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{{Redirect|Royal purple|other uses|Royal Purple (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Byzantium (color)]], a modern colour}}
{{For|chemistry of Tyrian purple|6,6'-Dibromoindigo}}
[[File:Purple Purpur (retouched).jpg|thumb|Fabrics dyed in the current era from different species of sea snail. The colours in this photograph may not represent them precisely.]]
'''Tyrian purple''' ({{lang-grc|πορφύρα}} ''porphúra''; {{lang-la|purpura}}), also known as '''royal purple''', '''imperial purple''', or '''imperial dye''', is a reddish-[[purple]] [[natural dye]]. The name Tyrian refers to [[Tyre, Lebanon]], once [[Phoenicia]]. It is secreted by several species of predatory [[sea snail]]s in the family [[Muricidae]], rock snails originally known by the name Murex (''[[Bolinus brandaris]]'', ''[[Hexaplex trunculus]]'' and ''[[Stramonita haemastoma]]''). In ancient times, extracting this dye involved tens of thousands of snails and substantial labour, and as a result, the dye was highly valued. The [[chromophore|colored compound]] is [[6,6'-Dibromoindigo|6,6'-dibromoindigo]].
==History==
[[File:PM 110511 Liebig Chromos.jpg|thumb|A 20th-century depiction of a [[Roman triumph]] celebrated by [[Julius Caesar]]. Caesar, riding in the chariot, wears the solid Tyrian purple ''[[toga picta]]''. In the foreground, two [[Roman magistrates]] are identified by their ''[[toga praetexta]]'', white with a stripe of Tyrian purple.]]
[[Biological pigment]]s were often difficult to acquire, and the details of their production were kept [[trade secret|secret]] by the manufacturers. Tyrian purple is a pigment made from the [[mucus]] of several species of [[Hexaplex trunculus|Murex snail]]. Production of Tyrian purple for use as a [[fabric]] dye began as early as 1200 BC by the [[Phoenicia]]ns, and was continued by the [[Greeks]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Romans]] until 1453 AD, with the [[fall of Constantinople]]. In the same way as the modern-day [[Latin alphabet]] of Phoenician origin, Phoenician purple pigment was spread through the unique Phoenician trading empire.<ref name="ruthg">{{cite book |title=Dyes: From Sea Snails to Synthetics |author=Kassinger, Ruth G. |date=6 February 2003 |publisher=21st century |url=https://archive.org/details/dyesfromseasnail0000kass |url-access=registration |isbn=0-7613-2112-8}}</ref> The pigment was expensive and time-consuming to produce, and items colored with it became associated with power and wealth. This popular idea of purple being elite contributes to the modern day wide-spread belief that purple is a "royal colour". The colour of textiles from this period provides insight into socio-cultural relationships within ancient societies, in addition to providing insights on technological achievements, fashion, social stratification, agriculture and trade connections.<ref name=NS>{{cite journal |last1=Sukenik |first1=Naama |last2=Iluz |first2=David |last3=Amar |first3=Zohar |last4=Varvak |first4=Alexander |last5=Shamir |first5=Orit |last6=Ben-Yosef |first6=Erez |title=Early evidence of royal purple dyed textile from Timna Valley (Israel) |journal=PLOS ONE |date=28 January 2021 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=e0245897 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0245897 |pmid=33507987 |pmc=7842898 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1645897S |language=en |issn=1932-6203 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Despite their value to archaeological research, textiles are quite rare in the archaeological record. Like any perishable organic material, they are usually subject to rapid decomposition and their preservation over millennia requires exacting conditions to prevent destruction by microorganisms.<ref name=NS/>
Tyrian purple may first have been used by the ancient [[Phoenicia]]ns as early as 1570 BC.<ref>McGovern, P. E. and Michel, R. H. "Royal Purple dye: tracing the chemical origins of the industry". ''Analytical Chemistry'' 1985, 57, 1514A–1522A</ref><ref name="StClair">{{Cite book |title=The Secret Lives of Colour |vauthors=St Clair K |publisher=John Murray |year=2016 |isbn=9781473630819 |location=London |pages=162–164 |oclc=936144129}}</ref> It has been suggested that the name Phoenicia itself means 'land of purple'.<ref>{{cite book |author=Cunliffe, Barry |title=Europe between the Oceans: 9000 BC – AD 1000 |location=New Haven, Connecticut |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2008 |page=241}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/Phoenician |title=Phoenician |website=Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref> The [[dye]] was greatly prized in antiquity because the colour did not easily fade, but instead became brighter with weathering and sunlight. It came in various shades, the most prized being that of black-tinted clotted blood.<ref name=Pigments_WebExhibits>{{cite web |url=https://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/7.html |title=Pigments: Causes of Color |website=WebExhibits.org |access-date=2016-06-10 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="StClair"/>
Because it was extremely tedious to make, Tyrian purple was expensive: the 4th century BC historian [[Theopompus]] reported, "Purple for dyes fetched its weight in silver at [[Colophon (city)|Colophon]]" in [[Asia Minor]].<ref>Theopompus, cited by [[Athenaeus]] (12:526) around 200 BC.{{cite book |translator=Gulick, Charles Barton |year=1941 |author=Athenaeus |author-link=Athenaeus |title=The Deipnosophists |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> The expense meant that purple-dyed textiles became [[status symbol]]s, whose use was restricted by [[sumptuary law]]s. The most senior [[Roman magistrate]]s wore a ''[[toga praetexta]]'', a white [[toga]] edged in Tyrian purple. The even more sumptuous ''[[toga picta]]'', solid Tyrian purple with [[gold thread]] edging, was worn by generals celebrating a [[Roman triumph]].<ref name="StClair"/>
By the fourth century AD, sumptuary laws in Rome had been tightened so much that only the [[Roman emperors|Roman emperor]] was permitted to wear Tyrian purple.<ref name="StClair"/> As a result, 'purple' is sometimes used as a [[metonym]] for the office (e.g. the phrase 'donned the purple' means 'became emperor'). The production of Tyrian purple was tightly controlled in the succeeding [[Byzantine Empire]] and subsidized by the imperial court, which restricted its use for the colouring of [[Byzantine silk|imperial silks]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Jacoby D |article=Silk in Western Byzantium before the Fourth Crusade |title=Trade, Commodities, and Shipping in the Medieval Mediterranean |year=1997 |at=pp. 455 ff and notes [17]–[19]}}</ref> Later (9th century), a child born to a reigning emperor was said to be ''[[porphyrogenitos]]'', "[[born in the purple]]".<ref>{{cite book |article=Porphyrogennetos |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York and Oxford, UK |year=1991 |page=1701 |isbn=0-195-04652-8}}</ref>
Some{{Who?|date=March 2017}} speculate that the dye extracted from the ''[[Bolinus brandaris]]'' is known as {{transl|hbo|argaman}} ({{lang|hbo|ארגמן}}) in [[Biblical Hebrew]]. Another dye extracted from a related sea snail, ''[[Hexaplex trunculus]]'', produced a blue colour after light exposure which could be the one known as {{transl|hbo|[[tekhelet]]}} ({{lang|hbo|תְּכֵלֶת}}), used in garments worn for ritual purposes.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Elsner O |title=Solution of the enigmas of dyeing with Tyrian purple and the Biblical tekhelet |journal=Dyes in History and Archaeology |volume=10 |year=1992 |at=pages 14 ff}}</ref>
==Production from sea snails==
[[File:Haustellum brandaris 000.jpg|thumb|Two [[gastropod shell|shells]] of ''[[Bolinus brandaris]]'', the spiny dye-murex, a source of the dye]]
The dye substance is a mucous secretion from the [[hypobranchial gland]] of one of several species of medium-sized [[predatory]] [[sea snail]]s that are found in the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea]], and [[Mogador Island|off the Atlantic coast of Morocco]]. These are the [[ocean|marine]] [[gastropod]]s ''[[Bolinus brandaris]]'' the spiny dye-murex (originally known as ''Murex brandaris'' Linnaeus, 1758), the banded dye-murex ''[[Hexaplex trunculus]]'', the rock-shell ''[[Stramonita haemastoma]]'',<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ziderman, I.I. |year=1986 |title=Purple dye made from shellfish in antiquity |journal=Review of Progress in Coloration |volume=16 |pages=46–52 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-4408.1986.tb03743.x}}</ref><ref name="Radwin, G. E 1986. p93">{{cite book |author1=Radwin, G. E. |author2=D'Attilio, A. |year=1986 |title=Murex shells of the world. An illustrated guide to the Muricidae |page=93 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA}} 284 pp incl 192 figs. & 32 pls.</ref> and less commonly a number of other species such as ''[[Bolinus cornutus]]''. The dye is an organic compound of [[bromine]] (i.e., an [[organobromine compound]]), a class of compounds often found in algae and in some other sea life, but much more rarely found in the biology of land animals. This dye is in contrast to the imitation purple that was commonly produced using cheaper materials than the dyes from the sea snail.<ref name=NS/>
In nature, the snails use the secretion as part of their [[predatory]] behavior to sedate prey and as an [[antimicrobial]] lining on egg masses.<ref name="Benkendorff">{{cite thesis |vauthors=Benkendorff K |title=Bioactive molluscan resources and their conservation: Biological and chemical studies on the egg masses of marine molluscs |publisher=University of Wollongong |date=March 1999 |url=http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20011204.154039/index.html |format=PDF |access-date=2008-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830143907/http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20011204.154039/index.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=2007-08-30 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">Because of research by Benkendorff et al. (1999), the Tyrian purple precursor [[tyrindoleninone]] is being investigated as a potential antimicrobial agent with uses against [[multidrug-resistant bacteria]].</ref> The snail also secretes this substance when it is attacked by predators, or physically antagonized by humans (e.g., poked). Therefore, the dye can be collected either by "milking" the snails, which is more labor-intensive but is a [[renewable resource]], or by collecting and destructively crushing the snails. David Jacoby remarks that "twelve thousand snails of ''[[Murex brandaris]]'' yield no more than 1.4 g of pure dye, enough to colour only the trim of a single garment."<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Jacoby D |title=Silk economics and cross-cultural artistic interaction: Byzantium, the Muslim world, and the Christian west |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=58 |year=2004 |pages=210, 197–240 |doi=10.2307/3591386 |jstor=3591386}}</ref> The dye is collected via the snail-harvesting process, involving the extraction of the hypobranchial gland (located under the mollusk's mantle). This requires advanced knowledge of biology. Murex-based dyeing must take place close to the site from which the snails originate, because the freshness of the material has a significant effect on the results, the colors yielded based on the long process of biochemical, enzymatic and photochemical reactions, and requires reduction and oxidation processes that probably took several days.<ref name=NS/>
Many other species worldwide within the family Muricidae, for example ''[[Plicopurpura pansa]]'',<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gould AA |title=Descriptions of shells from the Gulf of California and the Pacific coasts of Mexico and California |journal=Boston Journal of Natural History |date=1853 |volume=6 |pages=374–408 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000018613018&view=1up&seq=402}} ; see pp. 406–407. Note: Gould called this species ''Purpura pansa'' ; it was later renamed ''Plicopurpura pansa''.</ref> from the tropical eastern Pacific, and ''[[Plicopurpura patula]]''<ref>''Plicopurpura patula'' was originally named ''Buccinum patulum'' by Linnaeus in 1758:
* {{cite book |vauthors=von Linné C |title=Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ … |date=1758 |volume=1 |publisher=Lars Salvius |location=Stockholm, Sweden |page=739 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/761/mode/1up |language=la}}
*World Register of Marine Species (Web site): [https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=396994 ''Plicopurpura patula'' (Linnaeus, 1758).]
The genus ''Plicopurpura'' was created in 1903 by Cossmann:
* {{cite book |vauthors=Cossmann M |title=Essais de paléoconchologie comparée |date=1903 |publisher=(Self-published) |location=Paris, France |volume=5 |pages=68–69 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/112977#page/80/mode/1up |language=fr}}</ref> from the Caribbean zone of the western [[Atlantic]], can also produce a similar substance (which turns into an enduring purple dye when exposed to sunlight) and this ability has sometimes also been historically exploited by local inhabitants in the areas where these snails occur. (Some other predatory gastropods, such as some [[wentletrap]]s in the family [[Epitoniidae]], seem to also produce a similar substance, although this has not been studied or exploited commercially.) The [[dog whelk]] ''Nucella lapillus'', from the North Atlantic, can also be used to produce red-purple and violet dyes.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Whelks and purple dye in Anglo-Saxon England |vauthors=Biggam CP |publisher=Department of English Language, University of Glasgow |location=Glasgow, Scotland, UK |journal=The Archaeo+Malacology Group Newsletter |issue=9 |date=March 2006 |url=http://triton.anu.edu.au/MalacGp09.pdf |access-date=2009-11-19 |archive-date=2011-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219060429/http://triton.anu.edu.au/MalacGp09.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==Royal blue==
{{See also|Tekhelet}}
The Phoenicians also made a deep blue-coloured dye, sometimes referred to as ''royal blue'' or ''hyacinth purple'', which was made from a closely related species of marine snail.<ref name=Moorey1999>{{cite book |title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence |vauthors=Moorey P |publisher=Eisenbrauns |location=[[Winona Lake, Indiana]] |year=1999 |isbn=1-57506-042-6 |page=138}}</ref>
The Phoenicians established an ancillary production facility on the [[Iles Purpuraires]] at [[Mogador]], in [[Morocco]].<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Hogan CM |title=Mogador: Promontory Fort |website=The Megalithic Portal |veditors=Burnham A |date=2 November 2007 |url=https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=17926}}</ref> The sea snail harvested at this western Moroccan dye production facility was ''[[Hexaplex trunculus]]'', also known by the older name ''[[Murex trunculus]]''.<ref>In 1758, Linnaeus classified the snail as ''Murex trunculus'':
* {{cite book |vauthors=von Linné C |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae … |date=1758 |volume=v.1 |publisher=Lars Salvius |location=Stockholm, Sweden |page=747 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/769/mode/1up |language=la}}
In 1810, the English naturalist [[George Perry (naturalist)|George Perry]] created the genus ''Hexaplex'':
* {{cite book |vauthors=Perry G |title=Arcana, or, The museum of natural history ... |date=1810–1811 |publisher=James Stratford |location=London, England |page=Plate XXIII: Genus: Triplex |url=https://archive.org/details/arcanaormuseumof00perr/page/n139}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Mathews GM, Iredale T |title="Perry's Arcanda" – an overlooked work |journal=The Victorian Naturalist |date=May 1912 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=7–16 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/38346#page/19/mode/1up}} ; see p. 11.
*[https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138194 World Register of Marine Species (Web site): ''Hexaplex'' Perry, 1810]</ref>
This second species of dye murex is found today on the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of Europe and Africa (Spain, Portugal, Morocco).<ref name="Radwin, G. E 1986. p93"/>
==Background==
[[File:Mosaic of Justinianus I - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna).jpg|thumb|Byzantine Emperor [[Justinian I]] clad in Tyrian purple, 6th-century mosaic at [[Basilica of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]], [[Italy]]]]
The [[colour fastness|colour-fast]] (non-fading) dye was an item of luxury trade, prized by [[ancient Rome|Romans]], who used it to colour [[toga|ceremonial robes]]. Used as a dye, the colour shifts from blue (peak absorption at 590 nm, which is yellow-orange) to reddish-purple (peak absorption at 520 nm, which is green).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cooksey CJ |title=Tyrian purple: 6,6'-dibromoindigo and related compounds |journal=Molecules |year=2001 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=736–769 |pmc=6236399 |doi=10.3390/60900736 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It is believed that the intensity of the purple hue improved rather than faded as the dyed cloth aged. [[Vitruvius]] mentions the production of Tyrian purple from shellfish.<ref>{{cite book |author=Vitruvius |title=De Architectura |trans-title=On Architecture |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/7*.html |at=Book VII, Chapter 13}}</ref> In his ''[[History of Animals]]'', [[Aristotle]] described the shellfish from which Tyrian purple was obtained and the process of extracting the tissue that produced the dye.<ref>{{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=History of Animals |location=Whitefish, MT |publisher=Kessering Publishing |year=2004 |at=Book V, pages 131–132 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dma7o9N6zWkC&q=stains&pg=PA132 |isbn=9781419123917}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] described the production of Tyrian purple in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'':<ref>{{cite book |author=Pliny the Elder |title=The Natural History |editor1-link=John Bostock (physician) |veditors=Bostock J, Riley HT |editor2-link=Henry Thomas Riley |location=London, UK |publisher=Taylor and Francis |year=1855 |at=Book IX |chapter=Chapter 62: ''The Natural History of Fishes'' |chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D62}} Pliny discusses Tyrian purple throughout Chapters 60–65.</ref><ref group=lower-alpha>The problem with Tyrian purple is that the precursor reacts very quickly with air and light to form an insoluble dye. (Hence Pliny says: "... ''when [the shellfish] have once discharged their waxy secretion, their juices have no consistency''. ...") The cumbersome process that Pliny describes is necessary to reverse the oxidation and to restore the water-soluble precursor so that large masses of wool can be dyed. See: {{cite journal |vauthors=Biggam CP |year=2006 |title=Knowledge of whelk dyes and pigments in Anglo-Saxon England |journal=Anglo-Saxon England |volume=35 |at=pages 23–56; see especially pages 26–27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZojyGIfG9m4C&q=soluble+insoluble&pg=PA26 |isbn=9780521883429 |doi=10.1017/S0263675106000032 |s2cid=162937239}} See also: C. J. Cooksey (2001) "Tyrian purple: 6,6'-Dibromoindigo and Related Compounds", ''Molecules'', '''6''' (9) : 736–769, especially page 761. Indigo, which is chemically very similar to Tyrian purple, behaves similarly. See: http://www.indigopage.com/chemistry.htm</ref>
<blockquote>The most favourable season for taking these [shellfish] is after the rising of the [[Sirius|Dog-star]], or else before spring; for when they have once discharged their waxy secretion, their juices have no consistency: this, however, is a fact unknown in the dyers' workshops, although it is a point of primary importance. After it is taken, the vein [i.e. hypobranchial gland] is extracted, which we have previously spoken of, to which it is requisite to add salt, a sextarius [about 20 fl. oz.] to every hundred pounds of juice. It is sufficient to leave them to steep for a period of three days, and no more, for the fresher they are, the greater virtue there is in the liquor. It is then set to boil in vessels of tin [or lead], and every hundred amphorae ought to be boiled down to five hundred pounds of dye, by the application of a moderate heat; for which purpose the vessel is placed at the end of a long funnel, which communicates with the furnace; while thus boiling, the liquor is skimmed from time to time, and with it the flesh, which necessarily adheres to the veins. About the tenth day, generally, the whole contents of the cauldron are in a liquefied state, upon which a fleece, from which the grease has been cleansed, is plunged into it by way of making trial; but until such time as the colour is found to satisfy the wishes of those preparing it, the liquor is still kept on the boil. The tint that inclines to red is looked upon as inferior to that which is of a blackish hue. The wool is left to lie in soak for five hours, and then, after carding it, it is thrown in again, until it has fully imbibed the colour.</blockquote>
Archaeological data from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] indicate that the snails were collected in large vats and left to decompose. This produced a hideous stench that was actually mentioned by ancient authors. Not much is known about the subsequent steps, and the actual ancient method for mass-producing the two murex dyes has not yet been successfully reconstructed; this special "blackish clotted blood" colour, which was prized above all others, is believed to be achieved by double-dipping the cloth, once in the indigo dye of ''H. trunculus'' and once in the purple-red dye of ''B. brandaris''.<ref name=Pigments_WebExhibits/><ref name=Moorey1999/>
[[File:Theodoor van Thulden - The Discovery of Purple.jpg|thumb|''[[Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye|The Discovery of Purple by Hercules's Dog]]'' by [[Theodoor van Thulden]], c. 1636]]
[[File:OldGreekPhoenikianCoinPurpur2000.jpg|thumb|A [[Phoenicia]]s coin depicting the legend of the dog biting the sea snail]]
The Roman [[mythographer]] [[Julius Pollux]], writing in the 2nd century AD, asserted (''Onomasticon'' I, 45–49) that the purple dye was first discovered by the philosopher Heracles of Tyre, or rather, by his dog, whose mouth was stained purple from chewing on snails along the coast at Tyre. This story was depicted by [[Peter Paul Rubens]] in his painting ''[[Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye]]''. According to [[John Malalas]], the incident happened during the reign of the legendary [[Phoenix (son of Agenor)|King Phoenix of Tyre]], the eponymous progenitor of the Phoenicians, and therefore he was the first ruler to wear Tyrian purple and legislate on its use.<ref>John Malalas, ''Chronographia'' II:9.</ref>
Recently, the archaeological discovery of substantial numbers of Murex shells on [[Crete]] suggests that the [[Minoans]] may have pioneered the extraction of Imperial purple centuries before the Tyrians. Dating from collocated pottery suggests the dye may have been produced during the Middle Minoan period in the 20th–18th century BC.<ref>Reese, David S. (1987). "Palaikastro Shells and Bronze Age Purple-Dye Production in the Mediterranean Basin", ''Annual of the British School of Archaeology at Athens'', '''82''', 201–206</ref><ref>Stieglitz, Robert R. (1994), "The Minoan Origin of Tyrian Purple", ''Biblical Archaeologist'', '''57''', 46–54.</ref> Accumulations of crushed murex shells from a hut at the site of [[Coppa Nevigata]] in southern Italy may indicate production of purple dye there from at least the 18th century BC.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Cazzella A, Moscoloni M |year=1998 |article=Coppa Nevigata: un insediamento fortificato dell'eta del Bronzo |veditors=Troccoli LD |title=Scavi e ricerche archeologiche dell'Università di Roma La Sapienza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcc5P5hqsu8C&pg=PA178 |pages=178–179 |publisher=L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER |isbn=9788882650155}}</ref> Additional archaeological evidence can be found from samples originating from excavations at the extensive Iron Age copper smelting site of “Slaves’ Hill” (Site 34), which is tightly dated by radiocarbon to the late 11th–early 10th centuries BC.<ref name=NS/> Findings from this site include evidence of the use of purple dye found in stains used on pot shards. Evidence of the use of dye in pottery are found in most cases on the upper part of ceramic basins, on the inside surface, the areas in which the reduced dye-solution was exposed to air, and underwent oxidation that turned it purple.<ref name=NS/>
The production of ''Murex'' purple for the Byzantine court came to an abrupt end with the [[Siege of Constantinople (1204)|sack of Constantinople in 1204]], the critical episode of the [[Fourth Crusade]]. David Jacoby concludes that "no Byzantine emperor nor any Latin ruler in former Byzantine territories could muster the financial resources required for the pursuit of murex purple production. On the other hand, murex fishing and dyeing with genuine purple are attested for Egypt in the tenth to 13th centuries."<ref>Jacoby (2004), p. 210.</ref> By contrast, Jacoby finds that there are no mentions of purple fishing or dyeing, nor trade in the colorant in any Western source, even in the Frankish Levant. The European West turned instead to [[vermilion]] provided by the insect ''[[Kermes vermilio]]'', known as ''grana'', or [[crimson]].
In 1909, Harvard anthropologist [[Zelia Nuttall]] compiled an intensive comparative study on the historical production of the purple dye produced from the carnivorous [[murex snail]], source of the [[royal purple]] dye valued higher than gold in the ancient Near East and ancient Mexico. Not only did the people of ancient Mexico use the same methods of production as the Phoenicians, they also valued murex-dyed cloth above all others, as it appeared in codices as the attire of nobility. "Nuttall noted that the Mexican murex-dyed cloth bore a "disagreeable ... strong fishy smell, which appears to be as lasting as the color itself."<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Nutall Z |chapter=A curious survival in Mexico of the use of the Purpura shell-fish for dyeing |veditors=Boas F |title=Anthropological Essays Presented to Fredrick Ward Putnam in Honor of his Seventieth Birthday, by his Friends and Associates |publisher=G. E. Strechert & Co. |location=New York, New York |date=1909 |chapter-url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101079830103;view=1up;seq=460 |page=370}}</ref> Likewise, the ancient Egyptian ''Papyrus of Anastasi'' laments: "The hands of the dyer reek like rotting fish ..."<ref name="robinson">{{cite book |vauthors=Robinson S |title=A History of Dyed Textiles |date=1969 |publisher=Studio Vista |location=London, UK |page=24}}</ref> So pervasive was this stench that the [[Talmud]] specifically granted women the right to divorce any husband who became a dyer after marriage.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Compton S |title=Exodus Lost |date=2010 |publisher=Booksurge Publishing |isbn=9781439276839 |pages=29–33 |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1439276838}}</ref>
In 2021, archaeologists found surviving wool fibers dyed with royal purple in the [[Timna Valley]] in Israel. The find, which was dated to c. 1000 BC, constituted the first direct evidence of fabric dyed with the pigment from antiquity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Sukenik |first1=Naama |last2 = Iluz |first2 = David |last3 = Amar |first3 = Zohar |last4 = Varvak |first4 = Alexander |last5 = Shamir |first5 = Orit |last6 = Ben-Yosef |first6 = Erez |date = January 2021 |title = Early evidence of royal purple dyed textile from Timna Valley (Israel) |journal = PLOS ONE |volume = 16 |issue=1 |pages = e0245897 |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0245897|doi-access=free |pmid=33507987 |pmc=7842898 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1645897S }}</ref>
==Murex purple production in North Africa==
[[File:Tyrian-Purple.svg|thumb|The chemical structure of 6,6'-dibromoindigo, the main component of Tyrian purple]]
Murex purple was a very important industry in many Phoenician territories and [[ancient Carthage|Carthage]] was no exception. Traces of this once very lucrative industry are still visible in many Punic sites such as [[Kerkouane]], Zouchis, [[Djerba]] and even in Carthage itself. According to Pliny, Meninx (today's Djerba) produced the best purple in Africa which was also ranked second only after Tyre's. It was found also at [[Iles Purpuraires|Essaouira]] ([[Morocco]]). The Royal purple or Imperial purple<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyrian_Purple/ |title=Definition of the Tyrian purple |language=en |website=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724031543/https://www.ancient.eu/Tyrian_Purple |archive-date=2016-07-24 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> was probably used until the time of [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430) and before the [[Romulus Augustulus#Later life|demise of the Roman Empire]].
==Dye chemistry==
Variations in colours of "Tyrian purple" from different snails are related to the presence of [[indigo dye]] (blue), 6-bromoindigo (purple), and the red 6,6'-dibromoindigo. Additional changes in colour can be induced by debromination from light exposure (as is the case for [[Tekhelet]]) or by heat processing.<ref name="indigo-bromo">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ramig K, Lavinda O, Szalda DJ, Mironova I, Karimi S, Pozzi F, Shah N, Samson J, Ajiki H, Massa L, Mantzouris D |display-authors=6 |title=The nature of thermochromic effects in dyeings with indigo, 6-bromoindigo, and 6,6'-Dibromoindigo, components of Tyrian purple |journal=Dyes and Pigments |date=June 2015 |volume=117 |pages=37–48 |doi=10.1016/j.dyepig.2015.01.025}}</ref> The final shade of purple is decided by chromatogram, which can be identified by [[high performance liquid chromatography]] analysis in a single measurement: indigotin (IND) and [[indirubin]] (INR). The two are found in plant sources such as [[woad]] (''Isatis tinctoria L''.) and the [[indigo plant]] (''Indigofera tinctoria L''), as well as in several species of shellfish.<ref name=NS/>
In 1998, by means of a lengthy trial and error process, a process for dyeing with Tyrian purple was rediscovered.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Edmonds J |title=Tyrian or Imperial Purple: The Mystery of Imperial Purple Dyes |series=Historic Dye Series, no. 7 |location=Little Chalfont, Buckinghamshire, England |publisher=John Edwards |date=2000 |oclc=45315310 |isbn=9780953413362}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Author Profile |work=Imperial-Purple.com |url=http://www.imperial-purple.com/profile.html |access-date=2011-07-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713022226/http://www.imperial-purple.com/profile.html |archive-date=2011-07-13 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> This finding built on reports from the 15th century to the 18th century and explored the biotechnology process behind [[Isatis tinctoria|woad]] fermentation. It is hypothesized that an alkaline fermenting vat was necessary. An incomplete ancient recipe for Tyrian purple recorded by Pliny the Elder was also consulted. By altering the percentage of sea salt in the dye vat and adding [[potash]], he was able to successfully dye wool a deep purple colour.<ref>{{cite book |author=Chenciner, Robert |title=Madder Red: A history of luxury and trade: plant dyes and pigments in world commerce and art |location=Richmond |publisher=Curzon Press |year=2000 |page=295}}</ref>
Recent research in [[organic electronics]] has shown that Tyrian purple is an ambipolar [[organic semiconductor]]. Transistors and circuits based on this material can be produced from sublimed thin-films of the dye. The good semiconducting properties of the dye originate from strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding that reinforces [[pi stacking]] necessary for transport.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ambipolar organic field effect transistors and inverters with the natural material Tyrian purple |vauthors=Głowacki ED, Leonat L, Voss G, Bodea MA, Bozkurt Z, Ramil AM, Irimia-Vladu M, Bauer S, Sariciftci NS |display-authors=6 |journal=AIP Advances |volume=1 |issue=4 |at=042132 |year=2011 |url=http://aipadvances.aip.org/resource/1/aaidbi/v1/i4/p042132_s1 |doi=10.1063/1.3660358 |bibcode=2011AIPA....1d2132G |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Modern hue rendering==
True Tyrian purple, like most high-[[colorfulness|chroma]] [[pigment]]s, cannot be accurately rendered on a standard RGB computer monitor. Ancient reports are also not entirely consistent, but these [[wikt:swatch|swatches]] give a rough indication of the likely range in which it appeared:
<span style="background-color:#b80049">_________</span> <br/>
<span style="background-color:#990024">_________</span>
The lower one is the [[sRGB]] colour #990024, intended for viewing on an output device with a [[gamma correction|gamma]] of 2.2. It is a representation of [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]] colour code 66A,<ref>{{cite web |title=RHS, UCL and RGB Colors, gamma = 1.4, fan 2 |website=Azalea Society of America |url=http://www.azaleas.org/index.pl/rhsmacfan2.html |access-date=2006-07-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311031344/http://www.azaleas.org/index.pl/rhsmacfan2.html |archive-date=2007-03-11 |df=dmy-all}} (this gives the RGB value #b80049, which has been converted to #990024 for the sRGB gamma of 2.2)</ref> which has been equated to "Tyrian red",<ref>{{cite web |author=Buck, G. |title=Buck Rose |page=5 |url=http://www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/cad/Eroses.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823170307/http://www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/cad/Eroses.html |archive-date=2006-08-23 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> a term which is often used as a synonym for Tyrian purple.
==Philately==
The colour name "Tyrian plum" is popularly given to a [[Edward VII 2d Tyrian plum|British postage stamp]] that was prepared, but never released to the public, shortly before the death of [[King Edward VII]] in 1910.<ref>{{cite web |title=Edward VII 2d |website=Postal Museum |series=Collection catalog |url=https://catalogue.postalmuseum.org/collections/getrecord/GB813_P_150_02_01_21}}</ref>
==Gallery==
<gallery widths="190px" heights="180px">
File:Cuneiform tablet BM62788.jpg|alt=cuneiform tablet|[[Cuneiform]] tablet, dated 600–500 BC, with instructions for dyeing wool purple and blue. Ref.{{British-Museum-db|BM62788|id=327282}}.
File:Heb cover hi.jpg|A set of ''[[Tzitzit]]'', four tassels or "fringes" with [[tekhelet]] (purple-blue) threads produced from a ''Hexaplex trunculus'' based dye.
File:Contemporary portrayal of a toga picta.jpg| Painting of a man wearing an all-purple ''toga picta'', from an [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] tomb (about 350 BC).
File:Compitalia fresco.jpg|Roman men wearing ''togae praetextae'' with reddish-purple stripes during a religious procession (1st century BC).
File:Empress Theodora.jpg|The [[Theodora (wife of Justinian I)|Empress Theodora]], the wife of the Emperor Justinian, dressed in Tyrian purple. (6th century).
File:Karl den store krons av leo III.jpg|A medieval depiction of the coronation of the Emperor [[Charlemagne]] in 800 AD wearing royal blue. The bishops and cardinals wear Tyrian purple, and the Pope wears white.
File:Shroud of Charlemagne manufactured in Constantinople 814.jpg|A fragment of the shroud in which the Emperor [[Charlemagne]] was buried in 814 AD. It was made of gold and Tyrian purple from Constantinople.
File:Tyrian purple on grayscale.jpg|6,6'-dibromoindigo, the major component of Tyrian purple
</gallery>
==Explanatory notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* {{cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyrian_Purple/ |title=Tyrian Purple |website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]}}
* {{cite journal |url=http://www.chriscooksey.demon.co.uk/tyrian/cjcbiblio.html |quote=Source of article in author's ''Bibliography'' page. |vauthors=Cooksey CJ |year=1994 |title=Making Tyrian purple |journal=Dyes in History and Archaeology |volume=13 |pages=7–13 (email the author for a copy) |access-date=2010-05-11 |archive-date=2020-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726101755/http://www.chriscooksey.demon.co.uk/tyrian/cjcbiblio.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite thesis |vauthors=Guckelsberger M |title=Purple Murex Dye in Antiquity |date=December 2013 |url=https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/16925/1/Purple%20Murex%20Dye%20in%20Antiquity.pdf |publisher=University of Iceland}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Plicopurpura+pansa+(Gould,+1853)+from+the+Pacific+Coast+of+Mexico+and...-a0118543935 |website=The Free Library |title=Tyrian purple}}
* {{cite web |url=https://tekhelet.com/pdf/Jenson-RoyalPurple-1963.pdf |title=Royal Purple of Tyre}}
{{Shades of red}}
{{Shades of violet}}
{{Dyeing}}
[[Category:2nd-millennium BC introductions]]
[[Category:Animal dyes]]
[[Category:Bromine-containing natural products]]
[[Category:Byzantine clothing]]
[[Category:Culture of the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Halogen-containing natural products]]
[[Category:Mollusc products]]
[[Category:Organic pigments]]
[[Category:Organobromides]]
[[Category:Shades of violet]]
[[Category:History of Tyre, Lebanon]]
[[Category:Culture of Phoenicia]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{short description|Natural dye extracted from ''Murex'' sea snails}}
{{Redirect|Royal purple|other uses|Royal Purple (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Byzantium (color)]], a modern colour}}
{{For|chemistry of Tyrian purple|6,6'-Dibromoindigo}}
[[File:Purple Purpur (retouched).jpg|thumb|Fabrics dyed in the current era from different species of DADDY sea snail. The colours in this photograph may not represent them precisely.]]
'''Tyrian purple''' ({{lang-grc|πορφύρα}} ''porphúra''; {{lang-la|purpura}}), also known as '''royal purple''', '''imperial purple''', or '''imperial dye''', is a reddish-[[purple]] [[natural dye]]. The name Tyrian refers to [[Tyre, Lebanon]], once [[Phoenicia]]. It is secreted by several species of predatory [[sea snail]]s in the family [[Muricidae]], rock snails originally known by the name Murex (''[[Bolinus brandaris]]'', ''[[Hexaplex trunculus]]'' and ''[[Stramonita haemastoma]]''). In ancient times, extracting this dye involved tens of thousands of snails and substantial labour, and as a result, the dye was highly valued. The [[chromophore|colored compound]] is [[6,6'-Dibromoindigo|6,6'-dibromoindigo]].
==History==
[[File:PM 110511 Liebig Chromos.jpg|thumb|A 20th-century depiction of a [[Roman triumph]] celebrated by [[Julius Caesar]]. Caesar, riding in the chariot, wears the solid Tyrian purple ''[[toga picta]]''. In the foreground, two [[Roman magistrates]] are identified by their ''[[toga praetexta]]'', white with a stripe of Tyrian purple.]]
[[Biological pigment]]s were often difficult to acquire, and the details of their production were kept [[trade secret|secret]] by the manufacturers. Tyrian purple is a pigment made from the [[mucus]] of several species of [[Hexaplex trunculus|Murex snail]]. Production of Tyrian purple for use as a [[fabric]] dye began as early as 1200 BC by the [[Phoenicia]]ns, and was continued by the [[Greeks]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Romans]] until 1453 AD, with the [[fall of Constantinople]]. In the same way as the modern-day [[Latin alphabet]] of Phoenician origin, Phoenician purple pigment was spread through the unique Phoenician trading empire.<ref name="ruthg">{{cite book |title=Dyes: From Sea Snails to Synthetics |author=Kassinger, Ruth G. |date=6 February 2003 |publisher=21st century |url=https://archive.org/details/dyesfromseasnail0000kass |url-access=registration |isbn=0-7613-2112-8}}</ref> The pigment was expensive and time-consuming to produce, and items colored with it became associated with power and wealth. This popular idea of purple being elite contributes to the modern day wide-spread belief that purple is a "royal colour". The colour of textiles from this period provides insight into socio-cultural relationships within ancient societies, in addition to providing insights on technological achievements, fashion, social stratification, agriculture and trade connections.<ref name=NS>{{cite journal |last1=Sukenik |first1=Naama |last2=Iluz |first2=David |last3=Amar |first3=Zohar |last4=Varvak |first4=Alexander |last5=Shamir |first5=Orit |last6=Ben-Yosef |first6=Erez |title=Early evidence of royal purple dyed textile from Timna Valley (Israel) |journal=PLOS ONE |date=28 January 2021 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=e0245897 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0245897 |pmid=33507987 |pmc=7842898 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1645897S |language=en |issn=1932-6203 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Despite their value to archaeological research, textiles are quite rare in the archaeological record. Like any perishable organic material, they are usually subject to rapid decomposition and their preservation over millennia requires exacting conditions to prevent destruction by microorganisms.<ref name=NS/>
Tyrian purple may first have been used by the ancient [[Phoenicia]]ns as early as 1570 BC.<ref>McGovern, P. E. and Michel, R. H. "Royal Purple dye: tracing the chemical origins of the industry". ''Analytical Chemistry'' 1985, 57, 1514A–1522A</ref><ref name="StClair">{{Cite book |title=The Secret Lives of Colour |vauthors=St Clair K |publisher=John Murray |year=2016 |isbn=9781473630819 |location=London |pages=162–164 |oclc=936144129}}</ref> It has been suggested that the name Phoenicia itself means 'land of purple'.<ref>{{cite book |author=Cunliffe, Barry |title=Europe between the Oceans: 9000 BC – AD 1000 |location=New Haven, Connecticut |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2008 |page=241}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/Phoenician |title=Phoenician |website=Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref> The [[dye]] was greatly prized in antiquity because the colour did not easily fade, but instead became brighter with weathering and sunlight. It came in various shades, the most prized being that of black-tinted clotted blood.<ref name=Pigments_WebExhibits>{{cite web |url=https://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/7.html |title=Pigments: Causes of Color |website=WebExhibits.org |access-date=2016-06-10 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="StClair"/>
Because it was extremely tedious to make, Tyrian purple was expensive: the 4th century BC historian [[Theopompus]] reported, "Purple for dyes fetched its weight in silver at [[Colophon (city)|Colophon]]" in [[Asia Minor]].<ref>Theopompus, cited by [[Athenaeus]] (12:526) around 200 BC.{{cite book |translator=Gulick, Charles Barton |year=1941 |author=Athenaeus |author-link=Athenaeus |title=The Deipnosophists |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> The expense meant that purple-dyed textiles became [[status symbol]]s, whose use was restricted by [[sumptuary law]]s. The most senior [[Roman magistrate]]s wore a ''[[toga praetexta]]'', a white [[toga]] edged in Tyrian purple. The even more sumptuous ''[[toga picta]]'', solid Tyrian purple with [[gold thread]] edging, was worn by generals celebrating a [[Roman triumph]].<ref name="StClair"/>
By the fourth century AD, sumptuary laws in Rome had been tightened so much that only the [[Roman emperors|Roman emperor]] was permitted to wear Tyrian purple.<ref name="StClair"/> As a result, 'purple' is sometimes used as a [[metonym]] for the office (e.g. the phrase 'donned the purple' means 'became emperor'). The production of Tyrian purple was tightly controlled in the succeeding [[Byzantine Empire]] and subsidized by the imperial court, which restricted its use for the colouring of [[Byzantine silk|imperial silks]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Jacoby D |article=Silk in Western Byzantium before the Fourth Crusade |title=Trade, Commodities, and Shipping in the Medieval Mediterranean |year=1997 |at=pp. 455 ff and notes [17]–[19]}}</ref> Later (9th century), a child born to a reigning emperor was said to be ''[[porphyrogenitos]]'', "[[born in the purple]]".<ref>{{cite book |article=Porphyrogennetos |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York and Oxford, UK |year=1991 |page=1701 |isbn=0-195-04652-8}}</ref>
Some{{Who?|date=March 2017}} speculate that the dye extracted from the ''[[Bolinus brandaris]]'' is known as {{transl|hbo|argaman}} ({{lang|hbo|ארגמן}}) in [[Biblical Hebrew]]. Another dye extracted from a related sea snail, ''[[Hexaplex trunculus]]'', produced a blue colour after light exposure which could be the one known as {{transl|hbo|[[tekhelet]]}} ({{lang|hbo|תְּכֵלֶת}}), used in garments worn for ritual purposes.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Elsner O |title=Solution of the enigmas of dyeing with Tyrian purple and the Biblical tekhelet |journal=Dyes in History and Archaeology |volume=10 |year=1992 |at=pages 14 ff}}</ref>
==Production from sea snails==
[[File:Haustellum brandaris 000.jpg|thumb|Two [[gastropod shell|shells]] of ''[[Bolinus brandaris]]'', the spiny dye-murex, a source of the dye]]
The dye substance is a mucous secretion from the [[hypobranchial gland]] of one of several species of medium-sized [[predatory]] [[sea snail]]s that are found in the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea]], and [[Mogador Island|off the Atlantic coast of Morocco]]. These are the [[ocean|marine]] [[gastropod]]s ''[[Bolinus brandaris]]'' the spiny dye-murex (originally known as ''Murex brandaris'' Linnaeus, 1758), the banded dye-murex ''[[Hexaplex trunculus]]'', the rock-shell ''[[Stramonita haemastoma]]'',<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ziderman, I.I. |year=1986 |title=Purple dye made from shellfish in antiquity |journal=Review of Progress in Coloration |volume=16 |pages=46–52 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-4408.1986.tb03743.x}}</ref><ref name="Radwin, G. E 1986. p93">{{cite book |author1=Radwin, G. E. |author2=D'Attilio, A. |year=1986 |title=Murex shells of the world. An illustrated guide to the Muricidae |page=93 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA}} 284 pp incl 192 figs. & 32 pls.</ref> and less commonly a number of other species such as ''[[Bolinus cornutus]]''. The dye is an organic compound of [[bromine]] (i.e., an [[organobromine compound]]), a class of compounds often found in algae and in some other sea life, but much more rarely found in the biology of land animals. This dye is in contrast to the imitation purple that was commonly produced using cheaper materials than the dyes from the sea snail.<ref name=NS/>
In nature, the snails use the secretion as part of their [[predatory]] behavior to sedate prey and as an [[antimicrobial]] lining on egg masses.<ref name="Benkendorff">{{cite thesis |vauthors=Benkendorff K |title=Bioactive molluscan resources and their conservation: Biological and chemical studies on the egg masses of marine molluscs |publisher=University of Wollongong |date=March 1999 |url=http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20011204.154039/index.html |format=PDF |access-date=2008-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830143907/http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20011204.154039/index.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=2007-08-30 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">Because of research by Benkendorff et al. (1999), the Tyrian purple precursor [[tyrindoleninone]] is being investigated as a potential antimicrobial agent with uses against [[multidrug-resistant bacteria]].</ref> The snail also secretes this substance when it is attacked by predators, or physically antagonized by humans (e.g., poked). Therefore, the dye can be collected either by "milking" the snails, which is more labor-intensive but is a [[renewable resource]], or by collecting and destructively crushing the snails. David Jacoby remarks that "twelve thousand snails of ''[[Murex brandaris]]'' yield no more than 1.4 g of pure dye, enough to colour only the trim of a single garment."<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Jacoby D |title=Silk economics and cross-cultural artistic interaction: Byzantium, the Muslim world, and the Christian west |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=58 |year=2004 |pages=210, 197–240 |doi=10.2307/3591386 |jstor=3591386}}</ref> The dye is collected via the snail-harvesting process, involving the extraction of the hypobranchial gland (located under the mollusk's mantle). This requires advanced knowledge of biology. Murex-based dyeing must take place close to the site from which the snails originate, because the freshness of the material has a significant effect on the results, the colors yielded based on the long process of biochemical, enzymatic and photochemical reactions, and requires reduction and oxidation processes that probably took several days.<ref name=NS/>
Many other species worldwide within the family Muricidae, for example ''[[Plicopurpura pansa]]'',<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gould AA |title=Descriptions of shells from the Gulf of California and the Pacific coasts of Mexico and California |journal=Boston Journal of Natural History |date=1853 |volume=6 |pages=374–408 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000018613018&view=1up&seq=402}} ; see pp. 406–407. Note: Gould called this species ''Purpura pansa'' ; it was later renamed ''Plicopurpura pansa''.</ref> from the tropical eastern Pacific, and ''[[Plicopurpura patula]]''<ref>''Plicopurpura patula'' was originally named ''Buccinum patulum'' by Linnaeus in 1758:
* {{cite book |vauthors=von Linné C |title=Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ … |date=1758 |volume=1 |publisher=Lars Salvius |location=Stockholm, Sweden |page=739 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/761/mode/1up |language=la}}
*World Register of Marine Species (Web site): [https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=396994 ''Plicopurpura patula'' (Linnaeus, 1758).]
The genus ''Plicopurpura'' was created in 1903 by Cossmann:
* {{cite book |vauthors=Cossmann M |title=Essais de paléoconchologie comparée |date=1903 |publisher=(Self-published) |location=Paris, France |volume=5 |pages=68–69 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/112977#page/80/mode/1up |language=fr}}</ref> from the Caribbean zone of the western [[Atlantic]], can also produce a similar substance (which turns into an enduring purple dye when exposed to sunlight) and this ability has sometimes also been historically exploited by local inhabitants in the areas where these snails occur. (Some other predatory gastropods, such as some [[wentletrap]]s in the family [[Epitoniidae]], seem to also produce a similar substance, although this has not been studied or exploited commercially.) The [[dog whelk]] ''Nucella lapillus'', from the North Atlantic, can also be used to produce red-purple and violet dyes.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Whelks and purple dye in Anglo-Saxon England |vauthors=Biggam CP |publisher=Department of English Language, University of Glasgow |location=Glasgow, Scotland, UK |journal=The Archaeo+Malacology Group Newsletter |issue=9 |date=March 2006 |url=http://triton.anu.edu.au/MalacGp09.pdf |access-date=2009-11-19 |archive-date=2011-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219060429/http://triton.anu.edu.au/MalacGp09.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==Royal blue==
{{See also|Tekhelet}}
The Phoenicians also made a deep blue-coloured dye, sometimes referred to as ''royal blue'' or ''hyacinth purple'', which was made from a closely related species of marine snail.<ref name=Moorey1999>{{cite book |title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence |vauthors=Moorey P |publisher=Eisenbrauns |location=[[Winona Lake, Indiana]] |year=1999 |isbn=1-57506-042-6 |page=138}}</ref>
The Phoenicians established an ancillary production facility on the [[Iles Purpuraires]] at [[Mogador]], in [[Morocco]].<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Hogan CM |title=Mogador: Promontory Fort |website=The Megalithic Portal |veditors=Burnham A |date=2 November 2007 |url=https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=17926}}</ref> The sea snail harvested at this western Moroccan dye production facility was ''[[Hexaplex trunculus]]'', also known by the older name ''[[Murex trunculus]]''.<ref>In 1758, Linnaeus classified the snail as ''Murex trunculus'':
* {{cite book |vauthors=von Linné C |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae … |date=1758 |volume=v.1 |publisher=Lars Salvius |location=Stockholm, Sweden |page=747 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/769/mode/1up |language=la}}
In 1810, the English naturalist [[George Perry (naturalist)|George Perry]] created the genus ''Hexaplex'':
* {{cite book |vauthors=Perry G |title=Arcana, or, The museum of natural history ... |date=1810–1811 |publisher=James Stratford |location=London, England |page=Plate XXIII: Genus: Triplex |url=https://archive.org/details/arcanaormuseumof00perr/page/n139}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Mathews GM, Iredale T |title="Perry's Arcanda" – an overlooked work |journal=The Victorian Naturalist |date=May 1912 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=7–16 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/38346#page/19/mode/1up}} ; see p. 11.
*[https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138194 World Register of Marine Species (Web site): ''Hexaplex'' Perry, 1810]</ref>
This second species of dye murex is found today on the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of Europe and Africa (Spain, Portugal, Morocco).<ref name="Radwin, G. E 1986. p93"/>
==Background==
[[File:Mosaic of Justinianus I - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna).jpg|thumb|Byzantine Emperor [[Justinian I]] clad in Tyrian purple, 6th-century mosaic at [[Basilica of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]], [[Italy]]]]
The [[colour fastness|colour-fast]] (non-fading) dye was an item of luxury trade, prized by [[ancient Rome|Romans]], who used it to colour [[toga|ceremonial robes]]. Used as a dye, the colour shifts from blue (peak absorption at 590 nm, which is yellow-orange) to reddish-purple (peak absorption at 520 nm, which is green).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cooksey CJ |title=Tyrian purple: 6,6'-dibromoindigo and related compounds |journal=Molecules |year=2001 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=736–769 |pmc=6236399 |doi=10.3390/60900736 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It is believed that the intensity of the purple hue improved rather than faded as the dyed cloth aged. [[Vitruvius]] mentions the production of Tyrian purple from shellfish.<ref>{{cite book |author=Vitruvius |title=De Architectura |trans-title=On Architecture |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/7*.html |at=Book VII, Chapter 13}}</ref> In his ''[[History of Animals]]'', [[Aristotle]] described the shellfish from which Tyrian purple was obtained and the process of extracting the tissue that produced the dye.<ref>{{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=History of Animals |location=Whitefish, MT |publisher=Kessering Publishing |year=2004 |at=Book V, pages 131–132 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dma7o9N6zWkC&q=stains&pg=PA132 |isbn=9781419123917}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] described the production of Tyrian purple in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'':<ref>{{cite book |author=Pliny the Elder |title=The Natural History |editor1-link=John Bostock (physician) |veditors=Bostock J, Riley HT |editor2-link=Henry Thomas Riley |location=London, UK |publisher=Taylor and Francis |year=1855 |at=Book IX |chapter=Chapter 62: ''The Natural History of Fishes'' |chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D62}} Pliny discusses Tyrian purple throughout Chapters 60–65.</ref><ref group=lower-alpha>The problem with Tyrian purple is that the precursor reacts very quickly with air and light to form an insoluble dye. (Hence Pliny says: "... ''when [the shellfish] have once discharged their waxy secretion, their juices have no consistency''. ...") The cumbersome process that Pliny describes is necessary to reverse the oxidation and to restore the water-soluble precursor so that large masses of wool can be dyed. See: {{cite journal |vauthors=Biggam CP |year=2006 |title=Knowledge of whelk dyes and pigments in Anglo-Saxon England |journal=Anglo-Saxon England |volume=35 |at=pages 23–56; see especially pages 26–27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZojyGIfG9m4C&q=soluble+insoluble&pg=PA26 |isbn=9780521883429 |doi=10.1017/S0263675106000032 |s2cid=162937239}} See also: C. J. Cooksey (2001) "Tyrian purple: 6,6'-Dibromoindigo and Related Compounds", ''Molecules'', '''6''' (9) : 736–769, especially page 761. Indigo, which is chemically very similar to Tyrian purple, behaves similarly. See: http://www.indigopage.com/chemistry.htm</ref>
<blockquote>The most favourable season for taking these [shellfish] is after the rising of the [[Sirius|Dog-star]], or else before spring; for when they have once discharged their waxy secretion, their juices have no consistency: this, however, is a fact unknown in the dyers' workshops, although it is a point of primary importance. After it is taken, the vein [i.e. hypobranchial gland] is extracted, which we have previously spoken of, to which it is requisite to add salt, a sextarius [about 20 fl. oz.] to every hundred pounds of juice. It is sufficient to leave them to steep for a period of three days, and no more, for the fresher they are, the greater virtue there is in the liquor. It is then set to boil in vessels of tin [or lead], and every hundred amphorae ought to be boiled down to five hundred pounds of dye, by the application of a moderate heat; for which purpose the vessel is placed at the end of a long funnel, which communicates with the furnace; while thus boiling, the liquor is skimmed from time to time, and with it the flesh, which necessarily adheres to the veins. About the tenth day, generally, the whole contents of the cauldron are in a liquefied state, upon which a fleece, from which the grease has been cleansed, is plunged into it by way of making trial; but until such time as the colour is found to satisfy the wishes of those preparing it, the liquor is still kept on the boil. The tint that inclines to red is looked upon as inferior to that which is of a blackish hue. The wool is left to lie in soak for five hours, and then, after carding it, it is thrown in again, until it has fully imbibed the colour.</blockquote>
Archaeological data from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] indicate that the snails were collected in large vats and left to decompose. This produced a hideous stench that was actually mentioned by ancient authors. Not much is known about the subsequent steps, and the actual ancient method for mass-producing the two murex dyes has not yet been successfully reconstructed; this special "blackish clotted blood" colour, which was prized above all others, is believed to be achieved by double-dipping the cloth, once in the indigo dye of ''H. trunculus'' and once in the purple-red dye of ''B. brandaris''.<ref name=Pigments_WebExhibits/><ref name=Moorey1999/>
[[File:Theodoor van Thulden - The Discovery of Purple.jpg|thumb|''[[Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye|The Discovery of Purple by Hercules's Dog]]'' by [[Theodoor van Thulden]], c. 1636]]
[[File:OldGreekPhoenikianCoinPurpur2000.jpg|thumb|A [[Phoenicia]]s coin depicting the legend of the dog biting the sea snail]]
The Roman [[mythographer]] [[Julius Pollux]], writing in the 2nd century AD, asserted (''Onomasticon'' I, 45–49) that the purple dye was first discovered by the philosopher Heracles of Tyre, or rather, by his dog, whose mouth was stained purple from chewing on snails along the coast at Tyre. This story was depicted by [[Peter Paul Rubens]] in his painting ''[[Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye]]''. According to [[John Malalas]], the incident happened during the reign of the legendary [[Phoenix (son of Agenor)|King Phoenix of Tyre]], the eponymous progenitor of the Phoenicians, and therefore he was the first ruler to wear Tyrian purple and legislate on its use.<ref>John Malalas, ''Chronographia'' II:9.</ref>
Recently, the archaeological discovery of substantial numbers of Murex shells on [[Crete]] suggests that the [[Minoans]] may have pioneered the extraction of Imperial purple centuries before the Tyrians. Dating from collocated pottery suggests the dye may have been produced during the Middle Minoan period in the 20th–18th century BC.<ref>Reese, David S. (1987). "Palaikastro Shells and Bronze Age Purple-Dye Production in the Mediterranean Basin", ''Annual of the British School of Archaeology at Athens'', '''82''', 201–206</ref><ref>Stieglitz, Robert R. (1994), "The Minoan Origin of Tyrian Purple", ''Biblical Archaeologist'', '''57''', 46–54.</ref> Accumulations of crushed murex shells from a hut at the site of [[Coppa Nevigata]] in southern Italy may indicate production of purple dye there from at least the 18th century BC.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Cazzella A, Moscoloni M |year=1998 |article=Coppa Nevigata: un insediamento fortificato dell'eta del Bronzo |veditors=Troccoli LD |title=Scavi e ricerche archeologiche dell'Università di Roma La Sapienza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcc5P5hqsu8C&pg=PA178 |pages=178–179 |publisher=L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER |isbn=9788882650155}}</ref> Additional archaeological evidence can be found from samples originating from excavations at the extensive Iron Age copper smelting site of “Slaves’ Hill” (Site 34), which is tightly dated by radiocarbon to the late 11th–early 10th centuries BC.<ref name=NS/> Findings from this site include evidence of the use of purple dye found in stains used on pot shards. Evidence of the use of dye in pottery are found in most cases on the upper part of ceramic basins, on the inside surface, the areas in which the reduced dye-solution was exposed to air, and underwent oxidation that turned it purple.<ref name=NS/>
The production of ''Murex'' purple for the Byzantine court came to an abrupt end with the [[Siege of Constantinople (1204)|sack of Constantinople in 1204]], the critical episode of the [[Fourth Crusade]]. David Jacoby concludes that "no Byzantine emperor nor any Latin ruler in former Byzantine territories could muster the financial resources required for the pursuit of murex purple production. On the other hand, murex fishing and dyeing with genuine purple are attested for Egypt in the tenth to 13th centuries."<ref>Jacoby (2004), p. 210.</ref> By contrast, Jacoby finds that there are no mentions of purple fishing or dyeing, nor trade in the colorant in any Western source, even in the Frankish Levant. The European West turned instead to [[vermilion]] provided by the insect ''[[Kermes vermilio]]'', known as ''grana'', or [[crimson]].
In 1909, Harvard anthropologist [[Zelia Nuttall]] compiled an intensive comparative study on the historical production of the purple dye produced from the carnivorous [[murex snail]], source of the [[royal purple]] dye valued higher than gold in the ancient Near East and ancient Mexico. Not only did the people of ancient Mexico use the same methods of production as the Phoenicians, they also valued murex-dyed cloth above all others, as it appeared in codices as the attire of nobility. "Nuttall noted that the Mexican murex-dyed cloth bore a "disagreeable ... strong fishy smell, which appears to be as lasting as the color itself."<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Nutall Z |chapter=A curious survival in Mexico of the use of the Purpura shell-fish for dyeing |veditors=Boas F |title=Anthropological Essays Presented to Fredrick Ward Putnam in Honor of his Seventieth Birthday, by his Friends and Associates |publisher=G. E. Strechert & Co. |location=New York, New York |date=1909 |chapter-url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101079830103;view=1up;seq=460 |page=370}}</ref> Likewise, the ancient Egyptian ''Papyrus of Anastasi'' laments: "The hands of the dyer reek like rotting fish ..."<ref name="robinson">{{cite book |vauthors=Robinson S |title=A History of Dyed Textiles |date=1969 |publisher=Studio Vista |location=London, UK |page=24}}</ref> So pervasive was this stench that the [[Talmud]] specifically granted women the right to divorce any husband who became a dyer after marriage.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Compton S |title=Exodus Lost |date=2010 |publisher=Booksurge Publishing |isbn=9781439276839 |pages=29–33 |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1439276838}}</ref>
In 2021, archaeologists found surviving wool fibers dyed with royal purple in the [[Timna Valley]] in Israel. The find, which was dated to c. 1000 BC, constituted the first direct evidence of fabric dyed with the pigment from antiquity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Sukenik |first1=Naama |last2 = Iluz |first2 = David |last3 = Amar |first3 = Zohar |last4 = Varvak |first4 = Alexander |last5 = Shamir |first5 = Orit |last6 = Ben-Yosef |first6 = Erez |date = January 2021 |title = Early evidence of royal purple dyed textile from Timna Valley (Israel) |journal = PLOS ONE |volume = 16 |issue=1 |pages = e0245897 |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0245897|doi-access=free |pmid=33507987 |pmc=7842898 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1645897S }}</ref>
==Murex purple production in North Africa==
[[File:Tyrian-Purple.svg|thumb|The chemical structure of 6,6'-dibromoindigo, the main component of Tyrian purple]]
Murex purple was a very important industry in many Phoenician territories and [[ancient Carthage|Carthage]] was no exception. Traces of this once very lucrative industry are still visible in many Punic sites such as [[Kerkouane]], Zouchis, [[Djerba]] and even in Carthage itself. According to Pliny, Meninx (today's Djerba) produced the best purple in Africa which was also ranked second only after Tyre's. It was found also at [[Iles Purpuraires|Essaouira]] ([[Morocco]]). The Royal purple or Imperial purple<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyrian_Purple/ |title=Definition of the Tyrian purple |language=en |website=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724031543/https://www.ancient.eu/Tyrian_Purple |archive-date=2016-07-24 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> was probably used until the time of [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430) and before the [[Romulus Augustulus#Later life|demise of the Roman Empire]].
==Dye chemistry==
Variations in colours of "Tyrian purple" from different snails are related to the presence of [[indigo dye]] (blue), 6-bromoindigo (purple), and the red 6,6'-dibromoindigo. Additional changes in colour can be induced by debromination from light exposure (as is the case for [[Tekhelet]]) or by heat processing.<ref name="indigo-bromo">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ramig K, Lavinda O, Szalda DJ, Mironova I, Karimi S, Pozzi F, Shah N, Samson J, Ajiki H, Massa L, Mantzouris D |display-authors=6 |title=The nature of thermochromic effects in dyeings with indigo, 6-bromoindigo, and 6,6'-Dibromoindigo, components of Tyrian purple |journal=Dyes and Pigments |date=June 2015 |volume=117 |pages=37–48 |doi=10.1016/j.dyepig.2015.01.025}}</ref> The final shade of purple is decided by chromatogram, which can be identified by [[high performance liquid chromatography]] analysis in a single measurement: indigotin (IND) and [[indirubin]] (INR). The two are found in plant sources such as [[woad]] (''Isatis tinctoria L''.) and the [[indigo plant]] (''Indigofera tinctoria L''), as well as in several species of shellfish.<ref name=NS/>
In 1998, by means of a lengthy trial and error process, a process for dyeing with Tyrian purple was rediscovered.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Edmonds J |title=Tyrian or Imperial Purple: The Mystery of Imperial Purple Dyes |series=Historic Dye Series, no. 7 |location=Little Chalfont, Buckinghamshire, England |publisher=John Edwards |date=2000 |oclc=45315310 |isbn=9780953413362}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Author Profile |work=Imperial-Purple.com |url=http://www.imperial-purple.com/profile.html |access-date=2011-07-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713022226/http://www.imperial-purple.com/profile.html |archive-date=2011-07-13 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> This finding built on reports from the 15th century to the 18th century and explored the biotechnology process behind [[Isatis tinctoria|woad]] fermentation. It is hypothesized that an alkaline fermenting vat was necessary. An incomplete ancient recipe for Tyrian purple recorded by Pliny the Elder was also consulted. By altering the percentage of sea salt in the dye vat and adding [[potash]], he was able to successfully dye wool a deep purple colour.<ref>{{cite book |author=Chenciner, Robert |title=Madder Red: A history of luxury and trade: plant dyes and pigments in world commerce and art |location=Richmond |publisher=Curzon Press |year=2000 |page=295}}</ref>
Recent research in [[organic electronics]] has shown that Tyrian purple is an ambipolar [[organic semiconductor]]. Transistors and circuits based on this material can be produced from sublimed thin-films of the dye. The good semiconducting properties of the dye originate from strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding that reinforces [[pi stacking]] necessary for transport.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ambipolar organic field effect transistors and inverters with the natural material Tyrian purple |vauthors=Głowacki ED, Leonat L, Voss G, Bodea MA, Bozkurt Z, Ramil AM, Irimia-Vladu M, Bauer S, Sariciftci NS |display-authors=6 |journal=AIP Advances |volume=1 |issue=4 |at=042132 |year=2011 |url=http://aipadvances.aip.org/resource/1/aaidbi/v1/i4/p042132_s1 |doi=10.1063/1.3660358 |bibcode=2011AIPA....1d2132G |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Modern hue rendering==
True Tyrian purple, like most high-[[colorfulness|chroma]] [[pigment]]s, cannot be accurately rendered on a standard RGB computer monitor. Ancient reports are also not entirely consistent, but these [[wikt:swatch|swatches]] give a rough indication of the likely range in which it appeared:
<span style="background-color:#b80049">_________</span> <br/>
<span style="background-color:#990024">_________</span>
The lower one is the [[sRGB]] colour #990024, intended for viewing on an output device with a [[gamma correction|gamma]] of 2.2. It is a representation of [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]] colour code 66A,<ref>{{cite web |title=RHS, UCL and RGB Colors, gamma = 1.4, fan 2 |website=Azalea Society of America |url=http://www.azaleas.org/index.pl/rhsmacfan2.html |access-date=2006-07-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311031344/http://www.azaleas.org/index.pl/rhsmacfan2.html |archive-date=2007-03-11 |df=dmy-all}} (this gives the RGB value #b80049, which has been converted to #990024 for the sRGB gamma of 2.2)</ref> which has been equated to "Tyrian red",<ref>{{cite web |author=Buck, G. |title=Buck Rose |page=5 |url=http://www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/cad/Eroses.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823170307/http://www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/cad/Eroses.html |archive-date=2006-08-23 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> a term which is often used as a synonym for Tyrian purple.
==Philately==
The colour name "Tyrian plum" is popularly given to a [[Edward VII 2d Tyrian plum|British postage stamp]] that was prepared, but never released to the public, shortly before the death of [[King Edward VII]] in 1910.<ref>{{cite web |title=Edward VII 2d |website=Postal Museum |series=Collection catalog |url=https://catalogue.postalmuseum.org/collections/getrecord/GB813_P_150_02_01_21}}</ref>
==Gallery==
<gallery widths="190px" heights="180px">
File:Cuneiform tablet BM62788.jpg|alt=cuneiform tablet|[[Cuneiform]] tablet, dated 600–500 BC, with instructions for dyeing wool purple and blue. Ref.{{British-Museum-db|BM62788|id=327282}}.
File:Heb cover hi.jpg|A set of ''[[Tzitzit]]'', four tassels or "fringes" with [[tekhelet]] (purple-blue) threads produced from a ''Hexaplex trunculus'' based dye.
File:Contemporary portrayal of a toga picta.jpg| Painting of a man wearing an all-purple ''toga picta'', from an [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] tomb (about 350 BC).
File:Compitalia fresco.jpg|Roman men wearing ''togae praetextae'' with reddish-purple stripes during a religious procession (1st century BC).
File:Empress Theodora.jpg|The [[Theodora (wife of Justinian I)|Empress Theodora]], the wife of the Emperor Justinian, dressed in Tyrian purple. (6th century).
File:Karl den store krons av leo III.jpg|A medieval depiction of the coronation of the Emperor [[Charlemagne]] in 800 AD wearing royal blue. The bishops and cardinals wear Tyrian purple, and the Pope wears white.
File:Shroud of Charlemagne manufactured in Constantinople 814.jpg|A fragment of the shroud in which the Emperor [[Charlemagne]] was buried in 814 AD. It was made of gold and Tyrian purple from Constantinople.
File:Tyrian purple on grayscale.jpg|6,6'-dibromoindigo, the major component of Tyrian purple
</gallery>
==Explanatory notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* {{cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyrian_Purple/ |title=Tyrian Purple |website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]}}
* {{cite journal |url=http://www.chriscooksey.demon.co.uk/tyrian/cjcbiblio.html |quote=Source of article in author's ''Bibliography'' page. |vauthors=Cooksey CJ |year=1994 |title=Making Tyrian purple |journal=Dyes in History and Archaeology |volume=13 |pages=7–13 (email the author for a copy) |access-date=2010-05-11 |archive-date=2020-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726101755/http://www.chriscooksey.demon.co.uk/tyrian/cjcbiblio.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite thesis |vauthors=Guckelsberger M |title=Purple Murex Dye in Antiquity |date=December 2013 |url=https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/16925/1/Purple%20Murex%20Dye%20in%20Antiquity.pdf |publisher=University of Iceland}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Plicopurpura+pansa+(Gould,+1853)+from+the+Pacific+Coast+of+Mexico+and...-a0118543935 |website=The Free Library |title=Tyrian purple}}
* {{cite web |url=https://tekhelet.com/pdf/Jenson-RoyalPurple-1963.pdf |title=Royal Purple of Tyre}}
{{Shades of red}}
{{Shades of violet}}
{{Dyeing}}
[[Category:2nd-millennium BC introductions]]
[[Category:Animal dyes]]
[[Category:Bromine-containing natural products]]
[[Category:Byzantine clothing]]
[[Category:Culture of the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Halogen-containing natural products]]
[[Category:Mollusc products]]
[[Category:Organic pigments]]
[[Category:Organobromides]]
[[Category:Shades of violet]]
[[Category:History of Tyre, Lebanon]]
[[Category:Culture of Phoenicia]]' |
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{{Distinguish|text=[[Byzantium (color)]], a modern colour}}
{{For|chemistry of Tyrian purple|6,6'-Dibromoindigo}}
-[[File:Purple Purpur (retouched).jpg|thumb|Fabrics dyed in the current era from different species of sea snail. The colours in this photograph may not represent them precisely.]]
+[[File:Purple Purpur (retouched).jpg|thumb|Fabrics dyed in the current era from different species of DADDY sea snail. The colours in this photograph may not represent them precisely.]]
'''Tyrian purple''' ({{lang-grc|πορφύρα}} ''porphúra''; {{lang-la|purpura}}), also known as '''royal purple''', '''imperial purple''', or '''imperial dye''', is a reddish-[[purple]] [[natural dye]]. The name Tyrian refers to [[Tyre, Lebanon]], once [[Phoenicia]]. It is secreted by several species of predatory [[sea snail]]s in the family [[Muricidae]], rock snails originally known by the name Murex (''[[Bolinus brandaris]]'', ''[[Hexaplex trunculus]]'' and ''[[Stramonita haemastoma]]''). In ancient times, extracting this dye involved tens of thousands of snails and substantial labour, and as a result, the dye was highly valued. The [[chromophore|colored compound]] is [[6,6'-Dibromoindigo|6,6'-dibromoindigo]].
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1 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=ZojyGIfG9m4C&q=soluble+insoluble&pg=PA26',
2 => 'https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0263675106000032',
3 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162937239',
4 => 'http://www.indigopage.com/chemistry.htm',
5 => 'https://archive.org/details/dyesfromseasnail0000kass',
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Natural dye extracted from <i>Murex</i> sea snails</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Royal purple" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Purple_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Royal Purple (disambiguation)">Royal Purple (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantium_(color)" title="Byzantium (color)">Byzantium (color)</a>, a modern colour.</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For chemistry of Tyrian purple, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/6,6%27-Dibromoindigo" title="6,6'-Dibromoindigo">6,6'-Dibromoindigo</a>.</div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Purple_Purpur_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Purple_Purpur_%28retouched%29.jpg/220px-Purple_Purpur_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Purple_Purpur_%28retouched%29.jpg/330px-Purple_Purpur_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Purple_Purpur_%28retouched%29.jpg/440px-Purple_Purpur_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2944" data-file-height="2833" /></a><figcaption>Fabrics dyed in the current era from different species of DADDY sea snail. The colours in this photograph may not represent them precisely.</figcaption></figure>
<p><b>Tyrian purple</b> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">πορφύρα</span> <i>porphúra</i>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">purpura</i>), also known as <b>royal purple</b>, <b>imperial purple</b>, or <b>imperial dye</b>, is a reddish-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purple" title="Purple">purple</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_dye" title="Natural dye">natural dye</a>. The name Tyrian refers to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre, Lebanon</a>, once <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>. It is secreted by several species of predatory <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">sea snails</a> in the family <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muricidae" title="Muricidae">Muricidae</a>, rock snails originally known by the name Murex (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolinus_brandaris" title="Bolinus brandaris">Bolinus brandaris</a></i>, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hexaplex_trunculus" title="Hexaplex trunculus">Hexaplex trunculus</a></i> and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stramonita_haemastoma" title="Stramonita haemastoma">Stramonita haemastoma</a></i>). In ancient times, extracting this dye involved tens of thousands of snails and substantial labour, and as a result, the dye was highly valued. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chromophore" title="Chromophore">colored compound</a> is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/6,6%27-Dibromoindigo" title="6,6'-Dibromoindigo">6,6'-dibromoindigo</a>.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Production_from_sea_snails"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Production from sea snails</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Royal_blue"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Royal blue</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Background"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Murex_purple_production_in_North_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Murex purple production in North Africa</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Dye_chemistry"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Dye chemistry</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Modern_hue_rendering"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Modern hue rendering</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Philately"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Philately</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Gallery"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Gallery</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Explanatory_notes"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Explanatory notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:PM_110511_Liebig_Chromos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/PM_110511_Liebig_Chromos.jpg/220px-PM_110511_Liebig_Chromos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="356" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/PM_110511_Liebig_Chromos.jpg/330px-PM_110511_Liebig_Chromos.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/PM_110511_Liebig_Chromos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="371" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A 20th-century depiction of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">Roman triumph</a> celebrated by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>. Caesar, riding in the chariot, wears the solid Tyrian purple <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toga_picta" class="mw-redirect" title="Toga picta">toga picta</a></i>. In the foreground, two <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_magistrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman magistrates">Roman magistrates</a> are identified by their <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toga_praetexta" class="mw-redirect" title="Toga praetexta">toga praetexta</a></i>, white with a stripe of Tyrian purple.</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">Biological pigments</a> were often difficult to acquire, and the details of their production were kept <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">secret</a> by the manufacturers. Tyrian purple is a pigment made from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a> of several species of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hexaplex_trunculus" title="Hexaplex trunculus">Murex snail</a>. Production of Tyrian purple for use as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fabric" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabric">fabric</a> dye began as early as 1200 BC by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a>, and was continued by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Romans</a> until 1453 AD, with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a>. In the same way as the modern-day <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> of Phoenician origin, Phoenician purple pigment was spread through the unique Phoenician trading empire.<sup id="cite_ref-ruthg_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ruthg-1">[1]</a></sup> The pigment was expensive and time-consuming to produce, and items colored with it became associated with power and wealth. This popular idea of purple being elite contributes to the modern day wide-spread belief that purple is a "royal colour". The colour of textiles from this period provides insight into socio-cultural relationships within ancient societies, in addition to providing insights on technological achievements, fashion, social stratification, agriculture and trade connections.<sup id="cite_ref-NS_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NS-2">[2]</a></sup> Despite their value to archaeological research, textiles are quite rare in the archaeological record. Like any perishable organic material, they are usually subject to rapid decomposition and their preservation over millennia requires exacting conditions to prevent destruction by microorganisms.<sup id="cite_ref-NS_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NS-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>Tyrian purple may first have been used by the ancient <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> as early as 1570 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StClair_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StClair-4">[4]</a></sup> It has been suggested that the name Phoenicia itself means 'land of purple'.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dye</a> was greatly prized in antiquity because the colour did not easily fade, but instead became brighter with weathering and sunlight. It came in various shades, the most prized being that of black-tinted clotted blood.<sup id="cite_ref-Pigments_WebExhibits_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pigments_WebExhibits-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StClair_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StClair-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>Because it was extremely tedious to make, Tyrian purple was expensive: the 4th century BC historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theopompus" title="Theopompus">Theopompus</a> reported, "Purple for dyes fetched its weight in silver at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colophon_(city)" title="Colophon (city)">Colophon</a>" in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> The expense meant that purple-dyed textiles became <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Status_symbol" title="Status symbol">status symbols</a>, whose use was restricted by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sumptuary_law" title="Sumptuary law">sumptuary laws</a>. The most senior <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Roman magistrates</a> wore a <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toga_praetexta" class="mw-redirect" title="Toga praetexta">toga praetexta</a></i>, a white <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a> edged in Tyrian purple. The even more sumptuous <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toga_picta" class="mw-redirect" title="Toga picta">toga picta</a></i>, solid Tyrian purple with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gold_thread" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold thread">gold thread</a> edging, was worn by generals celebrating a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">Roman triumph</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-StClair_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StClair-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>By the fourth century AD, sumptuary laws in Rome had been tightened so much that only the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman emperors">Roman emperor</a> was permitted to wear Tyrian purple.<sup id="cite_ref-StClair_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StClair-4">[4]</a></sup> As a result, 'purple' is sometimes used as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Metonym">metonym</a> for the office (e.g. the phrase 'donned the purple' means 'became emperor'). The production of Tyrian purple was tightly controlled in the succeeding <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and subsidized by the imperial court, which restricted its use for the colouring of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantine_silk" title="Byzantine silk">imperial silks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> Later (9th century), a child born to a reigning emperor was said to be <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Porphyrogenitos" class="mw-redirect" title="Porphyrogenitos">porphyrogenitos</a></i>, "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Born_in_the_purple" title="Born in the purple">born in the purple</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2017)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> speculate that the dye extracted from the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolinus_brandaris" title="Bolinus brandaris">Bolinus brandaris</a></i> is known as <span title="Biblical Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="hbo-Latn">argaman</i></span> (<span title="Biblical Hebrew-language text"><span lang="hbo" dir="rtl">ארגמן</span></span>) in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>. Another dye extracted from a related sea snail, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hexaplex_trunculus" title="Hexaplex trunculus">Hexaplex trunculus</a></i>, produced a blue colour after light exposure which could be the one known as <span title="Biblical Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="hbo-Latn"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tekhelet" title="Tekhelet">tekhelet</a></i></span> (<span title="Biblical Hebrew-language text"><span lang="hbo" dir="rtl">תְּכֵלֶת</span></span>), used in garments worn for ritual purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production_from_sea_snails">Production from sea snails</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Production from sea snails"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Haustellum_brandaris_000.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Haustellum_brandaris_000.jpg/220px-Haustellum_brandaris_000.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Haustellum_brandaris_000.jpg/330px-Haustellum_brandaris_000.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Haustellum_brandaris_000.jpg/440px-Haustellum_brandaris_000.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1605" data-file-height="1761" /></a><figcaption>Two <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gastropod_shell" title="Gastropod shell">shells</a> of <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolinus_brandaris" title="Bolinus brandaris">Bolinus brandaris</a></i>, the spiny dye-murex, a source of the dye</figcaption></figure>
<p>The dye substance is a mucous secretion from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hypobranchial_gland" title="Hypobranchial gland">hypobranchial gland</a> of one of several species of medium-sized <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Predatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Predatory">predatory</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">sea snails</a> that are found in the eastern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogador_Island" title="Mogador Island">off the Atlantic coast of Morocco</a>. These are the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">marine</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a> <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolinus_brandaris" title="Bolinus brandaris">Bolinus brandaris</a></i> the spiny dye-murex (originally known as <i>Murex brandaris</i> Linnaeus, 1758), the banded dye-murex <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hexaplex_trunculus" title="Hexaplex trunculus">Hexaplex trunculus</a></i>, the rock-shell <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stramonita_haemastoma" title="Stramonita haemastoma">Stramonita haemastoma</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Radwin,_G._E_1986._p93_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radwin,_G._E_1986._p93-13">[13]</a></sup> and less commonly a number of other species such as <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolinus_cornutus" title="Bolinus cornutus">Bolinus cornutus</a></i>. The dye is an organic compound of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">bromine</a> (i.e., an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organobromine_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Organobromine compound">organobromine compound</a>), a class of compounds often found in algae and in some other sea life, but much more rarely found in the biology of land animals. This dye is in contrast to the imitation purple that was commonly produced using cheaper materials than the dyes from the sea snail.<sup id="cite_ref-NS_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NS-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>In nature, the snails use the secretion as part of their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Predatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Predatory">predatory</a> behavior to sedate prey and as an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">antimicrobial</a> lining on egg masses.<sup id="cite_ref-Benkendorff_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benkendorff-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[a]</a></sup> The snail also secretes this substance when it is attacked by predators, or physically antagonized by humans (e.g., poked). Therefore, the dye can be collected either by "milking" the snails, which is more labor-intensive but is a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">renewable resource</a>, or by collecting and destructively crushing the snails. David Jacoby remarks that "twelve thousand snails of <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murex_brandaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Murex brandaris">Murex brandaris</a></i> yield no more than 1.4 g of pure dye, enough to colour only the trim of a single garment."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a></sup> The dye is collected via the snail-harvesting process, involving the extraction of the hypobranchial gland (located under the mollusk's mantle). This requires advanced knowledge of biology. Murex-based dyeing must take place close to the site from which the snails originate, because the freshness of the material has a significant effect on the results, the colors yielded based on the long process of biochemical, enzymatic and photochemical reactions, and requires reduction and oxidation processes that probably took several days.<sup id="cite_ref-NS_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NS-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many other species worldwide within the family Muricidae, for example <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plicopurpura_pansa" title="Plicopurpura pansa">Plicopurpura pansa</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a></sup> from the tropical eastern Pacific, and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plicopurpura_patula" title="Plicopurpura patula">Plicopurpura patula</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup> from the Caribbean zone of the western <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a>, can also produce a similar substance (which turns into an enduring purple dye when exposed to sunlight) and this ability has sometimes also been historically exploited by local inhabitants in the areas where these snails occur. (Some other predatory gastropods, such as some <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wentletrap" title="Wentletrap">wentletraps</a> in the family <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epitoniidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Epitoniidae">Epitoniidae</a>, seem to also produce a similar substance, although this has not been studied or exploited commercially.) The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dog_whelk" title="Dog whelk">dog whelk</a> <i>Nucella lapillus</i>, from the North Atlantic, can also be used to produce red-purple and violet dyes.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Royal_blue">Royal blue</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Royal blue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tekhelet" title="Tekhelet">Tekhelet</a></div>
<p>The Phoenicians also made a deep blue-coloured dye, sometimes referred to as <i>royal blue</i> or <i>hyacinth purple</i>, which was made from a closely related species of marine snail.<sup id="cite_ref-Moorey1999_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moorey1999-20">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Phoenicians established an ancillary production facility on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iles_Purpuraires" title="Iles Purpuraires">Iles Purpuraires</a> at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogador" class="mw-redirect" title="Mogador">Mogador</a>, in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></sup> The sea snail harvested at this western Moroccan dye production facility was <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hexaplex_trunculus" title="Hexaplex trunculus">Hexaplex trunculus</a></i>, also known by the older name <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murex_trunculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Murex trunculus">Murex trunculus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>This second species of dye murex is found today on the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of Europe and Africa (Spain, Portugal, Morocco).<sup id="cite_ref-Radwin,_G._E_1986._p93_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radwin,_G._E_1986._p93-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_(Ravenna).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg/220px-Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg/330px-Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg/440px-Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1997" /></a><figcaption>Byzantine Emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> clad in Tyrian purple, 6th-century mosaic at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colour_fastness" title="Colour fastness">colour-fast</a> (non-fading) dye was an item of luxury trade, prized by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a>, who used it to colour <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">ceremonial robes</a>. Used as a dye, the colour shifts from blue (peak absorption at 590 nm, which is yellow-orange) to reddish-purple (peak absorption at 520 nm, which is green).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></sup> It is believed that the intensity of the purple hue improved rather than faded as the dyed cloth aged. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> mentions the production of Tyrian purple from shellfish.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a></sup> In his <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History of Animals</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> described the shellfish from which Tyrian purple was obtained and the process of extracting the tissue that produced the dye.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> described the production of Tyrian purple in his <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i>:<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[b]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>The most favourable season for taking these [shellfish] is after the rising of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sirius" title="Sirius">Dog-star</a>, or else before spring; for when they have once discharged their waxy secretion, their juices have no consistency: this, however, is a fact unknown in the dyers' workshops, although it is a point of primary importance. After it is taken, the vein [i.e. hypobranchial gland] is extracted, which we have previously spoken of, to which it is requisite to add salt, a sextarius [about 20 fl. oz.] to every hundred pounds of juice. It is sufficient to leave them to steep for a period of three days, and no more, for the fresher they are, the greater virtue there is in the liquor. It is then set to boil in vessels of tin [or lead], and every hundred amphorae ought to be boiled down to five hundred pounds of dye, by the application of a moderate heat; for which purpose the vessel is placed at the end of a long funnel, which communicates with the furnace; while thus boiling, the liquor is skimmed from time to time, and with it the flesh, which necessarily adheres to the veins. About the tenth day, generally, the whole contents of the cauldron are in a liquefied state, upon which a fleece, from which the grease has been cleansed, is plunged into it by way of making trial; but until such time as the colour is found to satisfy the wishes of those preparing it, the liquor is still kept on the boil. The tint that inclines to red is looked upon as inferior to that which is of a blackish hue. The wool is left to lie in soak for five hours, and then, after carding it, it is thrown in again, until it has fully imbibed the colour.</p></blockquote>
<p>Archaeological data from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> indicate that the snails were collected in large vats and left to decompose. This produced a hideous stench that was actually mentioned by ancient authors. Not much is known about the subsequent steps, and the actual ancient method for mass-producing the two murex dyes has not yet been successfully reconstructed; this special "blackish clotted blood" colour, which was prized above all others, is believed to be achieved by double-dipping the cloth, once in the indigo dye of <i>H. trunculus</i> and once in the purple-red dye of <i>B. brandaris</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pigments_WebExhibits_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pigments_WebExhibits-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moorey1999_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moorey1999-20">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Theodoor_van_Thulden_-_The_Discovery_of_Purple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Theodoor_van_Thulden_-_The_Discovery_of_Purple.jpg/220px-Theodoor_van_Thulden_-_The_Discovery_of_Purple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Theodoor_van_Thulden_-_The_Discovery_of_Purple.jpg/330px-Theodoor_van_Thulden_-_The_Discovery_of_Purple.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Theodoor_van_Thulden_-_The_Discovery_of_Purple.jpg/440px-Theodoor_van_Thulden_-_The_Discovery_of_Purple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1733" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hercules%27_Dog_Discovers_Purple_Dye" class="mw-redirect" title="Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye">The Discovery of Purple by Hercules's Dog</a></i> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodoor_van_Thulden" title="Theodoor van Thulden">Theodoor van Thulden</a>, c. 1636</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:OldGreekPhoenikianCoinPurpur2000.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/OldGreekPhoenikianCoinPurpur2000.jpg" decoding="async" width="217" height="215" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="217" data-file-height="215" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicias</a> coin depicting the legend of the dog biting the sea snail</figcaption></figure>
<p>The Roman <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mythographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythographer">mythographer</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Julius_Pollux" title="Julius Pollux">Julius Pollux</a>, writing in the 2nd century AD, asserted (<i>Onomasticon</i> I, 45–49) that the purple dye was first discovered by the philosopher Heracles of Tyre, or rather, by his dog, whose mouth was stained purple from chewing on snails along the coast at Tyre. This story was depicted by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a> in his painting <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hercules%27_Dog_Discovers_Purple_Dye" class="mw-redirect" title="Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye">Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye</a></i>. According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Malalas" title="John Malalas">John Malalas</a>, the incident happened during the reign of the legendary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoenix_(son_of_Agenor)" title="Phoenix (son of Agenor)">King Phoenix of Tyre</a>, the eponymous progenitor of the Phoenicians, and therefore he was the first ruler to wear Tyrian purple and legislate on its use.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>Recently, the archaeological discovery of substantial numbers of Murex shells on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> suggests that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minoans" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoans">Minoans</a> may have pioneered the extraction of Imperial purple centuries before the Tyrians. Dating from collocated pottery suggests the dye may have been produced during the Middle Minoan period in the 20th–18th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a></sup> Accumulations of crushed murex shells from a hut at the site of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coppa_Nevigata" title="Coppa Nevigata">Coppa Nevigata</a> in southern Italy may indicate production of purple dye there from at least the 18th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a></sup> Additional archaeological evidence can be found from samples originating from excavations at the extensive Iron Age copper smelting site of “Slaves’ Hill” (Site 34), which is tightly dated by radiocarbon to the late 11th–early 10th centuries BC.<sup id="cite_ref-NS_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NS-2">[2]</a></sup> Findings from this site include evidence of the use of purple dye found in stains used on pot shards. Evidence of the use of dye in pottery are found in most cases on the upper part of ceramic basins, on the inside surface, the areas in which the reduced dye-solution was exposed to air, and underwent oxidation that turned it purple.<sup id="cite_ref-NS_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NS-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>The production of <i>Murex</i> purple for the Byzantine court came to an abrupt end with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1204)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople (1204)">sack of Constantinople in 1204</a>, the critical episode of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>. David Jacoby concludes that "no Byzantine emperor nor any Latin ruler in former Byzantine territories could muster the financial resources required for the pursuit of murex purple production. On the other hand, murex fishing and dyeing with genuine purple are attested for Egypt in the tenth to 13th centuries."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a></sup> By contrast, Jacoby finds that there are no mentions of purple fishing or dyeing, nor trade in the colorant in any Western source, even in the Frankish Levant. The European West turned instead to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vermilion" title="Vermilion">vermilion</a> provided by the insect <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kermes_vermilio" title="Kermes vermilio">Kermes vermilio</a></i>, known as <i>grana</i>, or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimson" title="Crimson">crimson</a>.
</p><p>In 1909, Harvard anthropologist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zelia_Nuttall" title="Zelia Nuttall">Zelia Nuttall</a> compiled an intensive comparative study on the historical production of the purple dye produced from the carnivorous <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murex_snail" class="mw-redirect" title="Murex snail">murex snail</a>, source of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_purple" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal purple">royal purple</a> dye valued higher than gold in the ancient Near East and ancient Mexico. Not only did the people of ancient Mexico use the same methods of production as the Phoenicians, they also valued murex-dyed cloth above all others, as it appeared in codices as the attire of nobility. "Nuttall noted that the Mexican murex-dyed cloth bore a "disagreeable ... strong fishy smell, which appears to be as lasting as the color itself."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a></sup> Likewise, the ancient Egyptian <i>Papyrus of Anastasi</i> laments: "The hands of the dyer reek like rotting fish ..."<sup id="cite_ref-robinson_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-robinson-34">[32]</a></sup> So pervasive was this stench that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> specifically granted women the right to divorce any husband who became a dyer after marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2021, archaeologists found surviving wool fibers dyed with royal purple in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timna_Valley" title="Timna Valley">Timna Valley</a> in Israel. The find, which was dated to c. 1000 BC, constituted the first direct evidence of fabric dyed with the pigment from antiquity.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Murex_purple_production_in_North_Africa">Murex purple production in North Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Murex purple production in North Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tyrian-Purple.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Tyrian-Purple.svg/220px-Tyrian-Purple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Tyrian-Purple.svg/330px-Tyrian-Purple.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Tyrian-Purple.svg/440px-Tyrian-Purple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="281" /></a><figcaption>The chemical structure of 6,6'-dibromoindigo, the main component of Tyrian purple</figcaption></figure>
<p>Murex purple was a very important industry in many Phoenician territories and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a> was no exception. Traces of this once very lucrative industry are still visible in many Punic sites such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerkouane" title="Kerkouane">Kerkouane</a>, Zouchis, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djerba" title="Djerba">Djerba</a> and even in Carthage itself. According to Pliny, Meninx (today's Djerba) produced the best purple in Africa which was also ranked second only after Tyre's. It was found also at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iles_Purpuraires" title="Iles Purpuraires">Essaouira</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>). The Royal purple or Imperial purple<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a></sup> was probably used until the time of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> (354–430) and before the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus#Later_life" title="Romulus Augustulus">demise of the Roman Empire</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dye_chemistry">Dye chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dye chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Variations in colours of "Tyrian purple" from different snails are related to the presence of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indigo_dye" title="Indigo dye">indigo dye</a> (blue), 6-bromoindigo (purple), and the red 6,6'-dibromoindigo. Additional changes in colour can be induced by debromination from light exposure (as is the case for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tekhelet" title="Tekhelet">Tekhelet</a>) or by heat processing.<sup id="cite_ref-indigo-bromo_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indigo-bromo-38">[36]</a></sup> The final shade of purple is decided by chromatogram, which can be identified by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/High_performance_liquid_chromatography" class="mw-redirect" title="High performance liquid chromatography">high performance liquid chromatography</a> analysis in a single measurement: indigotin (IND) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indirubin" title="Indirubin">indirubin</a> (INR). The two are found in plant sources such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Woad" class="mw-redirect" title="Woad">woad</a> (<i>Isatis tinctoria L</i>.) and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indigo_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigo plant">indigo plant</a> (<i>Indigofera tinctoria L</i>), as well as in several species of shellfish.<sup id="cite_ref-NS_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NS-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1998, by means of a lengthy trial and error process, a process for dyeing with Tyrian purple was rediscovered.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a></sup> This finding built on reports from the 15th century to the 18th century and explored the biotechnology process behind <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isatis_tinctoria" title="Isatis tinctoria">woad</a> fermentation. It is hypothesized that an alkaline fermenting vat was necessary. An incomplete ancient recipe for Tyrian purple recorded by Pliny the Elder was also consulted. By altering the percentage of sea salt in the dye vat and adding <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</a>, he was able to successfully dye wool a deep purple colour.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>Recent research in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organic_electronics" title="Organic electronics">organic electronics</a> has shown that Tyrian purple is an ambipolar <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">organic semiconductor</a>. Transistors and circuits based on this material can be produced from sublimed thin-films of the dye. The good semiconducting properties of the dye originate from strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding that reinforces <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pi_stacking" class="mw-redirect" title="Pi stacking">pi stacking</a> necessary for transport.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_hue_rendering">Modern hue rendering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern hue rendering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>True Tyrian purple, like most high-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colorfulness" title="Colorfulness">chroma</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigments</a>, cannot be accurately rendered on a standard RGB computer monitor. Ancient reports are also not entirely consistent, but these <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/swatch" class="extiw" title="wikt:swatch">swatches</a> give a rough indication of the likely range in which it appeared:
</p><p><span style="background-color:#b80049">_________</span> <br />
<span style="background-color:#990024">_________</span>
</p><p>The lower one is the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/SRGB" title="SRGB">sRGB</a> colour #990024, intended for viewing on an output device with a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gamma_correction" title="Gamma correction">gamma</a> of 2.2. It is a representation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Horticultural_Society" title="Royal Horticultural Society">RHS</a> colour code 66A,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a></sup> which has been equated to "Tyrian red",<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a></sup> a term which is often used as a synonym for Tyrian purple.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philately">Philately</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Philately"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The colour name "Tyrian plum" is popularly given to a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edward_VII_2d_Tyrian_plum" title="Edward VII 2d Tyrian plum">British postage stamp</a> that was prepared, but never released to the public, shortly before the death of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/King_Edward_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="King Edward VII">King Edward VII</a> in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Cuneiform_tablet_BM62788.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cuneiform tablet, dated 600–500 BC, with instructions for dyeing wool purple and blue. Ref.BM62788 ."><img alt="cuneiform tablet" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Cuneiform_tablet_BM62788.jpg/172px-Cuneiform_tablet_BM62788.jpg" decoding="async" width="172" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Cuneiform_tablet_BM62788.jpg/258px-Cuneiform_tablet_BM62788.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Cuneiform_tablet_BM62788.jpg/345px-Cuneiform_tablet_BM62788.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="1755" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a> tablet, dated 600–500 BC, with instructions for dyeing wool purple and blue. Ref.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/327282">BM62788 </a>.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Heb_cover_hi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A set of Tzitzit, four tassels or "fringes" with tekhelet (purple-blue) threads produced from a Hexaplex trunculus based dye."><img alt="A set of Tzitzit, four tassels or "fringes" with tekhelet (purple-blue) threads produced from a Hexaplex trunculus based dye." src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Heb_cover_hi.jpg/190px-Heb_cover_hi.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Heb_cover_hi.jpg/285px-Heb_cover_hi.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Heb_cover_hi.jpg/380px-Heb_cover_hi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2653" data-file-height="2454" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">A set of <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">Tzitzit</a></i>, four tassels or "fringes" with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tekhelet" title="Tekhelet">tekhelet</a> (purple-blue) threads produced from a <i>Hexaplex trunculus</i> based dye.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Painting of a man wearing an all-purple toga picta, from an Etruscan tomb (about 350 BC)."><img alt="Painting of a man wearing an all-purple toga picta, from an Etruscan tomb (about 350 BC)." src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg/103px-Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg/154px-Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg/205px-Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="560" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"> Painting of a man wearing an all-purple <i>toga picta</i>, from an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> tomb (about 350 BC).</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Compitalia_fresco.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Roman men wearing togae praetextae with reddish-purple stripes during a religious procession (1st century BC)."><img alt="Roman men wearing togae praetextae with reddish-purple stripes during a religious procession (1st century BC)." src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Compitalia_fresco.jpg/190px-Compitalia_fresco.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Compitalia_fresco.jpg/285px-Compitalia_fresco.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Compitalia_fresco.jpg/380px-Compitalia_fresco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="314" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Roman men wearing <i>togae praetextae</i> with reddish-purple stripes during a religious procession (1st century BC).</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Empress_Theodora.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Empress Theodora, the wife of the Emperor Justinian, dressed in Tyrian purple. (6th century)."><img alt="The Empress Theodora, the wife of the Emperor Justinian, dressed in Tyrian purple. (6th century)." src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Empress_Theodora.jpg/140px-Empress_Theodora.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Empress_Theodora.jpg/211px-Empress_Theodora.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Empress_Theodora.jpg/281px-Empress_Theodora.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="656" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodora_(wife_of_Justinian_I)" title="Theodora (wife of Justinian I)">Empress Theodora</a>, the wife of the Emperor Justinian, dressed in Tyrian purple. (6th century).</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Karl_den_store_krons_av_leo_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A medieval depiction of the coronation of the Emperor Charlemagne in 800 AD wearing royal blue. The bishops and cardinals wear Tyrian purple, and the Pope wears white."><img alt="A medieval depiction of the coronation of the Emperor Charlemagne in 800 AD wearing royal blue. The bishops and cardinals wear Tyrian purple, and the Pope wears white." src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Karl_den_store_krons_av_leo_III.jpg/175px-Karl_den_store_krons_av_leo_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Karl_den_store_krons_av_leo_III.jpg/263px-Karl_den_store_krons_av_leo_III.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Karl_den_store_krons_av_leo_III.jpg/350px-Karl_den_store_krons_av_leo_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="617" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">A medieval depiction of the coronation of the Emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> in 800 AD wearing royal blue. The bishops and cardinals wear Tyrian purple, and the Pope wears white.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Shroud_of_Charlemagne_manufactured_in_Constantinople_814.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A fragment of the shroud in which the Emperor Charlemagne was buried in 814 AD. It was made of gold and Tyrian purple from Constantinople."><img alt="A fragment of the shroud in which the Emperor Charlemagne was buried in 814 AD. It was made of gold and Tyrian purple from Constantinople." src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Shroud_of_Charlemagne_manufactured_in_Constantinople_814.jpg/177px-Shroud_of_Charlemagne_manufactured_in_Constantinople_814.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Shroud_of_Charlemagne_manufactured_in_Constantinople_814.jpg/265px-Shroud_of_Charlemagne_manufactured_in_Constantinople_814.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Shroud_of_Charlemagne_manufactured_in_Constantinople_814.jpg/353px-Shroud_of_Charlemagne_manufactured_in_Constantinople_814.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2019" data-file-height="2057" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">A fragment of the shroud in which the Emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> was buried in 814 AD. It was made of gold and Tyrian purple from Constantinople.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tyrian_purple_on_grayscale.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="6,6'-dibromoindigo, the major component of Tyrian purple"><img alt="6,6'-dibromoindigo, the major component of Tyrian purple" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Tyrian_purple_on_grayscale.jpg/190px-Tyrian_purple_on_grayscale.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Tyrian_purple_on_grayscale.jpg/285px-Tyrian_purple_on_grayscale.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Tyrian_purple_on_grayscale.jpg/380px-Tyrian_purple_on_grayscale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1688" data-file-height="1348" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">6,6'-dibromoindigo, the major component of Tyrian purple</div>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Because of research by Benkendorff et al. (1999), the Tyrian purple precursor <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrindoleninone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tyrindoleninone (page does not exist)">tyrindoleninone</a> is being investigated as a potential antimicrobial agent with uses against <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Multidrug-resistant_bacteria" title="Multidrug-resistant bacteria">multidrug-resistant bacteria</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The problem with Tyrian purple is that the precursor reacts very quickly with air and light to form an insoluble dye. (Hence Pliny says: "... <i>when [the shellfish] have once discharged their waxy secretion, their juices have no consistency</i>. ...") The cumbersome process that Pliny describes is necessary to reverse the oxidation and to restore the water-soluble precursor so that large masses of wool can be dyed. See: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBiggam2006" class="citation journal cs1">Biggam CP (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZojyGIfG9m4C&q=soluble+insoluble&pg=PA26">"Knowledge of whelk dyes and pigments in Anglo-Saxon England"</a>. <i>Anglo-Saxon England</i>. <b>35</b>. pages 23–56; see especially pages 26–27. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0263675106000032">10.1017/S0263675106000032</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521883429" title="Special:BookSources/9780521883429"><bdi>9780521883429</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162937239">162937239</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.atitle=Knowledge+of+whelk+dyes+and+pigments+in+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.volume=35&rft.pages=pages-23-56%3B+see+especially+pages-26-27&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162937239%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0263675106000032&rft.isbn=9780521883429&rft.aulast=Biggam&rft.aufirst=CP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZojyGIfG9m4C%26q%3Dsoluble%2Binsoluble%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span> See also: C. J. Cooksey (2001) "Tyrian purple: 6,6'-Dibromoindigo and Related Compounds", <i>Molecules</i>, <b>6</b> (9) : 736–769, especially page 761. Indigo, which is chemically very similar to Tyrian purple, behaves similarly. See: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.indigopage.com/chemistry.htm">http://www.indigopage.com/chemistry.htm</a></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-ruthg-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ruthg_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKassinger,_Ruth_G.2003" class="citation book cs1">Kassinger, Ruth G. (6 February 2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dyesfromseasnail0000kass"><i>Dyes: From Sea Snails to Synthetics</i></a></span>. 21st century. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7613-2112-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7613-2112-8"><bdi>0-7613-2112-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dyes%3A+From+Sea+Snails+to+Synthetics&rft.pub=21st+century&rft.date=2003-02-06&rft.isbn=0-7613-2112-8&rft.au=Kassinger%2C+Ruth+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdyesfromseasnail0000kass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-NS-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NS_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NS_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NS_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NS_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NS_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NS_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NS_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSukenikIluzAmarVarvak2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sukenik, Naama; Iluz, David; Amar, Zohar; Varvak, Alexander; Shamir, Orit; Ben-Yosef, Erez (28 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7842898">"Early evidence of royal purple dyed textile from Timna Valley (Israel)"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>16</b> (1): e0245897. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PLoSO..1645897S">2021PLoSO..1645897S</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0245897">10.1371/journal.pone.0245897</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7842898">7842898</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33507987">33507987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Early+evidence+of+royal+purple+dyed+textile+from+Timna+Valley+%28Israel%29&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e0245897&rft.date=2021-01-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7842898%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021PLoSO..1645897S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33507987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0245897&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=Sukenik&rft.aufirst=Naama&rft.au=Iluz%2C+David&rft.au=Amar%2C+Zohar&rft.au=Varvak%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Shamir%2C+Orit&rft.au=Ben-Yosef%2C+Erez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7842898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McGovern, P. E. and Michel, R. H. "Royal Purple dye: tracing the chemical origins of the industry". <i>Analytical Chemistry</i> 1985, 57, 1514A–1522A</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-StClair-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-StClair_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StClair_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StClair_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StClair_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSt_Clair2016" class="citation book cs1">St Clair K (2016). <i>The Secret Lives of Colour</i>. London: John Murray. pp. 162–164. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473630819" title="Special:BookSources/9781473630819"><bdi>9781473630819</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/936144129">936144129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+Lives+of+Colour&rft.place=London&rft.pages=162-164&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F936144129&rft.isbn=9781473630819&rft.aulast=St+Clair&rft.aufirst=K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe,_Barry2008" class="citation book cs1">Cunliffe, Barry (2008). <i>Europe between the Oceans: 9000 BC – AD 1000</i>. New Haven, Connecticut: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. p. 241.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+between+the+Oceans%3A+9000+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+1000&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Cunliffe%2C+Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/Phoenician">"Phoenician"</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Phoenician&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2FPhoenician&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Pigments_WebExhibits-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pigments_WebExhibits_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pigments_WebExhibits_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/7.html">"Pigments: Causes of Color"</a>. <i>WebExhibits.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WebExhibits.org&rft.atitle=Pigments%3A+Causes+of+Color&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webexhibits.org%2Fcausesofcolor%2F7.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theopompus, cited by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Athenaeus" title="Athenaeus">Athenaeus</a> (12:526) around 200 BC.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAthenaeus1941" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Athenaeus" title="Athenaeus">Athenaeus</a> (1941). <i>The Deipnosophists</i>. Translated by Gulick, Charles Barton. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Deipnosophists&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1941&rft.au=Athenaeus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacoby1997" class="citation book cs1">Jacoby D (1997). "Silk in Western Byzantium before the Fourth Crusade". <i>Trade, Commodities, and Shipping in the Medieval Mediterranean</i>. pp. 455 ff and notes [17]–[19].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Silk+in+Western+Byzantium+before+the+Fourth+Crusade&rft.btitle=Trade%2C+Commodities%2C+and+Shipping+in+the+Medieval+Mediterranean&rft.pages=pp.-455-ff+and+notes-17-19&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Jacoby&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Porphyrogennetos". <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium</i>. New York and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1701. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-195-04652-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-195-04652-8"><bdi>0-195-04652-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Porphyrogennetos&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Byzantium&rft.place=New+York+and+Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=1701&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-195-04652-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsner1992" class="citation journal cs1">Elsner O (1992). "Solution of the enigmas of dyeing with Tyrian purple and the Biblical tekhelet". <i>Dyes in History and Archaeology</i>. <b>10</b>. pages 14 ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dyes+in+History+and+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Solution+of+the+enigmas+of+dyeing+with+Tyrian+purple+and+the+Biblical+tekhelet&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=pages-14-ff&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Elsner&rft.aufirst=O&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiderman,_I.I.1986" class="citation journal cs1">Ziderman, I.I. (1986). "Purple dye made from shellfish in antiquity". <i>Review of Progress in Coloration</i>. <b>16</b>: 46–52. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1478-4408.1986.tb03743.x">10.1111/j.1478-4408.1986.tb03743.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Progress+in+Coloration&rft.atitle=Purple+dye+made+from+shellfish+in+antiquity&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=46-52&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1478-4408.1986.tb03743.x&rft.au=Ziderman%2C+I.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Radwin,_G._E_1986._p93-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Radwin,_G._E_1986._p93_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Radwin,_G._E_1986._p93_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadwin,_G._E.D'Attilio,_A.1986" class="citation book cs1">Radwin, G. E.; D'Attilio, A. (1986). <i>Murex shells of the world. An illustrated guide to the Muricidae</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 93.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Murex+shells+of+the+world.+An+illustrated+guide+to+the+Muricidae&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.au=Radwin%2C+G.+E.&rft.au=D%27Attilio%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span> 284 pp incl 192 figs. & 32 pls.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Benkendorff-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Benkendorff_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenkendorff1999" class="citation thesis cs1">Benkendorff K (March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070830143907/http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20011204.154039/index.html"><i>Bioactive molluscan resources and their conservation: Biological and chemical studies on the egg masses of marine molluscs</i></a> (Thesis). University of Wollongong. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20011204.154039/index.html">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 30 August 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Bioactive+molluscan+resources+and+their+conservation%3A+Biological+and+chemical+studies+on+the+egg+masses+of+marine+molluscs&rft.inst=University+of+Wollongong&rft.date=1999-03&rft.aulast=Benkendorff&rft.aufirst=K&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.uow.edu.au%2Fadt-NWU%2Fpublic%2Fadt-NWU20011204.154039%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacoby2004" class="citation journal cs1">Jacoby D (2004). "Silk economics and cross-cultural artistic interaction: Byzantium, the Muslim world, and the Christian west". <i>Dumbarton Oaks Papers</i>. <b>58</b>: 210, 197–240. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3591386">10.2307/3591386</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3591386">3591386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dumbarton+Oaks+Papers&rft.atitle=Silk+economics+and+cross-cultural+artistic+interaction%3A+Byzantium%2C+the+Muslim+world%2C+and+the+Christian+west&rft.volume=58&rft.pages=210%2C+197-240&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3591386&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3591386%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jacoby&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1853" class="citation journal cs1">Gould AA (1853). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000018613018&view=1up&seq=402">"Descriptions of shells from the Gulf of California and the Pacific coasts of Mexico and California"</a>. <i>Boston Journal of Natural History</i>. <b>6</b>: 374–408.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+Journal+of+Natural+History&rft.atitle=Descriptions+of+shells+from+the+Gulf+of+California+and+the+Pacific+coasts+of+Mexico+and+California&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=374-408&rft.date=1853&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=AA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dpst.000018613018%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D402&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span> ; see pp. 406–407. Note: Gould called this species <i>Purpura pansa</i> ; it was later renamed <i>Plicopurpura pansa</i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Plicopurpura patula</i> was originally named <i>Buccinum patulum</i> by Linnaeus in 1758:
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Linné1758" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">von Linné C (1758). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/761/mode/1up"><i>Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ …</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. 1. Stockholm, Sweden: Lars Salvius. p. 739.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systema+natur%C3%A6+per+regna+tria+natur%C3%A6+%E2%80%A6&rft.place=Stockholm%2C+Sweden&rft.pages=739&rft.pub=Lars+Salvius&rft.date=1758&rft.aulast=von+Linn%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F10277%23page%2F761%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>World Register of Marine Species (Web site): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=396994"><i>Plicopurpura patula</i> (Linnaeus, 1758).</a></li></ul>
The genus <i>Plicopurpura</i> was created in 1903 by Cossmann:
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCossmann1903" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cossmann M (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/112977#page/80/mode/1up"><i>Essais de paléoconchologie comparée</i></a> (in French). Vol. 5. Paris, France: (Self-published). pp. 68–69.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essais+de+pal%C3%A9oconchologie+compar%C3%A9e&rft.place=Paris%2C+France&rft.pages=68-69&rft.pub=%28Self-published%29&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Cossmann&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F112977%23page%2F80%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiggam2006" class="citation journal cs1">Biggam CP (March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110219060429/http://triton.anu.edu.au/MalacGp09.pdf">"Whelks and purple dye in Anglo-Saxon England"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Archaeo+Malacology Group Newsletter</i> (9). Glasgow, Scotland, UK: Department of English Language, University of Glasgow. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://triton.anu.edu.au/MalacGp09.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-02-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Archaeo%2BMalacology+Group+Newsletter&rft.atitle=Whelks+and+purple+dye+in+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.issue=9&rft.date=2006-03&rft.aulast=Biggam&rft.aufirst=CP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftriton.anu.edu.au%2FMalacGp09.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Moorey1999-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Moorey1999_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moorey1999_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorey1999" class="citation book cs1">Moorey P (1999). <i>Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Winona_Lake,_Indiana" title="Winona Lake, Indiana">Winona Lake, Indiana</a>: Eisenbrauns. p. 138. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57506-042-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-57506-042-6"><bdi>1-57506-042-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamian+Materials+and+Industries%3A+The+Archaeological+Evidence&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-57506-042-6&rft.aulast=Moorey&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogan2007" class="citation web cs1">Hogan CM (2 November 2007). Burnham A (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=17926">"Mogador: Promontory Fort"</a>. <i>The Megalithic Portal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Megalithic+Portal&rft.atitle=Mogador%3A+Promontory+Fort&rft.date=2007-11-02&rft.aulast=Hogan&rft.aufirst=CM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.megalithic.co.uk%2Farticle.php%3Fsid%3D17926&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In 1758, Linnaeus classified the snail as <i>Murex trunculus</i>:
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Linné1758" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">von Linné C (1758). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/769/mode/1up"><i>Systema naturae per regna tria naturae …</i></a> (in Latin). Vol. v.1. Stockholm, Sweden: Lars Salvius. p. 747.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systema+naturae+per+regna+tria+naturae+%E2%80%A6&rft.place=Stockholm%2C+Sweden&rft.pages=747&rft.pub=Lars+Salvius&rft.date=1758&rft.aulast=von+Linn%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F10277%23page%2F769%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
In 1810, the English naturalist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Perry_(naturalist)" title="George Perry (naturalist)">George Perry</a> created the genus <i>Hexaplex</i>:
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry1810–1811" class="citation book cs1">Perry G (1810–1811). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arcanaormuseumof00perr/page/n139"><i>Arcana, or, The museum of natural history ...</i></a> London, England: James Stratford. p. Plate XXIII: Genus: Triplex.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arcana%2C+or%2C+The+museum+of+natural+history+...&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=Plate+XXIII%3A+Genus%3A+Triplex&rft.pub=James+Stratford&rft.date=1810%2F1811&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farcanaormuseumof00perr%2Fpage%2Fn139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathewsIredale1912" class="citation journal cs1">Mathews GM, Iredale T (May 1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/38346#page/19/mode/1up">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Perry's Arcanda" – an overlooked work"</a>. <i>The Victorian Naturalist</i>. <b>29</b> (1): 7–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Victorian+Naturalist&rft.atitle=%22Perry%27s+Arcanda%22+%E2%80%93+an+overlooked+work&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-16&rft.date=1912-05&rft.aulast=Mathews&rft.aufirst=GM&rft.au=Iredale%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F38346%23page%2F19%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span> ; see p. 11.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138194">World Register of Marine Species (Web site): <i>Hexaplex</i> Perry, 1810</a></li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooksey2001" class="citation journal cs1">Cooksey CJ (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6236399">"Tyrian purple: 6,6'-dibromoindigo and related compounds"</a>. <i>Molecules</i>. <b>6</b> (9): 736–769. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2F60900736">10.3390/60900736</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6236399">6236399</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecules&rft.atitle=Tyrian+purple%3A+6%2C6%27-dibromoindigo+and+related+compounds&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=736-769&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6236399%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2F60900736&rft.aulast=Cooksey&rft.aufirst=CJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6236399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVitruvius" class="citation book cs1">Vitruvius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/7*.html"><i>De Architectura</i></a> [<i>On Architecture</i>]. Book VII, Chapter 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Architectura&rft.pages=Book+VII%2C+Chapter+13&rft.au=Vitruvius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FVitruvius%2F7%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle2004" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dma7o9N6zWkC&q=stains&pg=PA132"><i>History of Animals</i></a>. Whitefish, MT: Kessering Publishing. Book V, pages 131–132. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781419123917" title="Special:BookSources/9781419123917"><bdi>9781419123917</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Animals&rft.place=Whitefish%2C+MT&rft.pages=Book-V%2C+pages-131-132&rft.pub=Kessering+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781419123917&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDma7o9N6zWkC%26q%3Dstains%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_Elder1855" class="citation book cs1">Pliny the Elder (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D62">"Chapter 62: <i>The Natural History of Fishes</i>"</a>. In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Bostock_(physician)" title="John Bostock (physician)">Bostock J</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Thomas_Riley" title="Henry Thomas Riley">Riley HT</a> (eds.). <i>The Natural History</i>. London, UK: Taylor and Francis. Book IX.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+62%3A+The+Natural+History+of+Fishes&rft.btitle=The+Natural+History&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=Book+IX&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=1855&rft.au=Pliny+the+Elder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.02.0137%253Abook%253D9%253Achapter%253D62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span> Pliny discusses Tyrian purple throughout Chapters 60–65.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Malalas, <i>Chronographia</i> II:9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reese, David S. (1987). "Palaikastro Shells and Bronze Age Purple-Dye Production in the Mediterranean Basin", <i>Annual of the British School of Archaeology at Athens</i>, <b>82</b>, 201–206</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stieglitz, Robert R. (1994), "The Minoan Origin of Tyrian Purple", <i>Biblical Archaeologist</i>, <b>57</b>, 46–54.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCazzellaMoscoloni1998" class="citation book cs1">Cazzella A, Moscoloni M (1998). "Coppa Nevigata: un insediamento fortificato dell'eta del Bronzo". In Troccoli LD (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcc5P5hqsu8C&pg=PA178"><i>Scavi e ricerche archeologiche dell'Università di Roma La Sapienza</i></a>. L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER. pp. 178–179. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788882650155" title="Special:BookSources/9788882650155"><bdi>9788882650155</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Coppa+Nevigata%3A+un+insediamento+fortificato+dell%27eta+del+Bronzo&rft.btitle=Scavi+e+ricerche+archeologiche+dell%27Universit%C3%A0+di+Roma+La+Sapienza&rft.pages=178-179&rft.pub=L%27ERMA+di+BRETSCHNEIDER&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9788882650155&rft.aulast=Cazzella&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Moscoloni%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZcc5P5hqsu8C%26pg%3DPA178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacoby (2004), p. 210.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNutall1909" class="citation book cs1">Nutall Z (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101079830103;view=1up;seq=460">"A curious survival in Mexico of the use of the Purpura shell-fish for dyeing"</a>. In Boas F (ed.). <i>Anthropological Essays Presented to Fredrick Ward Putnam in Honor of his Seventieth Birthday, by his Friends and Associates</i>. New York, New York: G. E. Strechert & Co. p. 370.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+curious+survival+in+Mexico+of+the+use+of+the+Purpura+shell-fish+for+dyeing&rft.btitle=Anthropological+Essays+Presented+to+Fredrick+Ward+Putnam+in+Honor+of+his+Seventieth+Birthday%2C+by+his+Friends+and+Associates&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=370&rft.pub=G.+E.+Strechert+%26+Co.&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Nutall&rft.aufirst=Z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnjp.32101079830103%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D460&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-robinson-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-robinson_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1969" class="citation book cs1">Robinson S (1969). <i>A History of Dyed Textiles</i>. London, UK: Studio Vista. p. 24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Dyed+Textiles&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Studio+Vista&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompton2010" class="citation book cs1">Compton S (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1439276838"><i>Exodus Lost</i></a> (1st ed.). Booksurge Publishing. pp. 29–33. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439276839" title="Special:BookSources/9781439276839"><bdi>9781439276839</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exodus+Lost&rft.pages=29-33&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Booksurge+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781439276839&rft.aulast=Compton&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fisbn%3D1439276838&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSukenikIluzAmarVarvak2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sukenik, Naama; Iluz, David; Amar, Zohar; Varvak, Alexander; Shamir, Orit; Ben-Yosef, Erez (January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7842898">"Early evidence of royal purple dyed textile from Timna Valley (Israel)"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>16</b> (1): e0245897. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PLoSO..1645897S">2021PLoSO..1645897S</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0245897">10.1371/journal.pone.0245897</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7842898">7842898</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33507987">33507987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Early+evidence+of+royal+purple+dyed+textile+from+Timna+Valley+%28Israel%29&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e0245897&rft.date=2021-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7842898%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33507987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0245897&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021PLoSO..1645897S&rft.aulast=Sukenik&rft.aufirst=Naama&rft.au=Iluz%2C+David&rft.au=Amar%2C+Zohar&rft.au=Varvak%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Shamir%2C+Orit&rft.au=Ben-Yosef%2C+Erez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7842898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyrian_Purple/">"Definition of the Tyrian purple"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160724031543/https://www.ancient.eu/Tyrian_Purple">Archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Definition+of+the+Tyrian+purple&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FTyrian_Purple%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-indigo-bromo-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-indigo-bromo_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamigLavindaSzaldaMironova2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ramig K, Lavinda O, Szalda DJ, Mironova I, Karimi S, Pozzi F, et al. (June 2015). "The nature of thermochromic effects in dyeings with indigo, 6-bromoindigo, and 6,6'-Dibromoindigo, components of Tyrian purple". <i>Dyes and Pigments</i>. <b>117</b>: 37–48. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.dyepig.2015.01.025">10.1016/j.dyepig.2015.01.025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dyes+and+Pigments&rft.atitle=The+nature+of+thermochromic+effects+in+dyeings+with+indigo%2C+6-bromoindigo%2C+and+6%2C6%27-Dibromoindigo%2C+components+of+Tyrian+purple&rft.volume=117&rft.pages=37-48&rft.date=2015-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.dyepig.2015.01.025&rft.aulast=Ramig&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Lavinda%2C+O&rft.au=Szalda%2C+DJ&rft.au=Mironova%2C+I&rft.au=Karimi%2C+S&rft.au=Pozzi%2C+F&rft.au=Shah%2C+N&rft.au=Samson%2C+J&rft.au=Ajiki%2C+H&rft.au=Massa%2C+L&rft.au=Mantzouris%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmonds2000" class="citation book cs1">Edmonds J (2000). <i>Tyrian or Imperial Purple: The Mystery of Imperial Purple Dyes</i>. Historic Dye Series, no. 7. Little Chalfont, Buckinghamshire, England: John Edwards. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780953413362" title="Special:BookSources/9780953413362"><bdi>9780953413362</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45315310">45315310</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tyrian+or+Imperial+Purple%3A+The+Mystery+of+Imperial+Purple+Dyes&rft.place=Little+Chalfont%2C+Buckinghamshire%2C+England&rft.series=Historic+Dye+Series%2C+no.+7&rft.pub=John+Edwards&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45315310&rft.isbn=9780953413362&rft.aulast=Edmonds&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110713022226/http://www.imperial-purple.com/profile.html">"Author Profile"</a>. <i>Imperial-Purple.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imperial-purple.com/profile.html">the original</a> on 13 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Imperial-Purple.com&rft.atitle=Author+Profile&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imperial-purple.com%2Fprofile.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenciner,_Robert2000" class="citation book cs1">Chenciner, Robert (2000). <i>Madder Red: A history of luxury and trade: plant dyes and pigments in world commerce and art</i>. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 295.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madder+Red%3A+A+history+of+luxury+and+trade%3A+plant+dyes+and+pigments+in+world+commerce+and+art&rft.place=Richmond&rft.pages=295&rft.pub=Curzon+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Chenciner%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGłowackiLeonatVossBodea2011" class="citation journal cs1">Głowacki ED, Leonat L, Voss G, Bodea MA, Bozkurt Z, Ramil AM, et al. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aipadvances.aip.org/resource/1/aaidbi/v1/i4/p042132_s1">"Ambipolar organic field effect transistors and inverters with the natural material Tyrian purple"</a>. <i>AIP Advances</i>. <b>1</b> (4). 042132. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011AIPA....1d2132G">2011AIPA....1d2132G</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3660358">10.1063/1.3660358</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AIP+Advances&rft.atitle=Ambipolar+organic+field+effect+transistors+and+inverters+with+the+natural+material+Tyrian+purple&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=042132&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.3660358&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011AIPA....1d2132G&rft.aulast=G%C5%82owacki&rft.aufirst=ED&rft.au=Leonat%2C+L&rft.au=Voss%2C+G&rft.au=Bodea%2C+MA&rft.au=Bozkurt%2C+Z&rft.au=Ramil%2C+AM&rft.au=Irimia-Vladu%2C+M&rft.au=Bauer%2C+S&rft.au=Sariciftci%2C+NS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faipadvances.aip.org%2Fresource%2F1%2Faaidbi%2Fv1%2Fi4%2Fp042132_s1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070311031344/http://www.azaleas.org/index.pl/rhsmacfan2.html">"RHS, UCL and RGB Colors, gamma = 1.4, fan 2"</a>. <i>Azalea Society of America</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.azaleas.org/index.pl/rhsmacfan2.html">the original</a> on 11 March 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Azalea+Society+of+America&rft.atitle=RHS%2C+UCL+and+RGB+Colors%2C+gamma+%3D+1.4%2C+fan+2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.azaleas.org%2Findex.pl%2Frhsmacfan2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span> (this gives the RGB value #b80049, which has been converted to #990024 for the sRGB gamma of 2.2)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuck,_G." class="citation web cs1">Buck, G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060823170307/http://www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/cad/Eroses.html">"Buck Rose"</a>. p. 5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/cad/Eroses.html">the original</a> on 23 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Buck+Rose&rft.pages=5&rft.au=Buck%2C+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ag.iastate.edu%2Fcenters%2Fcad%2FEroses.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.postalmuseum.org/collections/getrecord/GB813_P_150_02_01_21">"Edward VII 2d"</a>. <i>Postal Museum</i>. Collection catalog.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Postal+Museum&rft.atitle=Edward+VII+2d&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalogue.postalmuseum.org%2Fcollections%2Fgetrecord%2FGB813_P_150_02_01_21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyrian_Purple/">"Tyrian Purple"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Tyrian+Purple&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FTyrian_Purple%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooksey1994" class="citation journal cs1">Cooksey CJ (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200726101755/http://www.chriscooksey.demon.co.uk/tyrian/cjcbiblio.html">"Making Tyrian purple"</a>. <i>Dyes in History and Archaeology</i>. <b>13</b>: 7–13 (email the author for a copy). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chriscooksey.demon.co.uk/tyrian/cjcbiblio.html">the original</a> on 2020-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-11</span></span>. <q>Source of article in author's <i>Bibliography</i> page.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dyes+in+History+and+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Making+Tyrian+purple&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=7-13+%28email+the+author+for+a+copy%29&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Cooksey&rft.aufirst=CJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chriscooksey.demon.co.uk%2Ftyrian%2Fcjcbiblio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuckelsberger2013" class="citation thesis cs1">Guckelsberger M (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/16925/1/Purple%20Murex%20Dye%20in%20Antiquity.pdf"><i>Purple Murex Dye in Antiquity</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Thesis). University of Iceland.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Purple+Murex+Dye+in+Antiquity&rft.inst=University+of+Iceland&rft.date=2013-12&rft.aulast=Guckelsberger&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fskemman.is%2Fbitstream%2F1946%2F16925%2F1%2FPurple%2520Murex%2520Dye%2520in%2520Antiquity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Plicopurpura+pansa+(Gould,+1853)+from+the+Pacific+Coast+of+Mexico+and...-a0118543935">"Tyrian purple"</a>. <i>The Free Library</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Free+Library&rft.atitle=Tyrian+purple&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FPlicopurpura%2Bpansa%2B%28Gould%2C%2B1853%29%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BPacific%2BCoast%2Bof%2BMexico%2Band...-a0118543935&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tekhelet.com/pdf/Jenson-RoyalPurple-1963.pdf">"Royal Purple of Tyre"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Royal+Purple+of+Tyre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftekhelet.com%2Fpdf%2FJenson-RoyalPurple-1963.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATyrian+purple" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amaranth_purple" class="mw-redirect" title="Amaranth purple">Amaranth purple</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Barn_red" title="Shades of red">Barn red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Bittersweet" title="Shades of red">Bittersweet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Bittersweet_shimmer" title="Shades of red">Bittersweet shimmer</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blood_red" title="Blood red">Blood red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Bright_pink" title="Shades of red">Bright pink (Crayola)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burgundy_(color)" title="Burgundy (color)">Burgundy</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Candy_apple_red" title="Candy apple red">Candy apple red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Cantaloupe_melon" title="Shades of red">Cantaloupe melon</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Cardinal" title="Shades of red">Cardinal</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#AB274F!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#7C0902!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FE6F5E!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#BF4F51!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#660000!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FB607F!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#800020!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF0800!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FDBCB4!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#C51E3A!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Carmine" title="Shades of red">Carmine</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cerise_(color)" title="Cerise (color)">Cerise</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Chili_red" title="Shades of red">Chili red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Chocolate_cosmos" title="Shades of red">Chocolate cosmos</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Cinnabar" title="Shades of red">Cinnabar</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wine_(color)#Claret" title="Wine (color)">Claret</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coquelicot" title="Coquelicot">Coquelicot</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coral_(color)" title="Coral (color)">Coral pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Cordovan" title="Shades of red">Cordovan</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Cornell_red" title="Shades of red">Cornell red</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#960018!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#DE3163!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#E23D28!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#58111A!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#E44D2E!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#7F1734!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF3800!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#F88379!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#893F45!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#B31B1B!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimson" title="Crimson">Crimson</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Dark_red" title="Shades of red">Dark red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Falu_red" title="Falu red">Falu red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scarlet_(color)#Fire_brick" title="Scarlet (color)">Fire brick</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fire_engine_red" title="Fire engine red">Fire engine red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_rose#Folly" title="Shades of rose">Folly</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Garnet" title="Shades of red">Garnet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Imperial_red" title="Shades of red">Imperial red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_red" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian red">Indian red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Jasper" title="Shades of red">Jasper</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#DC143C!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#8B0000!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#801818!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#B22222!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#CE2029!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF004F!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#733635!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#ED2939!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#CD5C5C!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#D05340!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Light_coral" title="Shades of red">Light coral</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Light_red" title="Shades of red">Light red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Madder" title="Shades of red">Madder</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahogany_(color)" title="Mahogany (color)">Mahogany</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maroon" title="Maroon">Maroon</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Misty_rose" title="Shades of red">Misty rose</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Red_(RGB)" title="Shades of red">Off-red (RGB)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Old_rose" title="Shades of red">Old rose</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#OU_crimson" title="Shades of red">OU crimson</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Penn_red" title="Shades of red">Penn red</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#F08080!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF7F7F!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#A50021!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#C04000!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#800000!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FFE4E1!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FE0000!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#C08081!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#841617!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#990000!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persian_red" title="Persian red">Persian red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pink" title="Pink">Pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Poppy_red" title="Shades of red">Poppy</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red" title="Red">Red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_brown#Red-brown_(web_color_"brown")" title="Shades of brown">Red-brown</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Red_(CMYK)_(pigment_red)" title="Shades of red">Red (CMYK)<br />(pigment red)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Red_(Crayola)" title="Shades of red">Red (Crayola)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Red_(Munsell)" title="Shades of red">Red (Munsell)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Red_(NCS)" title="Shades of red">Red (NCS)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Red_(Pantone)" title="Shades of red">Red (Pantone)</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#CC3333!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FFC0CB!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#DC343B!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF0000!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#A52A2A!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#ED1B24!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#EE204E!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#F2003C!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#C40234!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#ED2839!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Redwood" title="Shades of red">Redwood</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Rojo" title="Shades of red">Rojo</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rose_(color)" title="Rose (color)">Rose</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Rose_ebony" title="Shades of red">Rose ebony</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_rose#Rose_red" title="Shades of rose">Rose red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Rose_taupe" title="Shades of red">Rose taupe</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Rose_vale" title="Shades of red">Rose vale</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Rosewood" title="Shades of red">Rosewood</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Rosy_brown" title="Shades of red">Rosy brown</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rust_(color)" title="Rust (color)">Rust</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#AB4E52!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#E60026!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF0080!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#674846!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#C21E56!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#905D5D!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#AB4E52!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#65000B!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#BC8F8F!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#B7410E!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Rusty_red" title="Shades of red">Rusty red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salmon_(color)" title="Salmon (color)">Salmon</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salmon_(color)#Salmon_pink" title="Salmon (color)">Salmon pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scarlet_(color)" title="Scarlet (color)">Scarlet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Syracuse_Orange" title="Shades of red">Syracuse red-orange</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Tea_rose" title="Shades of red">Tea rose (red)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Tomato" title="Shades of red">Tomato</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_red#Turkey_red" title="Shades of red">Turkey red</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vermilion" title="Vermilion">Vermilion</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wine_(color)" title="Wine (color)">Wine</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#DA2C43!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FA8072!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF91A4!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF2400!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#D44500!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#F4C2C2!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF6347!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#A91101!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#E34234!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#722F37!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-size:smaller; background:transparent; box-shadow: inset 0 1px 0 0 #B60000;"><div>A typical sample is shown for each name; a range of color-variations is commonly associated with each color-name.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Shades_of_violet" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks wraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#7600EC; color:white; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #000000, inset -1px -1px 0 #000000;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236085633"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Shades_of_violet" title="Template:Shades of violet"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Shades_of_violet" title="Template talk:Shades of violet"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Shades_of_violet" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Shades of violet"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Shades_of_violet" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet" title="Shades of violet"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Shades of violet</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0"><table style="background:transparent; width:100%">
<tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#African_violet" title="Shades of violet">African violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Amethyst" title="Lavender (color)">Amethyst</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Barbie_pink" title="Shades of pink">Barbie pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baker-Miller_pink" class="mw-redirect" title="Baker-Miller pink">Baker-Miller pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indigo#Deep_indigo_(web_color_blue-violet)" title="Indigo">Blue-violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_blue#Blurple" title="Shades of blue">Blurple</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burgundy_(color)" title="Burgundy (color)">Burgundy</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantium_(color)" title="Byzantium (color)">Byzantium</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caput_mortuum_(pigment)" title="Caput mortuum (pigment)">Caput mortuum</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Carnation_pink" title="Shades of pink">Carnation pink</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#B284BE!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#9966CC!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#DA1884!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF91AF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#8A2BE2!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#5865f2!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#800020!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#702963!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#592720!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FFA6C9!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cerise_(color)" title="Cerise (color)">Cerise</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#Chinese_violet" title="Shades of violet">Chinese violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Cotton_candy" title="Shades of pink">Cotton candy</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#Pigment_violet_(web_color_dark_violet)" title="Shades of violet">Dark violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eggplant_(color)" title="Eggplant (color)">Eggplant</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indigo#Electric_indigo" title="Indigo">Electric indigo</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Electric_purple:_2000s" title="Shades of purple">Electric purple</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#Electric_violet" title="Shades of violet">Electric violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#English_violet" title="Shades of violet">English violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#English_lavender" title="Lavender (color)">English lavender</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#DE3163!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#856088!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FFBCD9!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#9400D3!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#614051!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#6F00FF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#BF00FF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#8F00FF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#563C5C!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#B48395!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Eminence" title="Shades of purple">Eminence</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Fairy_Tale" title="Shades of pink">Fairy Tale</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fuchsia_(color)#Fandango" title="Fuchsia (color)">Fandango</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Fandango_pink" title="Shades of pink">Fandango pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mauve#French_mauve_(deep_mauve)" title="Mauve">French mauve</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#French_violet" title="Shades of violet">French violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fuchsia_(color)" title="Fuchsia (color)">Fuchsia</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#Grape" title="Shades of violet">Grape</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heliotrope_(color)" title="Heliotrope (color)">Heliotrope</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Hot_Pink" title="Shades of pink">Hot Pink</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#6C3082!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#F2C1D1!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#B53389!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#DE5285!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#D473D4!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#8806CE!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF00FF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#6F2DA8!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#DF73FF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF69B4!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indigo" title="Indigo">Indigo</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iris_(color)" title="Iris (color)">Iris</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#Japanese_violet" title="Shades of violet">Japanese violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Languid_lavender" title="Lavender (color)">Languid lavender</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Lavender_blush" title="Lavender (color)">Lavender blush</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Lavender_gray" title="Lavender (color)">Lavender gray</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Lavender_(floral)" title="Lavender (color)">Lavender (floral)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)" title="Lavender (color)">Lavender (web)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_pink" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender pink">Lavender pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lilac_(color)" title="Lilac (color)">Lilac</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#4B0082!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#5A4FCF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#5B3256!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#D6CADD!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FFF0F5!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#C4C3D0!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#B57EDC!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#E6E6FA!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FBAED2!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#C8A2C8!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Majorelle_Blue" title="Majorelle Blue">Majorelle Blue</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Magenta" title="Magenta">Magenta</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Mardi_Gras" title="Shades of purple">Mardi Gras</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mauve" title="Mauve">Mauve</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mauveine" title="Mauveine">Mauveine</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors#Maximum_Blue_Purple" title="List of Crayola crayon colors">Maximum Blue Purple</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Medium_purple" title="Lavender (color)">Medium purple</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/X11_color_names#Color_name_chart" title="X11 color names">Medium slate blue</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Mimi_Pink" title="Shades of pink">Mimi Pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Mountbatten_pink" title="Shades of pink">Mountbatten pink</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#6050DC!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF00FF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#880085!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#E0B0FF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#8D029B!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#ACACE6!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#9370DB!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#7B68EE!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FFDAE9!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#997A8D!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mulberry_(color)" title="Mulberry (color)">Mulberry</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murrey" title="Murrey">Murrey</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Old_lavender" title="Lavender (color)">Old lavender</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orchid_(color)" title="Orchid (color)">Orchid</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palatinate_(colour)" title="Palatinate (colour)">Palatinate</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Pale_purple" title="Shades of purple">Pale purple</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Pale_lavender" title="Lavender (color)">Pale lavender</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Periwinkle_(color)" title="Periwinkle (color)">Periwinkle</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persian_blue#Persian_indigo" title="Persian blue">Persian indigo</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persian_pink" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian pink">Persian pink</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#C54B8C!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#8B004B!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#796878!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#DA70D6!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#682860!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FAE6FA!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#DCD0FF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#CCCCFF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#32127A!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#F77FBE!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Psychedelic_purple_(phlox)" title="Shades of purple">Phlox</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Pink_lavender" title="Shades of pink">Pink lavender</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Pink_(Pantone)" title="Shades of pink">Pink (Pantone)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plum_(color)#Pale_plum" title="Plum (color)">Plum (web)</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Pomp_and_Power" title="Shades of purple">Pomp and Power</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puce" title="Puce">Puce</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purple" title="Purple">Purple</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Purple_mountain_majesty" title="Lavender (color)">Purple mountain majesty</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Purpureus" title="Shades of purple">Purpureus</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Rebecca_purple" title="Shades of purple">Rebecca purple</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#DF00FF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#DBB2D1!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#D74894!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#DDA0DD!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#86608E!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#CC8899!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#800080!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#9678B6!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#9A4EAE!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#663399!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Royal_purple:_17th_century" title="Shades of purple">Royal purple</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red-violet" title="Red-violet">Red-violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#Russian_violet" title="Shades of violet">Rose pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#Russian_violet" title="Shades of violet">Russian violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/X11_color_names#Color_name_chart" title="X11 color names">Slate blue</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Soap" title="Lavender (color)">Soap</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Steel_pink" title="Shades of pink">Steel pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tekhelet" title="Tekhelet">Tekhelet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Thistle" title="Shades of purple">Thistle</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Tickle_Me_Pink" title="Shades of pink">Tickle Me Pink</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#7851A9!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#C71585!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF66CC!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#6A5ACD!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#6A5ACD!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#CEC8EF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#CC33CC!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#512888!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#D8BFD8!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FC89AC!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;font-size:90%"><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indigo#Tropical_indigo" title="Indigo">Tropical indigo</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Twilight_lavender" title="Lavender (color)">Twilight lavender</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tyrian purple</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_pink#Ultra_pink" title="Shades of pink">Ultra pink</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_violet#Ultra_Violet_(Pantone)" title="Shades of violet">Ultra Violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shades_of_purple#Purple_(X11_color)_(veronica)" title="Shades of purple">Veronica</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Violet_(color)" title="Violet (color)">Violet</a></td><td style="width:5%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavender_(color)#Light_lavender_(wisteria)" title="Lavender (color)">Wisteria</a></td></tr><tr><td style="background:#9683EC!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#8A496B!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#66023C!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#FF6FFF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#645394!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#A020F0!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#8000FF!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td><td style="background:#C9A0DC!important;border:1px solid;" class="mw-no-invert"> </td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-size:smaller; background:transparent; box-shadow: inset 0 1px 0 0 #7600EC;"><div>A typical sample is shown for each name; a range of color-variations is commonly associated with each color-name.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dyeing" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236085633"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Dyeing" title="Template:Dyeing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Dyeing" title="Template talk:Dyeing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dyeing" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dyeing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dyeing" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">Dyeing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Batik" title="Batik">Batik</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">Dyeing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ikat" title="Ikat">Ikat</a>
<ul><li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kasuri" title="Kasuri">Kasuri</a></i></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kalamkari" title="Kalamkari">Kalamkari</a></li>
<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Katazome" title="Katazome">Katazome</a></i></span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leheria" class="mw-redirect" title="Leheria">Leheria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mordant" title="Mordant">Mordant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reactive_dye_printing" title="Reactive dye printing">Reactive dye printing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Resist_dyeing" title="Resist dyeing">Resist</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ring_dyeing" title="Ring dyeing">Ring dyeing</a></li>
<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/R%C5%8Dketsuzome" title="Rōketsuzome">Rōketsuzome</a></i></span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shibori" title="Shibori">Shibori</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tie-dye" title="Tie-dye">Tie-dye</a></li>
<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tsutsugaki" title="Tsutsugaki">Tsutsugaki</a></i></span></li>
<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Y%C5%ABzen" title="Yūzen">Yūzen</a></i></span></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg/100px-Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg/150px-Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg/200px-Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of dyes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">Dyes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_dye" title="Natural dye">Natural</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Acid_dye" title="Acid dye">Acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reactive_dye" title="Reactive dye">Reactive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solvent_dye" title="Solvent dye">Solvent</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Substantive_dye" title="Substantive dye">Substantive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sulfur_dye" title="Sulfur dye">Sulfur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vat_dye" title="Vat dye">Vat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disperse_dye" title="Disperse dye">Disperse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discharge_printing" title="Discharge printing">Discharge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigment</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Traditional textile dyes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenian_cochineal" title="Armenian cochineal">Armenian cochineal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Juglans_nigra" title="Juglans nigra">Black walnut</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanguinaria" title="Sanguinaria">Bloodroot</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brazilin" title="Brazilin">Brazilin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cochineal#Dye" title="Cochineal">Cochineal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orcein" title="Orcein">Cudbear</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catechu" title="Catechu">Cutch</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dyewoods" title="Dyewoods">Dyewoods</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maclura_tinctoria" title="Maclura tinctoria">Fustic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gamboge" title="Gamboge">Gamboge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genista_tinctoria" title="Genista tinctoria">Dyer's broom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henna" title="Henna">Henna</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indigo_dye" title="Indigo dye">Indigo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kermes_(dye)" title="Kermes (dye)">Kermes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haematoxylum_campechianum" title="Haematoxylum campechianum">Logwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rubia" title="Rubia">Madder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish_cochineal" title="Polish cochineal">Polish cochineal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">Saffron</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turmeric#Dye" title="Turmeric">Turmeric</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tyrian purple</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reseda_(plant)" title="Reseda (plant)">Weld</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isatis_tinctoria" title="Isatis tinctoria">Woad</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trade_and_use_of_saffron" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade and use of saffron">Use of saffron</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Traditional_dyes_of_the_Scottish_Highlands" title="Traditional dyes of the Scottish Highlands">Traditional dyes of the Scottish Highlands</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Craft dyes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dylon" title="Dylon">Dylon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lumi_(company)" title="Lumi (company)">Inkodye</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Procion" title="Procion">Procion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rit_(dye)" title="Rit (dye)">Rit</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glossary_of_dyeing_terms" title="Glossary of dyeing terms">Glossary of dyeing terms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_dyes" title="List of dyes">List of dyes</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1723120535' |