+The+early+stage+125+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+23&rft.place=Leiden%2C+NL&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-9004058842&rft.aulast=Hulsew%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=A.F.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHzhCAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMalloryMair2000" class="citation book cs1">Mallory, J.P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall"><i>The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the mystery of the earliest peoples from the west</i></a>. London, UK: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-05101-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-05101-1"><bdi>0-500-05101-1</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive (archive.org).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tarim+Mummies%3A+Ancient+China+and+the+mystery+of+the+earliest+peoples+from+the+west&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-500-05101-1&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rft.au=Mair%2C+Victor+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftarimmummiesanci00mall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1993" class="citation book cs1">Watson, Burton (1993). <i>Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II</i> (revised ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-08166-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-08166-9"><bdi>0-231-08166-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Records+of+the+Grand+Historian%3A+Han+Dynasty+II&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-231-08166-9&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Burton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoulan+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>Ma Dazheng. 2003. The Tarim Basin. Ch. 7 in: History of Civilizations of Central Asia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/culture/asia/html_eng/volume5.htm">Volume 5: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century</a>. Edited by Chahryar Adle and Irfan Habib. UNESCO Publications.</li>
<li>Peter Hopkirk. <i>Foreign Devils on the Silk Road: The Search for the Lost Cities and Treasures of Chinese Central Asia</i> (London: John Murray, 1980). (An approachable account of twentieth-century archaeology in the Taklamakan desert.)</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Loulan_Kingdom&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Loulan" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Loulan">Loulan</a></span>.</div></div>
</div><p> (Lolan)
</p><ul><li>Downloadable article: "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age" Li et al. <i>BMC Biology</i> 2010, 8:15. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110427172440/http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1741-7007-8-15.pdf">[1]</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/jan/13/20050113-104224-1613r/">Loulan, vanished in sand</a></li></ul>
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style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Pre-Mongol Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a> (5th century BC–5th century AD)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shule_Kingdom" title="Shule Kingdom">Shule Kingdom</a> (200 BC-709 AD)</li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Loulan Kingdom</a> (?–77 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Protectorate_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Protectorate of the Western Regions">Protectorate of the Western Regions</a> (60 BC–107)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jushi_Kingdom" title="Jushi Kingdom">Jushi Kingdom</a> (?-460)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shanshan</a> (77 BC–630)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gaochang" title="Gaochang">Gaochang</a> (460-640)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> (?–789)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karasahr" title="Karasahr">Yanqi</a> (?–9th century)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Kingdom of Khotan</a> (?–1006)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Protectorate General to Pacify the West</a> (640-790)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a> (840–1212)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho">Qocho</a> (843–1209)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a> (1124–1218)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Mongol</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a> (1225–1370)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moghulistan" title="Moghulistan">Moghulistan</a> (1347–1680s)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kara_Del" title="Kara Del">Kara Del</a> (1389–1513)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turpan_Khanate" title="Turpan Khanate">Turpan Khanate</a> (1487-1660?)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yarkent_Khanate" title="Yarkent Khanate">Yarkent Khanate</a> (1514–1705)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a> (1634–1758)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kumul_Khanate" title="Kumul Khanate">Kumul Khanate</a> (1696–1930)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang under Qing rule</a> (1757-1912)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinjiang_Province,_Republic_of_China" title="Xinjiang Province, Republic of China">Xinjiang (ROC)</a> (1912-1992)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinjiang_Uygur_Autonomous_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region">Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region</a> (1949-)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mal%27ta%E2%80%93Buret%27_culture" title="Mal'ta–Buret' culture">Mal'ta–Buret' culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vakhsh_culture" title="Vakhsh culture">Vakhsh culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tagar_culture" title="Tagar culture">Tagar culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uyuk_culture" title="Uyuk culture">Uyuk culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pazyryk_culture" title="Pazyryk culture">Pazyryk culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guiyi_Circuit" title="Guiyi Circuit">Guiyi Circuit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanians</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Principality_of_Ushrusana" title="Principality of Ushrusana">Ustrushana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Principality_of_Khuttal" title="Principality of Khuttal">Khuttal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Principality_of_Farghana" title="Principality of Farghana">Farghana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Anxi Protectorate</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ikhshids_of_Sogdia" title="Ikhshids of Sogdia">Ikhshids of Sogdia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tokhara_Yabghus" title="Tokhara Yabghus">Tokhara Yabghus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oghuz_Yabgu_State" title="Oghuz Yabgu State">Oghuz Yabgus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ma%27munids" title="Ma'munids">Ma'munids</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farighunids" title="Farighunids">Farighunids</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Great Seljuq Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sufi_dynasty" title="Sufi dynasty">Sufi dynasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart dynasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">Khanate of Bukhara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khanate of Khiva</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Central_Asia" title="Soviet Central Asia">Soviet Central Asia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Central Asia">Chinese Central Asia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Asian_art" title="Central Asian art">Central Asian art</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_art" title="Silk Road transmission of art">Silk Road transmission of art</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serindian_art" title="Serindian art">Serindian art</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Russia" title="Southern Russia">Southern Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sintashta" title="Sintashta">Sintashta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arzhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Arzhan">Arzhan kurgan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pazyryk_burials" title="Pazyryk burials">Pazyryk burials</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salbyk_kurgan" title="Salbyk kurgan">Salbyk kurgan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Filippovka_kurgans" title="Filippovka kurgans">Filippovka kurgans</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bulay%C3%AFq" title="Bulayïq">Bulayïq</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kizilgaha_caves" title="Kizilgaha caves">Kizilgaha caves</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kumtura_Caves" title="Kumtura Caves">Kumtura Caves</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subashi_Temple" title="Subashi Temple">Subashi Temple</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miran_(Xinjiang)" title="Miran (Xinjiang)">Miran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niya_ruins" title="Niya ruins">Niya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rawak_Stupa" title="Rawak Stupa">Rawak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tumxuk" title="Tumxuk">Tumshuq</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bezeklik_Caves" title="Bezeklik Caves">Bezeklik Caves</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dunhuang_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunhuang Caves">Dunhuang Caves</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Loulan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Khotan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beshbalik" title="Beshbalik">Beshbalik</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Noin-Ula_burial_site" title="Noin-Ula burial site">Noin-Ula burial site</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Begash" title="Begash">Begash</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Issyk_kurgan" title="Issyk kurgan">Issyk kurgan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jankent" title="Jankent">Jankent</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karsakpay_inscription" title="Karsakpay inscription">Karsakpay inscription</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerderi" title="Kerderi">Kerderi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Krasnyi_Yar_(Kazakhstan)" title="Krasnyi Yar (Kazakhstan)">Krasnyi Yar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merke_Turkic_Sanctuaries" title="Merke Turkic Sanctuaries">Merke Turkic Sanctuaries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Otrar" title="Otrar">Otrar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petroglyphs_of_Arpa-Uzen" title="Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen">Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petrovka_settlement" title="Petrovka settlement">Petrovka settlement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boralday_(archaeological_site)" title="Boralday (archaeological site)">Boralday</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sawran_(Kazakhstan)" title="Sawran (Kazakhstan)">Sawran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shilikty" title="Shilikty">Shilikty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steppe_Geoglyphs" title="Steppe Geoglyphs">Steppe Geoglyphs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sumbe_(ancient_settlement)" title="Sumbe (ancient settlement)">Sumbe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Talapty_Settlement" title="Talapty Settlement">Talapty Settlement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkistan_(city)" title="Turkistan (city)">Turkistan (city)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urpek" title="Urpek">Urpek</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi" title="Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi">Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Araltobe_kurgan" title="Araltobe kurgan">Araltobe kurgan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aigyr-Zhal_2" title="Aigyr-Zhal 2">Aigyr-Zhal 2</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Balasagun" title="Balasagun">Balasagun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burana_Tower" title="Burana Tower">Burana Tower</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Issyk-Kul" title="Issyk-Kul">Issyk-Kul</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Koshoy_Korgon" title="Koshoy Korgon">Koshoy Korgon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manas_Ordo" title="Manas Ordo">Manas Ordo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Navekat" title="Navekat">Navekat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%96zg%C3%B6n" title="Özgön">Özgön</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shakh_Fazil" title="Shakh Fazil">Shakh Fazil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suyab" title="Suyab">Suyab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tash_Rabat" title="Tash Rabat">Tash Rabat</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afrasiyab_(Samarkand)" title="Afrasiyab (Samarkand)">Afrasiyab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akchakhan-Kala" title="Akchakhan-Kala">Akchakhan-Kala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akhsikath" title="Akhsikath">Akhsikath</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Pap" title="Ancient Pap">Ancient Pap</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ayaz-Kala" title="Ayaz-Kala">Ayaz-Kala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Balalyk_Tepe" title="Balalyk Tepe">Balalyk Tepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burchmulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Burchmulla">Burchmulla</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dalverzin_Tepe" title="Dalverzin Tepe">Dalverzin Tepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desert_castles_of_ancient_Khorezm" title="Desert castles of ancient Khorezm">Desert castles of ancient Khorezm</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fayaz_Tepe" title="Fayaz Tepe">Fayaz Tepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guldursun-Kala" title="Guldursun-Kala">Guldursun-Kala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hazorasp" title="Hazorasp">Hazorasp</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Itchan_Kala" title="Itchan Kala">Itchan Kala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kafir-kala_(Uzbekistan)" title="Kafir-kala (Uzbekistan)">Kafir-kala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kampir_Tepe" title="Kampir Tepe">Kampir Tepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kara_Tepe" title="Kara Tepe">Kara Tepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khalchayan" title="Khalchayan">Khalchayan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khiva" title="Khiva">Khiva</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Koi_Krylgan_Kala" title="Koi Krylgan Kala">Koi Krylgan Kala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Koktepe" title="Koktepe">Koktepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kyzyl-Kala" title="Kyzyl-Kala">Kyzyl-Kala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Obi-Rakhmat_Grotto" title="Obi-Rakhmat Grotto">Obi-Rakhmat Grotto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poykent" class="mw-redirect" title="Poykent">Poykent</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarmishsay" title="Sarmishsay">Sarmishsay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shahrukhiya" title="Shahrukhiya">Shahrukhiya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siypantosh_Rock_Paintings" title="Siypantosh Rock Paintings">Siypantosh Rock Paintings</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tavka_Kurgan" title="Tavka Kurgan">Tavka Kurgan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toprak-Kala" title="Toprak-Kala">Toprak-Kala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Varakhsha" title="Varakhsha">Varakhsha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zarautsoy_Rock_Paintings" title="Zarautsoy Rock Paintings">Zarautsoy Rock Paintings</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bunjikat_(archeological_site)" title="Bunjikat (archeological site)">Bunjikat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Penjikent" class="mw-redirect" title="Penjikent">Penjikent</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajina_tepe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajina tepe">Ajina tepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyropolis" title="Cyropolis">Cyropolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kafir-kala_(Tajikistan)" title="Kafir-kala (Tajikistan)">Kafir-kala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarazm" title="Sarazm">Sarazm</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Takht-i_Kuwad" title="Takht-i Kuwad">Takht-i Kuwad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Takht-i_Sangin" title="Takht-i Sangin">Takht-i Sangin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kalai_Kafirnigan" title="Kalai Kafirnigan">Kalai Kafirnigan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cave_of_Dzhebel" title="Cave of Dzhebel">Cave of Dzhebel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abiward" title="Abiward">Abiward</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Altyndepe" title="Altyndepe">Altyndepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anau_culture" title="Anau culture">Anau culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anau,_Turkmenistan" title="Anau, Turkmenistan">Anau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dev-Kesken" class="mw-redirect" title="Dev-Kesken">Dev-Kesken</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gonur_Depe" title="Gonur Depe">Gonur Depe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jeitun" title="Jeitun">Jeitun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Konye-Urgench" title="Konye-Urgench">Konye-Urgench</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kutlug_Timur_Minaret" title="Kutlug Timur Minaret">Kutlug Timur Minaret</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monjukli_Depe" title="Monjukli Depe">Monjukli Depe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Namazga-Tepe" title="Namazga-Tepe">Namazga-Tepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Togolok" title="Togolok">Togolok</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ulug_Depe" title="Ulug Depe">Ulug Depe</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ai-Khanoum" title="Ai-Khanoum">Ai-Khanoum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dilberjin_Tepe" title="Dilberjin Tepe">Dilberjin Tepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hadda,_Afghanistan" title="Hadda, Afghanistan">Hadda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tapa_Shotor" title="Tapa Shotor">Tapa Shotor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chakhil-i-Ghoundi_Stupa" title="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa">Chakhil-i-Ghoundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shotorak_monastery" title="Shotorak monastery">Shotorak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paitava" title="Paitava">Paitava</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bimaran" title="Bimaran">Bimaran</a></li>
<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tapa-i_Kafariha_Monastery" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tapa-i Kafariha Monastery">Tapa-i Kafariha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mes_Aynak" title="Mes Aynak">Mes Aynak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fondukistan_monastery" title="Fondukistan monastery">Fondukistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khair_Khaneh" title="Khair Khaneh">Khair Khaneh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tapa_Sardar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapa Sardar">Tapa Sardar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tepe_Narenj" title="Tepe Narenj">Tepe Narenj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Takht-e_Rostam" title="Takht-e Rostam">Takht-e Rostam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tillya_Tepe" title="Tillya Tepe">Tillya Tepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yemshi_Tepe" title="Yemshi Tepe">Yemshi Tepe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexandria_Prophthasia" title="Alexandria Prophthasia">Alexandria Prophthasia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aq_Kupruk" title="Aq Kupruk">Aq Kupruk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asqalan,_Afghanistan" title="Asqalan, Afghanistan">Asqalan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chakhil-i-Ghoundi_Stupa" title="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa">Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darra-e_Kur" title="Darra-e Kur">Darra-e Kur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dasht-e_Nawar" title="Dasht-e Nawar">Dasht-e Nawar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan" title="Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan">Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Firozkoh" title="Firozkoh">Firozkoh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gawhar_Shad_Mausoleum" title="Gawhar Shad Mausoleum">Gawhar Shad Mausoleum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haji_Piyada" title="Haji Piyada">Haji Piyada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khair_Khaneh" title="Khair Khaneh">Khair Khaneh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mundigak" title="Mundigak">Mundigak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Musalla_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Musalla Complex">Musalla Complex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nagara_(ancient_city)" title="Nagara (ancient city)">Nagara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qala-i-Jangi" title="Qala-i-Jangi">Qala-i-Jangi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rag-i-Bibi" title="Rag-i-Bibi">Rag-i-Bibi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surkh_Kotal" title="Surkh Kotal">Surkh Kotal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bandian_complex" title="Bandian complex">Bandian complex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_Khajeh" title="Mount Khajeh">Mount Khajeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh" title="Shahr-e Sukhteh">Shahr-e Sukhteh</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artifacts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sokh_snakes" title="Sokh snakes">Sokh snakes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orlat_plaques" title="Orlat plaques">Orlat plaques</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hephthalite_silver_bowl" title="Hephthalite silver bowl">Hephthalite silver bowl</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chilek_silver_bowl" title="Chilek silver bowl">Chilek silver bowl</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gardez_Ganesha" title="Gardez Ganesha">Gardez Ganesha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogao_Christian_painting" title="Mogao Christian painting">Mogao Christian painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murals_from_the_Christian_temple_at_Qocho" title="Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho">Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Penjikent_murals" title="Penjikent murals">Penjikent murals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sampul_tapestry" title="Sampul tapestry">Sampul tapestry</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sogdian_Da%C4%93n%C4%81s" title="Sogdian Daēnās">Sogdian Daēnās</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oxus_Treasure" title="Oxus Treasure">Oxus Treasure</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bimaran_Casket" class="mw-redirect" title="Bimaran Casket">Bimaran Casket</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kabul_hoard" title="Kabul hoard">Kabul hoard</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aramaic_Inscription_of_Laghman" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic Inscription of Laghman">Aramaic Inscription of Laghman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kandahar_Aramaic_inscription" title="Kandahar Aramaic inscription">Kandahar Aramaic inscription</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pul-i-Darunteh_Aramaic_inscription" title="Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription">Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kandahar_Bilingual_Rock_Inscription" title="Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription">Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kandahar_Greek_Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka">Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afrasiab_murals" title="Afrasiab murals">Afrasiab murals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stamp_seal_(BM_119999)" title="Stamp seal (BM 119999)">Stamp seal (BM 119999)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seal_of_Khingila" title="Seal of Khingila">Seal of Khingila</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberian_Ice_Maiden" title="Siberian Ice Maiden">Siberian Ice Maiden</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ai-Khanoum_plaque" title="Ai-Khanoum plaque">Ai-Khanoum plaque</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saksanokhur_gold_buckle" title="Saksanokhur gold buckle">Saksanokhur gold buckle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boar_hunter_(Hermitage_Museum)" title="Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)">Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberian_Collection_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Siberian Collection of Peter the Great">Siberian Collection of Peter the Great</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1228936124"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1057551#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1057551#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1057551#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/259373195">VIAF</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nb2014004738">United States</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00648026">Japan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Loulan (zaniklé město)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge875189&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1721224253' |