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{{Redirect|Soviet-era|the statues|Soviet-era statues}}
{{History of the Soviet Union}}
{{History of Russia}}
{{Culture of the Soviet Union}}
The history of [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic#Early years (1917–1920)|Soviet Russia]] and the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) reflects a period of change for both Russia and the world. Though the terms "Soviet Russia" and "Soviet Union" often are synonymous in everyday speech (either acknowledging the dominance of Russia over the Soviet Union or referring to Russia during the era of the Soviet Union), when referring to the foundations of the Soviet Union, "Soviet Russia" often specifically refers to brief period between the [[October Revolution]] of 1917 and the [[Treaty on the Creation of the USSR|creation of the Soviet Union in 1922]].
Before 1922, there were four independent Soviet Republics: the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]], [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]], and [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]]. These four became the first Union [[Republics of the Soviet Union]], and was later joined by the [[Bukharan People's Soviet Republic]] and [[Khorezm People's Soviet Republic]] in 1924. During and immediately after [[World War II]], various Soviet Republics annexed portions of countries in Eastern Europe, and the Russian SFSR annexed the [[Tuvan People's Republic]], and from the [[Empire of Japan]] took [[South Sakhalin]] and the [[Kuril Islands]]. The USSR also annexed three countries on the [[Baltic Sea]] wholesale, creating the [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic|Lithuanian SSR]], [[Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic|Latvian SSR]], and [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]]. Over time, [[national delimitation in the Soviet Union]] resulted in the creation of several new Union-level Republics along ethnic lines, as well as organization of autonomous ethnic regions within Russia.
The USSR gained and lost influence with other Communist countries over time. The occupying Soviet army facilitated the establishment of post-WWII Communist [[satellite state]]s in [[Central and Eastern Europe]]. These were organized into the [[Warsaw Pact]], and included the [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania]], [[People's Republic of Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic]], [[East Germany]], [[Hungarian People's Republic]], [[Polish People's Republic]], and [[Socialist Republic of Romania]]. The 1960s saw the [[Soviet–Albanian split]], [[Sino-Soviet split]], and [[de-satellization of Communist Romania]]; the 1968 [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia]] fractured the communist movement. The [[Revolutions of 1989]] ended Communist rule in satellite countries.
Tensions with the central government led to constituent republics declaring independence starting in 1988, leading to the complete [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] by 1991.
== 1917–1927: Establishment ==
{{Main|History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Lenin in 1920 (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = [[Vladimir Lenin]], founder of the [[Soviet Union]] and the leader of the [[Bolshevik party]].
| image2 = Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R15068, Leo Dawidowitsch Trotzki.jpg
| caption2 = [[Leon Trotsky]], founder of the [[Red Army]] and a key figure in the [[October Revolution]].
}}
The original philosophy of the state was primarily based on the works of [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]]. In its essence, Marx's theory stated that economic and political systems went through an inevitable evolution in form, by which the current [[Capitalism|capitalist system]] would be replaced by a [[Socialist state]].
Displeased by the relatively few changes made by the Tsar after the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], Russia became a hotbed of [[anarchism]], [[socialism]] and other radical political systems. The dominant socialist party, the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party]] (RSDLP), subscribed to Marxist ideology. Starting in 1903 a series of splits in the party between two main leaders was escalating: the [[Bolsheviks]] (meaning "majority") led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], and the [[Mensheviks]] (meaning minority) led by [[Julius Martov]]. Up until 1912, both groups continued to stay united under the name "RSDLP," but significant differences between Lenin and Martov thought split the party for its final time. Not only did these groups fight with each other, but also had common enemies, notably, those trying to bring the Tsar back to power. Following the [[February Revolution of 1917]], the [[Russian Provisional Government]], established by liberal, conservative, and socialist politicians, shared power with the [[Petrograd Soviet]], which was controlled by the Mensheviks and [[Socialist Revolutionaries]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Le Blanc |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Le Blanc (historian) |title=October Song |publisher=Haymarket Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-60846-878-2|page=12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Pons|first1=Silvio|last2=Service|first2=Robert|title=A Dictionary of 20th-Century Communism |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4008-3452-5|page=763 }}</ref> This regime of “[[dual power]]” lasted only a few months until the Bolsheviks took power in the [[October Revolution]], also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. Membership of the Bolsehevik party had risen from 24,000 members in February 1917 to 200,000 members by September 1917.<ref>Stephen Cohen, ''Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938'' (Oxford University Press: London, 1980) p. 46.</ref> Lenin's government also instituted a number of progressive measures such as [[Universal access to education|universal education]], [[universal healthcare]] and [[Women in Russia|equal rights for women]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Katherine H. |last2=Keene |first2=Michael L. |title=After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5647-5 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugri͡umov |first1=Aleksandr Leontʹevich |title=Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925 |date=1976 |publisher=Novosti Press Agency Publishing House |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Lenin: A Political Life: Volume 1: The Strengths of Contradiction |date=24 June 1985 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-05591-3 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntiuCwAAQBAJ&q=universal+education&pg=PA98 |language=en}}</ref> Bolshevik figures such as [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]], [[Moisei Uritsky]] and [[Dmitry Manuilsky]] agreed that Lenin’s influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky’s, not to Lenin’s plan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |page=1283|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet |language=en}}</ref>
Under the control of the party, all politics and attitudes that were not strictly RCP ([[Communist Party of Soviet Union|Russian Communist Party]]) were suppressed, under the premise that the RCP represented the [[proletariat]] and all activities contrary to the party's beliefs were "counterrevolutionary" or "anti-socialist." During the years of 1917 to 1924, the Soviet Union achieved peace with the [[Central Powers]], their enemies in [[World War I]], but also fought the [[Russian Civil War]] against the [[White Army]] and foreign armies from the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], among others. This resulted in large territorial changes, albeit temporarily for some of these. Eventually crushing all opponents, the RCP spread Soviet style rule quickly and established itself through all of Russia. Following Lenin's death in 1924, [[Joseph Stalin]], General Secretary of the RCP, became Lenin's successor and continued as leader of the Soviet Union into the 1950s.
== 1927–1953: Stalinism ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)}}
The history of the [[Soviet Union]] between 1927 and 1953 covers the period of the [[Second World War]] and of victory against Nazi Germany while the USSR remained under the control of [[Joseph Stalin]]. Stalin sought to destroy his political rivals while transforming Soviet society with [[central planning]], in particular a [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization of agriculture]] and a [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)|development of heavy industry]]. Stalin's power within the party and the state was established and eventually evolved into [[Stalin's cult of personality]], [[Soviet secret police|Soviet secret-police]] and the [[mass mobilization|mass-mobilization]]. The Communist Party was one of Stalin's major tools in molding the [[Soviet society]]. Stalin's methods in achieving his goals, which included [[Great Purge|party purges]], [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|political repression of the general population]], and forced collectivization, led to millions of deaths: in [[Gulag]]s, during the man-made famines, and [[ethnic cleansing]]s through [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|forced resettlements of population]].
World War II, known as "the [[Great Patriotic War]]" in the Soviet Union, devastated much of the USSR with about [[World War II casualties|one out of every three World War II deaths representing a citizen of the Soviet Union]]. After World War II the Soviet Union's armies occupied [[Central and Eastern Europe]], where socialist governments took power. By 1949 the [[Cold War]] had started between the [[Western Bloc]] and the [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern (Soviet) Bloc]], with the [[Warsaw Pact]] pitched against [[NATO]] in Europe. After 1945 Stalin did not directly engage in any wars. Stalin continued his [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] rule in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc until his death in 1953.
== 1953–1964: Khrushchev Thaw ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)}}
In the Soviet union, the eleven-year period from the death of [[Joseph Stalin]] (1953) to the political ouster of [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (1964), the national politics were dominated by the [[Cold War]]; the ideological [[United States|U.S.]]–[[Soviet Union|USSR]] struggle for the [[Power (philosophy)|planetary domination]] of their respective socio–economic systems, and the defense of [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. Nonetheless, since the mid-1950s, despite the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) [[De-Stalinization|having disowned Stalinism]], the political culture of Stalinism—an omnipotent [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]], anti-[[Trotskyism]], a [[Five-year plans of the Soviet Union|five-year]] [[planned economy]] (post-[[New Economic Policy]]), and repudiation of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] secret protocols—remained the character of Soviet society until the accession of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] as leader of the CPSU in 1985.
== 1964–1982: Era of Stagnation ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)}}
The history of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, referred to as the Brezhnev Era, covers the period of [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (USSR). This period began with high economic growth and soaring prosperity, but ended with a much weaker Soviet Union facing social, political, and economic stagnation. The average annual income stagnated, because needed economic reforms were never fully carried out.
[[Nikita Khrushchev]] was ousted as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|First Secretary]] of the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), as well as [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], on 14 October 1964 due to his failed reforms and disregard for Party and Government institutions. Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as First Secretary and [[Alexei Kosygin]] replaced him as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. [[Anastas Mikoyan]], and later [[Nikolai Podgorny]], became [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairmen]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]]. Together with [[Andrei Kirilenko (politician)|Andrei Kirilenko]] as organisational secretary, and [[Mikhail Suslov]] as chief ideologue, they made up a reinvigorated [[collective leadership]], which contrasted in form with the [[autocracy]] that characterized Khrushchev's rule.
The collective leadership first set out to stabilize the Soviet Union and calm [[Soviet society]], a task which they were able to accomplish. In addition, they attempted to speed up economic growth, which had slowed considerably during Khrushchev's last years in power. In 1965 Kosygin initiated several reforms to decentralize the [[Soviet economy]]. After initial success in creating economic growth, hard-liners within the Party halted the reforms, fearing that they would weaken the Party's prestige and power. No other radical economic reforms were carried out during the Brezhnev era, and economic growth began to stagnate in the early-to-mid-1970s. By Brezhnev's death in 1982, Soviet economic growth had, according to several historians, nearly come to a standstill.
The stabilization policy brought about after Khrushchev's removal established a ruling [[gerontocracy]], and [[political corruption]] became a normal phenomenon. Brezhnev, however, never initiated any large-scale anti-corruption campaigns. Due to the large military buildup of the 1960s the Soviet Union was able to consolidate itself as a [[superpower]] during Brezhnev's rule. The era ended with [[Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev|Brezhnev's death]] on 10 November 1982.
While all modernized economies were rapidly moving to computerization after 1965, the USSR fell further and further behind. Moscow's decision to copy the [[IBM/360]] of 1965 proved a decisive mistake for it locked scientists into a system they were unable to improve so that it gradually became antiquated. They had enormous difficulties in manufacturing the necessary chips reliably and in quantity, in programming workable and efficient programs, in coordinating entirely separate operations, and in providing support to computer users.<ref>James W. Cortada, "Public Policies and the Development of National Computer Industries in Britain, France, and the Soviet Union, 1940—80." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (2009) 44#3 pp: 493-512, especially page 509-10.</ref><ref>Frank Cain, "Computers and the Cold War: United States restrictions on the export of computers to the Soviet Union and Communist China." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (2005) 40#1 pp: 131-147. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30036313 in JSTOR]</ref>
One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled during the [[1973 oil crisis|1973–74 oil crisis]], and rose again in [[1979 oil crisis|1979–1981]], making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses. At one point, Soviet Premier [[Alexei Kosygin]] told the head of oil and gas production, "things are bad with bread. Give me 3 million tons [of oil] over the plan."<ref>Yergin, ''The Quest'' (2011) p 23</ref> Former prime minister [[Yegor Gaidar]], an economist looking back three decades, in 2007 wrote:
{{blockquote|The hard currency from oil exports stopped the growing food supply crisis, increased the import of equipment and consumer goods, ensured a financial base for the arms race and the achievement of nuclear parity with the United States, and permitted the realization of such risky foreign-policy actions as the war in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Yegor Gaidar|title=Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDSfnxYjVwAC&pg=PA102|date= 2007|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|page=102|isbn=9780815731153 }}</ref>}}
== 1982–1991: Reforms and dissolution ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)|Dissolution of the Soviet Union}}
The history of the Soviet Union from 1982 through 1991, spans the period from [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s [[Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev|death and funeral]] until the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. Failed attempts at reform, a standstill economy, and the success of the United States against the Soviet Union's forces in the [[Soviet–Afghan War|war in Afghanistan]] led to a general feeling of discontent, especially in the [[Baltic states|Baltic republics]] and Eastern Europe.<ref>WorldBook online</ref>
Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], created an atmosphere of open criticism of the Soviet government. The dramatic drop of the [[1980s oil glut|price of oil in 1985 and 1986]] profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership.<ref name='AEI-Gaidar-Grain and Oil'>{{cite web|last=Gaidar |first=Yegor |author-link=Yegor Gaidar |title=The Soviet Collapse: Grain and Oil |work=On the Issues: AEI online |publisher=American Enterprise Institute |url=http://www.aei.org/issue/25991 |access-date=2009-07-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722091512/http://www.aei.org/issue/25991 |archive-date=2009-07-22 }} (Edited version of a speech given November **, **** at the American Enterprise Institute.)</ref>
[[Nikolai Tikhonov]], the [[List of Premiers of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], was succeeded by [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]], and [[Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)|Vasili Kuznetsov]], the acting [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]], was succeeded by [[Andrei Gromyko]], the former [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]].
Several [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Socialist Republics]] began resisting central control, and increasing democratization led to a weakening of the central government. The USSR's trade gap progressively emptied the coffers of the union, leading to eventual bankruptcy. The Soviet Union finally [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapsed]] in 1991 when [[Boris Yeltsin]] seized power in the aftermath of a [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|failed coup]] that had attempted to topple [[Perestroika|reform-minded]] Gorbachev.
== Historiography ==
=== Bibliography ===
* [[Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War]]
* [[Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union]]
* [[Bibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union]]
* [[Bibliography of Ukrainian history]]
* [[Historiography in the Soviet Union]]
=== Academic journals ===
* [[List of Slavic studies journals]]
== See also ==
* [[Foreign relations of the Soviet Union]]
* [[Islam in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Index of Soviet Union–related articles]]
* [[Ukrainian nationalism]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
{{See also|Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War|Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union|Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union}}
* Conquest, Robert. ''The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties'' (1973).
* Daly, Jonathan and Leonid Trofimov, eds. "[http://www.hackettpublishing.com/russia-in-war-and-revolution-1914-1922 Russia in War and Revolution, 1914–1922: A Documentary History]." (Indianapolis and Cambridge, MA: Hackett Publishing Company, 2009). {{ISBN|978-0-87220-987-9}}.
* Feis, Herbert. ''Churchill-Roosevelt-Stalin: The War they waged and the Peace they sought'' (1953).
* {{Cite book|last=Figes|first=Orlando|title=A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891–1924|publisher=Pimlico|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6LzAgAAQBAJ |year=1996|isbn=978-0-8050-9131-1}} [https://archive.org/details/peoplestragedyhi00fige online no charge to borrow]
* Fenby, Jonathan. ''Alliance: the inside story of how Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill won one war and began another'' (2015).
* Firestone, Thomas. "Four Sovietologists: A Primer." ''National Interest'' No. 14 (Winter 1988/9), pp. 102–107 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027135 on the ideas of Zbigniew Brzezinski, Stephen F. Cohen, Jerry F. Hough, and Richard Pipes.]
* Fitzpatrick, Sheila. ''The Russian Revolution''. 199 pages. Oxford University Press; (2nd ed. 2001). {{ISBN|0-19-280204-6}}.
* Fleron, F.J. ed. ''Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–1991: Classic and Contemporary Issues'' (1991)
* Gorodetsky, Gabriel, ed. ''Soviet foreign policy, 1917–1991: a retrospective'' (Routledge, 2014).
* Haslam, Jonathan. ''Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall'' (Yale UP, 2011) 512 pages
* Hosking, Geoffrey. ''History of the Soviet Union'' (2017).
* Keep, John L.H. ''Last of the Empires: A History of the Soviet Union, 1945–1991'' (Oxford UP, 1995).
* [[Stephen Kotkin|Kotkin, Stephen]]. ''Stalin: Vol. 1: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928'' (2014), 976pp
** Kotkin, Stephen. ''Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941'' (2017) vol 2
* Lincoln, W. Bruce. ''Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution, 1914–1918''. (New York, 1986). [https://archive.org/details/passagethroughar00linc online]
* McCauley, Martin. ''The Soviet Union 1917–1991'' (2nd ed. 1993) [https://archive.org/details/sovietunion1917100mcca online]
* McCauley, Martin. ''Origins of the Cold War 1941–1949.'' (Routledge, 2015).
* McCauley, Martin. ''Russia, America, and the Cold War, 1949–1991'' (1998)
* McCauley, Martin. ''The Khrushchev Era 1953–1964'' (2014).
* Millar, James R. ed. ''Encyclopedia of Russian History'' (4 vol, 2004), 1700pp; 1500 articles by experts.
* [[Alec Nove|Nove, Alec]]. ''An Economic History of the USSR, 1917–1991''. (3rd ed. 1993) [https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo00nove online w]
* Paxton, John. ''Encyclopedia of Russian History: From the Christianization of Kiev to the Break-up of the USSR'' (Abc-Clio Inc, 1993).
* Pipes, Richard. ''Russia under the Bolshevik regime'' (1981). [https://archive.org/details/russiaunderbolsh00rich online]
* Reynolds, David, and Vladimir Pechatnov, eds. '' The Kremlin Letters: Stalin's Wartime Correspondence with Churchill and Roosevelt'' (2019)
* Service, Robert. ''Stalin: a Biography'' (2004).
* Shaw, Warren, and David Pryce-Jones. ''Encyclopedia of the USSR: From 1905 to the Present: Lenin to Gorbachev'' (Cassell, 1990).
* Shlapentokh, Vladimir. ''Public and private life of the Soviet people: changing values in post-Stalin Russia'' (Oxford UP, 1989).
* Taubman, William. ''Khrushchev: the man and his era'' (2003).
* Taubman, William. ''Gorbachev'' (2017)
* Tucker, Robert C., ed. ''Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation'' (Routledge, 2017).
* [[Odd Arne Westad|Westad, Odd Arne]]. ''[[The Cold War: A World History]]'' (2017)
* Wieczynski, Joseph L., and Bruce F. Adams. ''The modern encyclopedia of Russian, Soviet and Eurasian history'' (Academic International Press, 2000).
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Soviet Union}}
* [http://soviethistory.msu.edu/ An on-line archive of primary source materials on Soviet history]
{{Soviet Union topics}}
{{Communist Eastern and Central Europe}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:History of the Soviet Union| ]]
[[Category:Modern history by country|Soviet Union]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] -->
{{Redirect|Soviet-era|the statues|Soviet-era statues}}
{{History of the Soviet Union}}
{{History of Russia}}
{{Culture of the Soviet Union}}
The history of [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic#Early years (1917–1920)|Soviet Russia]] and the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) reflects a period of change for both Russia and the world. Though the terms "Soviet Russia" and "Soviet Union" often are synonymous in everyday speech (either acknowledging the dominance of Russia over the Soviet Union or referring to Russia during the era of the Soviet Union), when referring to the foundations of the Soviet Union, "Soviet Russia" often specifically refers to brief period between the [[October Revolution]] of 1917 and the [[Treaty on the Creation of the USSR|creation of the Soviet Union in 1922]].
Before 1922, there were four independent Soviet Republics: the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]], [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]], and [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]]. These four became the first Union [[Republics of the Soviet Union]], and was later joined by the [[Bukharan People's Soviet Republic]] and [[Khorezm People's Soviet Republic]] in 1924. During and immediately after [[World War II]], various Soviet Republics annexed portions of countries in Eastern Europe, and the Russian SFSR annexed the [[Tuvan People's Republic]], and from the [[Empire of Japan]] took [[South Sakhalin]] and the [[Kuril Islands]]. The USSR also annexed three countries on the [[Baltic Sea]] wholesale, creating the [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic|Lithuanian SSR]], [[Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic|Latvian SSR]], and [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]]. Over time, [[national delimitation in the Soviet Union]] resulted in the creation of several new Union-level Republics along ethnic lines, as well as organization of autonomous ethnic regions within Russia.
The USSR gained and lost influence with other Communist countries over time. The occupying Soviet army facilitated the establishment of post-WWII Communist [[satellite state]]s in [[Central and Eastern Europe]]. These were organized into the [[Warsaw Pact]], and included the [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania]], [[People's Republic of Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic]], [[East Germany]], [[Hungarian People's Republic]], [[Polish People's Republic]], and [[Socialist Republic of Romania]]. The 1960s saw the [[Soviet–Albanian split]], [[Sino-Soviet split]], and [[de-satellization of Communist Romania]]; the 1968 [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia]] fractured the communist movement. The [[Revolutions of 1989]] ended Communist rule in satellite countries.
Tensions with the central government led to constituent republics declaring independence starting in 1988, leading to the complete [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] by 1991.
== 1917–1927: Establishment ==
{{Main|History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Lenin in 1920 (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = [[Vladimir Lenin]], founder of the [[Soviet Union]] and the leader of the [[Bolshevik party]].
| image2 = Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R15068, Leo Dawidowitsch Trotzki.jpg
| caption2 = [[Leon Trotsky]], founder of the [[Red Army]] and a key figure in the [[October Revolution]].
}}
Modern revolutionary activity in the [[Russian Empire]] began with the 1825 [[Decembrist revolt]]. Although [[Serfdom in Russia|serfdom]] was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavourable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament, the [[State Duma (Russian Empire)|State Duma]], was established in 1906 after the [[Revolution of 1905|Russian Revolution of 1905]], but [[Nicholas II of Russia|Emperor Nicholas II]] resisted attempts to move from [[Absolute monarchy|absolute]] to a [[constitutional monarchy]]. [[Rebellion|Social unrest]] continued and was aggravated during [[World War I]] by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.
A spontaneous popular demonstration in Petrograd on [[International Women's Day|8 March]] 1917, demanding peace and bread, culminated in the [[February Revolution]] and the abdication of Nicholas II and the imperial government.{{sfn|Mccauley|2014|p=83}} The [[tsarist autocracy]] was replaced by the [[Social democracy|social-democratic]] [[Russian Provisional Government]], which intended to conduct elections to the [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] and to continue fighting on the side of the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] in World War I. At the same time, [[workers' council]]s, known in Russian as '[[Soviet (council)|Soviets]]', sprang up across the country, and the most influential of them, the [[Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies]], shared power with the Provisional Government.{{sfn|Mccauley|2014|p=487}}<ref name="br1"/> Membership of the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] party had risen from 24,000 members in February 1917 to 200,000 members by September 1917.<ref>Stephen Cohen, ''Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938'' (Oxford University Press: London, 1980) p. 46.</ref> 50,000 workers had passed a resolution in favour of the Bolshevik demand for the transfer of power to the Soviets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Head |first1=Michael |title=Evgeny Pashukanis: A Critical Reappraisal |date=12 September 2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-30787-5 |pages=1–288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYGNAgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PT83 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shukman |first1=Harold |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution |date=5 December 1994 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-631-19525-2 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PA21 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:19191107-lenin second anniversary october revolution moscow.jpg|thumb|[[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]], [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]], and [[Lev Kamenev|Kamenev]] celebrating the second anniversary of the [[October Revolution]]]]
The Bolsheviks, led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], pushed for [[communist revolution]] in the Soviets and on the streets, adopting the slogan of "All Power to the Soviets" and urging the overthrow of the Provisional Government.{{sfn|Read|2005|pp=82–85}}{{sfn|Service|2005|pp=47–49}} On 7 November 1917, Bolshevik [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guard]]s stormed the [[Winter Palace]] in Petrograd, arresting the Provisional Government leaders and Lenin declared that all power was now transferred to the Soviets.<ref name=BBC1>{{Cite news |title=The causes of the October Revolution |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/4 |url-status=dead |access-date=31 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805155250/http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/4 |archive-date=5 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="br1"/> This event would later be officially known in Soviet bibliographies as the "[[October Revolution|Great October Socialist Revolution]]". Bolshevik figures such as [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]], [[Moisei Uritsky]], and [[Dmitry Manuilsky]] agreed that Lenin's influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the [[October Revolution|October insurrection]] was carried out according to [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky's]], not to Lenin's plan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |page=1283|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet |language=en}}</ref> The initial stage of the October Revolution which involved the assault on [[Petrograd]] occurred largely without any human [[Casualty (person)|casualties]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shukman |first1=Harold |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution |date=5 December 1994 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-631-19525-2 |page=343 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PA343 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bergman |first1=Jay |title=The French Revolutionary Tradition in Russian and Soviet Politics, Political Thought, and Culture |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-884270-5 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5UKjDwAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PA224 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=McMeekin |first1=Sean |title=The Russian Revolution: A New History |date=30 May 2017 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-09497-4 |pages=1–496 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aXmZDgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PT155 |language=en}}</ref>
Lenin's government instituted a number of progressive measures such as [[Universal access to education|universal education]], [[universal healthcare]], and [[Women in Russia|equal rights for women]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Katherine H. |last2=Keene |first2=Michael L. |title=After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5647-5 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugri͡umov |first1=Aleksandr Leontʹevich |title=Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925 |date=1976 |publisher=Novosti Press Agency Publishing House |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Lenin: A Political Life: Volume 1: The Strengths of Contradiction |date=24 June 1985 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-05591-3 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntiuCwAAQBAJ&q=universal+education&pg=PA98 |language=en}}</ref> Conversely, the bloody [[Red Terror]] was initiated to shut down all opposition, both perceived and real.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222175025/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union | url-status=dead | archive-date=22 February 2021 | title=How Lenin's Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union | website=[[National Geographic Society]] | date=2 September 2020 }}</ref> The terror also arose in response to a number of [[Assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin|assassination attempts]] on Bolshevik senior leaders and [[Left SR uprising|organized insurrections]] against the Soviet government.<ref name="Leninism Under Lenin">{{cite book |last1=Liebman |first1=Marcel |title=Leninism Under Lenin |date=1985 |publisher=Merlin Press |isbn=978-0-85036-261-9 |pages=1–348 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQjzAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Scott Baldwin |title=Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923 |date=15 April 2011 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Pre |isbn=978-0-8229-7779-7 |pages=75–85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ueUEE8jVRsC&dq=anarchist+assassination+attempt+lenin&pg=PA74 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Rabinowitch306">{{cite book |last= Rabinowitch|first= Alexander|title= The bolsheviks in power. The first year of Soviet rule in Petrograd|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BEoBCGJ4VqYC&q=The+bolsheviks+in+power.+The+first+year+of+Soviet+rule+in+Petrograd|language= en|date= 2007|publisher= Indiana University Press|isbn= 9780253349439|page= 306}}</ref>
The [[federalization]] of Russia was promulgated in the [[Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia]] in November, not including the detached borderlands.<ref name="federation"/> In December, the Bolsheviks signed an [[armistice]] with the [[Central Powers]], though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended their involvement in the war and signed a [[separate peace]] treaty, the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. After the defeat of the Germans in the war, Lenin sought the creation of formally independent [[Soviet republic]]s in the territories that were being vacated by the German Army.<ref name="federation">{{cite book |last1=Raffass |first1=Tania |title=The Soviet Union: Federation Or Empire? |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-68833-8 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P4E7WSecBakC |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Protección del Palacio Tauride durante el Segundo Congreso Regional de los Soviets.jpg|thumb|Dissolution of the elected [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] by the Bolsheviks on 6 January 1918]]
A long and bloody [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] ensued between the [[Red Army|Reds]] and the [[White movement|Whites]], ending in 1921–1922 with the Reds' victory.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reese |first1=Roger |title=Russian Civil War, 1918–1921 |journal=Military History |date=6 February 2012 |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780199791279-0051|isbn=978-0-19-979127-9 }}</ref> It included [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|foreign intervention]], the [[Murder of the Romanov family|murder of the former emperor and his family]], and the [[Russian famine of 1921–22|famine of 1921–1922]], which killed about five million people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mawdsley |first=Evan |url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan |title=The Russian Civil War |year= 2007 |publisher=Pegasus Books |isbn=978-1-933648-15-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan/page/287 287] |author-link=Evan Mawdsley |url-access=registration}}</ref> Although Lenin had declared his support for the principle of [[self-determination]], the party became centralized and the independent Soviet republics were subordinated to Soviet Russia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Robert A. |title=The Soviet Concept of 'Limited Sovereignty' from Lenin to Gorbachev: The Brezhnev Doctrine |date=27 July 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-20491-5 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KuW-DAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> In March 1921, the [[Treaty of Riga]] was signed with the [[Second Polish Republic|Republic of Poland]], splitting territories in [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]], and putting an end to Lenin's westward offensive against capitalism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Stephen J. |title=European Dictatorships 1918–1945 |date=12 November 2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-69011-3 |pages=89–90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLXkGLDxSkAC |language=en}}</ref> In [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonia]], [[Finnish Civil War|Finland]], [[Latvian War of Independence|Latvia]], and [[Lithuanian–Soviet War|Lithuania]], the Reds were defeated, while the Red Army managed to occupy [[Red Army invasion of Armenia|Armenia]], [[Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], and [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|Georgia]] in the [[Caucasus]].{{sfn|Lee|2003|pp=84, 88}}{{sfn|Goldstein|2013|p=50}} Additionally, the forced requisition of food by the Soviet government led to substantial resistance, of which the most notable was the [[Tambov Rebellion]], ultimately put down by the Red Army.{{sfnm|1a1=Fischer|1y=1964|1p=459|2a1=Leggett|2y=1981|2pp=330–333|3a1=Service|3y=2000|3pp=423–424|4a1=White|4y=2001|4p=168|5a1=Ryan|5y=2012|5pp=154–155}}
[[File:Russian civil war in the west.svg|thumb|right|[[Russian Civil War]] in the European part of Russia]]
The civil war had a devastating impact on the economy. A [[black market]] emerged in Russia, despite the threat of [[martial law]] against profiteering. The [[Russian ruble|ruble]] collapsed, with [[bartering|barter]] increasingly replacing money as a medium of exchange<ref name="DaviesHarrison1993">{{cite book|author1=R. W. Davies|author2=Mark Harrison|author3=S. G. Wheatcroft|title=The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ULWRnskfr4C&pg=PA6|year= 1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45770-5|page=6}}</ref> and, by 1921, heavy industry output had fallen to 20% of 1913 levels. 90% of wages were paid with goods rather than money.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921|url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft796nb4mj&chunk.id=d0e9364&toc.id=&brand=ucpress|access-date=2021-10-27|website=publishing.cdlib.org}}</ref> 70% of locomotives were in need of repair{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}, and food requisitioning, combined with the effects of seven years of war and a severe drought, contributed to a famine that caused between 3 and 10 million deaths.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm#RCW|title=Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls|website=necrometrics.com|access-date=2017-12-12}}</ref> Coal production decreased from 27.5 million tons (1913) to 7 million tons (1920), while overall factory production also declined from 10,000 million roubles to 1,000 million roubles. According to the noted historian [[David Christian (historian)|David Christian]], the grain harvest was also slashed from 80.1 million tons (1913) to 46.5 million tons (1920).<ref>{{cite book|last=Christian|first=David|title=Imperial and Soviet Russia|year=1997|publisher=Macmillan Press Ltd|location=London|isbn=978-0-333-66294-6|page=236}}</ref>
=== Treaty on the Creation of the USSR ===
On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], the [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]], the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]], and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]] approved the [[Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Treaty on the Creation of the USSR]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sakwa |first=Richard |title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union, 1917–1991: 1917–1991 |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-12290-0 |pages=140–143}}</ref> and the [[Declaration of the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Declaration of the Creation of the USSR]], forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Towster |first=Julian |title=Political Power in the U.S.S.R., 1917–1947: The Theory and Structure of Government in the Soviet State |date=1948 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=106}}</ref> These two documents were confirmed by the first [[Congress of Soviets of the USSR]] and signed by the heads of the delegations,<ref>{{In lang|ru}} [http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5!OpenDocument Voted Unanimously for the Union.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204132112/http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5%21OpenDocument|date=4 December 2009}}</ref> [[Mikhail Kalinin]], [[Mikhail Tskhakaya]], [[Mikhail Frunze]], [[Grigory Petrovsky]], and [[Alexander Chervyakov]],<ref>{{In lang|ru}} [http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html Creation of the USSR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529132218/http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html |date=29 May 2007 }} at Khronos.ru.</ref> on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the [[Bolshoi Theatre]] in Moscow.
An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry, and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the [[Bolshevik Initial Decrees]], government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the [[GOELRO|GOELRO plan]], which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total [[electrification]] of Russia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lapin |first=G. G. |year=2000 |title=70 Years of Gidroproekt and Hydroelectric Power in Russia |journal=Hydrotechnical Construction |volume=34 |issue=8/9 |pages=374–379 |doi=10.1023/A:1004107617449 |s2cid=107814516 | issn=0018-8220}}</ref> The plan became the prototype for subsequent [[Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union|Five-Year Plans]] and was fulfilled by 1931.<ref name="Kuzbassenergo">{{In lang|ru}} [http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/ On GOELRO Plan – at Kuzbassenergo.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226190310/http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro|date=26 December 2008}}</ref> After the economic policy of '[[War communism]]' during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing [[Socialist mode of production|socialism]] in the country, the Soviet government [[New Economic Policy|permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry]] in the 1920s, and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.
[[File:Russia Famine Saratov 1921.jpg|thumb|The [[Russian famine of 1921–22]] killed an estimated 5 million people.<br /><ref>{{Cite news |date=17 June 2015 |title=Famine of 1921–22 |language=en-US |work=Seventeen Moments in Soviet History |url=http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1921-2/famine-of-1921-22/ |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=15 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115171429/http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1921-2/famine-of-1921-22/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Courtois |first1=Stéphane |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheBlackBookofCommunism10/the-black-book-of-communism-jean-louis-margolin-1999-communism#page/n71/ |title=The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression |last2=Werth |first2=Nicolas |last3=Panné |first3=Jean-Louis |last4=Paczkowski |first4=Andrzej |last5=Bartošek |first5=Karel |last6=Margolin |first6=Jean-Louis |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-674-07608-2 |page=123}}</ref>]]
From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the [[One-party state|one-party rule]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party (Bolsheviks)]].{{Efn|The consolidation into a one-party state took place during the first three and a half years after the revolution, which included the period of [[War communism]] and an election in which multiple parties competed. See {{Cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Leonard |title=The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State, First Phase 1917–1922 |date=1955 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]}}}} The stated purpose was to prevent the return of capitalist exploitation, and that the principles of [[democratic centralism]] would be the most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. The debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a '[[Collective leadership|troika]]' consisting of [[Grigory Zinoviev]] of the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]], [[Lev Kamenev]], of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], and [[Joseph Stalin]], of the [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]].
In February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/formation-of-the-soviet-union/#:~:text=On%20February%201%2C%201924%2C%20the,of%20Soviet%20power%20in%201917.|title=Formation of the Soviet Union|access-date=30 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/67122375|title=Recognition of Britain|newspaper=Advocate |date=4 February 1924 |access-date=30 May 2024}}</ref> The same year, a [[1924 Soviet Constitution|Soviet Constitution]] was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union.
According to [[Archie Brown (historian)|Archie Brown]] the constitution was never an accurate guide to political reality in the USSR. For example, the fact that the Party played the leading role in making and enforcing policy was not mentioned in it until 1977.<ref>Archie Brown, ''The rise and fall of Communism'' (2009) p, 518.</ref> The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. However, the term 'Soviet Russia'{{Spaced ndash}}formally applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republic{{Spaced ndash}}was often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers due to its domination by the Russian SFSR.
== 1927–1953: Stalinism ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)}}
{{See also|Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin}}
[[File:Famine en URSS 1933.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Soviet famine of 1930–1933]], with areas where the effects of famine were most severe shaded]]
On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the [[Rabkrin|Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate]], which gave Stalin considerable power.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 November 2009 |title=Joseph Stalin – Biography, World War II & Facts – History |url=https://www.history.com/topics/russia/joseph-stalin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912144422/https://www.history.com/topics/russia/joseph-stalin |archive-date=12 September 2018 |access-date=6 December 2021}}</ref> By [[Rise of Joseph Stalin|gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmaneuvering his rivals within the party]], Stalin became the [[dictator|undisputed leader]] of the country and, by the end of the 1920s, established a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] rule. In October 1927, [[Grigory Zinoviev|Zinoviev]] and [[Leon Trotsky]] were expelled from the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] and forced into exile.
In 1928, Stalin introduced the [[first five-year plan]] for building a [[Socialist economics|socialist economy]]. In place of the [[Proletarian internationalism|internationalism]] expressed by Lenin throughout the revolution, it aimed to build [[Socialism in One Country]]. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of [[Industrialization in the Soviet Union|industrialization]]. In [[Agriculture in the Soviet Union|agriculture]], rather than adhering to the 'lead by example' policy advocated by Lenin,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lenin |first=V.I. |title=Collected Works |pages=152–164, Vol. 31 |quote=The proletarian state must effect the transition to collective farming with extreme caution and only very gradually, by the force of example, without any coercion of the middle peasant.}}</ref> forced [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization of farms]] was implemented all over the country.
[[Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union|Famines]] ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving [[kulak]]s (wealthy or middle-class peasants) were persecuted, and many were sent to [[Gulag]]s to do [[Forced labor in the Soviet Union|forced labor]].{{Sfn|Davies|Wheatcroft|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4s1lCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14 xiv], 401 441}}<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Stéphane |last1=Courtois |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206 |title=Livre noir du Communisme: crimes, terreur, répression |last2=Mark Kramer |year=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-07608-2 |page=206 |access-date=25 May 2020 |archive-date=22 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622213827/https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206 |url-status=live }}</ref> Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the country developed a robust industrial economy in the years preceding [[World War II]].
[[File:Kolyma road00.jpg|thumb|left|Construction of the bridge through the [[Kolyma]] (part of the [[Road of Bones]] from [[Magadan]] to [[Jakutsk]]) by the prisoners of [[Dalstroy]]]]
Closer cooperation between the USSR and the West developed in the early 1930s. From 1932 to 1934, the country participated in the [[World Disarmament Conference]]. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the [[United States]] and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, chose to recognize Stalin's Communist government formally and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two countries.<ref>[http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html Ukrainian 'Holodomor' (man-made famine) Facts and History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424093532/http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html |date=24 April 2013 }}. Holodomorct.org (28 November 2006). Retrieved on 29 July 2013.</ref> In September 1934, the country joined the [[League of Nations]]. After the [[Spanish Civil War]] broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican forces]] against the [[Francoist Spain|Nationalists]], who were supported by [[Kingdom of Italy|Fascist Italy]] and [[Nazi Germany]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Casanova |first=Julián |title=República y Guerra Civil. Vol. 8 de la Historia de España, dirigida por Josep Fontana y Ramón Villares |publisher=Crítica/Marcial Pons |year=2007 |isbn=978-84-8432-878-0 |location=Barcelona |pages=271–274 |language=es |author-link=Julián Casanova Ruiz}}</ref>
In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new [[1936 Soviet Constitution|constitution]] that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. American historian J. Arch Getty concludes: "Many who lauded Stalin's Soviet Union as the most democratic country on earth lived to regret their words. After all, the Soviet Constitution of 1936 was adopted on the eve of the Great Terror of the late 1930s; the "thoroughly democratic" elections to the first Supreme Soviet permitted only uncontested candidates and took place at the height of the savage violence in 1937. The civil rights, personal freedoms, and democratic forms promised in the Stalin constitution were trampled almost immediately and remained dead letters until long after Stalin's death."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Getty |first=J. Arch |year=1991 |title=State and Society Under Stalin: Constitutions and Elections in the 1930s |journal=Slavic Review |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=18–35 |doi=10.2307/2500596 |jstor=2500596|s2cid=163479192 }}</ref>
[[File:5marshals 01.jpg|thumb|Five [[Marshal of the Soviet Union|Marshals of the Soviet Union]] in 1935. Only two of them—[[Semyon Budyonny|Budyonny]] and [[Kliment Voroshilov|Voroshilov]]—survived the [[Great Purge]]. [[Vasily Blyukher|Blyukher]], [[Alexander Yegorov (soldier)|Yegorov]] and [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky|Tukhachevsky]] were executed.]]
Stalin's [[Great Purge]] resulted in the detainment or execution of many '[[Old Bolshevik]]s' who had participated in the October Revolution. According to declassified Soviet archives, the [[NKVD]] arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot.<ref name="Thurston">{{Cite book |last=Thurston |first=Robert W. |title=Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941 |date=1998 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-07442-0 |page=139 |author-link=Robert W. Thurston}}</ref> Over those two years, there were an average of over one thousand executions a day.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Abbott |last=Gleason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373 |title=A companion to Russian history |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4051-3560-3 |page=373 |access-date=25 May 2020 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905175409/https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Efn|name=fn1|According to British historian [[Geoffrey Hosking]], "excess deaths during the 1930s as a whole were in the range of 10–11 million."<ref name="1930s">{{Cite book |first=Geoffrey A. |last=Hosking |url=https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk |title=Russia and the Russians: a history |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-674-00473-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk/page/469 469] |url-access=registration}}</ref> American historian [[Timothy D. Snyder]] claims that archival evidence suggests maximum excess mortality of nine million during the entire Stalin era.<ref>[http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/ Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012090945/http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/ |date=12 October 2017 }}, ''The New York Review of Books'', 27 January 2011</ref> Australian historian and archival researcher [[Stephen G. Wheatcroft]] asserts that around a million "purposive killings" can be attributed to the Stalinist regime, along with the premature deaths of roughly two million more amongst the repressed populations (i.e. in camps, prisons, exiles, etc.) through criminal negligence.{{Sfn|Wheatcroft|1996|pp=1334,1348}}}} Scholars estimate the total death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938), including fatalities attributed to prison conditions, to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million.<ref>{{Citation |title=Introduction: the Great Purges as history |date=1985 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002 |work=Origins of the Great Purges |pages=1–9 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002 |isbn=978-0521259217 |access-date=2021-12-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Homkes|first=Brett|date=2004|title=Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge|url=https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=mcnair|journal=McNair Scholars Journal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellman |first1=Michael |title=Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |date=2002 |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=1151–1172 |doi=10.1080/0966813022000017177 |jstor=826310 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/826310 |issn=0966-8136}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shearer |first1=David R. |title=Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat |date=11 September 2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-95544-6 |page=vii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCHMEAAAQBAJ&dq=great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PR7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=Todd H. |title=Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia |date=16 October 2019 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-9153-9 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJGyDwAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PA7 |language=en}}</ref>
In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why didn't the USSR join Allies in 1939? |last=Yegorov |first=Oleg |url=https://www.rbth.com/history/331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=5 February 2022 |website=Russia Beyond |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206011636/https://www.rbth.com/history/331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii |url-status=live }}</ref> Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the [[Munich Agreement]] with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during [[German–Soviet Axis talks|extensive talks]]. Unlike the case of Britain and France, the Soviet Union's agreement with Germany, the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] (signed on 23 August 1939), included a secret protocol that paved the way for the Soviet invasion of Eastern European states and [[Military occupations by the Soviet Union|occupation of their territories]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/23/moscow-campaign-to-justify-molotov-ribbentrop-pact-sparks-outcry|title=Molotov-Ribbentrop: why is Moscow trying to justify Nazi pact?|work=[[The Guardian]]|author=Andrew Roth|date=23 August 2019}}</ref> The pact made possible the Soviet occupation of [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia]], [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina|Bessarabia, northern Bukovina]], and [[Soviet invasion of Poland|eastern Poland]].
[[File:Lavrenti Beria Stalins family.jpg|thumb|Stalin and [[Lavrentiy Beria]] with Stalin's daughter, [[Svetlana Alliluyeva|Svetlana]], on his lap. As head of the NKVD, Beria was responsible for many [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|political repressions in the Soviet Union]].]]
On 1 September, Germany [[Invasion of Poland|invaded Poland]] and on the 17th the Soviet Union invaded Poland as well. On 6 October, Poland fell and part of the Soviet occupation zone was then handed over to Germany.
On 10 October, the Soviet Union and Lithuania signed an agreement whereby the Soviet Union transferred Polish sovereignty over the Vilna region to Lithuania, and on 28 October the boundary between the Soviet occupation zone and the new territory of Lithuania was officially demarcated.
On 1 November, the Soviet Union [[Soviet annexation of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia|annexed Western Ukraine]], followed by Western Belarus on the 2nd.
In late November, unable to coerce the [[Finland|Republic of Finland]] by diplomatic means into moving its border {{Convert|25|km}} back from [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], Stalin ordered the [[Winter War|invasion of Finland]]. On 14 December 1939, the Soviet Union was expelled from the [[League of Nations]] for invading Finland.<ref>[https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations?form=MY01SV&OCID=MY01SV USSR expelled from the League of Nations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914013927/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations?form=MY01SV&OCID=MY01SV |date=14 September 2021 }}. www.history.com. 5 November 2009</ref> In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during [[Soviet–Japanese border conflicts|border clashes]] with the [[Empire of Japan]] in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, the USSR signed the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] with Japan, which the Soviets would unilaterally break in 1945, recognizing the territorial integrity of [[Manchukuo]], a Japanese [[puppet state]]. The pact ensured Japan would not enter the war against the USSR on the side of Germany later.
==== World War II ====
{{Main|Soviet Union in World War II}}
{{Further|Eastern Front (World War II)|Great Patriotic War (term)|World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet war crimes|Rape during the occupation of Germany}}
[[File:RIAN archive 44732 Soviet soldiers attack house.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], considered by many historians as a decisive turning point of World War II]]
Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]] on 22 June 1941 starting what is known in Russia and some other post-Soviet states as the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Great Patriotic War]]. The [[Red Army]] stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the [[Battle of Moscow]]. The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before [[End of World War II in Europe|Germany surrendered in 1945]]. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front.<ref>{{Cite book |first=William J. |last=Duiker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC |title=Contemporary World History |year= 2009 |publisher=Wadsworth Pub Co |isbn=978-0-495-57271-8 |page=128 |access-date=25 May 2020 |archive-date=22 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622200541/https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Harry Hopkins]], a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war, saying that "While in Sicily the forces of Great Britain and the United States are being opposed by 2 German divisions, the Russian front is receiving attention of approximately 200 German divisions."{{Efn|name=fn3|"In War II Russia occupies a dominant position and is the decisive factor looking toward the defeat of the Axis in Europe. While in Sicily the forces of Great Britain and the United States are being opposed by 2 German divisions, the Russian front is receiving attention of approximately 200 German divisions. Whenever the Allies open a second front on the Continent, it will be decidedly a secondary front to that of Russia; theirs will continue to be the main effort. Without Russia in the war, the Axis cannot be defeated in Europe, and the position of the United Nations becomes precarious. Similarly, Russia's post-war position in Europe will be a dominant one. With Germany crushed, there is no power in Europe to oppose her tremendous military forces."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Executive of the Presidents Soviet Protocol Committee (Burns) to the President's Special Assistant (Hopkins) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943/d317 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821062622/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943/d317 |archive-date=21 August 2018 |access-date=21 August 2018 |website=www.history.state.gov |publisher=[[Office of the Historian]]}}</ref>}} Up to 34 million soldiers served in the Red Army during World War II, 8 million of which were [[Demographics of the Soviet Union|non-Slavic minorities]].<ref name="Soviet losses">{{Citation | first = ГФ| last = Кривошеев | title = Россия и СССР в войнах XX века: потери вооруженных сил. Статистическое исследование |trans-title=Russia and the USSR in the wars of the 20th century: losses of the Armed Forces. A Statistical Study | language = ru}}.</ref>
[[File:RIAN archive 2153 After bombing.jpg|thumb|right|Residents of Leningrad leave their homes destroyed by German bombing. About 1 million civilians died during the 871-day [[Siege of Leningrad]], mostly from starvation.]]
[[File:Teheran conference-1943.jpg|thumb|From left to right, the Soviet General Secretary [[Joseph Stalin]], US President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] [[Tehran Conference|confer]] in Tehran, 1943]]
The USSR suffered greatly in the war, [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|losing around 20 million people]] (modern Russian sources put the number at 26.6 million).<ref name="1930s" /><ref name="MOD Russian Federation">{{cite web|last1=Министерство обороны Российской Федерации|first1=MOD Russian Federation|title=On Question of war Losses (in Russian)|url=http://encyclopedia.mil.ru/encyclopedia/history/more.htm?id=11359251@cmsArticle|publisher=MOD Russian Federation|access-date=12 November 2017}}</ref> This includes 8.7 million military deaths. The majority of the losses were ethnic [[Russians]], followed by ethnic [[Ukrainians]].<ref name="Soviet losses"/> Approximately 2.8 million [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet POWs]] died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldhagen |first=Daniel | author-link=Daniel Goldhagen |title=[[Hitler's Willing Executioners]] |page=290 |quote=2.8 million young, healthy Soviet POWs" killed by the Germans, "mainly by starvation{{nbsp}}... in less than eight months" of 1941–42, before "the decimation of Soviet POWs{{nbsp}}... was stopped" and the Germans "began to use them as laborers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Treatment of Soviet POWs: Starvation, Disease, and Shootings, June 1941 – January 1942 |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106204101/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |access-date=9 March 2019 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org}}</ref> More than 2 million people were killed in [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Belarus]] during the three years of [[German occupation of Byelorussia during World War II|German occupation]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Belarus – World War II |url=https://countrystudies.us/belarus/10.htm |work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]}}</ref> almost a quarter of the region's population, including around 550,000 Jews in the [[The Holocaust in Belarus|Holocaust in Belarus]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Waitman Wade Beorn|title=Marching into Darkness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S8cXAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72660-4|page=28}}</ref> During the war, the country together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the [[Big Four in World War II|Big Four]] Allied powers,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brinkley |first=Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&q=big+four+world+war+2&pg=PA223 |title=The New York Times Living History: World War II, 1942–1945: The Allied Counteroffensive |publisher=Macmillan|year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8050-7247-1 |author-link=Douglas Brinkley |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815162717/https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&q=big+four+world+war+2&pg=PA223 |url-status=live }}</ref> and later became the [[Four Policemen]] that formed the basis of the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Urquhart |first=Brian |title=Looking for the Sheriff |publisher=New York Review of Books, 16 July 1998 |author-link=Brian Urquhart}}</ref> It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied [[diplomatic recognition]] by the Western world, the USSR had official relations with practically every country by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the country [[Soviet Union and the United Nations|became]] one of the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|five permanent members]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]], which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.
The USSR, in fulfillment of its agreement with the Allies at the [[Yalta Conference]], broke the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 which Japan had been honoring despite their alliance with Germany,<ref name="denunciation">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp Denunciation of the neutrality pact] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520092519/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp |date=20 May 2011 }} 5 April 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> and [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories]] on 9 August 1945.<ref name="declarationofwar">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp Soviet Declaration of War on Japan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520092513/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp |date=20 May 2011 }}, 8 August 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> [[Soviet–Japanese War|This conflict]] ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional [[surrender of Japan]] and the end of World War II.
Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in [[Soviet occupation zone of Germany|Germany]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Women and War |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyZYS_GxglIC&pg=PA480|publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-770-8|pages=480–}}</ref> The [[Wartime sexual violence|wartime rapes]] were followed by decades of silence.<ref>{{cite web |author=Allan Hall |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/3255081/German-women-break-their-silence-on-horrors-of-Red-Army-rapes.html |title=German women break their silence on horrors of Red Army rapes|date=24 October 2008 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/3255081/German-women-break-their-silence-on-horrors-of-Red-Army-rapes.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=10 December 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="The Independent">{{cite web|title=Raped by the Red Army: Two million German women speak out|work=The Independent|date=15 April 2009 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/raped-by-the-red-army-two-million-german-women-speak-out-1669074.html|access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="Susanne Beyer">{{cite news|title=Harrowing Memoir: German Woman Writes Ground-Breaking Account of WW2 Rape |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,680354,00.html|author=Susanne Beyer|newspaper=Der Spiegel |date=26 February 2010|access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref> According to historian [[Antony Beevor]], whose books were banned in 2015 from some Russian schools and colleges, [[NKVD]] (Soviet secret police) files have revealed that the leadership knew what was happening, but did little to stop it.<ref name=Bird>{{cite journal |last=Bird |first=Nicky |title=Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor |journal=International Affairs |volume=78 |number=4 |date=October 2002 |pages=914–916 |institution=Royal Institute of International Affairs}}</ref> It was often [[wikt:rear echelon|rear echelon]] units who committed the rapes. According to professor Oleg Rzheshevsky, "4,148 Red Army officers and many privates were punished for committing atrocities".<ref name=":0">Television documentary from CC&C Ideacom Production, "Apocalypse Never-Ending War 1918–1926", part 2, aired at Danish DR K on 22 October 2018.</ref> The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Naimark|first=Norman M.|title=The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 |publisher=Belknap Press|year=1995|location=Cambridge |page=70}}</ref>
[[File:Map US Lend Lease shipments to USSR-WW2.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|U.S. [[Lend-Lease]] shipments to the USSR. During the war the USSR provided an unknown number of shipments of rare minerals to the US Treasury as a form of cashless [[Lend-Lease#Repayment|repayment of Lend-Lease]].]]
The Soviet Union was greatly assisted in its wartime effort by the United States via [[Lend-Lease]]. In total, the U.S. deliveries to the USSR through Lend-Lease amounted to $11 [[1,000,000,000 (number)|billion]] in materials: over 400,000 [[jeep]]s and trucks; 12,000 [[armored vehicle]]s (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386<ref>Zaloga (Armored Thunderbolt) pp. 28, 30, 31.{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> of which were [[M3 Lee]]s and 4,102 [[Lend-Lease Sherman tanks|M4 Shermans]]);<ref>''Lend-Lease Shipments: World War II'', Section IIIB, Published by Office, Chief of Finance, War Department, December 31, 1946, p. 8.</ref> 11,400 aircraft (of which 4,719 were [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]]s, 3,414 were [[Douglas A-20 Havoc]]s and 2,397 were [[Bell P-63 Kingcobra]]s)<ref>{{cite book |last=Hardesty |first=Von |chapter=Appendix 10: Lend-Lease Aircraft to USSR June 22, 1941 – September 20, 1945 |title=Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power, 1941–1945 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |place=Washington, D.C. |year=1991 |oclc=1319584971 |isbn=978-1-56098-071-1 |url= https://archive.org/details/redphoenixriseof0000hard_d8o6 |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive |pages=[https://archive.org/details/redphoenixriseof0000hard_d8o6/page/253/mode/1up 253]}}</ref> and 1.75 million tons of food.<ref>{{cite book |title=American Military History |chapter-url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf |chapter=World War II: The War Against Germany And Italy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506174749/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2017 |publisher=US Army Center of Military History |page=158}}</ref> As Soviet soldiers were bearing the brunt of the war, Roosevelt's advisor [[Harry Hopkins]] felt that American aid to the Soviets would hasten the war's conclusion.<ref>David Roll (2012) ''The Hopkins Touch: Harry Hopkins and the Forging of the Alliance to Defeat Hitler'', ch. 6.</ref>
Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94% coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.<ref>{{cite web|title=The five Lend-Lease routes to Russia |url=http://www.o5m6.de/Routes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031212063805/http://www.o5m6.de/routes.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 12, 2003 |website=Engines of the Red Army |access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Motter |first1=T.H. Vail |title=The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia |date=1952 |publisher=Center of Military History |pages=4–6 |url=https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/persian/index.htm |access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref>
==== Cold War ====
{{Main|Cold War}}
[[File:Soviet empire 1960.png|thumb|Map showing the greatest territorial extent of the Soviet Union and the sovereign states that it dominated politically, economically and militarily in 1960, after the [[Cuban Revolution]] of 1959 but before the official [[Sino-Soviet split]] of 1961 (total area: c. 35,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>){{Efn|34,374,483 km<sup>2</sup>}}]]
During the immediate post-war period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its [[Command economy|strictly centralized control]]. It took effective control over most of the countries of Eastern Europe (except [[Tito–Stalin split|Yugoslavia]] and later [[Soviet-Albanian split|Albania]]), turning them into [[satellite state]]s. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the [[Warsaw Pact]], in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or [[Comecon]], a counterpart to the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC), from 1949 to 1991.<ref name="fas.org">{{cite web |title=Main Intelligence Administration (GRU) Glavnoye Razvedovatel'noye Upravlenie – Russia / Soviet Intelligence Agencies |url=https://fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226090607/http://www.fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/ |archive-date=26 December 2008 |access-date=24 November 2008 |publisher=Fas.org}}</ref> Although nominally a "defensive" alliance, the Warsaw Pact's primary function was to safeguard the [[Soviet Empire|Soviet Union's hegemony]] over its [[Soviet Bloc|Eastern European]] satellites, with the Pact's only direct military actions having been the invasions of its own member states to keep them from breaking away.<ref name="history.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/warsaw-pact-ends|title=Warsaw Pact ends|website=HISTORY}}</ref> The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted [[World War II reparations|war reparations]] from [[East Germany]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[People's Republic of Romania|Romania]], and [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the [[Marshall Plan]]."<ref>Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in {{Cite book |editor-first=Klaus | editor-last=Larresm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174 |title=A Companion to Europe Since 1945 |publisher=Wiley |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-89024-0 |page=79}}</ref> Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious [[Chinese Communist Party]], and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in [[proxy war]]s.
== 1953–1964: Khrushchev Thaw ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)}}
[[File:John Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev 1961.jpg|thumb|left|Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (left) with US President [[John F. Kennedy]] in Vienna, 3 June 1961]]
Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by [[Georgy Malenkov]]. This did not last, however, and [[Nikita Khrushchev]] eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he [[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences|denounced Joseph Stalin]] and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as [[de-Stalinization]].
Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defence of its western borders, in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1941. For this reason, the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Hungary]] in 1956.
In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what [[Mao Zedong]] perceived as Khrushchev's [[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionism]], led to the [[Sino–Soviet split]]. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]], [[Democratic Kampuchea|Cambodia]], and [[Somali Democratic Republic|Somalia]] choosing to ally with China.
[[File:Soviet Union Administrative Divisions 1989.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Republics of the Soviet Union]] in 1954–1991]]
During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the [[Space Race]], rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, [[Sputnik 1]] in 1957; a living dog named [[Laika]] in 1957; the first human being, [[Yuri Gagarin]] in 1961; the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] in 1963; [[Alexei Leonov]], the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft [[Luna 9]] in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, [[Lunokhod 1]] and [[Lunokhod 2]].<ref name="lunokhod">{{Cite episode |title=Tank on the Moon |url=http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html |series=The Nature of Things with David Suzuki |network=CBC-TV |air-date=6 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226123643/http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html |archive-date=26 December 2008}}</ref>
Khrushchev initiated '[[Khrushchev Thaw|The Thaw]]', a complex shift in political, cultural, and economic life in the country. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a [[Cuban Missile Crisis|crisis with the United States]] over the Soviet deployment of [[Nuclear weapons delivery|nuclear missiles]] in [[Cuba]]. An agreement was made with the United States to remove nuclear missiles from both [[Cuba]] and [[Turkey]], concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.
== 1964–1982: Era of Stagnation ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)}}
[[File:Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nikolai Podgorny]] visiting [[Tampere]], [[Finland]] on 16 October 1969]]
[[File:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg|thumb|left|Soviet general secretary [[Leonid Brezhnev]] and US President [[Jimmy Carter]] sign the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II|SALT II arms limitation treaty]] in Vienna on 18 June 1979.]]
The history of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, referred to as the Brezhnev Era, covers the period of [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (USSR). This period began with high economic growth and soaring prosperity, but ended with a much weaker Soviet Union facing social, political, and economic stagnation. The average annual income stagnated, because needed economic reforms were never fully carried out.
[[Nikita Khrushchev]] was ousted as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|First Secretary]] of the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), as well as [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], on 14 October 1964 due to his failed reforms and disregard for Party and Government institutions. Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as First Secretary and [[Alexei Kosygin]] replaced him as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. [[Anastas Mikoyan]], and later [[Nikolai Podgorny]], became [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairmen]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]]. Together with [[Andrei Kirilenko (politician)|Andrei Kirilenko]] as organisational secretary, and [[Mikhail Suslov]] as chief ideologue, they made up a reinvigorated [[collective leadership]], which contrasted in form with the [[autocracy]] that characterized Khrushchev's rule.
The collective leadership first set out to stabilize the Soviet Union and calm [[Soviet society]], a task which they were able to accomplish. In addition, they attempted to speed up economic growth, which had slowed considerably during Khrushchev's last years in power. In 1965 Kosygin initiated several reforms to decentralize the [[Soviet economy]]. After initial success in creating economic growth, hard-liners within the Party halted the reforms, fearing that they would weaken the Party's prestige and power. No other radical economic reforms were carried out during the Brezhnev era, and economic growth began to stagnate in the early-to-mid-1970s. By Brezhnev's death in 1982, Soviet economic growth had, according to several historians, nearly come to a standstill.
The stabilization policy brought about after Khrushchev's removal established a ruling [[gerontocracy]], and [[political corruption]] became a normal phenomenon. Brezhnev, however, never initiated any large-scale anti-corruption campaigns. Due to the large military buildup of the 1960s the Soviet Union was able to consolidate itself as a [[superpower]] during Brezhnev's rule. The era ended with [[Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev|Brezhnev's death]] on 10 November 1982.
While all modernized economies were rapidly moving to computerization after 1965, the USSR fell further and further behind. Moscow's decision to copy the [[IBM/360]] of 1965 proved a decisive mistake for it locked scientists into a system they were unable to improve so that it gradually became antiquated. They had enormous difficulties in manufacturing the necessary chips reliably and in quantity, in programming workable and efficient programs, in coordinating entirely separate operations, and in providing support to computer users.<ref>James W. Cortada, "Public Policies and the Development of National Computer Industries in Britain, France, and the Soviet Union, 1940—80." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (2009) 44#3 pp: 493-512, especially page 509-10.</ref><ref>Frank Cain, "Computers and the Cold War: United States restrictions on the export of computers to the Soviet Union and Communist China." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (2005) 40#1 pp: 131-147. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30036313 in JSTOR]</ref>
One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled during the [[1973 oil crisis|1973–74 oil crisis]], and rose again in [[1979 oil crisis|1979–1981]], making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses. At one point, Soviet Premier [[Alexei Kosygin]] told the head of oil and gas production, "things are bad with bread. Give me 3 million tons [of oil] over the plan."<ref>Yergin, ''The Quest'' (2011) p 23</ref> Former prime minister [[Yegor Gaidar]], an economist looking back three decades, in 2007 wrote:
{{blockquote|The hard currency from oil exports stopped the growing food supply crisis, increased the import of equipment and consumer goods, ensured a financial base for the arms race and the achievement of nuclear parity with the United States, and permitted the realization of such risky foreign-policy actions as the war in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Yegor Gaidar|title=Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDSfnxYjVwAC&pg=PA102|date= 2007|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|page=102|isbn=9780815731153 }}</ref>}}
== 1982–1991: Reforms and dissolution ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)|Dissolution of the Soviet Union}}
The history of the Soviet Union from 1982 through 1991, spans the period from [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s [[Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev|death and funeral]] until the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. Failed attempts at reform, a standstill economy, and the success of the United States against the Soviet Union's forces in the [[Soviet–Afghan War|war in Afghanistan]] led to a general feeling of discontent, especially in the [[Baltic states|Baltic republics]] and Eastern Europe.<ref>WorldBook online</ref>
Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], created an atmosphere of open criticism of the Soviet government. The dramatic drop of the [[1980s oil glut|price of oil in 1985 and 1986]] profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership.<ref name='AEI-Gaidar-Grain and Oil'>{{cite web|last=Gaidar |first=Yegor |author-link=Yegor Gaidar |title=The Soviet Collapse: Grain and Oil |work=On the Issues: AEI online |publisher=American Enterprise Institute |url=http://www.aei.org/issue/25991 |access-date=2009-07-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722091512/http://www.aei.org/issue/25991 |archive-date=2009-07-22 }} (Edited version of a speech given November **, **** at the American Enterprise Institute.)</ref>
[[Nikolai Tikhonov]], the [[List of Premiers of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], was succeeded by [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]], and [[Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)|Vasili Kuznetsov]], the acting [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]], was succeeded by [[Andrei Gromyko]], the former [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]].
Several [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Socialist Republics]] began resisting central control, and increasing democratization led to a weakening of the central government. The USSR's trade gap progressively emptied the coffers of the union, leading to eventual bankruptcy. The Soviet Union finally [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapsed]] in 1991 when [[Boris Yeltsin]] seized power in the aftermath of a [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|failed coup]] that had attempted to topple [[Perestroika|reform-minded]] Gorbachev.
== Historiography ==
=== Bibliography ===
* [[Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War]]
* [[Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union]]
* [[Bibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union]]
* [[Bibliography of Ukrainian history]]
* [[Historiography in the Soviet Union]]
=== Academic journals ===
* [[List of Slavic studies journals]]
== See also ==
* [[Foreign relations of the Soviet Union]]
* [[Islam in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Index of Soviet Union–related articles]]
* [[Ukrainian nationalism]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
{{See also|Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War|Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union|Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union}}
* Conquest, Robert. ''The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties'' (1973).
* Daly, Jonathan and Leonid Trofimov, eds. "[http://www.hackettpublishing.com/russia-in-war-and-revolution-1914-1922 Russia in War and Revolution, 1914–1922: A Documentary History]." (Indianapolis and Cambridge, MA: Hackett Publishing Company, 2009). {{ISBN|978-0-87220-987-9}}.
* Feis, Herbert. ''Churchill-Roosevelt-Stalin: The War they waged and the Peace they sought'' (1953).
* {{Cite book|last=Figes|first=Orlando|title=A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891–1924|publisher=Pimlico|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6LzAgAAQBAJ |year=1996|isbn=978-0-8050-9131-1}} [https://archive.org/details/peoplestragedyhi00fige online no charge to borrow]
* Fenby, Jonathan. ''Alliance: the inside story of how Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill won one war and began another'' (2015).
* Firestone, Thomas. "Four Sovietologists: A Primer." ''National Interest'' No. 14 (Winter 1988/9), pp. 102–107 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027135 on the ideas of Zbigniew Brzezinski, Stephen F. Cohen, Jerry F. Hough, and Richard Pipes.]
* Fitzpatrick, Sheila. ''The Russian Revolution''. 199 pages. Oxford University Press; (2nd ed. 2001). {{ISBN|0-19-280204-6}}.
* Fleron, F.J. ed. ''Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–1991: Classic and Contemporary Issues'' (1991)
* Gorodetsky, Gabriel, ed. ''Soviet foreign policy, 1917–1991: a retrospective'' (Routledge, 2014).
* Haslam, Jonathan. ''Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall'' (Yale UP, 2011) 512 pages
* Hosking, Geoffrey. ''History of the Soviet Union'' (2017).
* Keep, John L.H. ''Last of the Empires: A History of the Soviet Union, 1945–1991'' (Oxford UP, 1995).
* [[Stephen Kotkin|Kotkin, Stephen]]. ''Stalin: Vol. 1: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928'' (2014), 976pp
** Kotkin, Stephen. ''Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941'' (2017) vol 2
* Lincoln, W. Bruce. ''Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution, 1914–1918''. (New York, 1986). [https://archive.org/details/passagethroughar00linc online]
* McCauley, Martin. ''The Soviet Union 1917–1991'' (2nd ed. 1993) [https://archive.org/details/sovietunion1917100mcca online]
* McCauley, Martin. ''Origins of the Cold War 1941–1949.'' (Routledge, 2015).
* McCauley, Martin. ''Russia, America, and the Cold War, 1949–1991'' (1998)
* McCauley, Martin. ''The Khrushchev Era 1953–1964'' (2014).
* Millar, James R. ed. ''Encyclopedia of Russian History'' (4 vol, 2004), 1700pp; 1500 articles by experts.
* [[Alec Nove|Nove, Alec]]. ''An Economic History of the USSR, 1917–1991''. (3rd ed. 1993) [https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo00nove online w]
* Paxton, John. ''Encyclopedia of Russian History: From the Christianization of Kiev to the Break-up of the USSR'' (Abc-Clio Inc, 1993).
* Pipes, Richard. ''Russia under the Bolshevik regime'' (1981). [https://archive.org/details/russiaunderbolsh00rich online]
* Reynolds, David, and Vladimir Pechatnov, eds. '' The Kremlin Letters: Stalin's Wartime Correspondence with Churchill and Roosevelt'' (2019)
* Service, Robert. ''Stalin: a Biography'' (2004).
* Shaw, Warren, and David Pryce-Jones. ''Encyclopedia of the USSR: From 1905 to the Present: Lenin to Gorbachev'' (Cassell, 1990).
* Shlapentokh, Vladimir. ''Public and private life of the Soviet people: changing values in post-Stalin Russia'' (Oxford UP, 1989).
* Taubman, William. ''Khrushchev: the man and his era'' (2003).
* Taubman, William. ''Gorbachev'' (2017)
* Tucker, Robert C., ed. ''Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation'' (Routledge, 2017).
* [[Odd Arne Westad|Westad, Odd Arne]]. ''[[The Cold War: A World History]]'' (2017)
* Wieczynski, Joseph L., and Bruce F. Adams. ''The modern encyclopedia of Russian, Soviet and Eurasian history'' (Academic International Press, 2000).
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Soviet Union}}
* [http://soviethistory.msu.edu/ An on-line archive of primary source materials on Soviet history]
{{Soviet Union topics}}
{{Communist Eastern and Central Europe}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:History of the Soviet Union| ]]
[[Category:Modern history by country|Soviet Union]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -24,24 +24,100 @@
}}
-The original philosophy of the state was primarily based on the works of [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]]. In its essence, Marx's theory stated that economic and political systems went through an inevitable evolution in form, by which the current [[Capitalism|capitalist system]] would be replaced by a [[Socialist state]].
+Modern revolutionary activity in the [[Russian Empire]] began with the 1825 [[Decembrist revolt]]. Although [[Serfdom in Russia|serfdom]] was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavourable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament, the [[State Duma (Russian Empire)|State Duma]], was established in 1906 after the [[Revolution of 1905|Russian Revolution of 1905]], but [[Nicholas II of Russia|Emperor Nicholas II]] resisted attempts to move from [[Absolute monarchy|absolute]] to a [[constitutional monarchy]]. [[Rebellion|Social unrest]] continued and was aggravated during [[World War I]] by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.
-Displeased by the relatively few changes made by the Tsar after the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], Russia became a hotbed of [[anarchism]], [[socialism]] and other radical political systems. The dominant socialist party, the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party]] (RSDLP), subscribed to Marxist ideology. Starting in 1903 a series of splits in the party between two main leaders was escalating: the [[Bolsheviks]] (meaning "majority") led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], and the [[Mensheviks]] (meaning minority) led by [[Julius Martov]]. Up until 1912, both groups continued to stay united under the name "RSDLP," but significant differences between Lenin and Martov thought split the party for its final time. Not only did these groups fight with each other, but also had common enemies, notably, those trying to bring the Tsar back to power. Following the [[February Revolution of 1917]], the [[Russian Provisional Government]], established by liberal, conservative, and socialist politicians, shared power with the [[Petrograd Soviet]], which was controlled by the Mensheviks and [[Socialist Revolutionaries]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Le Blanc |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Le Blanc (historian) |title=October Song |publisher=Haymarket Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-60846-878-2|page=12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Pons|first1=Silvio|last2=Service|first2=Robert|title=A Dictionary of 20th-Century Communism |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4008-3452-5|page=763 }}</ref> This regime of “[[dual power]]” lasted only a few months until the Bolsheviks took power in the [[October Revolution]], also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. Membership of the Bolsehevik party had risen from 24,000 members in February 1917 to 200,000 members by September 1917.<ref>Stephen Cohen, ''Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938'' (Oxford University Press: London, 1980) p. 46.</ref> Lenin's government also instituted a number of progressive measures such as [[Universal access to education|universal education]], [[universal healthcare]] and [[Women in Russia|equal rights for women]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Katherine H. |last2=Keene |first2=Michael L. |title=After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5647-5 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugri͡umov |first1=Aleksandr Leontʹevich |title=Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925 |date=1976 |publisher=Novosti Press Agency Publishing House |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Lenin: A Political Life: Volume 1: The Strengths of Contradiction |date=24 June 1985 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-05591-3 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntiuCwAAQBAJ&q=universal+education&pg=PA98 |language=en}}</ref> Bolshevik figures such as [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]], [[Moisei Uritsky]] and [[Dmitry Manuilsky]] agreed that Lenin’s influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky’s, not to Lenin’s plan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |page=1283|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet |language=en}}</ref>
+A spontaneous popular demonstration in Petrograd on [[International Women's Day|8 March]] 1917, demanding peace and bread, culminated in the [[February Revolution]] and the abdication of Nicholas II and the imperial government.{{sfn|Mccauley|2014|p=83}} The [[tsarist autocracy]] was replaced by the [[Social democracy|social-democratic]] [[Russian Provisional Government]], which intended to conduct elections to the [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] and to continue fighting on the side of the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] in World War I. At the same time, [[workers' council]]s, known in Russian as '[[Soviet (council)|Soviets]]', sprang up across the country, and the most influential of them, the [[Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies]], shared power with the Provisional Government.{{sfn|Mccauley|2014|p=487}}<ref name="br1"/> Membership of the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] party had risen from 24,000 members in February 1917 to 200,000 members by September 1917.<ref>Stephen Cohen, ''Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938'' (Oxford University Press: London, 1980) p. 46.</ref> 50,000 workers had passed a resolution in favour of the Bolshevik demand for the transfer of power to the Soviets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Head |first1=Michael |title=Evgeny Pashukanis: A Critical Reappraisal |date=12 September 2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-30787-5 |pages=1–288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYGNAgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PT83 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shukman |first1=Harold |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution |date=5 December 1994 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-631-19525-2 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PA21 |language=en}}</ref>
-Under the control of the party, all politics and attitudes that were not strictly RCP ([[Communist Party of Soviet Union|Russian Communist Party]]) were suppressed, under the premise that the RCP represented the [[proletariat]] and all activities contrary to the party's beliefs were "counterrevolutionary" or "anti-socialist." During the years of 1917 to 1924, the Soviet Union achieved peace with the [[Central Powers]], their enemies in [[World War I]], but also fought the [[Russian Civil War]] against the [[White Army]] and foreign armies from the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], among others. This resulted in large territorial changes, albeit temporarily for some of these. Eventually crushing all opponents, the RCP spread Soviet style rule quickly and established itself through all of Russia. Following Lenin's death in 1924, [[Joseph Stalin]], General Secretary of the RCP, became Lenin's successor and continued as leader of the Soviet Union into the 1950s.
+[[File:19191107-lenin second anniversary october revolution moscow.jpg|thumb|[[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]], [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]], and [[Lev Kamenev|Kamenev]] celebrating the second anniversary of the [[October Revolution]]]]
+The Bolsheviks, led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], pushed for [[communist revolution]] in the Soviets and on the streets, adopting the slogan of "All Power to the Soviets" and urging the overthrow of the Provisional Government.{{sfn|Read|2005|pp=82–85}}{{sfn|Service|2005|pp=47–49}} On 7 November 1917, Bolshevik [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guard]]s stormed the [[Winter Palace]] in Petrograd, arresting the Provisional Government leaders and Lenin declared that all power was now transferred to the Soviets.<ref name=BBC1>{{Cite news |title=The causes of the October Revolution |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/4 |url-status=dead |access-date=31 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805155250/http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/4 |archive-date=5 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="br1"/> This event would later be officially known in Soviet bibliographies as the "[[October Revolution|Great October Socialist Revolution]]". Bolshevik figures such as [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]], [[Moisei Uritsky]], and [[Dmitry Manuilsky]] agreed that Lenin's influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the [[October Revolution|October insurrection]] was carried out according to [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky's]], not to Lenin's plan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |page=1283|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet |language=en}}</ref> The initial stage of the October Revolution which involved the assault on [[Petrograd]] occurred largely without any human [[Casualty (person)|casualties]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shukman |first1=Harold |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution |date=5 December 1994 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-631-19525-2 |page=343 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PA343 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bergman |first1=Jay |title=The French Revolutionary Tradition in Russian and Soviet Politics, Political Thought, and Culture |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-884270-5 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5UKjDwAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PA224 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=McMeekin |first1=Sean |title=The Russian Revolution: A New History |date=30 May 2017 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-09497-4 |pages=1–496 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aXmZDgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PT155 |language=en}}</ref>
+
+Lenin's government instituted a number of progressive measures such as [[Universal access to education|universal education]], [[universal healthcare]], and [[Women in Russia|equal rights for women]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Katherine H. |last2=Keene |first2=Michael L. |title=After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5647-5 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugri͡umov |first1=Aleksandr Leontʹevich |title=Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925 |date=1976 |publisher=Novosti Press Agency Publishing House |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Lenin: A Political Life: Volume 1: The Strengths of Contradiction |date=24 June 1985 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-05591-3 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntiuCwAAQBAJ&q=universal+education&pg=PA98 |language=en}}</ref> Conversely, the bloody [[Red Terror]] was initiated to shut down all opposition, both perceived and real.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222175025/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union | url-status=dead | archive-date=22 February 2021 | title=How Lenin's Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union | website=[[National Geographic Society]] | date=2 September 2020 }}</ref> The terror also arose in response to a number of [[Assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin|assassination attempts]] on Bolshevik senior leaders and [[Left SR uprising|organized insurrections]] against the Soviet government.<ref name="Leninism Under Lenin">{{cite book |last1=Liebman |first1=Marcel |title=Leninism Under Lenin |date=1985 |publisher=Merlin Press |isbn=978-0-85036-261-9 |pages=1–348 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQjzAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Scott Baldwin |title=Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923 |date=15 April 2011 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Pre |isbn=978-0-8229-7779-7 |pages=75–85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ueUEE8jVRsC&dq=anarchist+assassination+attempt+lenin&pg=PA74 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Rabinowitch306">{{cite book |last= Rabinowitch|first= Alexander|title= The bolsheviks in power. The first year of Soviet rule in Petrograd|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BEoBCGJ4VqYC&q=The+bolsheviks+in+power.+The+first+year+of+Soviet+rule+in+Petrograd|language= en|date= 2007|publisher= Indiana University Press|isbn= 9780253349439|page= 306}}</ref>
+
+The [[federalization]] of Russia was promulgated in the [[Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia]] in November, not including the detached borderlands.<ref name="federation"/> In December, the Bolsheviks signed an [[armistice]] with the [[Central Powers]], though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended their involvement in the war and signed a [[separate peace]] treaty, the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. After the defeat of the Germans in the war, Lenin sought the creation of formally independent [[Soviet republic]]s in the territories that were being vacated by the German Army.<ref name="federation">{{cite book |last1=Raffass |first1=Tania |title=The Soviet Union: Federation Or Empire? |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-68833-8 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P4E7WSecBakC |language=en}}</ref>
+[[File:Protección del Palacio Tauride durante el Segundo Congreso Regional de los Soviets.jpg|thumb|Dissolution of the elected [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] by the Bolsheviks on 6 January 1918]]
+
+A long and bloody [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] ensued between the [[Red Army|Reds]] and the [[White movement|Whites]], ending in 1921–1922 with the Reds' victory.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reese |first1=Roger |title=Russian Civil War, 1918–1921 |journal=Military History |date=6 February 2012 |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780199791279-0051|isbn=978-0-19-979127-9 }}</ref> It included [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|foreign intervention]], the [[Murder of the Romanov family|murder of the former emperor and his family]], and the [[Russian famine of 1921–22|famine of 1921–1922]], which killed about five million people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mawdsley |first=Evan |url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan |title=The Russian Civil War |year= 2007 |publisher=Pegasus Books |isbn=978-1-933648-15-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan/page/287 287] |author-link=Evan Mawdsley |url-access=registration}}</ref> Although Lenin had declared his support for the principle of [[self-determination]], the party became centralized and the independent Soviet republics were subordinated to Soviet Russia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Robert A. |title=The Soviet Concept of 'Limited Sovereignty' from Lenin to Gorbachev: The Brezhnev Doctrine |date=27 July 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-20491-5 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KuW-DAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> In March 1921, the [[Treaty of Riga]] was signed with the [[Second Polish Republic|Republic of Poland]], splitting territories in [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]], and putting an end to Lenin's westward offensive against capitalism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Stephen J. |title=European Dictatorships 1918–1945 |date=12 November 2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-69011-3 |pages=89–90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLXkGLDxSkAC |language=en}}</ref> In [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonia]], [[Finnish Civil War|Finland]], [[Latvian War of Independence|Latvia]], and [[Lithuanian–Soviet War|Lithuania]], the Reds were defeated, while the Red Army managed to occupy [[Red Army invasion of Armenia|Armenia]], [[Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], and [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|Georgia]] in the [[Caucasus]].{{sfn|Lee|2003|pp=84, 88}}{{sfn|Goldstein|2013|p=50}} Additionally, the forced requisition of food by the Soviet government led to substantial resistance, of which the most notable was the [[Tambov Rebellion]], ultimately put down by the Red Army.{{sfnm|1a1=Fischer|1y=1964|1p=459|2a1=Leggett|2y=1981|2pp=330–333|3a1=Service|3y=2000|3pp=423–424|4a1=White|4y=2001|4p=168|5a1=Ryan|5y=2012|5pp=154–155}}
+[[File:Russian civil war in the west.svg|thumb|right|[[Russian Civil War]] in the European part of Russia]]
+
+The civil war had a devastating impact on the economy. A [[black market]] emerged in Russia, despite the threat of [[martial law]] against profiteering. The [[Russian ruble|ruble]] collapsed, with [[bartering|barter]] increasingly replacing money as a medium of exchange<ref name="DaviesHarrison1993">{{cite book|author1=R. W. Davies|author2=Mark Harrison|author3=S. G. Wheatcroft|title=The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ULWRnskfr4C&pg=PA6|year= 1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45770-5|page=6}}</ref> and, by 1921, heavy industry output had fallen to 20% of 1913 levels. 90% of wages were paid with goods rather than money.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921|url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft796nb4mj&chunk.id=d0e9364&toc.id=&brand=ucpress|access-date=2021-10-27|website=publishing.cdlib.org}}</ref> 70% of locomotives were in need of repair{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}, and food requisitioning, combined with the effects of seven years of war and a severe drought, contributed to a famine that caused between 3 and 10 million deaths.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm#RCW|title=Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls|website=necrometrics.com|access-date=2017-12-12}}</ref> Coal production decreased from 27.5 million tons (1913) to 7 million tons (1920), while overall factory production also declined from 10,000 million roubles to 1,000 million roubles. According to the noted historian [[David Christian (historian)|David Christian]], the grain harvest was also slashed from 80.1 million tons (1913) to 46.5 million tons (1920).<ref>{{cite book|last=Christian|first=David|title=Imperial and Soviet Russia|year=1997|publisher=Macmillan Press Ltd|location=London|isbn=978-0-333-66294-6|page=236}}</ref>
+
+=== Treaty on the Creation of the USSR ===
+On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], the [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]], the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]], and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]] approved the [[Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Treaty on the Creation of the USSR]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sakwa |first=Richard |title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union, 1917–1991: 1917–1991 |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-12290-0 |pages=140–143}}</ref> and the [[Declaration of the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Declaration of the Creation of the USSR]], forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Towster |first=Julian |title=Political Power in the U.S.S.R., 1917–1947: The Theory and Structure of Government in the Soviet State |date=1948 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=106}}</ref> These two documents were confirmed by the first [[Congress of Soviets of the USSR]] and signed by the heads of the delegations,<ref>{{In lang|ru}} [http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5!OpenDocument Voted Unanimously for the Union.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204132112/http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5%21OpenDocument|date=4 December 2009}}</ref> [[Mikhail Kalinin]], [[Mikhail Tskhakaya]], [[Mikhail Frunze]], [[Grigory Petrovsky]], and [[Alexander Chervyakov]],<ref>{{In lang|ru}} [http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html Creation of the USSR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529132218/http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html |date=29 May 2007 }} at Khronos.ru.</ref> on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the [[Bolshoi Theatre]] in Moscow.
+
+An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry, and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the [[Bolshevik Initial Decrees]], government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the [[GOELRO|GOELRO plan]], which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total [[electrification]] of Russia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lapin |first=G. G. |year=2000 |title=70 Years of Gidroproekt and Hydroelectric Power in Russia |journal=Hydrotechnical Construction |volume=34 |issue=8/9 |pages=374–379 |doi=10.1023/A:1004107617449 |s2cid=107814516 | issn=0018-8220}}</ref> The plan became the prototype for subsequent [[Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union|Five-Year Plans]] and was fulfilled by 1931.<ref name="Kuzbassenergo">{{In lang|ru}} [http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/ On GOELRO Plan – at Kuzbassenergo.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226190310/http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro|date=26 December 2008}}</ref> After the economic policy of '[[War communism]]' during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing [[Socialist mode of production|socialism]] in the country, the Soviet government [[New Economic Policy|permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry]] in the 1920s, and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.
+[[File:Russia Famine Saratov 1921.jpg|thumb|The [[Russian famine of 1921–22]] killed an estimated 5 million people.<br /><ref>{{Cite news |date=17 June 2015 |title=Famine of 1921–22 |language=en-US |work=Seventeen Moments in Soviet History |url=http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1921-2/famine-of-1921-22/ |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=15 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115171429/http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1921-2/famine-of-1921-22/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Courtois |first1=Stéphane |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheBlackBookofCommunism10/the-black-book-of-communism-jean-louis-margolin-1999-communism#page/n71/ |title=The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression |last2=Werth |first2=Nicolas |last3=Panné |first3=Jean-Louis |last4=Paczkowski |first4=Andrzej |last5=Bartošek |first5=Karel |last6=Margolin |first6=Jean-Louis |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-674-07608-2 |page=123}}</ref>]]
+From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the [[One-party state|one-party rule]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party (Bolsheviks)]].{{Efn|The consolidation into a one-party state took place during the first three and a half years after the revolution, which included the period of [[War communism]] and an election in which multiple parties competed. See {{Cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Leonard |title=The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State, First Phase 1917–1922 |date=1955 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]}}}} The stated purpose was to prevent the return of capitalist exploitation, and that the principles of [[democratic centralism]] would be the most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. The debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a '[[Collective leadership|troika]]' consisting of [[Grigory Zinoviev]] of the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]], [[Lev Kamenev]], of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], and [[Joseph Stalin]], of the [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]].
+
+In February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/formation-of-the-soviet-union/#:~:text=On%20February%201%2C%201924%2C%20the,of%20Soviet%20power%20in%201917.|title=Formation of the Soviet Union|access-date=30 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/67122375|title=Recognition of Britain|newspaper=Advocate |date=4 February 1924 |access-date=30 May 2024}}</ref> The same year, a [[1924 Soviet Constitution|Soviet Constitution]] was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union.
+
+According to [[Archie Brown (historian)|Archie Brown]] the constitution was never an accurate guide to political reality in the USSR. For example, the fact that the Party played the leading role in making and enforcing policy was not mentioned in it until 1977.<ref>Archie Brown, ''The rise and fall of Communism'' (2009) p, 518.</ref> The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. However, the term 'Soviet Russia'{{Spaced ndash}}formally applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republic{{Spaced ndash}}was often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers due to its domination by the Russian SFSR.
== 1927–1953: Stalinism ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)}}
-The history of the [[Soviet Union]] between 1927 and 1953 covers the period of the [[Second World War]] and of victory against Nazi Germany while the USSR remained under the control of [[Joseph Stalin]]. Stalin sought to destroy his political rivals while transforming Soviet society with [[central planning]], in particular a [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization of agriculture]] and a [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)|development of heavy industry]]. Stalin's power within the party and the state was established and eventually evolved into [[Stalin's cult of personality]], [[Soviet secret police|Soviet secret-police]] and the [[mass mobilization|mass-mobilization]]. The Communist Party was one of Stalin's major tools in molding the [[Soviet society]]. Stalin's methods in achieving his goals, which included [[Great Purge|party purges]], [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|political repression of the general population]], and forced collectivization, led to millions of deaths: in [[Gulag]]s, during the man-made famines, and [[ethnic cleansing]]s through [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|forced resettlements of population]].
+{{See also|Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin}}
+[[File:Famine en URSS 1933.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Soviet famine of 1930–1933]], with areas where the effects of famine were most severe shaded]]
+On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the [[Rabkrin|Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate]], which gave Stalin considerable power.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 November 2009 |title=Joseph Stalin – Biography, World War II & Facts – History |url=https://www.history.com/topics/russia/joseph-stalin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912144422/https://www.history.com/topics/russia/joseph-stalin |archive-date=12 September 2018 |access-date=6 December 2021}}</ref> By [[Rise of Joseph Stalin|gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmaneuvering his rivals within the party]], Stalin became the [[dictator|undisputed leader]] of the country and, by the end of the 1920s, established a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] rule. In October 1927, [[Grigory Zinoviev|Zinoviev]] and [[Leon Trotsky]] were expelled from the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] and forced into exile.
+
+In 1928, Stalin introduced the [[first five-year plan]] for building a [[Socialist economics|socialist economy]]. In place of the [[Proletarian internationalism|internationalism]] expressed by Lenin throughout the revolution, it aimed to build [[Socialism in One Country]]. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of [[Industrialization in the Soviet Union|industrialization]]. In [[Agriculture in the Soviet Union|agriculture]], rather than adhering to the 'lead by example' policy advocated by Lenin,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lenin |first=V.I. |title=Collected Works |pages=152–164, Vol. 31 |quote=The proletarian state must effect the transition to collective farming with extreme caution and only very gradually, by the force of example, without any coercion of the middle peasant.}}</ref> forced [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization of farms]] was implemented all over the country.
+
+[[Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union|Famines]] ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving [[kulak]]s (wealthy or middle-class peasants) were persecuted, and many were sent to [[Gulag]]s to do [[Forced labor in the Soviet Union|forced labor]].{{Sfn|Davies|Wheatcroft|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4s1lCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14 xiv], 401 441}}<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Stéphane |last1=Courtois |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206 |title=Livre noir du Communisme: crimes, terreur, répression |last2=Mark Kramer |year=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-07608-2 |page=206 |access-date=25 May 2020 |archive-date=22 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622213827/https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206 |url-status=live }}</ref> Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the country developed a robust industrial economy in the years preceding [[World War II]].
+[[File:Kolyma road00.jpg|thumb|left|Construction of the bridge through the [[Kolyma]] (part of the [[Road of Bones]] from [[Magadan]] to [[Jakutsk]]) by the prisoners of [[Dalstroy]]]]
+Closer cooperation between the USSR and the West developed in the early 1930s. From 1932 to 1934, the country participated in the [[World Disarmament Conference]]. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the [[United States]] and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, chose to recognize Stalin's Communist government formally and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two countries.<ref>[http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html Ukrainian 'Holodomor' (man-made famine) Facts and History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424093532/http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html |date=24 April 2013 }}. Holodomorct.org (28 November 2006). Retrieved on 29 July 2013.</ref> In September 1934, the country joined the [[League of Nations]]. After the [[Spanish Civil War]] broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican forces]] against the [[Francoist Spain|Nationalists]], who were supported by [[Kingdom of Italy|Fascist Italy]] and [[Nazi Germany]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Casanova |first=Julián |title=República y Guerra Civil. Vol. 8 de la Historia de España, dirigida por Josep Fontana y Ramón Villares |publisher=Crítica/Marcial Pons |year=2007 |isbn=978-84-8432-878-0 |location=Barcelona |pages=271–274 |language=es |author-link=Julián Casanova Ruiz}}</ref>
+
+In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new [[1936 Soviet Constitution|constitution]] that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. American historian J. Arch Getty concludes: "Many who lauded Stalin's Soviet Union as the most democratic country on earth lived to regret their words. After all, the Soviet Constitution of 1936 was adopted on the eve of the Great Terror of the late 1930s; the "thoroughly democratic" elections to the first Supreme Soviet permitted only uncontested candidates and took place at the height of the savage violence in 1937. The civil rights, personal freedoms, and democratic forms promised in the Stalin constitution were trampled almost immediately and remained dead letters until long after Stalin's death."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Getty |first=J. Arch |year=1991 |title=State and Society Under Stalin: Constitutions and Elections in the 1930s |journal=Slavic Review |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=18–35 |doi=10.2307/2500596 |jstor=2500596|s2cid=163479192 }}</ref>
+[[File:5marshals 01.jpg|thumb|Five [[Marshal of the Soviet Union|Marshals of the Soviet Union]] in 1935. Only two of them—[[Semyon Budyonny|Budyonny]] and [[Kliment Voroshilov|Voroshilov]]—survived the [[Great Purge]]. [[Vasily Blyukher|Blyukher]], [[Alexander Yegorov (soldier)|Yegorov]] and [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky|Tukhachevsky]] were executed.]]
+Stalin's [[Great Purge]] resulted in the detainment or execution of many '[[Old Bolshevik]]s' who had participated in the October Revolution. According to declassified Soviet archives, the [[NKVD]] arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot.<ref name="Thurston">{{Cite book |last=Thurston |first=Robert W. |title=Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941 |date=1998 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-07442-0 |page=139 |author-link=Robert W. Thurston}}</ref> Over those two years, there were an average of over one thousand executions a day.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Abbott |last=Gleason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373 |title=A companion to Russian history |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4051-3560-3 |page=373 |access-date=25 May 2020 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905175409/https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Efn|name=fn1|According to British historian [[Geoffrey Hosking]], "excess deaths during the 1930s as a whole were in the range of 10–11 million."<ref name="1930s">{{Cite book |first=Geoffrey A. |last=Hosking |url=https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk |title=Russia and the Russians: a history |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-674-00473-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk/page/469 469] |url-access=registration}}</ref> American historian [[Timothy D. Snyder]] claims that archival evidence suggests maximum excess mortality of nine million during the entire Stalin era.<ref>[http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/ Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012090945/http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/ |date=12 October 2017 }}, ''The New York Review of Books'', 27 January 2011</ref> Australian historian and archival researcher [[Stephen G. Wheatcroft]] asserts that around a million "purposive killings" can be attributed to the Stalinist regime, along with the premature deaths of roughly two million more amongst the repressed populations (i.e. in camps, prisons, exiles, etc.) through criminal negligence.{{Sfn|Wheatcroft|1996|pp=1334,1348}}}} Scholars estimate the total death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938), including fatalities attributed to prison conditions, to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million.<ref>{{Citation |title=Introduction: the Great Purges as history |date=1985 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002 |work=Origins of the Great Purges |pages=1–9 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002 |isbn=978-0521259217 |access-date=2021-12-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Homkes|first=Brett|date=2004|title=Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge|url=https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=mcnair|journal=McNair Scholars Journal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellman |first1=Michael |title=Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |date=2002 |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=1151–1172 |doi=10.1080/0966813022000017177 |jstor=826310 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/826310 |issn=0966-8136}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shearer |first1=David R. |title=Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat |date=11 September 2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-95544-6 |page=vii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCHMEAAAQBAJ&dq=great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PR7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=Todd H. |title=Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia |date=16 October 2019 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-9153-9 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJGyDwAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PA7 |language=en}}</ref>
+
+In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why didn't the USSR join Allies in 1939? |last=Yegorov |first=Oleg |url=https://www.rbth.com/history/331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=5 February 2022 |website=Russia Beyond |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206011636/https://www.rbth.com/history/331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii |url-status=live }}</ref> Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the [[Munich Agreement]] with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during [[German–Soviet Axis talks|extensive talks]]. Unlike the case of Britain and France, the Soviet Union's agreement with Germany, the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] (signed on 23 August 1939), included a secret protocol that paved the way for the Soviet invasion of Eastern European states and [[Military occupations by the Soviet Union|occupation of their territories]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/23/moscow-campaign-to-justify-molotov-ribbentrop-pact-sparks-outcry|title=Molotov-Ribbentrop: why is Moscow trying to justify Nazi pact?|work=[[The Guardian]]|author=Andrew Roth|date=23 August 2019}}</ref> The pact made possible the Soviet occupation of [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia]], [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina|Bessarabia, northern Bukovina]], and [[Soviet invasion of Poland|eastern Poland]].
+
+[[File:Lavrenti Beria Stalins family.jpg|thumb|Stalin and [[Lavrentiy Beria]] with Stalin's daughter, [[Svetlana Alliluyeva|Svetlana]], on his lap. As head of the NKVD, Beria was responsible for many [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|political repressions in the Soviet Union]].]]
+On 1 September, Germany [[Invasion of Poland|invaded Poland]] and on the 17th the Soviet Union invaded Poland as well. On 6 October, Poland fell and part of the Soviet occupation zone was then handed over to Germany.
+
+On 10 October, the Soviet Union and Lithuania signed an agreement whereby the Soviet Union transferred Polish sovereignty over the Vilna region to Lithuania, and on 28 October the boundary between the Soviet occupation zone and the new territory of Lithuania was officially demarcated.
+
+On 1 November, the Soviet Union [[Soviet annexation of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia|annexed Western Ukraine]], followed by Western Belarus on the 2nd.
+
+In late November, unable to coerce the [[Finland|Republic of Finland]] by diplomatic means into moving its border {{Convert|25|km}} back from [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], Stalin ordered the [[Winter War|invasion of Finland]]. On 14 December 1939, the Soviet Union was expelled from the [[League of Nations]] for invading Finland.<ref>[https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations?form=MY01SV&OCID=MY01SV USSR expelled from the League of Nations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914013927/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations?form=MY01SV&OCID=MY01SV |date=14 September 2021 }}. www.history.com. 5 November 2009</ref> In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during [[Soviet–Japanese border conflicts|border clashes]] with the [[Empire of Japan]] in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, the USSR signed the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] with Japan, which the Soviets would unilaterally break in 1945, recognizing the territorial integrity of [[Manchukuo]], a Japanese [[puppet state]]. The pact ensured Japan would not enter the war against the USSR on the side of Germany later.
-World War II, known as "the [[Great Patriotic War]]" in the Soviet Union, devastated much of the USSR with about [[World War II casualties|one out of every three World War II deaths representing a citizen of the Soviet Union]]. After World War II the Soviet Union's armies occupied [[Central and Eastern Europe]], where socialist governments took power. By 1949 the [[Cold War]] had started between the [[Western Bloc]] and the [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern (Soviet) Bloc]], with the [[Warsaw Pact]] pitched against [[NATO]] in Europe. After 1945 Stalin did not directly engage in any wars. Stalin continued his [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] rule in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc until his death in 1953.
+==== World War II ====
+{{Main|Soviet Union in World War II}}
+{{Further|Eastern Front (World War II)|Great Patriotic War (term)|World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet war crimes|Rape during the occupation of Germany}}
+[[File:RIAN archive 44732 Soviet soldiers attack house.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], considered by many historians as a decisive turning point of World War II]]
+Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]] on 22 June 1941 starting what is known in Russia and some other post-Soviet states as the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Great Patriotic War]]. The [[Red Army]] stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the [[Battle of Moscow]]. The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before [[End of World War II in Europe|Germany surrendered in 1945]]. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front.<ref>{{Cite book |first=William J. |last=Duiker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC |title=Contemporary World History |year= 2009 |publisher=Wadsworth Pub Co |isbn=978-0-495-57271-8 |page=128 |access-date=25 May 2020 |archive-date=22 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622200541/https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Harry Hopkins]], a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war, saying that "While in Sicily the forces of Great Britain and the United States are being opposed by 2 German divisions, the Russian front is receiving attention of approximately 200 German divisions."{{Efn|name=fn3|"In War II Russia occupies a dominant position and is the decisive factor looking toward the defeat of the Axis in Europe. While in Sicily the forces of Great Britain and the United States are being opposed by 2 German divisions, the Russian front is receiving attention of approximately 200 German divisions. Whenever the Allies open a second front on the Continent, it will be decidedly a secondary front to that of Russia; theirs will continue to be the main effort. Without Russia in the war, the Axis cannot be defeated in Europe, and the position of the United Nations becomes precarious. Similarly, Russia's post-war position in Europe will be a dominant one. With Germany crushed, there is no power in Europe to oppose her tremendous military forces."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Executive of the Presidents Soviet Protocol Committee (Burns) to the President's Special Assistant (Hopkins) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943/d317 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821062622/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943/d317 |archive-date=21 August 2018 |access-date=21 August 2018 |website=www.history.state.gov |publisher=[[Office of the Historian]]}}</ref>}} Up to 34 million soldiers served in the Red Army during World War II, 8 million of which were [[Demographics of the Soviet Union|non-Slavic minorities]].<ref name="Soviet losses">{{Citation | first = ГФ| last = Кривошеев | title = Россия и СССР в войнах XX века: потери вооруженных сил. Статистическое исследование |trans-title=Russia and the USSR in the wars of the 20th century: losses of the Armed Forces. A Statistical Study | language = ru}}.</ref>
+[[File:RIAN archive 2153 After bombing.jpg|thumb|right|Residents of Leningrad leave their homes destroyed by German bombing. About 1 million civilians died during the 871-day [[Siege of Leningrad]], mostly from starvation.]]
+
+[[File:Teheran conference-1943.jpg|thumb|From left to right, the Soviet General Secretary [[Joseph Stalin]], US President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] [[Tehran Conference|confer]] in Tehran, 1943]]
+The USSR suffered greatly in the war, [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|losing around 20 million people]] (modern Russian sources put the number at 26.6 million).<ref name="1930s" /><ref name="MOD Russian Federation">{{cite web|last1=Министерство обороны Российской Федерации|first1=MOD Russian Federation|title=On Question of war Losses (in Russian)|url=http://encyclopedia.mil.ru/encyclopedia/history/more.htm?id=11359251@cmsArticle|publisher=MOD Russian Federation|access-date=12 November 2017}}</ref> This includes 8.7 million military deaths. The majority of the losses were ethnic [[Russians]], followed by ethnic [[Ukrainians]].<ref name="Soviet losses"/> Approximately 2.8 million [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet POWs]] died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldhagen |first=Daniel | author-link=Daniel Goldhagen |title=[[Hitler's Willing Executioners]] |page=290 |quote=2.8 million young, healthy Soviet POWs" killed by the Germans, "mainly by starvation{{nbsp}}... in less than eight months" of 1941–42, before "the decimation of Soviet POWs{{nbsp}}... was stopped" and the Germans "began to use them as laborers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Treatment of Soviet POWs: Starvation, Disease, and Shootings, June 1941 – January 1942 |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106204101/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |access-date=9 March 2019 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org}}</ref> More than 2 million people were killed in [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Belarus]] during the three years of [[German occupation of Byelorussia during World War II|German occupation]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Belarus – World War II |url=https://countrystudies.us/belarus/10.htm |work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]}}</ref> almost a quarter of the region's population, including around 550,000 Jews in the [[The Holocaust in Belarus|Holocaust in Belarus]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Waitman Wade Beorn|title=Marching into Darkness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S8cXAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72660-4|page=28}}</ref> During the war, the country together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the [[Big Four in World War II|Big Four]] Allied powers,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brinkley |first=Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&q=big+four+world+war+2&pg=PA223 |title=The New York Times Living History: World War II, 1942–1945: The Allied Counteroffensive |publisher=Macmillan|year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8050-7247-1 |author-link=Douglas Brinkley |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815162717/https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&q=big+four+world+war+2&pg=PA223 |url-status=live }}</ref> and later became the [[Four Policemen]] that formed the basis of the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Urquhart |first=Brian |title=Looking for the Sheriff |publisher=New York Review of Books, 16 July 1998 |author-link=Brian Urquhart}}</ref> It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied [[diplomatic recognition]] by the Western world, the USSR had official relations with practically every country by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the country [[Soviet Union and the United Nations|became]] one of the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|five permanent members]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]], which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.
+
+The USSR, in fulfillment of its agreement with the Allies at the [[Yalta Conference]], broke the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 which Japan had been honoring despite their alliance with Germany,<ref name="denunciation">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp Denunciation of the neutrality pact] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520092519/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp |date=20 May 2011 }} 5 April 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> and [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories]] on 9 August 1945.<ref name="declarationofwar">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp Soviet Declaration of War on Japan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520092513/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp |date=20 May 2011 }}, 8 August 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> [[Soviet–Japanese War|This conflict]] ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional [[surrender of Japan]] and the end of World War II.
+
+Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in [[Soviet occupation zone of Germany|Germany]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Women and War |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyZYS_GxglIC&pg=PA480|publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-770-8|pages=480–}}</ref> The [[Wartime sexual violence|wartime rapes]] were followed by decades of silence.<ref>{{cite web |author=Allan Hall |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/3255081/German-women-break-their-silence-on-horrors-of-Red-Army-rapes.html |title=German women break their silence on horrors of Red Army rapes|date=24 October 2008 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/3255081/German-women-break-their-silence-on-horrors-of-Red-Army-rapes.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=10 December 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="The Independent">{{cite web|title=Raped by the Red Army: Two million German women speak out|work=The Independent|date=15 April 2009 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/raped-by-the-red-army-two-million-german-women-speak-out-1669074.html|access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="Susanne Beyer">{{cite news|title=Harrowing Memoir: German Woman Writes Ground-Breaking Account of WW2 Rape |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,680354,00.html|author=Susanne Beyer|newspaper=Der Spiegel |date=26 February 2010|access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref> According to historian [[Antony Beevor]], whose books were banned in 2015 from some Russian schools and colleges, [[NKVD]] (Soviet secret police) files have revealed that the leadership knew what was happening, but did little to stop it.<ref name=Bird>{{cite journal |last=Bird |first=Nicky |title=Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor |journal=International Affairs |volume=78 |number=4 |date=October 2002 |pages=914–916 |institution=Royal Institute of International Affairs}}</ref> It was often [[wikt:rear echelon|rear echelon]] units who committed the rapes. According to professor Oleg Rzheshevsky, "4,148 Red Army officers and many privates were punished for committing atrocities".<ref name=":0">Television documentary from CC&C Ideacom Production, "Apocalypse Never-Ending War 1918–1926", part 2, aired at Danish DR K on 22 October 2018.</ref> The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Naimark|first=Norman M.|title=The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 |publisher=Belknap Press|year=1995|location=Cambridge |page=70}}</ref>
+[[File:Map US Lend Lease shipments to USSR-WW2.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|U.S. [[Lend-Lease]] shipments to the USSR. During the war the USSR provided an unknown number of shipments of rare minerals to the US Treasury as a form of cashless [[Lend-Lease#Repayment|repayment of Lend-Lease]].]]
+The Soviet Union was greatly assisted in its wartime effort by the United States via [[Lend-Lease]]. In total, the U.S. deliveries to the USSR through Lend-Lease amounted to $11 [[1,000,000,000 (number)|billion]] in materials: over 400,000 [[jeep]]s and trucks; 12,000 [[armored vehicle]]s (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386<ref>Zaloga (Armored Thunderbolt) pp. 28, 30, 31.{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> of which were [[M3 Lee]]s and 4,102 [[Lend-Lease Sherman tanks|M4 Shermans]]);<ref>''Lend-Lease Shipments: World War II'', Section IIIB, Published by Office, Chief of Finance, War Department, December 31, 1946, p. 8.</ref> 11,400 aircraft (of which 4,719 were [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]]s, 3,414 were [[Douglas A-20 Havoc]]s and 2,397 were [[Bell P-63 Kingcobra]]s)<ref>{{cite book |last=Hardesty |first=Von |chapter=Appendix 10: Lend-Lease Aircraft to USSR June 22, 1941 – September 20, 1945 |title=Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power, 1941–1945 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |place=Washington, D.C. |year=1991 |oclc=1319584971 |isbn=978-1-56098-071-1 |url= https://archive.org/details/redphoenixriseof0000hard_d8o6 |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive |pages=[https://archive.org/details/redphoenixriseof0000hard_d8o6/page/253/mode/1up 253]}}</ref> and 1.75 million tons of food.<ref>{{cite book |title=American Military History |chapter-url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf |chapter=World War II: The War Against Germany And Italy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506174749/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2017 |publisher=US Army Center of Military History |page=158}}</ref> As Soviet soldiers were bearing the brunt of the war, Roosevelt's advisor [[Harry Hopkins]] felt that American aid to the Soviets would hasten the war's conclusion.<ref>David Roll (2012) ''The Hopkins Touch: Harry Hopkins and the Forging of the Alliance to Defeat Hitler'', ch. 6.</ref>
+
+Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94% coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.<ref>{{cite web|title=The five Lend-Lease routes to Russia |url=http://www.o5m6.de/Routes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031212063805/http://www.o5m6.de/routes.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 12, 2003 |website=Engines of the Red Army |access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Motter |first1=T.H. Vail |title=The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia |date=1952 |publisher=Center of Military History |pages=4–6 |url=https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/persian/index.htm |access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref>
+
+==== Cold War ====
+{{Main|Cold War}}
+[[File:Soviet empire 1960.png|thumb|Map showing the greatest territorial extent of the Soviet Union and the sovereign states that it dominated politically, economically and militarily in 1960, after the [[Cuban Revolution]] of 1959 but before the official [[Sino-Soviet split]] of 1961 (total area: c. 35,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>){{Efn|34,374,483 km<sup>2</sup>}}]]
+During the immediate post-war period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its [[Command economy|strictly centralized control]]. It took effective control over most of the countries of Eastern Europe (except [[Tito–Stalin split|Yugoslavia]] and later [[Soviet-Albanian split|Albania]]), turning them into [[satellite state]]s. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the [[Warsaw Pact]], in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or [[Comecon]], a counterpart to the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC), from 1949 to 1991.<ref name="fas.org">{{cite web |title=Main Intelligence Administration (GRU) Glavnoye Razvedovatel'noye Upravlenie – Russia / Soviet Intelligence Agencies |url=https://fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226090607/http://www.fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/ |archive-date=26 December 2008 |access-date=24 November 2008 |publisher=Fas.org}}</ref> Although nominally a "defensive" alliance, the Warsaw Pact's primary function was to safeguard the [[Soviet Empire|Soviet Union's hegemony]] over its [[Soviet Bloc|Eastern European]] satellites, with the Pact's only direct military actions having been the invasions of its own member states to keep them from breaking away.<ref name="history.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/warsaw-pact-ends|title=Warsaw Pact ends|website=HISTORY}}</ref> The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted [[World War II reparations|war reparations]] from [[East Germany]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[People's Republic of Romania|Romania]], and [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the [[Marshall Plan]]."<ref>Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in {{Cite book |editor-first=Klaus | editor-last=Larresm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174 |title=A Companion to Europe Since 1945 |publisher=Wiley |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-89024-0 |page=79}}</ref> Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious [[Chinese Communist Party]], and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in [[proxy war]]s.
== 1953–1964: Khrushchev Thaw ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)}}
-In the Soviet union, the eleven-year period from the death of [[Joseph Stalin]] (1953) to the political ouster of [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (1964), the national politics were dominated by the [[Cold War]]; the ideological [[United States|U.S.]]–[[Soviet Union|USSR]] struggle for the [[Power (philosophy)|planetary domination]] of their respective socio–economic systems, and the defense of [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. Nonetheless, since the mid-1950s, despite the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) [[De-Stalinization|having disowned Stalinism]], the political culture of Stalinism—an omnipotent [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]], anti-[[Trotskyism]], a [[Five-year plans of the Soviet Union|five-year]] [[planned economy]] (post-[[New Economic Policy]]), and repudiation of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] secret protocols—remained the character of Soviet society until the accession of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] as leader of the CPSU in 1985.
+[[File:John Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev 1961.jpg|thumb|left|Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (left) with US President [[John F. Kennedy]] in Vienna, 3 June 1961]]
+Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by [[Georgy Malenkov]]. This did not last, however, and [[Nikita Khrushchev]] eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he [[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences|denounced Joseph Stalin]] and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as [[de-Stalinization]].
+
+Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defence of its western borders, in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1941. For this reason, the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Hungary]] in 1956.
+
+In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what [[Mao Zedong]] perceived as Khrushchev's [[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionism]], led to the [[Sino–Soviet split]]. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]], [[Democratic Kampuchea|Cambodia]], and [[Somali Democratic Republic|Somalia]] choosing to ally with China.
+[[File:Soviet Union Administrative Divisions 1989.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Republics of the Soviet Union]] in 1954–1991]]
+During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the [[Space Race]], rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, [[Sputnik 1]] in 1957; a living dog named [[Laika]] in 1957; the first human being, [[Yuri Gagarin]] in 1961; the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] in 1963; [[Alexei Leonov]], the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft [[Luna 9]] in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, [[Lunokhod 1]] and [[Lunokhod 2]].<ref name="lunokhod">{{Cite episode |title=Tank on the Moon |url=http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html |series=The Nature of Things with David Suzuki |network=CBC-TV |air-date=6 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226123643/http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html |archive-date=26 December 2008}}</ref>
+
+Khrushchev initiated '[[Khrushchev Thaw|The Thaw]]', a complex shift in political, cultural, and economic life in the country. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a [[Cuban Missile Crisis|crisis with the United States]] over the Soviet deployment of [[Nuclear weapons delivery|nuclear missiles]] in [[Cuba]]. An agreement was made with the United States to remove nuclear missiles from both [[Cuba]] and [[Turkey]], concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.
== 1964–1982: Era of Stagnation ==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)}}
-
+[[File:Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nikolai Podgorny]] visiting [[Tampere]], [[Finland]] on 16 October 1969]]
+[[File:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg|thumb|left|Soviet general secretary [[Leonid Brezhnev]] and US President [[Jimmy Carter]] sign the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II|SALT II arms limitation treaty]] in Vienna on 18 June 1979.]]
The history of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, referred to as the Brezhnev Era, covers the period of [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (USSR). This period began with high economic growth and soaring prosperity, but ended with a much weaker Soviet Union facing social, political, and economic stagnation. The average annual income stagnated, because needed economic reforms were never fully carried out.
@@ -56,4 +132,5 @@
One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled during the [[1973 oil crisis|1973–74 oil crisis]], and rose again in [[1979 oil crisis|1979–1981]], making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses. At one point, Soviet Premier [[Alexei Kosygin]] told the head of oil and gas production, "things are bad with bread. Give me 3 million tons [of oil] over the plan."<ref>Yergin, ''The Quest'' (2011) p 23</ref> Former prime minister [[Yegor Gaidar]], an economist looking back three decades, in 2007 wrote:
{{blockquote|The hard currency from oil exports stopped the growing food supply crisis, increased the import of equipment and consumer goods, ensured a financial base for the arms race and the achievement of nuclear parity with the United States, and permitted the realization of such risky foreign-policy actions as the war in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Yegor Gaidar|title=Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDSfnxYjVwAC&pg=PA102|date= 2007|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|page=102|isbn=9780815731153 }}</ref>}}
+
== 1982–1991: Reforms and dissolution ==
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0 => 'Modern revolutionary activity in the [[Russian Empire]] began with the 1825 [[Decembrist revolt]]. Although [[Serfdom in Russia|serfdom]] was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavourable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament, the [[State Duma (Russian Empire)|State Duma]], was established in 1906 after the [[Revolution of 1905|Russian Revolution of 1905]], but [[Nicholas II of Russia|Emperor Nicholas II]] resisted attempts to move from [[Absolute monarchy|absolute]] to a [[constitutional monarchy]]. [[Rebellion|Social unrest]] continued and was aggravated during [[World War I]] by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.',
1 => 'A spontaneous popular demonstration in Petrograd on [[International Women's Day|8 March]] 1917, demanding peace and bread, culminated in the [[February Revolution]] and the abdication of Nicholas II and the imperial government.{{sfn|Mccauley|2014|p=83}} The [[tsarist autocracy]] was replaced by the [[Social democracy|social-democratic]] [[Russian Provisional Government]], which intended to conduct elections to the [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] and to continue fighting on the side of the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] in World War I. At the same time, [[workers' council]]s, known in Russian as '[[Soviet (council)|Soviets]]', sprang up across the country, and the most influential of them, the [[Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies]], shared power with the Provisional Government.{{sfn|Mccauley|2014|p=487}}<ref name="br1"/> Membership of the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] party had risen from 24,000 members in February 1917 to 200,000 members by September 1917.<ref>Stephen Cohen, ''Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938'' (Oxford University Press: London, 1980) p. 46.</ref> 50,000 workers had passed a resolution in favour of the Bolshevik demand for the transfer of power to the Soviets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Head |first1=Michael |title=Evgeny Pashukanis: A Critical Reappraisal |date=12 September 2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-30787-5 |pages=1–288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYGNAgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PT83 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shukman |first1=Harold |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution |date=5 December 1994 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-631-19525-2 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PA21 |language=en}}</ref>',
2 => '[[File:19191107-lenin second anniversary october revolution moscow.jpg|thumb|[[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]], [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]], and [[Lev Kamenev|Kamenev]] celebrating the second anniversary of the [[October Revolution]]]]',
3 => 'The Bolsheviks, led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], pushed for [[communist revolution]] in the Soviets and on the streets, adopting the slogan of "All Power to the Soviets" and urging the overthrow of the Provisional Government.{{sfn|Read|2005|pp=82–85}}{{sfn|Service|2005|pp=47–49}} On 7 November 1917, Bolshevik [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guard]]s stormed the [[Winter Palace]] in Petrograd, arresting the Provisional Government leaders and Lenin declared that all power was now transferred to the Soviets.<ref name=BBC1>{{Cite news |title=The causes of the October Revolution |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/4 |url-status=dead |access-date=31 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805155250/http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/4 |archive-date=5 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="br1"/> This event would later be officially known in Soviet bibliographies as the "[[October Revolution|Great October Socialist Revolution]]". Bolshevik figures such as [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]], [[Moisei Uritsky]], and [[Dmitry Manuilsky]] agreed that Lenin's influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the [[October Revolution|October insurrection]] was carried out according to [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky's]], not to Lenin's plan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |page=1283|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet |language=en}}</ref> The initial stage of the October Revolution which involved the assault on [[Petrograd]] occurred largely without any human [[Casualty (person)|casualties]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shukman |first1=Harold |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution |date=5 December 1994 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-631-19525-2 |page=343 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PA343 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bergman |first1=Jay |title=The French Revolutionary Tradition in Russian and Soviet Politics, Political Thought, and Culture |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-884270-5 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5UKjDwAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PA224 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=McMeekin |first1=Sean |title=The Russian Revolution: A New History |date=30 May 2017 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-09497-4 |pages=1–496 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aXmZDgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PT155 |language=en}}</ref>',
4 => '',
5 => 'Lenin's government instituted a number of progressive measures such as [[Universal access to education|universal education]], [[universal healthcare]], and [[Women in Russia|equal rights for women]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Katherine H. |last2=Keene |first2=Michael L. |title=After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5647-5 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugri͡umov |first1=Aleksandr Leontʹevich |title=Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925 |date=1976 |publisher=Novosti Press Agency Publishing House |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Lenin: A Political Life: Volume 1: The Strengths of Contradiction |date=24 June 1985 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-05591-3 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntiuCwAAQBAJ&q=universal+education&pg=PA98 |language=en}}</ref> Conversely, the bloody [[Red Terror]] was initiated to shut down all opposition, both perceived and real.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222175025/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union | url-status=dead | archive-date=22 February 2021 | title=How Lenin's Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union | website=[[National Geographic Society]] | date=2 September 2020 }}</ref> The terror also arose in response to a number of [[Assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin|assassination attempts]] on Bolshevik senior leaders and [[Left SR uprising|organized insurrections]] against the Soviet government.<ref name="Leninism Under Lenin">{{cite book |last1=Liebman |first1=Marcel |title=Leninism Under Lenin |date=1985 |publisher=Merlin Press |isbn=978-0-85036-261-9 |pages=1–348 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQjzAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Scott Baldwin |title=Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923 |date=15 April 2011 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Pre |isbn=978-0-8229-7779-7 |pages=75–85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ueUEE8jVRsC&dq=anarchist+assassination+attempt+lenin&pg=PA74 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Rabinowitch306">{{cite book |last= Rabinowitch|first= Alexander|title= The bolsheviks in power. The first year of Soviet rule in Petrograd|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BEoBCGJ4VqYC&q=The+bolsheviks+in+power.+The+first+year+of+Soviet+rule+in+Petrograd|language= en|date= 2007|publisher= Indiana University Press|isbn= 9780253349439|page= 306}}</ref>',
6 => '',
7 => 'The [[federalization]] of Russia was promulgated in the [[Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia]] in November, not including the detached borderlands.<ref name="federation"/> In December, the Bolsheviks signed an [[armistice]] with the [[Central Powers]], though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended their involvement in the war and signed a [[separate peace]] treaty, the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. After the defeat of the Germans in the war, Lenin sought the creation of formally independent [[Soviet republic]]s in the territories that were being vacated by the German Army.<ref name="federation">{{cite book |last1=Raffass |first1=Tania |title=The Soviet Union: Federation Or Empire? |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-68833-8 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P4E7WSecBakC |language=en}}</ref>',
8 => '[[File:Protección del Palacio Tauride durante el Segundo Congreso Regional de los Soviets.jpg|thumb|Dissolution of the elected [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] by the Bolsheviks on 6 January 1918]]',
9 => '',
10 => 'A long and bloody [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] ensued between the [[Red Army|Reds]] and the [[White movement|Whites]], ending in 1921–1922 with the Reds' victory.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reese |first1=Roger |title=Russian Civil War, 1918–1921 |journal=Military History |date=6 February 2012 |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780199791279-0051|isbn=978-0-19-979127-9 }}</ref> It included [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|foreign intervention]], the [[Murder of the Romanov family|murder of the former emperor and his family]], and the [[Russian famine of 1921–22|famine of 1921–1922]], which killed about five million people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mawdsley |first=Evan |url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan |title=The Russian Civil War |year= 2007 |publisher=Pegasus Books |isbn=978-1-933648-15-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan/page/287 287] |author-link=Evan Mawdsley |url-access=registration}}</ref> Although Lenin had declared his support for the principle of [[self-determination]], the party became centralized and the independent Soviet republics were subordinated to Soviet Russia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Robert A. |title=The Soviet Concept of 'Limited Sovereignty' from Lenin to Gorbachev: The Brezhnev Doctrine |date=27 July 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-20491-5 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KuW-DAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> In March 1921, the [[Treaty of Riga]] was signed with the [[Second Polish Republic|Republic of Poland]], splitting territories in [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]], and putting an end to Lenin's westward offensive against capitalism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Stephen J. |title=European Dictatorships 1918–1945 |date=12 November 2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-69011-3 |pages=89–90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLXkGLDxSkAC |language=en}}</ref> In [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonia]], [[Finnish Civil War|Finland]], [[Latvian War of Independence|Latvia]], and [[Lithuanian–Soviet War|Lithuania]], the Reds were defeated, while the Red Army managed to occupy [[Red Army invasion of Armenia|Armenia]], [[Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], and [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|Georgia]] in the [[Caucasus]].{{sfn|Lee|2003|pp=84, 88}}{{sfn|Goldstein|2013|p=50}} Additionally, the forced requisition of food by the Soviet government led to substantial resistance, of which the most notable was the [[Tambov Rebellion]], ultimately put down by the Red Army.{{sfnm|1a1=Fischer|1y=1964|1p=459|2a1=Leggett|2y=1981|2pp=330–333|3a1=Service|3y=2000|3pp=423–424|4a1=White|4y=2001|4p=168|5a1=Ryan|5y=2012|5pp=154–155}}',
11 => '[[File:Russian civil war in the west.svg|thumb|right|[[Russian Civil War]] in the European part of Russia]]',
12 => '',
13 => 'The civil war had a devastating impact on the economy. A [[black market]] emerged in Russia, despite the threat of [[martial law]] against profiteering. The [[Russian ruble|ruble]] collapsed, with [[bartering|barter]] increasingly replacing money as a medium of exchange<ref name="DaviesHarrison1993">{{cite book|author1=R. W. Davies|author2=Mark Harrison|author3=S. G. Wheatcroft|title=The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ULWRnskfr4C&pg=PA6|year= 1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45770-5|page=6}}</ref> and, by 1921, heavy industry output had fallen to 20% of 1913 levels. 90% of wages were paid with goods rather than money.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921|url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft796nb4mj&chunk.id=d0e9364&toc.id=&brand=ucpress|access-date=2021-10-27|website=publishing.cdlib.org}}</ref> 70% of locomotives were in need of repair{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}, and food requisitioning, combined with the effects of seven years of war and a severe drought, contributed to a famine that caused between 3 and 10 million deaths.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm#RCW|title=Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls|website=necrometrics.com|access-date=2017-12-12}}</ref> Coal production decreased from 27.5 million tons (1913) to 7 million tons (1920), while overall factory production also declined from 10,000 million roubles to 1,000 million roubles. According to the noted historian [[David Christian (historian)|David Christian]], the grain harvest was also slashed from 80.1 million tons (1913) to 46.5 million tons (1920).<ref>{{cite book|last=Christian|first=David|title=Imperial and Soviet Russia|year=1997|publisher=Macmillan Press Ltd|location=London|isbn=978-0-333-66294-6|page=236}}</ref>',
14 => '',
15 => '=== Treaty on the Creation of the USSR ===',
16 => 'On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], the [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]], the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]], and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]] approved the [[Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Treaty on the Creation of the USSR]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sakwa |first=Richard |title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union, 1917–1991: 1917–1991 |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-12290-0 |pages=140–143}}</ref> and the [[Declaration of the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Declaration of the Creation of the USSR]], forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Towster |first=Julian |title=Political Power in the U.S.S.R., 1917–1947: The Theory and Structure of Government in the Soviet State |date=1948 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=106}}</ref> These two documents were confirmed by the first [[Congress of Soviets of the USSR]] and signed by the heads of the delegations,<ref>{{In lang|ru}} [http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5!OpenDocument Voted Unanimously for the Union.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204132112/http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5%21OpenDocument|date=4 December 2009}}</ref> [[Mikhail Kalinin]], [[Mikhail Tskhakaya]], [[Mikhail Frunze]], [[Grigory Petrovsky]], and [[Alexander Chervyakov]],<ref>{{In lang|ru}} [http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html Creation of the USSR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529132218/http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html |date=29 May 2007 }} at Khronos.ru.</ref> on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the [[Bolshoi Theatre]] in Moscow.',
17 => '',
18 => 'An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry, and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the [[Bolshevik Initial Decrees]], government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the [[GOELRO|GOELRO plan]], which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total [[electrification]] of Russia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lapin |first=G. G. |year=2000 |title=70 Years of Gidroproekt and Hydroelectric Power in Russia |journal=Hydrotechnical Construction |volume=34 |issue=8/9 |pages=374–379 |doi=10.1023/A:1004107617449 |s2cid=107814516 | issn=0018-8220}}</ref> The plan became the prototype for subsequent [[Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union|Five-Year Plans]] and was fulfilled by 1931.<ref name="Kuzbassenergo">{{In lang|ru}} [http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/ On GOELRO Plan – at Kuzbassenergo.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226190310/http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro|date=26 December 2008}}</ref> After the economic policy of '[[War communism]]' during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing [[Socialist mode of production|socialism]] in the country, the Soviet government [[New Economic Policy|permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry]] in the 1920s, and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.',
19 => '[[File:Russia Famine Saratov 1921.jpg|thumb|The [[Russian famine of 1921–22]] killed an estimated 5 million people.<br /><ref>{{Cite news |date=17 June 2015 |title=Famine of 1921–22 |language=en-US |work=Seventeen Moments in Soviet History |url=http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1921-2/famine-of-1921-22/ |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=15 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115171429/http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1921-2/famine-of-1921-22/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Courtois |first1=Stéphane |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheBlackBookofCommunism10/the-black-book-of-communism-jean-louis-margolin-1999-communism#page/n71/ |title=The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression |last2=Werth |first2=Nicolas |last3=Panné |first3=Jean-Louis |last4=Paczkowski |first4=Andrzej |last5=Bartošek |first5=Karel |last6=Margolin |first6=Jean-Louis |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-674-07608-2 |page=123}}</ref>]]',
20 => 'From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the [[One-party state|one-party rule]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party (Bolsheviks)]].{{Efn|The consolidation into a one-party state took place during the first three and a half years after the revolution, which included the period of [[War communism]] and an election in which multiple parties competed. See {{Cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Leonard |title=The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State, First Phase 1917–1922 |date=1955 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]}}}} The stated purpose was to prevent the return of capitalist exploitation, and that the principles of [[democratic centralism]] would be the most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. The debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a '[[Collective leadership|troika]]' consisting of [[Grigory Zinoviev]] of the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]], [[Lev Kamenev]], of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], and [[Joseph Stalin]], of the [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]].',
21 => '',
22 => 'In February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/formation-of-the-soviet-union/#:~:text=On%20February%201%2C%201924%2C%20the,of%20Soviet%20power%20in%201917.|title=Formation of the Soviet Union|access-date=30 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/67122375|title=Recognition of Britain|newspaper=Advocate |date=4 February 1924 |access-date=30 May 2024}}</ref> The same year, a [[1924 Soviet Constitution|Soviet Constitution]] was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union.',
23 => '',
24 => 'According to [[Archie Brown (historian)|Archie Brown]] the constitution was never an accurate guide to political reality in the USSR. For example, the fact that the Party played the leading role in making and enforcing policy was not mentioned in it until 1977.<ref>Archie Brown, ''The rise and fall of Communism'' (2009) p, 518.</ref> The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. However, the term 'Soviet Russia'{{Spaced ndash}}formally applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republic{{Spaced ndash}}was often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers due to its domination by the Russian SFSR.',
25 => '{{See also|Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin}}',
26 => '[[File:Famine en URSS 1933.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Soviet famine of 1930–1933]], with areas where the effects of famine were most severe shaded]]',
27 => 'On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the [[Rabkrin|Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate]], which gave Stalin considerable power.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 November 2009 |title=Joseph Stalin – Biography, World War II & Facts – History |url=https://www.history.com/topics/russia/joseph-stalin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912144422/https://www.history.com/topics/russia/joseph-stalin |archive-date=12 September 2018 |access-date=6 December 2021}}</ref> By [[Rise of Joseph Stalin|gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmaneuvering his rivals within the party]], Stalin became the [[dictator|undisputed leader]] of the country and, by the end of the 1920s, established a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] rule. In October 1927, [[Grigory Zinoviev|Zinoviev]] and [[Leon Trotsky]] were expelled from the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] and forced into exile.',
28 => '',
29 => 'In 1928, Stalin introduced the [[first five-year plan]] for building a [[Socialist economics|socialist economy]]. In place of the [[Proletarian internationalism|internationalism]] expressed by Lenin throughout the revolution, it aimed to build [[Socialism in One Country]]. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of [[Industrialization in the Soviet Union|industrialization]]. In [[Agriculture in the Soviet Union|agriculture]], rather than adhering to the 'lead by example' policy advocated by Lenin,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lenin |first=V.I. |title=Collected Works |pages=152–164, Vol. 31 |quote=The proletarian state must effect the transition to collective farming with extreme caution and only very gradually, by the force of example, without any coercion of the middle peasant.}}</ref> forced [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization of farms]] was implemented all over the country.',
30 => '',
31 => '[[Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union|Famines]] ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving [[kulak]]s (wealthy or middle-class peasants) were persecuted, and many were sent to [[Gulag]]s to do [[Forced labor in the Soviet Union|forced labor]].{{Sfn|Davies|Wheatcroft|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4s1lCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14 xiv], 401 441}}<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Stéphane |last1=Courtois |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206 |title=Livre noir du Communisme: crimes, terreur, répression |last2=Mark Kramer |year=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-07608-2 |page=206 |access-date=25 May 2020 |archive-date=22 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622213827/https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206 |url-status=live }}</ref> Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the country developed a robust industrial economy in the years preceding [[World War II]].',
32 => '[[File:Kolyma road00.jpg|thumb|left|Construction of the bridge through the [[Kolyma]] (part of the [[Road of Bones]] from [[Magadan]] to [[Jakutsk]]) by the prisoners of [[Dalstroy]]]]',
33 => 'Closer cooperation between the USSR and the West developed in the early 1930s. From 1932 to 1934, the country participated in the [[World Disarmament Conference]]. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the [[United States]] and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, chose to recognize Stalin's Communist government formally and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two countries.<ref>[http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html Ukrainian 'Holodomor' (man-made famine) Facts and History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424093532/http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html |date=24 April 2013 }}. Holodomorct.org (28 November 2006). Retrieved on 29 July 2013.</ref> In September 1934, the country joined the [[League of Nations]]. After the [[Spanish Civil War]] broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican forces]] against the [[Francoist Spain|Nationalists]], who were supported by [[Kingdom of Italy|Fascist Italy]] and [[Nazi Germany]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Casanova |first=Julián |title=República y Guerra Civil. Vol. 8 de la Historia de España, dirigida por Josep Fontana y Ramón Villares |publisher=Crítica/Marcial Pons |year=2007 |isbn=978-84-8432-878-0 |location=Barcelona |pages=271–274 |language=es |author-link=Julián Casanova Ruiz}}</ref>',
34 => '',
35 => 'In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new [[1936 Soviet Constitution|constitution]] that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. American historian J. Arch Getty concludes: "Many who lauded Stalin's Soviet Union as the most democratic country on earth lived to regret their words. After all, the Soviet Constitution of 1936 was adopted on the eve of the Great Terror of the late 1930s; the "thoroughly democratic" elections to the first Supreme Soviet permitted only uncontested candidates and took place at the height of the savage violence in 1937. The civil rights, personal freedoms, and democratic forms promised in the Stalin constitution were trampled almost immediately and remained dead letters until long after Stalin's death."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Getty |first=J. Arch |year=1991 |title=State and Society Under Stalin: Constitutions and Elections in the 1930s |journal=Slavic Review |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=18–35 |doi=10.2307/2500596 |jstor=2500596|s2cid=163479192 }}</ref> ',
36 => '[[File:5marshals 01.jpg|thumb|Five [[Marshal of the Soviet Union|Marshals of the Soviet Union]] in 1935. Only two of them—[[Semyon Budyonny|Budyonny]] and [[Kliment Voroshilov|Voroshilov]]—survived the [[Great Purge]]. [[Vasily Blyukher|Blyukher]], [[Alexander Yegorov (soldier)|Yegorov]] and [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky|Tukhachevsky]] were executed.]]',
37 => 'Stalin's [[Great Purge]] resulted in the detainment or execution of many '[[Old Bolshevik]]s' who had participated in the October Revolution. According to declassified Soviet archives, the [[NKVD]] arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot.<ref name="Thurston">{{Cite book |last=Thurston |first=Robert W. |title=Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941 |date=1998 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-07442-0 |page=139 |author-link=Robert W. Thurston}}</ref> Over those two years, there were an average of over one thousand executions a day.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Abbott |last=Gleason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373 |title=A companion to Russian history |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4051-3560-3 |page=373 |access-date=25 May 2020 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905175409/https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Efn|name=fn1|According to British historian [[Geoffrey Hosking]], "excess deaths during the 1930s as a whole were in the range of 10–11 million."<ref name="1930s">{{Cite book |first=Geoffrey A. |last=Hosking |url=https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk |title=Russia and the Russians: a history |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-674-00473-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk/page/469 469] |url-access=registration}}</ref> American historian [[Timothy D. Snyder]] claims that archival evidence suggests maximum excess mortality of nine million during the entire Stalin era.<ref>[http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/ Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012090945/http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/ |date=12 October 2017 }}, ''The New York Review of Books'', 27 January 2011</ref> Australian historian and archival researcher [[Stephen G. Wheatcroft]] asserts that around a million "purposive killings" can be attributed to the Stalinist regime, along with the premature deaths of roughly two million more amongst the repressed populations (i.e. in camps, prisons, exiles, etc.) through criminal negligence.{{Sfn|Wheatcroft|1996|pp=1334,1348}}}} Scholars estimate the total death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938), including fatalities attributed to prison conditions, to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million.<ref>{{Citation |title=Introduction: the Great Purges as history |date=1985 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002 |work=Origins of the Great Purges |pages=1–9 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002 |isbn=978-0521259217 |access-date=2021-12-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Homkes|first=Brett|date=2004|title=Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge|url=https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=mcnair|journal=McNair Scholars Journal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellman |first1=Michael |title=Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |date=2002 |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=1151–1172 |doi=10.1080/0966813022000017177 |jstor=826310 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/826310 |issn=0966-8136}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shearer |first1=David R. |title=Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat |date=11 September 2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-95544-6 |page=vii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCHMEAAAQBAJ&dq=great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PR7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=Todd H. |title=Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia |date=16 October 2019 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-9153-9 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJGyDwAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PA7 |language=en}}</ref>',
38 => '',
39 => 'In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why didn't the USSR join Allies in 1939? |last=Yegorov |first=Oleg |url=https://www.rbth.com/history/331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=5 February 2022 |website=Russia Beyond |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206011636/https://www.rbth.com/history/331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii |url-status=live }}</ref> Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the [[Munich Agreement]] with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during [[German–Soviet Axis talks|extensive talks]]. Unlike the case of Britain and France, the Soviet Union's agreement with Germany, the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] (signed on 23 August 1939), included a secret protocol that paved the way for the Soviet invasion of Eastern European states and [[Military occupations by the Soviet Union|occupation of their territories]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/23/moscow-campaign-to-justify-molotov-ribbentrop-pact-sparks-outcry|title=Molotov-Ribbentrop: why is Moscow trying to justify Nazi pact?|work=[[The Guardian]]|author=Andrew Roth|date=23 August 2019}}</ref> The pact made possible the Soviet occupation of [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia]], [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina|Bessarabia, northern Bukovina]], and [[Soviet invasion of Poland|eastern Poland]].',
40 => '',
41 => '[[File:Lavrenti Beria Stalins family.jpg|thumb|Stalin and [[Lavrentiy Beria]] with Stalin's daughter, [[Svetlana Alliluyeva|Svetlana]], on his lap. As head of the NKVD, Beria was responsible for many [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|political repressions in the Soviet Union]].]]',
42 => 'On 1 September, Germany [[Invasion of Poland|invaded Poland]] and on the 17th the Soviet Union invaded Poland as well. On 6 October, Poland fell and part of the Soviet occupation zone was then handed over to Germany.',
43 => '',
44 => 'On 10 October, the Soviet Union and Lithuania signed an agreement whereby the Soviet Union transferred Polish sovereignty over the Vilna region to Lithuania, and on 28 October the boundary between the Soviet occupation zone and the new territory of Lithuania was officially demarcated.',
45 => '',
46 => 'On 1 November, the Soviet Union [[Soviet annexation of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia|annexed Western Ukraine]], followed by Western Belarus on the 2nd.',
47 => '',
48 => 'In late November, unable to coerce the [[Finland|Republic of Finland]] by diplomatic means into moving its border {{Convert|25|km}} back from [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], Stalin ordered the [[Winter War|invasion of Finland]]. On 14 December 1939, the Soviet Union was expelled from the [[League of Nations]] for invading Finland.<ref>[https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations?form=MY01SV&OCID=MY01SV USSR expelled from the League of Nations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914013927/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations?form=MY01SV&OCID=MY01SV |date=14 September 2021 }}. www.history.com. 5 November 2009</ref> In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during [[Soviet–Japanese border conflicts|border clashes]] with the [[Empire of Japan]] in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, the USSR signed the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] with Japan, which the Soviets would unilaterally break in 1945, recognizing the territorial integrity of [[Manchukuo]], a Japanese [[puppet state]]. The pact ensured Japan would not enter the war against the USSR on the side of Germany later.',
49 => '==== World War II ====',
50 => '{{Main|Soviet Union in World War II}}',
51 => '{{Further|Eastern Front (World War II)|Great Patriotic War (term)|World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet war crimes|Rape during the occupation of Germany}}',
52 => '[[File:RIAN archive 44732 Soviet soldiers attack house.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], considered by many historians as a decisive turning point of World War II]]',
53 => 'Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]] on 22 June 1941 starting what is known in Russia and some other post-Soviet states as the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Great Patriotic War]]. The [[Red Army]] stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the [[Battle of Moscow]]. The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before [[End of World War II in Europe|Germany surrendered in 1945]]. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front.<ref>{{Cite book |first=William J. |last=Duiker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC |title=Contemporary World History |year= 2009 |publisher=Wadsworth Pub Co |isbn=978-0-495-57271-8 |page=128 |access-date=25 May 2020 |archive-date=22 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622200541/https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Harry Hopkins]], a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war, saying that "While in Sicily the forces of Great Britain and the United States are being opposed by 2 German divisions, the Russian front is receiving attention of approximately 200 German divisions."{{Efn|name=fn3|"In War II Russia occupies a dominant position and is the decisive factor looking toward the defeat of the Axis in Europe. While in Sicily the forces of Great Britain and the United States are being opposed by 2 German divisions, the Russian front is receiving attention of approximately 200 German divisions. Whenever the Allies open a second front on the Continent, it will be decidedly a secondary front to that of Russia; theirs will continue to be the main effort. Without Russia in the war, the Axis cannot be defeated in Europe, and the position of the United Nations becomes precarious. Similarly, Russia's post-war position in Europe will be a dominant one. With Germany crushed, there is no power in Europe to oppose her tremendous military forces."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Executive of the Presidents Soviet Protocol Committee (Burns) to the President's Special Assistant (Hopkins) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943/d317 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821062622/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943/d317 |archive-date=21 August 2018 |access-date=21 August 2018 |website=www.history.state.gov |publisher=[[Office of the Historian]]}}</ref>}} Up to 34 million soldiers served in the Red Army during World War II, 8 million of which were [[Demographics of the Soviet Union|non-Slavic minorities]].<ref name="Soviet losses">{{Citation | first = ГФ| last = Кривошеев | title = Россия и СССР в войнах XX века: потери вооруженных сил. Статистическое исследование |trans-title=Russia and the USSR in the wars of the 20th century: losses of the Armed Forces. A Statistical Study | language = ru}}.</ref>',
54 => '[[File:RIAN archive 2153 After bombing.jpg|thumb|right|Residents of Leningrad leave their homes destroyed by German bombing. About 1 million civilians died during the 871-day [[Siege of Leningrad]], mostly from starvation.]]',
55 => '',
56 => '[[File:Teheran conference-1943.jpg|thumb|From left to right, the Soviet General Secretary [[Joseph Stalin]], US President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] [[Tehran Conference|confer]] in Tehran, 1943]]',
57 => 'The USSR suffered greatly in the war, [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|losing around 20 million people]] (modern Russian sources put the number at 26.6 million).<ref name="1930s" /><ref name="MOD Russian Federation">{{cite web|last1=Министерство обороны Российской Федерации|first1=MOD Russian Federation|title=On Question of war Losses (in Russian)|url=http://encyclopedia.mil.ru/encyclopedia/history/more.htm?id=11359251@cmsArticle|publisher=MOD Russian Federation|access-date=12 November 2017}}</ref> This includes 8.7 million military deaths. The majority of the losses were ethnic [[Russians]], followed by ethnic [[Ukrainians]].<ref name="Soviet losses"/> Approximately 2.8 million [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet POWs]] died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldhagen |first=Daniel | author-link=Daniel Goldhagen |title=[[Hitler's Willing Executioners]] |page=290 |quote=2.8 million young, healthy Soviet POWs" killed by the Germans, "mainly by starvation{{nbsp}}... in less than eight months" of 1941–42, before "the decimation of Soviet POWs{{nbsp}}... was stopped" and the Germans "began to use them as laborers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Treatment of Soviet POWs: Starvation, Disease, and Shootings, June 1941 – January 1942 |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106204101/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |access-date=9 March 2019 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org}}</ref> More than 2 million people were killed in [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Belarus]] during the three years of [[German occupation of Byelorussia during World War II|German occupation]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Belarus – World War II |url=https://countrystudies.us/belarus/10.htm |work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]}}</ref> almost a quarter of the region's population, including around 550,000 Jews in the [[The Holocaust in Belarus|Holocaust in Belarus]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Waitman Wade Beorn|title=Marching into Darkness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S8cXAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72660-4|page=28}}</ref> During the war, the country together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the [[Big Four in World War II|Big Four]] Allied powers,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brinkley |first=Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&q=big+four+world+war+2&pg=PA223 |title=The New York Times Living History: World War II, 1942–1945: The Allied Counteroffensive |publisher=Macmillan|year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8050-7247-1 |author-link=Douglas Brinkley |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815162717/https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&q=big+four+world+war+2&pg=PA223 |url-status=live }}</ref> and later became the [[Four Policemen]] that formed the basis of the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Urquhart |first=Brian |title=Looking for the Sheriff |publisher=New York Review of Books, 16 July 1998 |author-link=Brian Urquhart}}</ref> It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied [[diplomatic recognition]] by the Western world, the USSR had official relations with practically every country by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the country [[Soviet Union and the United Nations|became]] one of the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|five permanent members]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]], which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.',
58 => '',
59 => 'The USSR, in fulfillment of its agreement with the Allies at the [[Yalta Conference]], broke the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 which Japan had been honoring despite their alliance with Germany,<ref name="denunciation">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp Denunciation of the neutrality pact] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520092519/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp |date=20 May 2011 }} 5 April 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> and [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories]] on 9 August 1945.<ref name="declarationofwar">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp Soviet Declaration of War on Japan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520092513/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp |date=20 May 2011 }}, 8 August 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> [[Soviet–Japanese War|This conflict]] ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional [[surrender of Japan]] and the end of World War II.',
60 => '',
61 => 'Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in [[Soviet occupation zone of Germany|Germany]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Women and War |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyZYS_GxglIC&pg=PA480|publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-770-8|pages=480–}}</ref> The [[Wartime sexual violence|wartime rapes]] were followed by decades of silence.<ref>{{cite web |author=Allan Hall |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/3255081/German-women-break-their-silence-on-horrors-of-Red-Army-rapes.html |title=German women break their silence on horrors of Red Army rapes|date=24 October 2008 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/3255081/German-women-break-their-silence-on-horrors-of-Red-Army-rapes.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=10 December 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="The Independent">{{cite web|title=Raped by the Red Army: Two million German women speak out|work=The Independent|date=15 April 2009 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/raped-by-the-red-army-two-million-german-women-speak-out-1669074.html|access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="Susanne Beyer">{{cite news|title=Harrowing Memoir: German Woman Writes Ground-Breaking Account of WW2 Rape |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,680354,00.html|author=Susanne Beyer|newspaper=Der Spiegel |date=26 February 2010|access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref> According to historian [[Antony Beevor]], whose books were banned in 2015 from some Russian schools and colleges, [[NKVD]] (Soviet secret police) files have revealed that the leadership knew what was happening, but did little to stop it.<ref name=Bird>{{cite journal |last=Bird |first=Nicky |title=Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor |journal=International Affairs |volume=78 |number=4 |date=October 2002 |pages=914–916 |institution=Royal Institute of International Affairs}}</ref> It was often [[wikt:rear echelon|rear echelon]] units who committed the rapes. According to professor Oleg Rzheshevsky, "4,148 Red Army officers and many privates were punished for committing atrocities".<ref name=":0">Television documentary from CC&C Ideacom Production, "Apocalypse Never-Ending War 1918–1926", part 2, aired at Danish DR K on 22 October 2018.</ref> The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Naimark|first=Norman M.|title=The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 |publisher=Belknap Press|year=1995|location=Cambridge |page=70}}</ref>',
62 => '[[File:Map US Lend Lease shipments to USSR-WW2.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|U.S. [[Lend-Lease]] shipments to the USSR. During the war the USSR provided an unknown number of shipments of rare minerals to the US Treasury as a form of cashless [[Lend-Lease#Repayment|repayment of Lend-Lease]].]]',
63 => 'The Soviet Union was greatly assisted in its wartime effort by the United States via [[Lend-Lease]]. In total, the U.S. deliveries to the USSR through Lend-Lease amounted to $11 [[1,000,000,000 (number)|billion]] in materials: over 400,000 [[jeep]]s and trucks; 12,000 [[armored vehicle]]s (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386<ref>Zaloga (Armored Thunderbolt) pp. 28, 30, 31.{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> of which were [[M3 Lee]]s and 4,102 [[Lend-Lease Sherman tanks|M4 Shermans]]);<ref>''Lend-Lease Shipments: World War II'', Section IIIB, Published by Office, Chief of Finance, War Department, December 31, 1946, p. 8.</ref> 11,400 aircraft (of which 4,719 were [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]]s, 3,414 were [[Douglas A-20 Havoc]]s and 2,397 were [[Bell P-63 Kingcobra]]s)<ref>{{cite book |last=Hardesty |first=Von |chapter=Appendix 10: Lend-Lease Aircraft to USSR June 22, 1941 – September 20, 1945 |title=Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power, 1941–1945 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |place=Washington, D.C. |year=1991 |oclc=1319584971 |isbn=978-1-56098-071-1 |url= https://archive.org/details/redphoenixriseof0000hard_d8o6 |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive |pages=[https://archive.org/details/redphoenixriseof0000hard_d8o6/page/253/mode/1up 253]}}</ref> and 1.75 million tons of food.<ref>{{cite book |title=American Military History |chapter-url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf |chapter=World War II: The War Against Germany And Italy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506174749/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2017 |publisher=US Army Center of Military History |page=158}}</ref> As Soviet soldiers were bearing the brunt of the war, Roosevelt's advisor [[Harry Hopkins]] felt that American aid to the Soviets would hasten the war's conclusion.<ref>David Roll (2012) ''The Hopkins Touch: Harry Hopkins and the Forging of the Alliance to Defeat Hitler'', ch. 6.</ref>',
64 => '',
65 => 'Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94% coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.<ref>{{cite web|title=The five Lend-Lease routes to Russia |url=http://www.o5m6.de/Routes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031212063805/http://www.o5m6.de/routes.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 12, 2003 |website=Engines of the Red Army |access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Motter |first1=T.H. Vail |title=The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia |date=1952 |publisher=Center of Military History |pages=4–6 |url=https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/persian/index.htm |access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref>',
66 => '',
67 => '==== Cold War ====',
68 => '{{Main|Cold War}}',
69 => '[[File:Soviet empire 1960.png|thumb|Map showing the greatest territorial extent of the Soviet Union and the sovereign states that it dominated politically, economically and militarily in 1960, after the [[Cuban Revolution]] of 1959 but before the official [[Sino-Soviet split]] of 1961 (total area: c. 35,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>){{Efn|34,374,483 km<sup>2</sup>}}]]',
70 => 'During the immediate post-war period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its [[Command economy|strictly centralized control]]. It took effective control over most of the countries of Eastern Europe (except [[Tito–Stalin split|Yugoslavia]] and later [[Soviet-Albanian split|Albania]]), turning them into [[satellite state]]s. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the [[Warsaw Pact]], in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or [[Comecon]], a counterpart to the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC), from 1949 to 1991.<ref name="fas.org">{{cite web |title=Main Intelligence Administration (GRU) Glavnoye Razvedovatel'noye Upravlenie – Russia / Soviet Intelligence Agencies |url=https://fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226090607/http://www.fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/ |archive-date=26 December 2008 |access-date=24 November 2008 |publisher=Fas.org}}</ref> Although nominally a "defensive" alliance, the Warsaw Pact's primary function was to safeguard the [[Soviet Empire|Soviet Union's hegemony]] over its [[Soviet Bloc|Eastern European]] satellites, with the Pact's only direct military actions having been the invasions of its own member states to keep them from breaking away.<ref name="history.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/warsaw-pact-ends|title=Warsaw Pact ends|website=HISTORY}}</ref> The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted [[World War II reparations|war reparations]] from [[East Germany]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[People's Republic of Romania|Romania]], and [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the [[Marshall Plan]]."<ref>Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in {{Cite book |editor-first=Klaus | editor-last=Larresm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174 |title=A Companion to Europe Since 1945 |publisher=Wiley |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-89024-0 |page=79}}</ref> Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious [[Chinese Communist Party]], and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in [[proxy war]]s.',
71 => '[[File:John Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev 1961.jpg|thumb|left|Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (left) with US President [[John F. Kennedy]] in Vienna, 3 June 1961]]',
72 => 'Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by [[Georgy Malenkov]]. This did not last, however, and [[Nikita Khrushchev]] eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he [[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences|denounced Joseph Stalin]] and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as [[de-Stalinization]].',
73 => '',
74 => 'Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defence of its western borders, in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1941. For this reason, the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Hungary]] in 1956.',
75 => '',
76 => 'In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what [[Mao Zedong]] perceived as Khrushchev's [[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionism]], led to the [[Sino–Soviet split]]. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]], [[Democratic Kampuchea|Cambodia]], and [[Somali Democratic Republic|Somalia]] choosing to ally with China.',
77 => '[[File:Soviet Union Administrative Divisions 1989.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Republics of the Soviet Union]] in 1954–1991]]',
78 => 'During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the [[Space Race]], rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, [[Sputnik 1]] in 1957; a living dog named [[Laika]] in 1957; the first human being, [[Yuri Gagarin]] in 1961; the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] in 1963; [[Alexei Leonov]], the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft [[Luna 9]] in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, [[Lunokhod 1]] and [[Lunokhod 2]].<ref name="lunokhod">{{Cite episode |title=Tank on the Moon |url=http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html |series=The Nature of Things with David Suzuki |network=CBC-TV |air-date=6 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226123643/http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html |archive-date=26 December 2008}}</ref>',
79 => '',
80 => 'Khrushchev initiated '[[Khrushchev Thaw|The Thaw]]', a complex shift in political, cultural, and economic life in the country. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a [[Cuban Missile Crisis|crisis with the United States]] over the Soviet deployment of [[Nuclear weapons delivery|nuclear missiles]] in [[Cuba]]. An agreement was made with the United States to remove nuclear missiles from both [[Cuba]] and [[Turkey]], concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.',
81 => '[[File:Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nikolai Podgorny]] visiting [[Tampere]], [[Finland]] on 16 October 1969]]',
82 => '[[File:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg|thumb|left|Soviet general secretary [[Leonid Brezhnev]] and US President [[Jimmy Carter]] sign the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II|SALT II arms limitation treaty]] in Vienna on 18 June 1979.]]',
83 => ''
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0 => 'The original philosophy of the state was primarily based on the works of [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]]. In its essence, Marx's theory stated that economic and political systems went through an inevitable evolution in form, by which the current [[Capitalism|capitalist system]] would be replaced by a [[Socialist state]].',
1 => 'Displeased by the relatively few changes made by the Tsar after the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], Russia became a hotbed of [[anarchism]], [[socialism]] and other radical political systems. The dominant socialist party, the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party]] (RSDLP), subscribed to Marxist ideology. Starting in 1903 a series of splits in the party between two main leaders was escalating: the [[Bolsheviks]] (meaning "majority") led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], and the [[Mensheviks]] (meaning minority) led by [[Julius Martov]]. Up until 1912, both groups continued to stay united under the name "RSDLP," but significant differences between Lenin and Martov thought split the party for its final time. Not only did these groups fight with each other, but also had common enemies, notably, those trying to bring the Tsar back to power. Following the [[February Revolution of 1917]], the [[Russian Provisional Government]], established by liberal, conservative, and socialist politicians, shared power with the [[Petrograd Soviet]], which was controlled by the Mensheviks and [[Socialist Revolutionaries]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Le Blanc |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Le Blanc (historian) |title=October Song |publisher=Haymarket Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-60846-878-2|page=12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Pons|first1=Silvio|last2=Service|first2=Robert|title=A Dictionary of 20th-Century Communism |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4008-3452-5|page=763 }}</ref> This regime of “[[dual power]]” lasted only a few months until the Bolsheviks took power in the [[October Revolution]], also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. Membership of the Bolsehevik party had risen from 24,000 members in February 1917 to 200,000 members by September 1917.<ref>Stephen Cohen, ''Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938'' (Oxford University Press: London, 1980) p. 46.</ref> Lenin's government also instituted a number of progressive measures such as [[Universal access to education|universal education]], [[universal healthcare]] and [[Women in Russia|equal rights for women]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Katherine H. |last2=Keene |first2=Michael L. |title=After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5647-5 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugri͡umov |first1=Aleksandr Leontʹevich |title=Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925 |date=1976 |publisher=Novosti Press Agency Publishing House |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Lenin: A Political Life: Volume 1: The Strengths of Contradiction |date=24 June 1985 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-05591-3 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntiuCwAAQBAJ&q=universal+education&pg=PA98 |language=en}}</ref> Bolshevik figures such as [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]], [[Moisei Uritsky]] and [[Dmitry Manuilsky]] agreed that Lenin’s influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky’s, not to Lenin’s plan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |page=1283|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet |language=en}}</ref>',
2 => 'Under the control of the party, all politics and attitudes that were not strictly RCP ([[Communist Party of Soviet Union|Russian Communist Party]]) were suppressed, under the premise that the RCP represented the [[proletariat]] and all activities contrary to the party's beliefs were "counterrevolutionary" or "anti-socialist." During the years of 1917 to 1924, the Soviet Union achieved peace with the [[Central Powers]], their enemies in [[World War I]], but also fought the [[Russian Civil War]] against the [[White Army]] and foreign armies from the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], among others. This resulted in large territorial changes, albeit temporarily for some of these. Eventually crushing all opponents, the RCP spread Soviet style rule quickly and established itself through all of Russia. Following Lenin's death in 1924, [[Joseph Stalin]], General Secretary of the RCP, became Lenin's successor and continued as leader of the Soviet Union into the 1950s.',
3 => 'The history of the [[Soviet Union]] between 1927 and 1953 covers the period of the [[Second World War]] and of victory against Nazi Germany while the USSR remained under the control of [[Joseph Stalin]]. Stalin sought to destroy his political rivals while transforming Soviet society with [[central planning]], in particular a [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization of agriculture]] and a [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)|development of heavy industry]]. Stalin's power within the party and the state was established and eventually evolved into [[Stalin's cult of personality]], [[Soviet secret police|Soviet secret-police]] and the [[mass mobilization|mass-mobilization]]. The Communist Party was one of Stalin's major tools in molding the [[Soviet society]]. Stalin's methods in achieving his goals, which included [[Great Purge|party purges]], [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|political repression of the general population]], and forced collectivization, led to millions of deaths: in [[Gulag]]s, during the man-made famines, and [[ethnic cleansing]]s through [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|forced resettlements of population]].',
4 => 'World War II, known as "the [[Great Patriotic War]]" in the Soviet Union, devastated much of the USSR with about [[World War II casualties|one out of every three World War II deaths representing a citizen of the Soviet Union]]. After World War II the Soviet Union's armies occupied [[Central and Eastern Europe]], where socialist governments took power. By 1949 the [[Cold War]] had started between the [[Western Bloc]] and the [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern (Soviet) Bloc]], with the [[Warsaw Pact]] pitched against [[NATO]] in Europe. After 1945 Stalin did not directly engage in any wars. Stalin continued his [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] rule in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc until his death in 1953.',
5 => 'In the Soviet union, the eleven-year period from the death of [[Joseph Stalin]] (1953) to the political ouster of [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (1964), the national politics were dominated by the [[Cold War]]; the ideological [[United States|U.S.]]–[[Soviet Union|USSR]] struggle for the [[Power (philosophy)|planetary domination]] of their respective socio–economic systems, and the defense of [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. Nonetheless, since the mid-1950s, despite the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) [[De-Stalinization|having disowned Stalinism]], the political culture of Stalinism—an omnipotent [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]], anti-[[Trotskyism]], a [[Five-year plans of the Soviet Union|five-year]] [[planned economy]] (post-[[New Economic Policy]]), and repudiation of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] secret protocols—remained the character of Soviet society until the accession of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] as leader of the CPSU in 1985.',
6 => ''
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.sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-spacing:0.2em 0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:History of the Soviet Union">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1956%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union"><img alt="State Emblem of the Soviet Union" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/70px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/105px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="605" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevism" title="Bolshevism">Bolshevism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_revolution" title="World revolution">World revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Russian Social Democratic Labour Party</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2nd_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Bolshevik split</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Bolshevik Party</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Soviet_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union_(1917%E2%80%931927)" title="History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)">1917–1927</a>: Establishment</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on the Creation of the USSR">Treaty on the Creation of the USSR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Vladimir_Lenin" title="Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin">Death and funeral of Lenin</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">1927–1953</a>: Stalinism</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialism_in_one_country" title="Socialism in one country">Socialism in one country</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–33">Soviet famine of 1932–1933</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakh famine of 1932–33">Kazakhstan famine of 1932–1933</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Industrialization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union">Cultural Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moscow_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Trials">Moscow Trials</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">World War II</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Soviet deportations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946%E2%80%9347" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1946–47">Soviet famine of 1946–1947</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">Death and funeral of Stalin</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">1953–1964</a>: Khrushchev Thaw</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virgin_Lands_campaign" title="Virgin Lands campaign">Virgin Lands campaign</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1954_transfer_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 transfer of Crimea">1954 transfer of Crimea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a>
<ul><li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">"On the Cult of Personality</a>"</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1956_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1956 Georgian demonstrations">1956 Georgian demonstrations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wage_reform_in_the_Soviet_Union,_1956%E2%80%931962" title="Wage reform in the Soviet Union, 1956–1962">Wage reforms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Space program</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">1964–1982</a>: Era of Stagnation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1965_Yerevan_demonstrations" title="1965 Yerevan demonstrations">50th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide protests</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Menu" title="Operation Menu">Operation Menu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">Wars in Africa</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">1980 Summer Olympics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Olympic_Games_boycotts" title="List of Olympic Games boycotts">Olympic boycotts</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980 Olympic boycott</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Olympic boycott</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Polish strike</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev">Death and funeral of Brezhnev</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">1982–1991</a>: Decline and collapse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_Sovereignty_Declaration" title="Estonian Sovereignty Declaration">Estonian Sovereignty Declaration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Act_of_the_Re-Establishment_of_the_State_of_Lithuania" title="Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania">Lithuanian independence</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_economic_blockade_of_Lithuania" title="Soviet economic blockade of Lithuania">Economic blockade</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/On_the_Restoration_of_Independence_of_the_Republic_of_Latvia" title="On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia">Latvian independence</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary_(1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="End of communism in Hungary (1989)">End of communist rule in Hungary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Jeltoqsan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">April 9 tragedy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osh_riots_(1990)" class="mw-redirect" title="Osh riots (1990)">Osh riots</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_Laws" title="War of Laws">War of Laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1990_Dushanbe_riots" title="1990 Dushanbe riots">Dushanbe riots</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">The Barricades</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1991_Soviet_Union_referendum" title="1991 Soviet Union referendum">Referendum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Union_Treaty" title="New Union Treaty">New Union Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">August Coup</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukrainian revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Ukraine" title="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine">independence declaration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1991_Ukrainian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Ukrainian independence referendum">referendum</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belovezha_Accords" title="Belovezha Accords">Belovezha Accords</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata Protocol</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Soviet leadership</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov" title="Georgy Malenkov">Malenkov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Khrushchev</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Andropov</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Chernenko</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbachev</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Soviet_leaders#List_of_troikas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Soviet leaders">List of <i>troikas</i></a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leadership</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Soviet republics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
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<span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:History of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:History of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238436761"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:History_of_Russia" title="Category:History of Russia">a series</a> on the</div></th>
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<th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: none;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">History of <span class="fn org label">Russia</span></a></th>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/80px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/120px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/160px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="517" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Periods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia#Prehistory" title="History of Russia">Prehistory</a>  •  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia#Antiquity" title="History of Russia">Antiquity</a>  •  <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a></span>
<table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> pre-9th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arthania" title="Arthania">Arthania</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar%C3%ADki" title="Garðaríki">Garðaríki</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>879–1240: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ancient Rus'</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rurik" title="Rurik">Rurik</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baptism_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptism of Rus'">Baptism of Rus'</a> • <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russkaya_Pravda" title="Russkaya Pravda">Russkaya Pravda</a></i><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul>
</div>
<table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Novgorod_Land" title="Novgorod Land">Novgorod Land</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 882–1136</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Principality_of_Polotsk" title="Principality of Polotsk">Principality of Polotsk</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1397</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Principality_of_Chernigov" title="Principality of Chernigov">Principality of Chernigov</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 988–1402</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rostov-Suzdal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostov-Suzdal">Rostov-Suzdal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1093–1157</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Early_Middle_Ages_(c._500_–_1097)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1240–1480: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Council_of_Liubech_and_after_(1097–1237)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">Feudal Rus'</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_Liubech" title="Council of Liubech">Council of Liubech</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_Uvetichi" title="Council of Uvetichi">Council of Uvetichi</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol conquest</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo" title="Battle of Kulikovo">Battle of Kulikovo</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul>
</div>
<table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1136–1478</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1157–1331</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Principality of Moscow</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1263–1547</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Council_of_Liubech_and_after_(1097–1237)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1480–1917: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarist Russia</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Stand_on_the_Ugra_River" title="Great Stand on the Ugra River">Great Stand on the Ugra River</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of<br />Troubles</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zemsky_Sobor" title="Zemsky Sobor">Zemsky Sobor</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Nystad" title="Treaty of Nystad">Treaty of Nystad</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Government reform of Peter the Great">Petrovian reforms</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1812_Patriotic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1812 Patriotic War">1812 Patriotic War</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decembrist_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Decembrist Revolt">Decembrist Revolt</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation reform</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">1905 Revolution</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Manifesto" title="October Manifesto">October Manifesto</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Second Patriotic War</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul>
</div>
<table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1547–1721</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1721–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1799–1867</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1809–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1867–1915</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Manchuria_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Manchuria (China)">Russian Manchuria</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1900–1905</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uryankhay_Krai" title="Uryankhay Krai">Uryankhay Krai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1914–1921</td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1917–1923: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dual_power" title="Dual power"><i>Dvoyevlastiye</i></a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/July_Days" title="July Days">July Days</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kornilov_affair" title="Kornilov affair">Kornilov affair</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Directorate_(Russia)" title="Directorate (Russia)">Directorate</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Constituent Assembly</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election">election</a>) • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevik_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Coup">Bolshevik Coup</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Civil War</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White Guard</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet-Polish_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Polish War">Soviet-Polish War</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Priamurye_Government" title="Provisional Priamurye Government">Priamurye<br />Govt.</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="War Communism">War Communism</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">USSR</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">Emigrants</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul>
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<table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Secretariat_of_Ukraine" title="General Secretariat of Ukraine">General Secretariat of Ukraine</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_SFSR#Early_years_(1917–1920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byelorussian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Byelorussian SSR">Byelorussian SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1920–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transcaucasian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasian SFSR">Transcaucasian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_State_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Russian State (1918–1920)">Russian State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1920</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Priamurye_Government" title="Provisional Priamurye Government">Provisional Priamurye Govt.</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1921–1923</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Leaders of the Russian Civil War">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1923–1991: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Soviet Era</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">NEP</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union">Cultural revolution</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Korenization" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenization">Korenization</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collectivization" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivization">Collectivization</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Industrialization</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/GULAG" class="mw-redirect" title="GULAG">GULAG</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(WWII)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Front (WWII)">Great Patriotic War</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1954_transfer_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 transfer of Crimea">Crimea<br />transfer</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Afghan War</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">Karabakh<br />War</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parade_of_sovereignties" title="Parade of sovereignties">Parade of sovereignties</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_Laws" title="War of Laws">War of Laws</a>)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul>
</div>
<table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karelo-Finnish_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Karelo-Finnish SSR">Karelo-Finnish SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1940–1956</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tuvan_People%27s_Republic" title="Tuvan People's Republic">Tannu Tuva</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1921–1944</td></tr></tbody></table>
<hr />
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>since 1991: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">Modern Russia</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1991_August_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 August Coup">August Coup</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belavezha_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="Belavezha Accords">Belavezha Accords</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata<br />Protocol</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">USSR dissolution</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">CIS</a> • "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Near_abroad" title="Near abroad">Near<br />abroad</a>" • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis" title="1993 Russian constitutional crisis">Constitutional crisis</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Privatization_in_Russia" title="Privatization in Russia">Privatization</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">CSTO</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chechen%E2%80%93Russian_conflict#Post-Soviet_era" title="Chechen–Russian conflict">Chechen wars</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">1st</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">2nd</a>) • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Loans_for_shares_scheme" title="Loans for shares scheme">Oligarchy</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Five-Days War</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2008_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia" title="2008 amendments to the Constitution of Russia">Presidential terms<br />amendments</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Eurasian Economic Union">Eurasian Economic Union</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2020_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia" title="2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia">2020 amendments</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Invasion of Ukraine</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prelude_to_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Prelude</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_emigration_following_the_invasion_of_Ukraine_(2022%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian emigration following the invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)">Mass emigration</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2022_Russian_debt_default" title="2022 Russian debt default">Debt default</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Sanctions</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2022_Russian_mobilization" title="2022 Russian mobilization">Mobilization</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022 annexation</a>)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul>
</div>
<table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Republic of Tatarstan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tatarstan#Present-day" title="Tatarstan">1994</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechen Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">2000</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Crimea_(Russia)" title="Republic of Crimea (Russia)">Republic of Crimea</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">2014</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic" title="Donetsk People's Republic">Donetsk People's Republic</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Luhansk_People%27s_Republic" title="Luhansk People's Republic">Luhansk People's Republic</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Kherson_Oblast" title="Russian occupation of Kherson Oblast">Kherson Oblast</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Zaporizhzhia_Oblast" title="Russian occupation of Zaporizhzhia Oblast">Zaporizhzhia Oblast</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Russian_federal_subjects" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Russian federal subjects">full list...</a></b>
<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>
<span class="nowrap"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_alpha"><b><a href="#ref_alpha">^A</a></b> <i>Not internationally recognized.</i></span> </span><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_beta"><b><a href="#ref_beta">^B</a></b> <i>Not fully controlled.</i></span> </span></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_history" title="Timeline of Russian history">860–1721</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1721%E2%80%931796)" title="History of Russia (1721–1796)">1721–1796</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1796%E2%80%931855)" title="History of Russia (1796–1855)">1796–1855</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)" title="History of Russia (1855–1894)">1855–1894</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1894%E2%80%931917)" title="History of Russia (1894–1917)">1894–1917</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Soviet_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union_(1917%E2%80%931927)" title="History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)">1917–1927</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">1927–1953</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">1953–1964</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">1964–1982</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">1982–1991</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">1991–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;">
<span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/16px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:History_of_Russia" title="Template:History of Russia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Russia" title="Template talk:History of Russia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Russia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Russia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238436761"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Soviet_Union" title="Category:Soviet Union">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa"><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture of the Soviet Union</a></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image photo"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Culture of the Soviet Union" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/130px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/195px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/260px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="605" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">Great October Socialist Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">People</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_traditions_and_superstitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian traditions and superstitions">Traditions</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_cuisine" title="Soviet cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Public holidays in the Soviet Union">Festivals</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Islam in the Soviet Union">Islam</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Art</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_art" title="Soviet art">Art</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Music of the Soviet Union">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Media_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Media of the Soviet Union">Media</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radio_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Radio in the Soviet Union">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Television_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Television in the Soviet Union">Television</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cinema of the Soviet Union">Cinema</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sport_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Sport in the Soviet Union">Sport</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Monuments</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Soviet Union">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Symbols</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Flag of the Soviet Union">Flag</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of the Soviet Union">Coat of arms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="National anthem of the Soviet Union">National anthem</a></li>
<li>Cultural icons</li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:Culture of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:Culture of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The history of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic#Early_years_(1917–1920)" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Soviet Russia</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (USSR) reflects a period of change for both Russia and the world. Though the terms "Soviet Russia" and "Soviet Union" often are synonymous in everyday speech (either acknowledging the dominance of Russia over the Soviet Union or referring to Russia during the era of the Soviet Union), when referring to the foundations of the Soviet Union, "Soviet Russia" often specifically refers to brief period between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> of 1917 and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on the Creation of the USSR">creation of the Soviet Union in 1922</a>.
</p><p>Before 1922, there were four independent Soviet Republics: the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian SSR</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic" title="Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic">Transcaucasian SFSR</a>. These four became the first Union <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics of the Soviet Union</a>, and was later joined by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic" title="Bukharan People's Soviet Republic">Bukharan People's Soviet Republic</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khorezm_People%27s_Soviet_Republic" title="Khorezm People's Soviet Republic">Khorezm People's Soviet Republic</a> in 1924. During and immediately after <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, various Soviet Republics annexed portions of countries in Eastern Europe, and the Russian SFSR annexed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tuvan_People%27s_Republic" title="Tuvan People's Republic">Tuvan People's Republic</a>, and from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> took <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Sakhalin" class="mw-redirect" title="South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuril_Islands" title="Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a>. The USSR also annexed three countries on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> wholesale, creating the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuanian SSR</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic">Latvian SSR</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonian SSR</a>. Over time, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">national delimitation in the Soviet Union</a> resulted in the creation of several new Union-level Republics along ethnic lines, as well as organization of autonomous ethnic regions within Russia.
</p><p>The USSR gained and lost influence with other Communist countries over time. The occupying Soviet army facilitated the establishment of post-WWII Communist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite states</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a>. These were organized into the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>, and included the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">People's Socialist Republic of Albania</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">People's Republic of Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungarian People's Republic</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Polish People's Republic</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Socialist Republic of Romania</a>. The 1960s saw the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Albanian_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet–Albanian split">Soviet–Albanian split</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/De-satellization_of_Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="De-satellization of Communist Romania">de-satellization of Communist Romania</a>; the 1968 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a> fractured the communist movement. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a> ended Communist rule in satellite countries.
</p><p>Tensions with the central government led to constituent republics declaring independence starting in 1988, leading to the complete <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> by 1991.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#1917–1927:_Establishment"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">1917–1927: Establishment</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Treaty on the Creation of the USSR</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#1927–1953:_Stalinism"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">1927–1953: Stalinism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#World_War_II"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">World War II</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Cold_War"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Cold War</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#1953–1964:_Khrushchev_Thaw"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">1953–1964: Khrushchev Thaw</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#1964–1982:_Era_of_Stagnation"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">1964–1982: Era of Stagnation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#1982–1991:_Reforms_and_dissolution"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">1982–1991: Reforms and dissolution</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Historiography"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Historiography</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Academic_journals"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Academic journals</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1917–1927:_Establishment"><span id="1917.E2.80.931927:_Establishment"></span>1917–1927: Establishment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 1917–1927: Establishment">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Soviet_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union_(1917%E2%80%931927)" title="History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)">History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)</a></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:199px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Lenin_in_1920_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1835" data-file-height="2447" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, founder of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the leader of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevik_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik party">Bolshevik party</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:199px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068,_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/134px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/201px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/268px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="939" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, founder of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and a key figure in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>.</div></div></div></div></div>
<p>Modern revolutionary activity in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> began with the 1825 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decembrist_revolt" title="Decembrist revolt">Decembrist revolt</a>. Although <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">serfdom</a> was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavourable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Duma_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Duma (Russian Empire)">State Duma</a>, was established in 1906 after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolution_of_1905" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolution of 1905">Russian Revolution of 1905</a>, but <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Emperor Nicholas II</a> resisted attempts to move from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute</a> to a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Social unrest</a> continued and was aggravated during <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.
</p><p>A spontaneous popular demonstration in Petrograd on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">8 March</a> 1917, demanding peace and bread, culminated in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> and the abdication of Nicholas II and the imperial government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMccauley201483_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMccauley201483-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">tsarist autocracy</a> was replaced by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social-democratic</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Russian Provisional Government</a>, which intended to conduct elections to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Russian Constituent Assembly</a> and to continue fighting on the side of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Entente</a> in World War I. At the same time, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">workers' councils</a>, known in Russian as '<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">Soviets</a>', sprang up across the country, and the most influential of them, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petrograd_Soviet_of_Workers%27_and_Soldiers%27_Deputies" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies">Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies</a>, shared power with the Provisional Government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMccauley2014487_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMccauley2014487-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-br1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-br1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Membership of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolshevik</a> party had risen from 24,000 members in February 1917 to 200,000 members by September 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 50,000 workers had passed a resolution in favour of the Bolshevik demand for the transfer of power to the Soviets.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg/220px-19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg/330px-19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg/440px-19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2528" data-file-height="1820" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Trotsky</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lev_Kamenev" title="Lev Kamenev">Kamenev</a> celebrating the second anniversary of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The Bolsheviks, led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, pushed for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_revolution" title="Communist revolution">communist revolution</a> in the Soviets and on the streets, adopting the slogan of "All Power to the Soviets" and urging the overthrow of the Provisional Government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERead200582–85_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERead200582–85-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200547–49_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200547–49-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 7 November 1917, Bolshevik <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Guards_(Russia)" title="Red Guards (Russia)">Red Guards</a> stormed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Winter_Palace" title="Winter Palace">Winter Palace</a> in Petrograd, arresting the Provisional Government leaders and Lenin declared that all power was now transferred to the Soviets.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-br1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-br1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This event would later be officially known in Soviet bibliographies as the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">Great October Socialist Revolution</a>". Bolshevik figures such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anatoly_Lunacharsky" title="Anatoly Lunacharsky">Anatoly Lunacharsky</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moisei_Uritsky" title="Moisei Uritsky">Moisei Uritsky</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dmitry_Manuilsky" title="Dmitry Manuilsky">Dmitry Manuilsky</a> agreed that Lenin's influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October insurrection</a> was carried out according to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Trotsky's</a>, not to Lenin's plan.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The initial stage of the October Revolution which involved the assault on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petrograd" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrograd">Petrograd</a> occurred largely without any human <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Casualty_(person)" title="Casualty (person)">casualties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Lenin's government instituted a number of progressive measures such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Universal_access_to_education" title="Universal access to education">universal education</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Universal_healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal healthcare">universal healthcare</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women_in_Russia" title="Women in Russia">equal rights for women</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, the bloody <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a> was initiated to shut down all opposition, both perceived and real.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terror also arose in response to a number of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assassination_attempts_on_Vladimir_Lenin" title="Assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin">assassination attempts</a> on Bolshevik senior leaders and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_SR_uprising" title="Left SR uprising">organized insurrections</a> against the Soviet government.<sup id="cite_ref-Leninism_Under_Lenin_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leninism_Under_Lenin-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rabinowitch306_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rabinowitch306-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Federalization">federalization</a> of Russia was promulgated in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_the_Peoples_of_Russia" title="Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia">Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia</a> in November, not including the detached borderlands.<sup id="cite_ref-federation_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-federation-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December, the Bolsheviks signed an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">armistice</a> with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended their involvement in the war and signed a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Separate_peace" title="Separate peace">separate peace</a> treaty, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a>. After the defeat of the Germans in the war, Lenin sought the creation of formally independent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet republics</a> in the territories that were being vacated by the German Army.<sup id="cite_ref-federation_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-federation-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg/220px-Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg/330px-Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg/440px-Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Dissolution of the elected <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Russian Constituent Assembly</a> by the Bolsheviks on 6 January 1918</figcaption></figure>
<p>A long and bloody <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">civil war</a> ensued between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Reds</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">Whites</a>, ending in 1921–1922 with the Reds' victory.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It included <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">foreign intervention</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murder_of_the_Romanov_family" title="Murder of the Romanov family">murder of the former emperor and his family</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921%E2%80%9322" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian famine of 1921–22">famine of 1921–1922</a>, which killed about five million people.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Lenin had declared his support for the principle of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>, the party became centralized and the independent Soviet republics were subordinated to Soviet Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 1921, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Riga" title="Treaty of Riga">Treaty of Riga</a> was signed with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Republic of Poland</a>, splitting territories in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, and putting an end to Lenin's westward offensive against capitalism.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finland</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvia</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Lithuanian–Soviet War">Lithuania</a>, the Reds were defeated, while the Red Army managed to occupy <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Armenia" title="Red Army invasion of Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Azerbaijan" title="Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Georgia</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200384,_88_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200384,_88-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein201350_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein201350-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the forced requisition of food by the Soviet government led to substantial resistance, of which the most notable was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tambov_Rebellion" title="Tambov Rebellion">Tambov Rebellion</a>, ultimately put down by the Red Army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer1964459Leggett1981330–333Service2000423–424White2001168Ryan2012154–155_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer1964459Leggett1981330–333Service2000423–424White2001168Ryan2012154–155-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg/220px-Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg/330px-Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg/440px-Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> in the European part of Russia</figcaption></figure>
<p>The civil war had a devastating impact on the economy. A <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a> emerged in Russia, despite the threat of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> against profiteering. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_ruble" title="Russian ruble">ruble</a> collapsed, with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bartering" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartering">barter</a> increasingly replacing money as a medium of exchange<sup id="cite_ref-DaviesHarrison1993_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DaviesHarrison1993-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, by 1921, heavy industry output had fallen to 20% of 1913 levels. 90% of wages were paid with goods rather than money.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 70% of locomotives were in need of repair<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, and food requisitioning, combined with the effects of seven years of war and a severe drought, contributed to a famine that caused between 3 and 10 million deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coal production decreased from 27.5 million tons (1913) to 7 million tons (1920), while overall factory production also declined from 10,000 million roubles to 1,000 million roubles. According to the noted historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_Christian_(historian)" title="David Christian (historian)">David Christian</a>, the grain harvest was also slashed from 80.1 million tons (1913) to 46.5 million tons (1920).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR">Treaty on the Creation of the USSR</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Treaty on the Creation of the USSR">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic" title="Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic">Transcaucasian SFSR</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian SSR</a> approved the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Treaty on the Creation of the USSR</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Declaration of the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Declaration of the Creation of the USSR</a>, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two documents were confirmed by the first <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Congress of Soviets of the USSR">Congress of Soviets of the USSR</a> and signed by the heads of the delegations,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Kalinin" title="Mikhail Kalinin">Mikhail Kalinin</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Tskhakaya" title="Mikhail Tskhakaya">Mikhail Tskhakaya</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Frunze" title="Mikhail Frunze">Mikhail Frunze</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grigory_Petrovsky" title="Grigory Petrovsky">Grigory Petrovsky</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Chervyakov" title="Alexander Chervyakov">Alexander Chervyakov</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshoi_Theatre" title="Bolshoi Theatre">Bolshoi Theatre</a> in Moscow.
</p><p>An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry, and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolshevik_Initial_Decrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Initial Decrees">Bolshevik Initial Decrees</a>, government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/GOELRO" title="GOELRO">GOELRO plan</a>, which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a> of Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plan became the prototype for subsequent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union">Five-Year Plans</a> and was fulfilled by 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuzbassenergo_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuzbassenergo-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the economic policy of '<a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism</a>' during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production" title="Socialist mode of production">socialism</a> in the country, the Soviet government <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry</a> in the 1920s, and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Russia_Famine_Saratov_1921.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Russia_Famine_Saratov_1921.jpg/220px-Russia_Famine_Saratov_1921.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Russia_Famine_Saratov_1921.jpg/330px-Russia_Famine_Saratov_1921.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Russia_Famine_Saratov_1921.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="329" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921%E2%80%9322" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian famine of 1921–22">Russian famine of 1921–22</a> killed an estimated 5 million people.<br /><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party rule</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party (Bolsheviks)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stated purpose was to prevent the return of capitalist exploitation, and that the principles of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">democratic centralism</a> would be the most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. The debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a '<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">troika</a>' consisting of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Grigory Zinoviev</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lev_Kamenev" title="Lev Kamenev">Lev Kamenev</a>, of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic" title="Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic">Transcaucasian SFSR</a>.
</p><p>In February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same year, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1924_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1924 Soviet Constitution">Soviet Constitution</a> was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union.
</p><p>According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a> the constitution was never an accurate guide to political reality in the USSR. For example, the fact that the Party played the leading role in making and enforcing policy was not mentioned in it until 1977.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. However, the term 'Soviet Russia' – formally applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republic – was often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers due to its domination by the Russian SFSR.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1927–1953:_Stalinism"><span id="1927.E2.80.931953:_Stalinism"></span>1927–1953: Stalinism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1927–1953: Stalinism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Excess_mortality_in_the_Soviet_Union_under_Joseph_Stalin" title="Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin">Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg/170px-Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg/255px-Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg/340px-Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg 2x" data-file-width="649" data-file-height="905" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a>, with areas where the effects of famine were most severe shaded</figcaption></figure>
<p>On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rabkrin" title="Rabkrin">Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate</a>, which gave Stalin considerable power.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rise_of_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Joseph Stalin">gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmaneuvering his rivals within the party</a>, Stalin became the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dictator" title="Dictator">undisputed leader</a> of the country and, by the end of the 1920s, established a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> rule. In October 1927, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Zinoviev</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> were expelled from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a> and forced into exile.
</p><p>In 1928, Stalin introduced the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_five-year_plan" title="First five-year plan">first five-year plan</a> for building a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">socialist economy</a>. In place of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism" title="Proletarian internationalism">internationalism</a> expressed by Lenin throughout the revolution, it aimed to build <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialism_in_One_Country" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialism in One Country">Socialism in One Country</a>. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">industrialization</a>. In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">agriculture</a>, rather than adhering to the 'lead by example' policy advocated by Lenin,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> forced <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">collectivization of farms</a> was implemented all over the country.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Droughts_and_famines_in_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union">Famines</a> ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">kulaks</a> (wealthy or middle-class peasants) were persecuted, and many were sent to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulags</a> to do <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">forced labor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaviesWheatcroft2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4s1lCwAAQBAJpgPR14_xiv],_401_441_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaviesWheatcroft2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4s1lCwAAQBAJpgPR14_xiv],_401_441-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the country developed a robust industrial economy in the years preceding <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kolyma_road00.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Kolyma_road00.jpg/220px-Kolyma_road00.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Kolyma_road00.jpg/330px-Kolyma_road00.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Kolyma_road00.jpg/440px-Kolyma_road00.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>Construction of the bridge through the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma">Kolyma</a> (part of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Road_of_Bones" class="mw-redirect" title="Road of Bones">Road of Bones</a> from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Magadan" title="Magadan">Magadan</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jakutsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakutsk">Jakutsk</a>) by the prisoners of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dalstroy" title="Dalstroy">Dalstroy</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Closer cooperation between the USSR and the West developed in the early 1930s. From 1932 to 1934, the country participated in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Disarmament_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="World Disarmament Conference">World Disarmament Conference</a>. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, chose to recognize Stalin's Communist government formally and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two countries.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1934, the country joined the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. After the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Republican forces</a> against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Nationalists</a>, who were supported by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Fascist Italy</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">constitution</a> that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. American historian J. Arch Getty concludes: "Many who lauded Stalin's Soviet Union as the most democratic country on earth lived to regret their words. After all, the Soviet Constitution of 1936 was adopted on the eve of the Great Terror of the late 1930s; the "thoroughly democratic" elections to the first Supreme Soviet permitted only uncontested candidates and took place at the height of the savage violence in 1937. The civil rights, personal freedoms, and democratic forms promised in the Stalin constitution were trampled almost immediately and remained dead letters until long after Stalin's death."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:5marshals_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/5marshals_01.jpg/220px-5marshals_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/5marshals_01.jpg/330px-5marshals_01.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/5marshals_01.jpg/440px-5marshals_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Five <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Marshal of the Soviet Union">Marshals of the Soviet Union</a> in 1935. Only two of them—<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semyon_Budyonny" title="Semyon Budyonny">Budyonny</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kliment_Voroshilov" title="Kliment Voroshilov">Voroshilov</a>—survived the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vasily_Blyukher" title="Vasily Blyukher">Blyukher</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Yegorov_(soldier)" title="Alexander Yegorov (soldier)">Yegorov</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Tukhachevsky" title="Mikhail Tukhachevsky">Tukhachevsky</a> were executed.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Stalin's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> resulted in the detainment or execution of many '<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Bolshevik">Old Bolsheviks</a>' who had participated in the October Revolution. According to declassified Soviet archives, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot.<sup id="cite_ref-Thurston_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thurston-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over those two years, there were an average of over one thousand executions a day.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fn1_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars estimate the total death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938), including fatalities attributed to prison conditions, to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a> with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Axis_talks" title="German–Soviet Axis talks">extensive talks</a>. Unlike the case of Britain and France, the Soviet Union's agreement with Germany, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> (signed on 23 August 1939), included a secret protocol that paved the way for the Soviet invasion of Eastern European states and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">occupation of their territories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pact made possible the Soviet occupation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_northern_Bukovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina">Bessarabia, northern Bukovina</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">eastern Poland</a>.
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Lavrenti_Beria_Stalins_family.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lavrenti_Beria_Stalins_family.jpg/220px-Lavrenti_Beria_Stalins_family.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lavrenti_Beria_Stalins_family.jpg/330px-Lavrenti_Beria_Stalins_family.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lavrenti_Beria_Stalins_family.jpg/440px-Lavrenti_Beria_Stalins_family.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1552" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Stalin and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria" title="Lavrentiy Beria">Lavrentiy Beria</a> with Stalin's daughter, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Svetlana_Alliluyeva" title="Svetlana Alliluyeva">Svetlana</a>, on his lap. As head of the NKVD, Beria was responsible for many <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">political repressions in the Soviet Union</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>On 1 September, Germany <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invaded Poland</a> and on the 17th the Soviet Union invaded Poland as well. On 6 October, Poland fell and part of the Soviet occupation zone was then handed over to Germany.
</p><p>On 10 October, the Soviet Union and Lithuania signed an agreement whereby the Soviet Union transferred Polish sovereignty over the Vilna region to Lithuania, and on 28 October the boundary between the Soviet occupation zone and the new territory of Lithuania was officially demarcated.
</p><p>On 1 November, the Soviet Union <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_annexation_of_Eastern_Galicia_and_Volhynia" title="Soviet annexation of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia">annexed Western Ukraine</a>, followed by Western Belarus on the 2nd.
</p><p>In late November, unable to coerce the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Republic of Finland</a> by diplomatic means into moving its border 25 kilometres (16 mi) back from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Leningrad</a>, Stalin ordered the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">invasion of Finland</a>. On 14 December 1939, the Soviet Union was expelled from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> for invading Finland.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">border clashes</a> with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, the USSR signed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a> with Japan, which the Soviets would unilaterally break in 1945, recognizing the territorial integrity of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a>, a Japanese <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a>. The pact ensured Japan would not enter the war against the USSR on the side of Germany later.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_II">World War II</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: World War II">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union in World War II</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War_(term)" title="Great Patriotic War (term)">Great Patriotic War (term)</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="World War II casualties of the Soviet Union">World War II casualties of the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg/250px-RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg/375px-RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg/500px-RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2163" data-file-height="776" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, considered by many historians as a decisive turning point of World War II</figcaption></figure>
<p>Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">invaded the Soviet Union</a> on 22 June 1941 starting what is known in Russia and some other post-Soviet states as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a>. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a>. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before <a href="/enwiki/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Germany surrendered in 1945</a>. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a>, a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war, saying that "While in Sicily the forces of Great Britain and the United States are being opposed by 2 German divisions, the Russian front is receiving attention of approximately 200 German divisions."<sup id="cite_ref-fn3_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn3-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Up to 34 million soldiers served in the Red Army during World War II, 8 million of which were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">non-Slavic minorities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Soviet_losses_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviet_losses-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2976" data-file-height="1823" /></a><figcaption>Residents of Leningrad leave their homes destroyed by German bombing. About 1 million civilians died during the 871-day <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a>, mostly from starvation.</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Teheran_conference-1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/220px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/330px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/440px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5805" data-file-height="4602" /></a><figcaption>From left to right, the Soviet General Secretary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, US President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and British Prime Minister <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">confer</a> in Tehran, 1943</figcaption></figure>
<p>The USSR suffered greatly in the war, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="World War II casualties of the Soviet Union">losing around 20 million people</a> (modern Russian sources put the number at 26.6 million).<sup id="cite_ref-1930s_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1930s-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MOD_Russian_Federation_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MOD_Russian_Federation-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes 8.7 million military deaths. The majority of the losses were ethnic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a>, followed by ethnic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Soviet_losses_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviet_losses-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 2.8 million <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet POWs</a> died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 2 million people were killed in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Belarus</a> during the three years of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_occupation_of_Byelorussia_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Byelorussia during World War II">German occupation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> almost a quarter of the region's population, including around 550,000 Jews in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">Holocaust in Belarus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the war, the country together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Big_Four_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Four in World War II">Big Four</a> Allied powers,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later became the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Four Policemen</a> that formed the basis of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">diplomatic recognition</a> by the Western world, the USSR had official relations with practically every country by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the country <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_the_United_Nations" title="Soviet Union and the United Nations">became</a> one of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council">five permanent members</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>, which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.
</p><p>The USSR, in fulfillment of its agreement with the Allies at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>, broke the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 which Japan had been honoring despite their alliance with Germany,<sup id="cite_ref-denunciation_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-denunciation-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories</a> on 9 August 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-declarationofwar_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-declarationofwar-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">This conflict</a> ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a> and the end of World War II.
</p><p>Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet occupation zone of Germany">Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">wartime rapes</a> were followed by decades of silence.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Independent_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Independent-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Susanne_Beyer_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Susanne_Beyer-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antony_Beevor" title="Antony Beevor">Antony Beevor</a>, whose books were banned in 2015 from some Russian schools and colleges, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> (Soviet secret police) files have revealed that the leadership knew what was happening, but did little to stop it.<sup id="cite_ref-Bird_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was often <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rear_echelon" class="extiw" title="wikt:rear echelon">rear echelon</a> units who committed the rapes. According to professor Oleg Rzheshevsky, "4,148 Red Army officers and many privates were punished for committing atrocities".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Map_US_Lend_Lease_shipments_to_USSR-WW2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Map_US_Lend_Lease_shipments_to_USSR-WW2.jpg/330px-Map_US_Lend_Lease_shipments_to_USSR-WW2.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Map_US_Lend_Lease_shipments_to_USSR-WW2.jpg/495px-Map_US_Lend_Lease_shipments_to_USSR-WW2.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Map_US_Lend_Lease_shipments_to_USSR-WW2.jpg/660px-Map_US_Lend_Lease_shipments_to_USSR-WW2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption>U.S. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> shipments to the USSR. During the war the USSR provided an unknown number of shipments of rare minerals to the US Treasury as a form of cashless <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lend-Lease#Repayment" title="Lend-Lease">repayment of Lend-Lease</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>The Soviet Union was greatly assisted in its wartime effort by the United States via <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a>. In total, the U.S. deliveries to the USSR through Lend-Lease amounted to $11 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1,000,000,000_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="1,000,000,000 (number)">billion</a> in materials: over 400,000 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jeep" title="Jeep">jeeps</a> and trucks; 12,000 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armored_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Armored vehicle">armored vehicles</a> (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/M3_Lee" title="M3 Lee">M3 Lees</a> and 4,102 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lend-Lease_Sherman_tanks" title="Lend-Lease Sherman tanks">M4 Shermans</a>);<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 11,400 aircraft (of which 4,719 were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bell_P-39_Airacobra" title="Bell P-39 Airacobra">Bell P-39 Airacobras</a>, 3,414 were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Douglas_A-20_Havoc" title="Douglas A-20 Havoc">Douglas A-20 Havocs</a> and 2,397 were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bell_P-63_Kingcobra" title="Bell P-63 Kingcobra">Bell P-63 Kingcobras</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1.75 million tons of food.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Soviet soldiers were bearing the brunt of the war, Roosevelt's advisor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a> felt that American aid to the Soviets would hasten the war's conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94% coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cold_War">Cold War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cold War">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Soviet_empire_1960.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Soviet_empire_1960.png/220px-Soviet_empire_1960.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Soviet_empire_1960.png/330px-Soviet_empire_1960.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Soviet_empire_1960.png/440px-Soviet_empire_1960.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the greatest territorial extent of the Soviet Union and the sovereign states that it dominated politically, economically and militarily in 1960, after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> of 1959 but before the official <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a> of 1961 (total area: c. 35,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>)<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>During the immediate post-war period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Command_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Command economy">strictly centralized control</a>. It took effective control over most of the countries of Eastern Europe (except <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Yugoslavia</a> and later <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet-Albanian_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Albanian split">Albania</a>), turning them into <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite states</a>. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>, in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a>, a counterpart to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> (EEC), from 1949 to 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-fas.org_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fas.org-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although nominally a "defensive" alliance, the Warsaw Pact's primary function was to safeguard the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Union's hegemony</a> over its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Bloc">Eastern European</a> satellites, with the Pact's only direct military actions having been the invasions of its own member states to keep them from breaking away.<sup id="cite_ref-history.com_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history.com-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II_reparations" title="World War II reparations">war reparations</a> from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Romania">Romania</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>, and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy wars</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1953–1964:_Khrushchev_Thaw"><span id="1953.E2.80.931964:_Khrushchev_Thaw"></span>1953–1964: Khrushchev Thaw</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1953–1964: Khrushchev Thaw">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:John_Kennedy,_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg/220px-John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg/330px-John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg/440px-John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2894" data-file-height="2315" /></a><figcaption>Soviet leader <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> (left) with US President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> in Vienna, 3 June 1961</figcaption></figure>
<p>Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov" title="Georgy Malenkov">Georgy Malenkov</a>. This did not last, however, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he <a href="/enwiki/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">denounced Joseph Stalin</a> and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">de-Stalinization</a>.
</p><p>Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defence of its western borders, in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1941. For this reason, the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungary</a> in 1956.
</p><p>In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> perceived as Khrushchev's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">revisionism</a>, led to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino%E2%80%93Soviet_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino–Soviet split">Sino–Soviet split</a>. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratic_Kampuchea" title="Democratic Kampuchea">Cambodia</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somalia</a> choosing to ally with China.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg/300px-Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg/450px-Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg/600px-Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1887" data-file-height="1313" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics of the Soviet Union</a> in 1954–1991</figcaption></figure>
<p>During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>, rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> in 1957; a living dog named <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a> in 1957; the first human being, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> in 1961; the first woman in space, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a> in 1963; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexei_Leonov" title="Alexei Leonov">Alexei Leonov</a>, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Luna_9" title="Luna 9">Luna 9</a> in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lunokhod_1" title="Lunokhod 1">Lunokhod 1</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lunokhod_2" title="Lunokhod 2">Lunokhod 2</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lunokhod_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lunokhod-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Khrushchev initiated '<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">The Thaw</a>', a complex shift in political, cultural, and economic life in the country. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">crisis with the United States</a> over the Soviet deployment of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">nuclear missiles</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>. An agreement was made with the United States to remove nuclear missiles from both <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1964–1982:_Era_of_Stagnation"><span id="1964.E2.80.931982:_Era_of_Stagnation"></span>1964–1982: Era of Stagnation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1964–1982: Era of Stagnation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg/220px-Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg/330px-Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg/440px-Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1291" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Nikolai Podgorny</a> visiting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tampere" title="Tampere">Tampere</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> on 16 October 1969</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg/220px-Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg/330px-Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg/440px-Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Soviet general secretary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> and US President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> sign the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Treaty_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II">SALT II arms limitation treaty</a> in Vienna on 18 June 1979.</figcaption></figure>
<p>The history of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, referred to as the Brezhnev Era, covers the period of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>'s rule of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</a> (USSR). This period began with high economic growth and soaring prosperity, but ended with a much weaker Soviet Union facing social, political, and economic stagnation. The average annual income stagnated, because needed economic reforms were never fully carried out.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> was ousted as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">First Secretary</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (CPSU), as well as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Soviet_Union)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)">Council of Ministers</a>, on 14 October 1964 due to his failed reforms and disregard for Party and Government institutions. Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as First Secretary and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a> replaced him as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anastas_Mikoyan" title="Anastas Mikoyan">Anastas Mikoyan</a>, and later <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Nikolai Podgorny</a>, became <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Chairmen</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" title="Presidium of the Supreme Soviet">Presidium</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a>. Together with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Andrei_Kirilenko_(politician)" title="Andrei Kirilenko (politician)">Andrei Kirilenko</a> as organisational secretary, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Suslov" title="Mikhail Suslov">Mikhail Suslov</a> as chief ideologue, they made up a reinvigorated <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">collective leadership</a>, which contrasted in form with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocracy</a> that characterized Khrushchev's rule.
</p><p>The collective leadership first set out to stabilize the Soviet Union and calm <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet society">Soviet society</a>, a task which they were able to accomplish. In addition, they attempted to speed up economic growth, which had slowed considerably during Khrushchev's last years in power. In 1965 Kosygin initiated several reforms to decentralize the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet economy">Soviet economy</a>. After initial success in creating economic growth, hard-liners within the Party halted the reforms, fearing that they would weaken the Party's prestige and power. No other radical economic reforms were carried out during the Brezhnev era, and economic growth began to stagnate in the early-to-mid-1970s. By Brezhnev's death in 1982, Soviet economic growth had, according to several historians, nearly come to a standstill.
</p><p>The stabilization policy brought about after Khrushchev's removal established a ruling <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">gerontocracy</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">political corruption</a> became a normal phenomenon. Brezhnev, however, never initiated any large-scale anti-corruption campaigns. Due to the large military buildup of the 1960s the Soviet Union was able to consolidate itself as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a> during Brezhnev's rule. The era ended with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Death_and_funeral_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" class="mw-redirect" title="Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev's death</a> on 10 November 1982.
</p><p>While all modernized economies were rapidly moving to computerization after 1965, the USSR fell further and further behind. Moscow's decision to copy the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/IBM/360" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM/360">IBM/360</a> of 1965 proved a decisive mistake for it locked scientists into a system they were unable to improve so that it gradually became antiquated. They had enormous difficulties in manufacturing the necessary chips reliably and in quantity, in programming workable and efficient programs, in coordinating entirely separate operations, and in providing support to computer users.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973–74 oil crisis</a>, and rose again in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979–1981</a>, making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses. At one point, Soviet Premier <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a> told the head of oil and gas production, "things are bad with bread. Give me 3 million tons [of oil] over the plan."<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Former prime minister <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yegor_Gaidar" title="Yegor Gaidar">Yegor Gaidar</a>, an economist looking back three decades, in 2007 wrote:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1211633275">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The hard currency from oil exports stopped the growing food supply crisis, increased the import of equipment and consumer goods, ensured a financial base for the arms race and the achievement of nuclear parity with the United States, and permitted the realization of such risky foreign-policy actions as the war in Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p><br />
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1982–1991:_Reforms_and_dissolution"><span id="1982.E2.80.931991:_Reforms_and_dissolution"></span>1982–1991: Reforms and dissolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1982–1991: Reforms and dissolution">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></div>
<p>The history of the Soviet Union from 1982 through 1991, spans the period from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Death_and_funeral_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" class="mw-redirect" title="Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev">death and funeral</a> until the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>. Failed attempts at reform, a standstill economy, and the success of the United States against the Soviet Union's forces in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">war in Afghanistan</a> led to a general feeling of discontent, especially in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic republics</a> and Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, created an atmosphere of open criticism of the Soviet government. The dramatic drop of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">price of oil in 1985 and 1986</a> profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-AEI-Gaidar-Grain_and_Oil_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEI-Gaidar-Grain_and_Oil-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Tikhonov" title="Nikolai Tikhonov">Nikolai Tikhonov</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Premiers_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Premiers of the Soviet Union">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Soviet_Union)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)">Council of Ministers</a>, was succeeded by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nikolai_Ryzhkov" title="Nikolai Ryzhkov">Nikolai Ryzhkov</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vasili_Kuznetsov_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)">Vasili Kuznetsov</a>, the acting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" title="Presidium of the Supreme Soviet">Presidium</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a>, was succeeded by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a>, the former <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a>.
</p><p>Several <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Soviet Socialist Republics</a> began resisting central control, and increasing democratization led to a weakening of the central government. The USSR's trade gap progressively emptied the coffers of the union, leading to eventual bankruptcy. The Soviet Union finally <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">collapsed</a> in 1991 when <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a> seized power in the aftermath of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">failed coup</a> that had attempted to topple <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">reform-minded</a> Gorbachev.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War">Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliography_of_Stalinism_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union">Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_post-Stalinist_Soviet_Union" title="Bibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union">Bibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliography_of_Ukrainian_history" title="Bibliography of Ukrainian history">Bibliography of Ukrainian history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Historiography in the Soviet Union">Historiography in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_journals">Academic journals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Academic journals">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Slavic_studies_journals" title="List of Slavic studies journals">List of Slavic studies journals</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations of the Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Islam in the Soviet Union">Islam in the Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Soviet Union–related articles">Index of Soviet Union–related articles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_nationalism" title="Ukrainian nationalism">Ukrainian nationalism</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMccauley201483-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMccauley201483_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMccauley2014">Mccauley 2014</a>, p. 83.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFMccauley2014 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMccauley2014487-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMccauley2014487_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMccauley2014">Mccauley 2014</a>, p. 487.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFMccauley2014 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-br1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-br1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-br1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>br1</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Cohen, <i>Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938</i> (Oxford University Press: London, 1980) p. 46.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHead2007" class="citation book cs1">Head, Michael (12 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PYGNAgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PT83"><i>Evgeny Pashukanis: A Critical Reappraisal</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 1–288. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-30787-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-30787-5"><bdi>978-1-135-30787-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evgeny+Pashukanis%3A+A+Critical+Reappraisal&rft.pages=1-288&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007-09-12&rft.isbn=978-1-135-30787-5&rft.aulast=Head&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPYGNAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Doctober%2Brevolution%2B50%2B000%2Bworkers%26pg%3DPT83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShukman1994" class="citation book cs1">Shukman, Harold (5 December 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PA21"><i>The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 21. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19525-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19525-2"><bdi>978-0-631-19525-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1994-12-05&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19525-2&rft.aulast=Shukman&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DScabEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Doctober%2Brevolution%2B50%2B000%2Bworkers%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERead200582–85-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERead200582–85_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRead2005">Read 2005</a>, pp. 82–85.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFRead2005 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200547–49-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200547–49_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFService2005">Service 2005</a>, pp. 47–49.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFService2005 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-BBC1-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC1_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140805155250/http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/4">"The causes of the October Revolution"</a>. BBC. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/4">the original</a> on 5 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+causes+of+the+October+Revolution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fbitesize%2Fhigher%2Fhistory%2Frussia%2Foctober%2Frevision%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeutscher2015" class="citation book cs1">Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet"><i>The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky</i></a>. Verso Books. p. 1283. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5"><bdi>978-1-78168-721-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet%3A+The+Life+of+Leon+Trotsky&rft.pages=1283&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2015-01-05&rft.isbn=978-1-78168-721-5&rft.aulast=Deutscher&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYGznDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Disaac%2Bdeutscher%2Btrotsky%2Bthe%2Bprophet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShukman1994" class="citation book cs1">Shukman, Harold (5 December 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PA343"><i>The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 343. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19525-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19525-2"><bdi>978-0-631-19525-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.pages=343&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1994-12-05&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19525-2&rft.aulast=Shukman&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DScabEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Doctober%2Brevolution%2Bbloodless%26pg%3DPA343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergman2019" class="citation book cs1">Bergman, Jay (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5UKjDwAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PA224"><i>The French Revolutionary Tradition in Russian and Soviet Politics, Political Thought, and Culture</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 224. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884270-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884270-5"><bdi>978-0-19-884270-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolutionary+Tradition+in+Russian+and+Soviet+Politics%2C+Political+Thought%2C+and+Culture&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-19-884270-5&rft.aulast=Bergman&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5UKjDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Doctober%2Brevolution%2Bbloodless%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMeekin2017" class="citation book cs1">McMeekin, Sean (30 May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aXmZDgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PT155"><i>The Russian Revolution: A New History</i></a>. Basic Books. pp. 1–496. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09497-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09497-4"><bdi>978-0-465-09497-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Revolution%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=1-496&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2017-05-30&rft.isbn=978-0-465-09497-4&rft.aulast=McMeekin&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaXmZDgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Doctober%2Brevolution%2Bbloodless%26pg%3DPT155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsKeene2014" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Katherine H.; Keene, Michael L. (10 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109"><i>After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists</i></a>. McFarland. p. 109. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5647-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5647-5"><bdi>978-0-7864-5647-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+Vote+Was+Won%3A+The+Later+Achievements+of+Fifteen+Suffragists&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2014-01-10&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-5647-5&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Katherine+H.&rft.au=Keene%2C+Michael+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoyaxYvSG6gAC%26dq%3Dlenin%2Buniversal%2Bliteracy%2Bafter%2Bthe%2Bvote%2Bwas%2Bwon%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUgri͡umov1976" class="citation book cs1">Ugri͡umov, Aleksandr Leontʹevich (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy"><i>Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925</i></a>. Novosti Press Agency Publishing House. p. 48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%27s+Plan+for+Building+Socialism+in+the+USSR%2C+1917%E2%80%931925&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Novosti+Press+Agency+Publishing+House&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Ugri%CD%A1umov&rft.aufirst=Aleksandr+Leont%CA%B9evich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgXknAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dlenin%2Buniversal%2Bliteracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFService1985" class="citation book cs1">Service, Robert (24 June 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ntiuCwAAQBAJ&q=universal+education&pg=PA98"><i>Lenin: A Political Life: Volume 1: The Strengths of Contradiction</i></a>. Springer. p. 98. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-05591-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-05591-3"><bdi>978-1-349-05591-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%3A+A+Political+Life%3A+Volume+1%3A+The+Strengths+of+Contradiction&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1985-06-24&rft.isbn=978-1-349-05591-3&rft.aulast=Service&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DntiuCwAAQBAJ%26q%3Duniversal%2Beducation%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210222175025/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union">"How Lenin's Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a></i>. 2 September 2020. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union">the original</a> on 22 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Society&rft.atitle=How+Lenin%27s+Red+Terror+set+a+macabre+course+for+the+Soviet+Union&rft.date=2020-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fhistory%2Farticle%2Fred-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Leninism_Under_Lenin-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leninism_Under_Lenin_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebman1985" class="citation book cs1">Liebman, Marcel (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OQjzAAAAMAAJ"><i>Leninism Under Lenin</i></a>. Merlin Press. pp. 1–348. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85036-261-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85036-261-9"><bdi>978-0-85036-261-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leninism+Under+Lenin&rft.pages=1-348&rft.pub=Merlin+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-85036-261-9&rft.aulast=Liebman&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOQjzAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2011" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Scott Baldwin (15 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ueUEE8jVRsC&dq=anarchist+assassination+attempt+lenin&pg=PA74"><i>Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923</i></a>. University of Pittsburgh Pre. pp. 75–85. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7779-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7779-7"><bdi>978-0-8229-7779-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captives+of+Revolution%3A+The+Socialist+Revolutionaries+and+the+Bolshevik+Dictatorship%2C+1918%E2%80%931923&rft.pages=75-85&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Pre&rft.date=2011-04-15&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-7779-7&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Scott+Baldwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5ueUEE8jVRsC%26dq%3Danarchist%2Bassassination%2Battempt%2Blenin%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Rabinowitch306-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rabinowitch306_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabinowitch2007" class="citation book cs1">Rabinowitch, Alexander (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BEoBCGJ4VqYC&q=The+bolsheviks+in+power.+The+first+year+of+Soviet+rule+in+Petrograd"><i>The bolsheviks in power. The first year of Soviet rule in Petrograd</i></a>. Indiana University Press. p. 306. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253349439" title="Special:BookSources/9780253349439"><bdi>9780253349439</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+bolsheviks+in+power.+The+first+year+of+Soviet+rule+in+Petrograd&rft.pages=306&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780253349439&rft.aulast=Rabinowitch&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBEoBCGJ4VqYC%26q%3DThe%2Bbolsheviks%2Bin%2Bpower.%2BThe%2Bfirst%2Byear%2Bof%2BSoviet%2Brule%2Bin%2BPetrograd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-federation-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-federation_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-federation_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaffass2012" class="citation book cs1">Raffass, Tania (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P4E7WSecBakC"><i>The Soviet Union: Federation Or Empire?</i></a>. Routledge. p. 64. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-68833-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-68833-8"><bdi>978-0-415-68833-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union%3A+Federation+Or+Empire%3F&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-68833-8&rft.aulast=Raffass&rft.aufirst=Tania&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP4E7WSecBakC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReese2012" class="citation journal cs1">Reese, Roger (6 February 2012). "Russian Civil War, 1918–1921". <i>Military History</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOBO%2F9780199791279-0051">10.1093/OBO/9780199791279-0051</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979127-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979127-9"><bdi>978-0-19-979127-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+History&rft.atitle=Russian+Civil+War%2C+1918%E2%80%931921&rft.date=2012-02-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2FOBO%2F9780199791279-0051&rft.isbn=978-0-19-979127-9&rft.aulast=Reese&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMawdsley2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evan_Mawdsley" title="Evan Mawdsley">Mawdsley, Evan</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan"><i>The Russian Civil War</i></a></span>. Pegasus Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan/page/287">287</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-933648-15-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-933648-15-6"><bdi>978-1-933648-15-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Civil+War&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-933648-15-6&rft.aulast=Mawdsley&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiancivilwar00evan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2016" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Robert A. (27 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KuW-DAAAQBAJ"><i>The Soviet Concept of 'Limited Sovereignty' from Lenin to Gorbachev: The Brezhnev Doctrine</i></a>. Springer. p. 42. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-20491-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-20491-5"><bdi>978-1-349-20491-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Concept+of+%27Limited+Sovereignty%27+from+Lenin+to+Gorbachev%3A+The+Brezhnev+Doctrine&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016-07-27&rft.isbn=978-1-349-20491-5&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKuW-DAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2012" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Stephen J. (12 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gLXkGLDxSkAC"><i>European Dictatorships 1918–1945</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 89–90. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-69011-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-69011-3"><bdi>978-1-135-69011-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Dictatorships+1918%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=89-90&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012-11-12&rft.isbn=978-1-135-69011-3&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgLXkGLDxSkAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200384,_88-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200384,_88_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2003">Lee 2003</a>, pp. 84, 88.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFLee2003 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein201350-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein201350_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldstein2013">Goldstein 2013</a>, p. 50.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoldstein2013 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer1964459Leggett1981330–333Service2000423–424White2001168Ryan2012154–155-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer1964459Leggett1981330–333Service2000423–424White2001168Ryan2012154–155_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer1964">Fischer 1964</a>, p. 459<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFFischer1964 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFLeggett1981">Leggett 1981</a>, pp. 330–333<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFLeggett1981 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFService2000">Service 2000</a>, pp. 423–424<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFService2000 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFWhite2001">White 2001</a>, p. 168<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFWhite2001 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFRyan2012">Ryan 2012</a>, pp. 154–155<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFRyan2012 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-DaviesHarrison1993-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DaviesHarrison1993_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._W._DaviesMark_HarrisonS._G._Wheatcroft1993" class="citation book cs1">R. W. Davies; Mark Harrison; S. G. Wheatcroft (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7ULWRnskfr4C&pg=PA6"><i>The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 6. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45770-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45770-5"><bdi>978-0-521-45770-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+Transformation+of+the+Soviet+Union%2C+1913%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45770-5&rft.au=R.+W.+Davies&rft.au=Mark+Harrison&rft.au=S.+G.+Wheatcroft&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7ULWRnskfr4C%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft796nb4mj&chunk.id=d0e9364&toc.id=&brand=ucpress">"Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921"</a>. <i>publishing.cdlib.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-10-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=publishing.cdlib.org&rft.atitle=Bread+and+Authority+in+Russia%2C+1914%E2%80%931921&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublishing.cdlib.org%2Fucpressebooks%2Fview%3FdocId%3Dft796nb4mj%26chunk.id%3Dd0e9364%26toc.id%3D%26brand%3Ducpress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm#RCW">"Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls"</a>. <i>necrometrics.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=necrometrics.com&rft.atitle=Twentieth+Century+Atlas+%E2%80%93+Death+Tolls&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2F20c5m.htm%23RCW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristian1997" class="citation book cs1">Christian, David (1997). <i>Imperial and Soviet Russia</i>. London: Macmillan Press Ltd. p. 236. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-66294-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-66294-6"><bdi>978-0-333-66294-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+and+Soviet+Russia&rft.place=London&rft.pages=236&rft.pub=Macmillan+Press+Ltd&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-333-66294-6&rft.aulast=Christian&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSakwa1999" class="citation book cs1">Sakwa, Richard (1999). <i>The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union, 1917–1991: 1917–1991</i>. Routledge. pp. 140–143. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12290-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12290-0"><bdi>978-0-415-12290-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Soviet+Union%2C+1917%E2%80%931991%3A+1917%E2%80%931991&rft.pages=140-143&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-12290-0&rft.aulast=Sakwa&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTowster1948" class="citation book cs1">Towster, Julian (1948). <i>Political Power in the U.S.S.R., 1917–1947: The Theory and Structure of Government in the Soviet State</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 106.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Power+in+the+U.S.S.R.%2C+1917%E2%80%931947%3A+The+Theory+and+Structure+of+Government+in+the+Soviet+State&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Towster&rft.aufirst=Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5!OpenDocument">Voted Unanimously for the Union.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091204132112/http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5%21OpenDocument">Archived</a> 4 December 2009 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html">Creation of the USSR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070529132218/http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html">Archived</a> 29 May 2007 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at Khronos.ru.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLapin2000" class="citation journal cs1">Lapin, G. G. (2000). "70 Years of Gidroproekt and Hydroelectric Power in Russia". <i>Hydrotechnical Construction</i>. <b>34</b> (8/9): 374–379. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1004107617449">10.1023/A:1004107617449</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-8220">0018-8220</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:107814516">107814516</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrotechnical+Construction&rft.atitle=70+Years+of+Gidroproekt+and+Hydroelectric+Power+in+Russia&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=8%2F9&rft.pages=374-379&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A107814516%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0018-8220&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1004107617449&rft.aulast=Lapin&rft.aufirst=G.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Kuzbassenergo-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kuzbassenergo_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/">On GOELRO Plan – at Kuzbassenergo.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226190310/http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro">Archived</a> 26 December 2008 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1921-2/famine-of-1921-22/">"Famine of 1921–22"</a>. <i>Seventeen Moments in Soviet History</i>. 17 June 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190115171429/http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1921-2/famine-of-1921-22/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seventeen+Moments+in+Soviet+History&rft.atitle=Famine+of+1921%E2%80%9322&rft.date=2015-06-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsoviethistory.msu.edu%2F1921-2%2Ffamine-of-1921-22%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCourtoisWerthPannéPaczkowski1999" class="citation book cs1">Courtois, Stéphane; Werth, Nicolas; Panné, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartošek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/TheBlackBookofCommunism10/the-black-book-of-communism-jean-louis-margolin-1999-communism#page/n71/"><i>The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 123. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07608-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07608-2"><bdi>978-0-674-07608-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Book+of+Communism%3A+Crimes%2C+Terror%2C+Repression&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-07608-2&rft.aulast=Courtois&rft.aufirst=St%C3%A9phane&rft.au=Werth%2C+Nicolas&rft.au=Pann%C3%A9%2C+Jean-Louis&rft.au=Paczkowski%2C+Andrzej&rft.au=Barto%C5%A1ek%2C+Karel&rft.au=Margolin%2C+Jean-Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FTheBlackBookofCommunism10%2Fthe-black-book-of-communism-jean-louis-margolin-1999-communism%23page%2Fn71%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/formation-of-the-soviet-union/#:~:text=On%20February%201%2C%201924%2C%20the,of%20Soviet%20power%20in%201917.">"Formation of the Soviet Union"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Formation+of+the+Soviet+Union&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourses.lumenlearning.com%2Fsuny-hccc-worldhistory2%2Fchapter%2Fformation-of-the-soviet-union%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DOn%2520February%25201%252C%25201924%252C%2520the%2Cof%2520Soviet%2520power%2520in%25201917.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/67122375">"Recognition of Britain"</a>. <i>Advocate</i>. 4 February 1924<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Advocate&rft.atitle=Recognition+of+Britain&rft.date=1924-02-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftrove.nla.gov.au%2Fnewspaper%2Farticle%2F67122375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archie Brown, <i>The rise and fall of Communism</i> (2009) p, 518.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/russia/joseph-stalin">"Joseph Stalin – Biography, World War II & Facts – History"</a>. 12 November 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180912144422/https://www.history.com/topics/russia/joseph-stalin">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joseph+Stalin+%E2%80%93+Biography%2C+World+War+II+%26+Facts+%E2%80%93+History&rft.date=2009-11-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Frussia%2Fjoseph-stalin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenin" class="citation book cs1">Lenin, V.I. <i>Collected Works</i>. pp. 152–164, Vol. 31. <q>The proletarian state must effect the transition to collective farming with extreme caution and only very gradually, by the force of example, without any coercion of the middle peasant.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collected+Works&rft.pages=152-164%2C+Vol.+31&rft.aulast=Lenin&rft.aufirst=V.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaviesWheatcroft2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4s1lCwAAQBAJpgPR14_xiv],_401_441-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaviesWheatcroft2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4s1lCwAAQBAJpgPR14_xiv],_401_441_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaviesWheatcroft2004">Davies & Wheatcroft 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4s1lCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14">xiv</a>, 401 441.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFDaviesWheatcroft2004 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCourtoisMark_Kramer1999" class="citation book cs1">Courtois, Stéphane; Mark Kramer (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206"><i>Livre noir du Communisme: crimes, terreur, répression</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 206. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07608-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07608-2"><bdi>978-0-674-07608-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200622213827/https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Livre+noir+du+Communisme%3A+crimes%2C+terreur%2C+r%C3%A9pression&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-07608-2&rft.aulast=Courtois&rft.aufirst=St%C3%A9phane&rft.au=Mark+Kramer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH1jsgYCoRioC%26pg%3DPA206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html">Ukrainian 'Holodomor' (man-made famine) Facts and History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130424093532/http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html">Archived</a> 24 April 2013 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Holodomorct.org (28 November 2006). Retrieved on 29 July 2013.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasanova2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Juli%C3%A1n_Casanova_Ruiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Julián Casanova Ruiz">Casanova, Julián</a> (2007). <i>República y Guerra Civil. Vol. 8 de la Historia de España, dirigida por Josep Fontana y Ramón Villares</i> (in Spanish). Barcelona: Crítica/Marcial Pons. pp. 271–274. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-8432-878-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-8432-878-0"><bdi>978-84-8432-878-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rep%C3%BAblica+y+Guerra+Civil.+Vol.+8+de+la+Historia+de+Espa%C3%B1a%2C+dirigida+por+Josep+Fontana+y+Ram%C3%B3n+Villares&rft.place=Barcelona&rft.pages=271-274&rft.pub=Cr%C3%ADtica%2FMarcial+Pons&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-84-8432-878-0&rft.aulast=Casanova&rft.aufirst=Juli%C3%A1n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGetty1991" class="citation journal cs1">Getty, J. Arch (1991). "State and Society Under Stalin: Constitutions and Elections in the 1930s". <i>Slavic Review</i>. <b>50</b> (1): 18–35. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2500596">10.2307/2500596</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2500596">2500596</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163479192">163479192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=State+and+Society+Under+Stalin%3A+Constitutions+and+Elections+in+the+1930s&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-35&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163479192%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2500596%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2500596&rft.aulast=Getty&rft.aufirst=J.+Arch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Thurston-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thurston_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurston1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_W._Thurston" title="Robert W. Thurston">Thurston, Robert W.</a> (1998). <i>Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. p. 139. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07442-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07442-0"><bdi>978-0-300-07442-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+Terror+in+Stalin%27s+Russia%2C+1934%E2%80%931941&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-300-07442-0&rft.aulast=Thurston&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGleason2009" class="citation book cs1">Gleason, Abbott (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373"><i>A companion to Russian history</i></a>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 373. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3560-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3560-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-3560-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905175409/https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+Russian+history&rft.pages=373&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3560-3&rft.aulast=Gleason&rft.aufirst=Abbott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJyN0hlKcfTcC%26pg%3DPA373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-1930s-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1930s_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1930s_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHosking2001" class="citation book cs1">Hosking, Geoffrey A. (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk"><i>Russia and the Russians: a history</i></a></span>. Harvard University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk/page/469">469</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00473-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00473-3"><bdi>978-0-674-00473-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+the+Russians%3A+a+history&rft.pages=469&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00473-3&rft.aulast=Hosking&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiarussianshi00hosk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/">Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171012090945/http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/">Archived</a> 12 October 2017 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The New York Review of Books</i>, 27 January 2011</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatcroft19961334,_1348-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheatcroft19961334,_1348_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheatcroft1996">Wheatcroft 1996</a>, pp. 1334, 1348.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFWheatcroft1996 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002">"Introduction: the Great Purges as history"</a>, <i>Origins of the Great Purges</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–9, 1985, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511572616.002">10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521259217" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521259217"><bdi>978-0521259217</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-12-02</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Origins+of+the+Great+Purges&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+the+Great+Purges+as+history&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511572616.002&rft.isbn=978-0521259217&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511572616.002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHomkes2004" class="citation journal cs1">Homkes, Brett (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=mcnair">"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge"</a>. <i>McNair Scholars Journal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McNair+Scholars+Journal&rft.atitle=Certainty%2C+Probability%2C+and+Stalin%27s+Great+Purge&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Homkes&rft.aufirst=Brett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1032%26context%3Dmcnair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ellman, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/826310">"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"</a>. <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i>. <b>54</b> (7): 1151–1172. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0966813022000017177">10.1080/0966813022000017177</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0966-8136">0966-8136</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/826310">826310</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Soviet+Repression+Statistics%3A+Some+Comments&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1151-1172&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0966-8136&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F826310%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0966813022000017177&rft.aulast=Ellman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F826310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShearer2023" class="citation book cs1">Shearer, David R. (11 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CCHMEAAAQBAJ&dq=great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PR7"><i>Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. vii. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95544-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95544-6"><bdi>978-1-000-95544-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin+and+War%2C+1918-1953%3A+Patterns+of+Repression%2C+Mobilization%2C+and+External+Threat&rft.pages=vii&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023-09-11&rft.isbn=978-1-000-95544-6&rft.aulast=Shearer&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCCHMEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dgreat%2Bpurge%2B1.2%2Bmillion%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2019" class="citation book cs1">Nelson, Todd H. (16 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oJGyDwAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PA7"><i>Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-9153-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-9153-9"><bdi>978-1-4985-9153-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bringing+Stalin+Back+In%3A+Memory+Politics+and+the+Creation+of+a+Useable+Past+in+Putin%27s+Russia&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2019-10-16&rft.isbn=978-1-4985-9153-9&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Todd+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoJGyDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dstalin%2Bgreat%2Bpurge%2B1.2%2Bmillion%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYegorov2019" class="citation web cs1">Yegorov, Oleg (26 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rbth.com/history/331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii">"Why didn't the USSR join Allies in 1939?"</a>. <i>Russia Beyond</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220206011636/https://www.rbth.com/history/331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Russia+Beyond&rft.atitle=Why+didn%27t+the+USSR+join+Allies+in+1939%3F&rft.date=2019-09-26&rft.aulast=Yegorov&rft.aufirst=Oleg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rbth.com%2Fhistory%2F331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Roth2019" class="citation web cs1">Andrew Roth (23 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/23/moscow-campaign-to-justify-molotov-ribbentrop-pact-sparks-outcry">"Molotov-Ribbentrop: why is Moscow trying to justify Nazi pact?"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Molotov-Ribbentrop%3A+why+is+Moscow+trying+to+justify+Nazi+pact%3F&rft.date=2019-08-23&rft.au=Andrew+Roth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2019%2Faug%2F23%2Fmoscow-campaign-to-justify-molotov-ribbentrop-pact-sparks-outcry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations?form=MY01SV&OCID=MY01SV">USSR expelled from the League of Nations</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210914013927/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations?form=MY01SV&OCID=MY01SV">Archived</a> 14 September 2021 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. www.history.com. 5 November 2009</span>
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<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuiker2009" class="citation book cs1">Duiker, William J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC"><i>Contemporary World History</i></a>. Wadsworth Pub Co. p. 128. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-57271-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-57271-8"><bdi>978-0-495-57271-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200622200541/https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+World+History&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Pub+Co&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-495-57271-8&rft.aulast=Duiker&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuqvgYtJHGSMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943/d317">"The Executive of the Presidents Soviet Protocol Committee (Burns) to the President's Special Assistant (Hopkins)"</a>. <i>www.history.state.gov</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Office_of_the_Historian" title="Office of the Historian">Office of the Historian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180821062622/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943/d317">Archived</a> from the original on 21 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.history.state.gov&rft.atitle=The+Executive+of+the+Presidents+Soviet+Protocol+Committee+%28Burns%29+to+the+President%27s+Special+Assistant+%28Hopkins%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fhistoricaldocuments%2Ffrus1943%2Fd317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Soviet_losses-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Soviet_losses_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Soviet_losses_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFКривошеев" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Кривошеев, ГФ, <i>Россия и СССР в войнах XX века: потери вооруженных сил. Статистическое исследование</i> [<i>Russia and the USSR in the wars of the 20th century: losses of the Armed Forces. A Statistical Study</i>] (in Russian)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B8+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%D0%B2+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%85+XX+%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%3A+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB.+%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5&rft.aulast=%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2&rft.aufirst=%D0%93%D0%A4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-MOD_Russian_Federation-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MOD_Russian_Federation_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFМинистерство_обороны_Российской_Федерации" class="citation web cs1">Министерство обороны Российской Федерации, MOD Russian Federation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.mil.ru/encyclopedia/history/more.htm?id=11359251@cmsArticle">"On Question of war Losses (in Russian)"</a>. MOD Russian Federation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+Question+of+war+Losses+%28in+Russian%29&rft.pub=MOD+Russian+Federation&rft.aulast=%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8&rft.aufirst=MOD+Russian+Federation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.mil.ru%2Fencyclopedia%2Fhistory%2Fmore.htm%3Fid%3D11359251%40cmsArticle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldhagen" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Daniel_Goldhagen" title="Daniel Goldhagen">Goldhagen, Daniel</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hitler%27s_Willing_Executioners" title="Hitler's Willing Executioners">Hitler's Willing Executioners</a></i>. p. 290. <q>2.8 million young, healthy Soviet POWs" killed by the Germans, "mainly by starvation<span class="nowrap"> </span>... in less than eight months" of 1941–42, before "the decimation of Soviet POWs<span class="nowrap"> </span>... was stopped" and the Germans "began to use them as laborers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Willing+Executioners&rft.pages=290&rft.aulast=Goldhagen&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942">"The Treatment of Soviet POWs: Starvation, Disease, and Shootings, June 1941 – January 1942"</a>. <i>encyclopedia.ushmm.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106204101/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.ushmm.org&rft.atitle=The+Treatment+of+Soviet+POWs%3A+Starvation%2C+Disease%2C+and+Shootings%2C+June+1941+%E2%80%93+January+1942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fthe-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://countrystudies.us/belarus/10.htm">"Belarus – World War II"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft.atitle=Belarus+%E2%80%93+World+War+II&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Fbelarus%2F10.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaitman_Wade_Beorn2014" class="citation book cs1">Waitman Wade Beorn (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S8cXAgAAQBAJ"><i>Marching into Darkness</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 28. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72660-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72660-4"><bdi>978-0-674-72660-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marching+into+Darkness&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-674-72660-4&rft.au=Waitman+Wade+Beorn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS8cXAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinkley2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Douglas_Brinkley" title="Douglas Brinkley">Brinkley, Douglas</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&q=big+four+world+war+2&pg=PA223"><i>The New York Times Living History: World War II, 1942–1945: The Allied Counteroffensive</i></a>. Macmillan. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7247-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7247-1"><bdi>978-0-8050-7247-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210815162717/https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&q=big+four+world+war+2&pg=PA223">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+York+Times+Living+History%3A+World+War+II%2C+1942%E2%80%931945%3A+The+Allied+Counteroffensive&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7247-1&rft.aulast=Brinkley&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHymSg_Pp7X0C%26q%3Dbig%2Bfour%2Bworld%2Bwar%2B2%26pg%3DPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrquhart" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brian_Urquhart" title="Brian Urquhart">Urquhart, Brian</a>. <i>Looking for the Sheriff</i>. New York Review of Books, 16 July 1998.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Looking+for+the+Sheriff&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books%2C+16+July+1998&rft.aulast=Urquhart&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-denunciation-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-denunciation_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp">Denunciation of the neutrality pact</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110520092519/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp">Archived</a> 20 May 2011 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 5 April 1945. (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Avalon_Project" title="Avalon Project">Avalon Project</a> at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-declarationofwar-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-declarationofwar_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp">Soviet Declaration of War on Japan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110520092513/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp">Archived</a> 20 May 2011 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 8 August 1945. (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Avalon_Project" title="Avalon Project">Avalon Project</a> at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lyZYS_GxglIC&pg=PA480"><i>Women and War</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. 2006. pp. 480–. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-770-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-770-8"><bdi>978-1-85109-770-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+War&rft.pages=480-&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-770-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlyZYS_GxglIC%26pg%3DPA480&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllan_Hall2008" class="citation web cs1">Allan Hall (24 October 2008). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/3255081/German-women-break-their-silence-on-horrors-of-Red-Army-rapes.html">"German women break their silence on horrors of Red Army rapes"</a></span>. <i>Telegraph.co.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/3255081/German-women-break-their-silence-on-horrors-of-Red-Army-rapes.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Telegraph.co.uk&rft.atitle=German+women+break+their+silence+on+horrors+of+Red+Army+rapes&rft.date=2008-10-24&rft.au=Allan+Hall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Feurope%2Fgermany%2F3255081%2FGerman-women-break-their-silence-on-horrors-of-Red-Army-rapes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-The_Independent-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Independent_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/raped-by-the-red-army-two-million-german-women-speak-out-1669074.html">"Raped by the Red Army: Two million German women speak out"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. 15 April 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Raped+by+the+Red+Army%3A+Two+million+German+women+speak+out&rft.date=2009-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fraped-by-the-red-army-two-million-german-women-speak-out-1669074.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Susanne_Beyer-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Susanne_Beyer_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusanne_Beyer2010" class="citation news cs1">Susanne Beyer (26 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,680354,00.html">"Harrowing Memoir: German Woman Writes Ground-Breaking Account of WW2 Rape"</a>. <i>Der Spiegel</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Harrowing+Memoir%3A+German+Woman+Writes+Ground-Breaking+Account+of+WW2+Rape&rft.date=2010-02-26&rft.au=Susanne+Beyer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fgermany%2F0%2C1518%2C680354%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bird-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bird_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird2002" class="citation journal cs1">Bird, Nicky (October 2002). "Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor". <i>International Affairs</i>. <b>78</b> (4). Royal Institute of International Affairs: 914–916.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Affairs&rft.atitle=Berlin%3A+The+Downfall+1945+by+Antony+Beevor&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=914-916&rft.date=2002-10&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Nicky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Television documentary from CC&C Ideacom Production, "Apocalypse Never-Ending War 1918–1926", part 2, aired at Danish DR K on 22 October 2018.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-:4-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaimark1995" class="citation book cs1">Naimark, Norman M. (1995). <i>The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949</i>. Cambridge: Belknap Press. p. 70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russians+in+Germany%3A+A+History+of+the+Soviet+Zone+of+Occupation%2C+1945%E2%80%931949&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Naimark&rft.aufirst=Norman+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zaloga (Armored Thunderbolt) pp. 28, 30, 31.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (August 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Lend-Lease Shipments: World War II</i>, Section IIIB, Published by Office, Chief of Finance, War Department, December 31, 1946, p. 8.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardesty1991" class="citation book cs1">Hardesty, Von (1991). "Appendix 10: Lend-Lease Aircraft to USSR June 22, 1941 – September 20, 1945". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/redphoenixriseof0000hard_d8o6"><i>Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power, 1941–1945</i></a></span>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/redphoenixriseof0000hard_d8o6/page/253/mode/1up">253</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56098-071-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56098-071-1"><bdi>978-1-56098-071-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1319584971">1319584971</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+10%3A+Lend-Lease+Aircraft+to+USSR+June+22%2C+1941+%E2%80%93+September+20%2C+1945&rft.btitle=Red+Phoenix%3A+The+Rise+of+Soviet+Air+Power%2C+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1319584971&rft.isbn=978-1-56098-071-1&rft.aulast=Hardesty&rft.aufirst=Von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fredphoenixriseof0000hard_d8o6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170506174749/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf">"World War II: The War Against Germany And Italy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Military History</i>. US Army Center of Military History. p. 158. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=World+War+II%3A+The+War+Against+Germany+And+Italy&rft.btitle=American+Military+History&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=US+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fbooks%2FAMH-V2%2FPDF%2FChapter05.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Roll (2012) <i>The Hopkins Touch: Harry Hopkins and the Forging of the Alliance to Defeat Hitler</i>, ch. 6.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031212063805/http://www.o5m6.de/routes.html">"The five Lend-Lease routes to Russia"</a>. <i>Engines of the Red Army</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.o5m6.de/Routes.html">the original</a> on December 12, 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 12,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Engines+of+the+Red+Army&rft.atitle=The+five+Lend-Lease+routes+to+Russia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.o5m6.de%2FRoutes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMotter1952" class="citation book cs1">Motter, T.H. Vail (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/persian/index.htm"><i>The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia</i></a>. Center of Military History. pp. 4–6<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 12,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Corridor+and+Aid+to+Russia&rft.pages=4-6&rft.pub=Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Motter&rft.aufirst=T.H.+Vail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.army.mil%2Fbooks%2Fwwii%2Fpersian%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-fas.org-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fas.org_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/">"Main Intelligence Administration (GRU) Glavnoye Razvedovatel'noye Upravlenie – Russia / Soviet Intelligence Agencies"</a>. Fas.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226090607/http://www.fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Main+Intelligence+Administration+%28GRU%29+Glavnoye+Razvedovatel%27noye+Upravlenie+%E2%80%93+Russia+%2F+Soviet+Intelligence+Agencies&rft.pub=Fas.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Firp%2Fworld%2Frussia%2Fgru%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-history.com-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-history.com_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/warsaw-pact-ends">"Warsaw Pact ends"</a>. <i>HISTORY</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=Warsaw+Pact+ends&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fthis-day-in-history%2Fwarsaw-pact-ends&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarresm2014" class="citation book cs1">Larresm, Klaus, ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174"><i>A Companion to Europe Since 1945</i></a>. Wiley. p. 79. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-89024-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-89024-0"><bdi>978-1-118-89024-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Europe+Since+1945&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-118-89024-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEyNcCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-lunokhod-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lunokhod_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation episode cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226123643/http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html">"Tank on the Moon"</a>. <i>The Nature of Things with David Suzuki</i>. 6 December 2007. CBC-TV. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html">the original</a> on 26 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Things+with+David+Suzuki&rft.date=2007-12-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnatureofthings%2Fmagazine2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James W. Cortada, "Public Policies and the Development of National Computer Industries in Britain, France, and the Soviet Union, 1940—80." <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i> (2009) 44#3 pp: 493-512, especially page 509-10.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank Cain, "Computers and the Cold War: United States restrictions on the export of computers to the Soviet Union and Communist China." <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i> (2005) 40#1 pp: 131-147. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30036313">in JSTOR</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yergin, <i>The Quest</i> (2011) p 23</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYegor_Gaidar2007" class="citation book cs1">Yegor Gaidar (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDSfnxYjVwAC&pg=PA102"><i>Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia</i></a>. Brookings Institution Press. p. 102. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815731153" title="Special:BookSources/9780815731153"><bdi>9780815731153</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collapse+of+an+Empire%3A+Lessons+for+Modern+Russia&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780815731153&rft.au=Yegor+Gaidar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbDSfnxYjVwAC%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">WorldBook online</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-AEI-Gaidar-Grain_and_Oil-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AEI-Gaidar-Grain_and_Oil_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaidar" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yegor_Gaidar" title="Yegor Gaidar">Gaidar, Yegor</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090722091512/http://www.aei.org/issue/25991">"The Soviet Collapse: Grain and Oil"</a>. <i>On the Issues: AEI online</i>. American Enterprise Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aei.org/issue/25991">the original</a> on 2009-07-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=On+the+Issues%3A+AEI+online&rft.atitle=The+Soviet+Collapse%3A+Grain+and+Oil&rft.aulast=Gaidar&rft.aufirst=Yegor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aei.org%2Fissue%2F25991&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span> (Edited version of a speech given November **, **** at the American Enterprise Institute.)</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War">Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliography_of_Stalinism_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union">Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Post_Stalinist_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union">Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union</a></div>
<ul><li>Conquest, Robert. <i>The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties</i> (1973).</li>
<li>Daly, Jonathan and Leonid Trofimov, eds. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hackettpublishing.com/russia-in-war-and-revolution-1914-1922">Russia in War and Revolution, 1914–1922: A Documentary History</a>." (Indianapolis and Cambridge, MA: Hackett Publishing Company, 2009). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-987-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-987-9">978-0-87220-987-9</a>.</li>
<li>Feis, Herbert. <i>Churchill-Roosevelt-Stalin: The War they waged and the Peace they sought</i> (1953).</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiges1996" class="citation book cs1">Figes, Orlando (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p6LzAgAAQBAJ"><i>A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891–1924</i></a>. Pimlico. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-9131-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-9131-1"><bdi>978-0-8050-9131-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+Tragedy%3A+The+Russian+Revolution%3A+1891%E2%80%931924&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-9131-1&rft.aulast=Figes&rft.aufirst=Orlando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp6LzAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peoplestragedyhi00fige">online no charge to borrow</a></li>
<li>Fenby, Jonathan. <i>Alliance: the inside story of how Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill won one war and began another</i> (2015).</li>
<li>Firestone, Thomas. "Four Sovietologists: A Primer." <i>National Interest</i> No. 14 (Winter 1988/9), pp. 102–107 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027135">on the ideas of Zbigniew Brzezinski, Stephen F. Cohen, Jerry F. Hough, and Richard Pipes.</a></li>
<li>Fitzpatrick, Sheila. <i>The Russian Revolution</i>. 199 pages. Oxford University Press; (2nd ed. 2001). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280204-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280204-6">0-19-280204-6</a>.</li>
<li>Fleron, F.J. ed. <i>Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–1991: Classic and Contemporary Issues</i> (1991)</li>
<li>Gorodetsky, Gabriel, ed. <i>Soviet foreign policy, 1917–1991: a retrospective</i> (Routledge, 2014).</li>
<li>Haslam, Jonathan. <i>Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall</i> (Yale UP, 2011) 512 pages</li>
<li>Hosking, Geoffrey. <i>History of the Soviet Union</i> (2017).</li>
<li>Keep, John L.H. <i>Last of the Empires: A History of the Soviet Union, 1945–1991</i> (Oxford UP, 1995).</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stephen_Kotkin" title="Stephen Kotkin">Kotkin, Stephen</a>. <i>Stalin: Vol. 1: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928</i> (2014), 976pp
<ul><li>Kotkin, Stephen. <i>Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941</i> (2017) vol 2</li></ul></li>
<li>Lincoln, W. Bruce. <i>Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution, 1914–1918</i>. (New York, 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/passagethroughar00linc">online</a></li>
<li>McCauley, Martin. <i>The Soviet Union 1917–1991</i> (2nd ed. 1993) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sovietunion1917100mcca">online</a></li>
<li>McCauley, Martin. <i>Origins of the Cold War 1941–1949.</i> (Routledge, 2015).</li>
<li>McCauley, Martin. <i>Russia, America, and the Cold War, 1949–1991</i> (1998)</li>
<li>McCauley, Martin. <i>The Khrushchev Era 1953–1964</i> (2014).</li>
<li>Millar, James R. ed. <i>Encyclopedia of Russian History</i> (4 vol, 2004), 1700pp; 1500 articles by experts.</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alec_Nove" class="mw-redirect" title="Alec Nove">Nove, Alec</a>. <i>An Economic History of the USSR, 1917–1991</i>. (3rd ed. 1993) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo00nove">online w</a></li>
<li>Paxton, John. <i>Encyclopedia of Russian History: From the Christianization of Kiev to the Break-up of the USSR</i> (Abc-Clio Inc, 1993).</li>
<li>Pipes, Richard. <i>Russia under the Bolshevik regime</i> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiaunderbolsh00rich">online</a></li>
<li>Reynolds, David, and Vladimir Pechatnov, eds. <i> The Kremlin Letters: Stalin's Wartime Correspondence with Churchill and Roosevelt</i> (2019)</li>
<li>Service, Robert. <i>Stalin: a Biography</i> (2004).</li>
<li>Shaw, Warren, and David Pryce-Jones. <i>Encyclopedia of the USSR: From 1905 to the Present: Lenin to Gorbachev</i> (Cassell, 1990).</li>
<li>Shlapentokh, Vladimir. <i>Public and private life of the Soviet people: changing values in post-Stalin Russia</i> (Oxford UP, 1989).</li>
<li>Taubman, William. <i>Khrushchev: the man and his era</i> (2003).</li>
<li>Taubman, William. <i>Gorbachev</i> (2017)</li>
<li>Tucker, Robert C., ed. <i>Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation</i> (Routledge, 2017).</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Westad, Odd Arne</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Cold_War:_A_World_History" title="The Cold War: A World History">The Cold War: A World History</a></i> (2017)</li>
<li>Wieczynski, Joseph L., and Bruce F. Adams. <i>The modern encyclopedia of Russian, Soviet and Eurasian history</i> (Academic International Press, 2000).</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://soviethistory.msu.edu/">An on-line archive of primary source materials on Soviet history</a></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_Union_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template talk:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet_Union_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Soviet Union–related articles">Index of Soviet Union–related articles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Creation treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Great Patriotic War</a> (World War II)
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evacuation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Evacuation in the Soviet Union">Evacuation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">The Holocaust</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965 economic reform</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Stagnation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union" title="Nostalgia for the Soviet Union">Nostalgia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Subdivisions of the Soviet Union">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Krais_of_Russia" title="Krais of Russia">Krais</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Oblasts of the Soviet Union">Oblasts</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autonomous_oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Closed_city" title="Closed city">Closed city</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1936_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1936</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1977</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elections_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Elections in the Soviet Union">Elections</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gun_control_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Gun control in the Soviet Union">Gun control</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">List</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_post-Soviet_states" title="LGBT rights in the post-Soviet states">LGBT</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Capital punishment in the Soviet Union">Capital punishment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Passport_system_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Passport system in the Soviet Union">Passport system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Propiska_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propiska in the Soviet Union">Propiska</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of political parties in the Soviet Union">Political parties</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">State ideology</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_anti-Zionism" title="Soviet anti-Zionism">Soviet anti-Zionism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">organisation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Presidium/Politburo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a> (1922–1936)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (1938–1991)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> (1989–1991)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Heads of state</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premier</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">Security services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Political_Directorate" title="State Political Directorate">GPU</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Destruction_battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction battalions">Destruction battalions</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Militsiya" title="Militsiya">Militsiya</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Security_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of State Security (Soviet Union)">MGB</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_KGB" title="List of chairmen of the KGB">Chairmen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Border_Troops" title="Soviet Border Troops">Soviet Border Troops</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a>/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spetsnaz_GRU" title="Spetsnaz GRU">Spetsnaz GRU</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> • <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a>/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Airborne_Forces" title="Soviet Airborne Forces">Soviet Airborne Forces</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">Forced labor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">List</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Repression of science in the Soviet Union">Science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gosbank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gosbank">Central Bank</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Economic planning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Energy policy of the Soviet Union">Energy policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/.su" title=".su">Internet domain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation#Soviet_Union" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Net_material_product" title="Net material product">Net material product</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science and technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">Rouble <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Railway_system_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway system of the Soviet Union">Railway system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Rail transport in the Soviet Union">Rail transport</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_metro_systems_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of metro systems in the Soviet Union">List of metro systems</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Academy" title="Communist Academy">Communist Academy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#In_the_Soviet_Union" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" title="USSR Academy of Medical Sciences">Academy of Medical Sciences</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashkas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naukograd" title="Naukograd">Naukograds</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Naukograds" title="Category:Naukograds">List</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Society of the Soviet Union">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Antisemitism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crime_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Crime in the Soviet Union">Crime</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet people</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Working class</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1989_Soviet_census" title="1989 Soviet census">1989 census</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Drug policy of the Soviet Union">Drug policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Linguistics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistics of the Soviet Union">Linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyrillisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cyrillisation in the Soviet Union">Cyrillisation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_Russian_Empire_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Prohibition in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union">Prohibition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Racism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cinema of the Soviet Union">Cinema</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fashion_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in the Soviet Union">Fashion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_literature#20th_century" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Music of the Soviet Union">Music</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_opera#20th_century" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_phraseology" title="Soviet phraseology">Phraseology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Printed_media_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Printed media in the Soviet Union">Printed media</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radio_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Radio in the Soviet Union">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Television_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Television in the Soviet Union">Television</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a> and their groups
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Soviet_opposition_groups" title="Category:Soviet opposition groups">List</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Anthem of the Soviet Union">Anthem</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anthems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Anthems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union">Emblem</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emblems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Emblems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Flag of the Soviet Union">Flag</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flags_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Flags of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hammer_and_sickle" title="Hammer and sickle">Hammer and sickle</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>
<ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></b></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Soviet_Union" title="Category:Soviet Union">Category</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_of_Eastern_and_Central_Europe_during_their_Communist_period" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="4"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Communist_Eastern_and_Central_Europe" title="Template:Communist Eastern and Central Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Communist_Eastern_and_Central_Europe" title="Template talk:Communist Eastern and Central Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communist_Eastern_and_Central_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communist Eastern and Central Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_of_Eastern_and_Central_Europe_during_their_Communist_period" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Countries of Eastern and Central Europe during their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communist</a> period</div></th></tr><tr><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 2px 0 0"><div><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Warsaw Pact Logo"><img alt="Warsaw Pact Logo" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/90px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/135px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/180px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="860" /></a></span></div></td><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a><br /></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:NATO_and_the_Warsaw_Pact_1973.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Cold War Europe"><img alt="Map of Cold War Europe" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/NATO_and_the_Warsaw_Pact_1973.svg/90px-NATO_and_the_Warsaw_Pact_1973.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/NATO_and_the_Warsaw_Pact_1973.svg/135px-NATO_and_the_Warsaw_Pact_1973.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/NATO_and_the_Warsaw_Pact_1973.svg/180px-NATO_and_the_Warsaw_Pact_1973.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="456" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Soviet Russia</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Soviet_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union_(1917%E2%80%931927)" title="History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)">1917–1927</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">1927–1953</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">1953–1964</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">1964–1982</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">1982–1991</a><br /></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukraine</a><br /></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q462252#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="URSS -- Histoire"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933726t">France</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="URSS -- Histoire"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933726t">BnF data</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007560864905171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Soviet Union--History"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85125764">United States</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<p><br /><span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: There are <code><ref group=lower-alpha></code> tags or <code>{{efn}}</code> templates on this page, but the references will not show without a <code>{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}</code> template or <code>{{notelist}}</code> template (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_group_refs_without_references" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error group refs without references">help page</a>).</span>
</p></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1723729918' |