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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Organization and structure of the British Colonial administration in the later US East Coast}}
[[File:Map of territorial growth 1775.svg|thumb|The thirteen colonies (shown in red) in 1775]]The governments of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] of [[British America]] developed in the 17th and 18th centuries under the influence of the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]]. After the Thirteen Colonies had become the [[United States]], the experience under colonial rule would inform and shape the new [[State constitution (United States)|state constitutions]] and, ultimately, the [[Constitution of the United States|United States Constitution]].{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=ix}}
The [[Executive (government)|executive branch]] was led by a [[governor]], and the [[Legislature|legislative branch]] was divided into two houses: a governor's council and a representative assembly. In the [[Crown colony|royal colonies]], the governor and the council were appointed by the British government. In [[Proprietary colony|proprietary colonies]], these officials were appointed by proprietors, and they were elected in [[Charter colony|charter colonies]]. In every colony, the assembly was elected by free, male, property owners.
In domestic matters, the colonies were largely self-governing on many issues; however, the British government did exercise [[veto]] power over colonial legislation, and regardless of the type of colonial government, retained control of the law and equity courts; judges were selected by the British government and served at the king's pleasure. Diplomatic affairs were handled by the British government, as were trade policies and wars with foreign powers (wars with [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] were generally handled by colonial governments).<ref name="Cooke222">Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2019}}
The [[American Revolution]] was a dispute over the British [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament's]] right to enact domestic legislation for the American colonies. The British government's position was that Parliament's authority was unlimited, while the American position was that colonial legislatures were coequal with Parliament and outside of its jurisdiction. As the Revolution progressed, the colonial governments were replaced by temporary [[Provincial Congress|provincial congresses]] and ultimately by [[Republic|republican]] constitutions.
== Relation to the British government ==
By the start of the [[American Revolution]], the thirteen colonies had developed political systems featuring a [[governor]] exercising [[Executive (government)|executive]] power and a [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]] made up of a council and an assembly. The system was similar to the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]], with the governor corresponding to the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]], the council to the [[House of Lords]] and the assembly to the [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]].{{Sfn|Johnson|1987|p=|pp=349-350}}
=== Crown ===
[[File:King George III of England by Johann Zoffany.jpg|thumb|[[George III]] was king during the American Revolution and was the last monarch to reign over the Thirteen Colonies]]
The thirteen colonies were all founded with royal authorization, and authority continued to flow from the monarch as colonial governments exercised authority in the king's name.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=27}} A colony's precise relationship to the Crown depended on whether it was a [[charter colony]], [[proprietary colony]] or [[Crown colony|royal colony]] as defined in its [[Colonial charters in the Thirteen Colonies|colonial charter]]. Whereas royal colonies belonged to the Crown, proprietary and charter colonies were granted by the Crown to private interests.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=|pp=136-137}}
Control over a charter or corporate colony was granted to a [[joint-stock company]], such as the [[Virginia Company]]. Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island were founded as charter colonies. New England's charter colonies were virtually independent of royal authority and operated as [[republic]]s where property owners elected the governor and legislators.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=247}} Proprietary colonies were owned and governed by individuals. To attract settlers, however, proprietors agreed to share power with property owners.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=|pp=246-247}} Maryland, South Carolina, North Carolina, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania were founded as proprietary colonies.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=|pp=140, 263}}
In 1624, Virginia became the first royal colony when the bankrupt Virginia Company's charter was revoked.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=136}} Over time, more colonies transitioned to royal control. By the start of the American Revolution, all but five of the thirteen colonies were royal colonies. Maryland, Pennsylvania and Delaware remained proprietary, while Rhode Island and Connecticut continued as corporate colonies.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=27}}
Historian [[Robert Middlekauff]] describes royal administration of the colonies as inadequate and inefficient because lines of authority were never entirely clear. Before 1768, responsibility for colonial affairs rested with the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] and the [[Secretary of State for the Southern Department]]. The Secretary relied on the [[Board of Trade]] to supply him with information and pass on his instructions to colonial officials. After 1768, the [[Secretary of State for the Colonies|Secretary of State for Colonial Affairs]] was responsible for supervising the colonies; however, this ministry suffered from ineffective secretaries and the jealousy of other government ministers.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=|pp=27-28}}
=== Parliament ===
[[File:Old_England_-_a_pictorial_museum_of_regal,_ecclesiastical,_baronial,_municipal,_and_popular_antiquities_(1845)_(14587733099).jpg|thumb|The House of Commons during the reign of [[George II of Great Britain|George II]]]]
[[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament's]] authority over the colonies was also unclear and controversial in the 18th century.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=28}} As English government evolved from government by the Crown toward government in the name of the Crown (the [[King-in-Parliament]]),{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=3}} the convention that the colonies were ruled solely by the monarch gave way to greater involvement of Parliament by the mid 1700s. Acts of Parliament regulated commerce {{Crossreference|(see [[Navigation Acts]])}}, defined citizenship, and limited the amount of [[Early American currency|paper money issued in the colonies]].{{Sfn|Johnson|1987|p=342}}
The British government argued that Parliament's authority to legislate for the colonies was unlimited. This was stated explicitly in the [[Declaratory Act]] of 1766.{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=3}} The British also argued that the colonists, while not actually represented in Parliament, were nonetheless [[Virtual representation|virtually represented]].{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=4}}
The American view, shaped by [[Whiggism|Whig political philosophy]], was that Parliament's authority over the colonies was limited.{{Sfn|Hulsebosch|1998|p=322}} While the colonies initially recognized Parliament's right to legislate for the whole empire—such as on matters of trade—they argued that parliamentary taxation was a violation of the principle of [[Consent of the governed|taxation by consent]] since consent could only be granted by the colonists' own representatives. In addition, Americans argued that the colonies were outside of Parliament's jurisdiction and that the colonists owed allegiance only to the Crown. In effect, Americans argued that their colonial legislatures were coequal—not subordinate—to Parliament.{{Sfn|Johnson|1987|p=353}} These incompatible interpretations of the British constitution would become the central issue of the American Revolution.{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=2}}
=== Judicial appeals ===
{{Further|Judicial Committee of the Privy Council}}
In the United Kingdom, Parliament (technically, the King-in-Parliament) was the [[Judicial functions of the House of Lords|highest judicial authority]]. For the colonies, the Privy Council (technically, the [[King-in-Council]]) exercised [[appellate jurisdiction]]. In 1679, appellate jurisdiction was given to the Board of Trade, followed by an Appeals Committee in 1696.{{Sfn|Howell|2009|pp=7–13}}
The Appeals Committee of the Privy Council was severely flawed because its membership was actually a [[committee of the whole]] of the Privy Council, of whom a quorum was three. Even worse, many Privy Councillors were not lawyers, all Privy Councillors had equal voting power on appeals, and there was no requirement that any of the Privy Councillors hearing a particular appeal had to be a lawyer. As a result, parties to appeals could and did try to tilt the outcome of appeals in their favor by persuading nonlawyer Privy Councillors to show up for the hearings on their appeals. For this reason, the Appeals Committee fell into disrepute among better-informed lawyers and judges in the colonies.{{Sfn|Howell|2009|pp=7–13}}
== Branches ==
=== Governor ===
[[File:Tryon Palace.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Tryon Palace|Governor's Palace]] at [[New Bern, North Carolina]]]]
In royal colonies, governors were appointed by the Crown and represented its interests. Before 1689, governors were the dominant political figures in the colonies.{{Sfn|Greene|1961|p=451}} They possessed royal authority transmitted through their commissions and instructions.{{Sfn|Bonwick|1986|p=358}} Among their powers included the right to summon, [[Prorogation|prorogue]] and [[Dissolution of parliament|dissolve]] the elected assembly. Governors could also [[veto]] any [[Bill (law)|bill]] proposed by the colonial legislature.{{Sfn|Morton|1963|p=438}}
Gradually, the assemblies successfully restricted the power of governors by gaining control over [[money bill]]s, including the salaries of the governor and other officials.{{Sfn|Morton|1963|p=438}} Therefore, a governor could find his salary withheld by an uncooperative legislature. Governors were often placed in an untenable position. Their official instructions from London demanded that they protect the Crown's power—the [[Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom|royal prerogative]]—from usurpation by the assembly; at the same time, they were also ordered to secure more colonial funding for Britain's wars against France. In return for military funding, the assemblies often demanded more power.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=|pp=286–288}}
To gain support for his agenda, the governor distributed [[patronage]]. He could reward supporters by appointing them to various offices such as attorney general, surveyor-general or as a local sheriff. These offices were sought after as sources of prestige and income. He could also reward supporters with [[land grant]]s. As a result of this strategy, colonial politics was characterized by a split between a governor's faction (the [[Country Party (Britain)|court party]]) and his opposition (the [[Country Party (Britain)|country party]]).{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=|pp=286–288}}
=== Governor's Council ===
{{Further|Virginia Governor's Council|Massachusetts Governor's Council#History|Executive Council of New Hampshire#Colonial era
}}
[[File:Council_Chamber_of_the_Royal_Governor,_Old_Statehouse,_Boston.jpg|thumb|Council Chamber of the Royal Governor, [[Old State House (Boston)|Old Statehouse]], Boston]]
The executive branch included an advisory council to the governor that varied in size ranging from ten to thirty members.{{Sfn|Morton|1963|p=438}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Colonial Councils|encyclopedia=Dictionary of American History|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/colonial-councils|access-date=November 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109180346/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/colonial-councils|archive-date=November 9, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In royal colonies, the Crown appointed a mix of placemen (paid officeholders in the government) and members of the upper class within colonial society. Councilors tended to represent the interests of businessmen, creditors and property owners in general.{{Sfn|Harrold|1970|p=|pp=282-283}} While lawyers were prominent throughout the thirteen colonies, merchants were important in the northern colonies and planters were more involved in the southern provinces.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}} Members served [[At His Majesty's pleasure|"at pleasure"]] rather than for life or fixed terms.{{Sfn|Harrold|1970|p=282}} When there was an absentee governor or an interval between governors, the council acted as the government.<ref name="Cooke22">Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</ref>
The governor's council also functioned as the [[upper house]] of the colonial legislature. In most colonies, the council could introduce bills, pass resolutions, and consider and act upon petitions. In some colonies, the council acted primarily as a chamber of revision, reviewing and improving legislation. At times, it would argue with the assembly over the amendment of money bills or other legislation.{{Sfn|Harrold|1970|p=|pp=282-283}}
In addition to being both an executive and legislative body, the council also had judicial authority. It was the final [[Appellate court|court of appeal]] within the colony. The council's multifaceted roles exposed it to criticism. [[Richard Henry Lee]] criticized Virginia's colonial government for lacking the balance and [[separation of powers]] found in the British constitution due to the council's lack of independence from the Crown.{{Sfn|Harrold|1970|p=282}}
===Assembly===
[[File:House_of_Burgesses_in_the_Capitol_Williamsburg_James_City_County_Virginia_by_Frances_Benjamin_Johnston.jpg|thumb|House of Burgesses chamber inside the Capitol building at [[Colonial Williamsburg]]]]
The [[lower house]] of a colonial legislature was a [[representative assembly]]. These assemblies were called by different names. Virginia had a [[House of Burgesses]], Massachusetts had a House of Deputies, and South Carolina had a Commons House of Assembly.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=General Court, Colonial|encyclopedia=Dictionary of American History|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/general-court-colonial|access-date=October 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031001133/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/general-court-colonial|archive-date=October 31, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.southcarolinapublicradio.org/post/c-commons-house-assembly-1670-1776|title="C" is for Commons House of Assembly (1670-1776)|last=Edgar|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Edgar|date=November 26, 2018|website=South Carolina Public Radio|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031004041/https://www.southcarolinapublicradio.org/post/c-commons-house-assembly-1670-1776|archive-date=October 31, 2019|access-date=October 30, 2019}}</ref> While names differed, the assemblies had several features in common. Members were elected annually by the propertied citizens of the towns or counties. Usually they met for a single, short session; but the council or governor could call a special session.<ref name="Cooke22"/>{{Page needed|date=October 2019}}
As in Britain, the [[Suffrage|right to vote]] was limited to men with [[Freehold (law)|freehold]] "landed property sufficient to ensure that they were personally independent and had a vested interest in the welfare of their communities".{{Sfn|Ratcliff|2013|p=220}} Due to the greater availability of land, the right to vote was more widespread in the colonies where by one estimate around 60 percent of adult white males could vote. In England and Wales, only 17–20 percent of adult males were eligible. Six colonies allowed alternatives to freehold ownership (such as personal property or tax payment) that extended voting rights to owners of urban property and even prosperous farmers who rented their land. Groups excluded from voting included laborers, [[tenant farmer]]s, unskilled workers and [[Indentured servitude|indentured servants]]. These were considered to lack a "stake in society" and to be vulnerable to [[corruption]].{{Sfn|Ratcliff|2013|p=220-221}}
Tax issues and budget decisions originated in the assembly. Part of the budget went toward the cost of raising and equipping the colonial [[Militia (United States)|militia]]. As the American Revolution drew near, this subject was a point of contention and conflict between the provincial assemblies and their respective governors.<ref name="Cooke22"/>
The perennial struggles between the colonial governors and the assemblies are sometimes viewed, in retrospect, as signs of a rising democratic spirit. However, those assemblies generally represented the privileged [[Social class|classes]], and they were protecting the colony against unreasonable executive encroachments.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} Legally, the crown governor's authority was unassailable. In resisting that authority, assemblies resorted to arguments based upon [[Natural rights and legal rights|natural rights]] and the common welfare, giving life to the notion that governments derived, or ought to derive, their authority from the [[consent of the governed]].{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=|pp=21–22}}
== Union proposals ==
Before the American Revolution, attempts to create a unified government for the thirteen colonies were unsuccessful. Multiple plans for a union were proposed at the [[Albany Congress]] in 1754. One of these plans, proposed by [[Benjamin Franklin]], was the [[Albany Plan]].{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=|pp=31-32}}
== Demise ==
During the [[American Revolution]], the colonial governments ceased to function effectively as royal governors prorogued and dissolved the assemblies. By 1773, [[committees of correspondence]] were governing towns and counties, and nearly all the colonies had established [[Provincial Congress|provincial congresses]], which were legislative assemblies acting outside of royal authority. These were temporary measures, and it was understood that the provincial congresses were not equivalent to proper legislatures.{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=313–317}}
By May 1775, the [[Massachusetts Provincial Congress]] felt that a permanent government was needed. On the advice of the [[Second Continental Congress]], Massachusetts once again operated under the [[Massachusetts Charter|Charter of 1691]] but without a governor (the [[Massachusetts Governor's Council|governor's council]] functioned as the executive branch).{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=130, 133}} In the fall of 1775, the Continental Congress recommended that New Hampshire, South Carolina and Virginia form new governments. New Hampshire [[Constitution of New Hampshire#1776 Constitution|adopted a republican constitution]] on January 5, 1776. [[Constitution of South Carolina#Constitution of 1776|South Carolina's constitution]] was adopted on March 26, and [[Constitution of Virginia#1776|Virginia's constitution]] was adopted on June 29.{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=133}}
In May 1776, the Continental Congress called for the creation of new governments "where no government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs have been hitherto established" and "that the exercise of every kind of authority under the ... Crown should be totally suppressed".{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=132}} The [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] in July further encouraged the states to form new governments, and most states had adopted new constitutions by the end of 1776. Because of [[American Revolutionary War|the war]], Georgia and New York were unable to complete their constitutions until 1777.{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=133}}
==See also==
* [[Colonial history of the United States]]
* [[Impeachment in the Thirteen Colonies]]
* [[Proprietary House]]
* [[Salutary neglect]]
== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{Reflist}}
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Bonwick|first=Colin|date=December 1986|title=The American Revolution as a Social Movement Revisited|journal=Journal of American Studies|publisher=British Association for American Studies|volume=20|issue=3|pages=355–373|doi=10.1017/S002187580001272X |jstor=27554789|s2cid=145105481 }}
*{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies|publisher=C. Scribner's Sons|year=1993|isbn=9780684192697|editor-last=Cooke|editor-first=Jacob Ernest|volume=3 Volumes}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5c0LKovqJUC&pg=PA21|title=Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776-1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy|last=Green|first=Fletcher Melvin|author-link=Fletcher Melvin Green|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=1930|isbn=9781584779285}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Greene|first=Jack P.|author-link=Jack P. Greene|date=November 1961|title=The Role of the Lower Houses of Assembly in Eighteenth-Century Politics|journal=The Journal of Southern History|publisher=Southern Historical Association|volume=27|issue=4|pages=451–474|doi=10.2307/2204309|jstor=2204309}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Harrold|first=Frances|date=July 1970|title=The Upper House in Jeffersonian Political Theory|journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography|publisher=[[Virginia Historical Society]]|volume=78|issue=3|pages=281–294|jstor=4247579}}
*{{cite book |last1=Howell |first1=P.A. |title=The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council: 1833-1876 Its Origins, Structure and Development |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521085595 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGmQ7Z-aQ1cC&q=APPEALS%20COMMITTEE&pg=PA11-IA12}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Hulsebosch|first=Daniel J.|date=Summer 1998|title=Imperia in Imperio: The Multiple Constitutions of Empire in New York, 1750-1777|journal=Law and History Review|publisher=American Society for Legal History|volume=16|issue=2|pages=319–379|doi=10.2307/744104|jstor=744104|s2cid=147371177 }}
*{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Richard R.|date=September 1987|title="Parliamentary Egotisms": The Clash of Legislatures in the Making of the American Revolution|journal=The Journal of American History|publisher=Organization of American Historians|volume=74|issue=2|pages=338–362|doi=10.2307/1900026|jstor=1900026}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nya0ODz-B-cC|title=The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789|last=Middlekauff|first=Robert|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-19-531588-2|edition=revised and expanded|series=[[Oxford History of the United States]]|volume=3|author-link=Robert Middlekauff}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Morton|first=W. L.|date=July 1963|title=The Local Executive in the British Empire 1763-1828|journal=The English Historical Review|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=78|issue=308|pages=436–457|doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXVIII.CCCVIII.436 |jstor=562144}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Ratcliff|first=Donald|date=Summer 2013|title=The Right to Vote and the Rise of Democracy, 1787—1828|journal=Journal of the Early Republic|publisher=Society for Historians of the Early American Republic|volume=33|issue=2|pages=219–254|doi=10.1353/jer.2013.0033 |jstor=24768843|s2cid=145135025 }}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPoAQRgkrOcC|title=American Colonies: The Settling of North America|last=Taylor|first=Alan|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2001|isbn=978-1-101-07581-4|series=Penguin History of the United States|volume=1|author-link=Alan Taylor (historian)}}
* {{cite book | last = Wood | first = Gordon S. | author-link = Gordon S. Wood | title = The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | year = 1998 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bLzqCQAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-8078-4723-7 }}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Andrews, Charles M. ''Colonial Self-Government, 1652-1689'' (1904) [https://archive.org/stream/colonialselfgov00andrgoog/colonialselfgov00andrgoog_djvu.txt full text online]
* Andrews, Charles M. ''The Colonial Period of American History'' (4 vol. 1934-38), the standard overview to 1700
* Bailyn, Bernard. ''The Origins of American Politics'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968): an influential book arguing that the roots of the American Revolution lie in the colonial legislatures' struggles with the governors.
* {{cite book | last = Dickerson | first = Oliver Morton | author-link = Oliver Morton Dickerson | title = American Colonial Government, 1696-1765 | publisher = Arthur H. Clark Company | year = 1912 | location = Cleveland, Ohio | isbn = 9780722265888 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TBgOAAAAIAAJ}}
* Dinkin, Robert J. ''Voting in Provincial America: A Study of Elections in the Thirteen Colonies, 1689-1776'' (1977)
* {{cite book|author=Green, Fletcher Melvin|title=Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776-1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5c0LKovqJUC&pg=PA21|year=1930|publisher=U. of North Carolina press|isbn=9781584779285}}
* Greene, Jack P. ''Negotiated Authorities: Essays in Colonial Political and Constitutional History'' (1994)
*Hawke, David F.; ''The Colonial Experience''; 1966, {{ISBN|0-02-351830-8}}. textbook
* Nagl, Dominik. ''No Part of the Mother Country, but Distinct Dominions - Law, State Formation and Governance in England, Massachusetts und South Carolina, 1630-1769'' (2013).[http://de.scribd.com/doc/204061491/Dominik-Nagl-No-Part-of-the-Mother-Country-but-Distinct-Dominions-Rechtstransfer-Staatsbildung-und-Governance-in-England-Massachusetts-und-South-C] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812090708/http://de.scribd.com/doc/204061491/Dominik-Nagl-No-Part-of-the-Mother-Country-but-Distinct-Dominions-Rechtstransfer-Staatsbildung-und-Governance-in-England-Massachusetts-und-South-C |date=2016-08-12 }}
*{{Cite book|title=The Upper House in Revolutionary America, 1763-1788|last=Main|first=Jackson Turner|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=1967}}
* Middleton, Richard, and Anne Lombard. ''Colonial America: A History to 1763'' (4th ed. 2011) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1405190043/ excerpt and text search]
* Osgood, Herbert L. ''The American colonies in the seventeenth century,'' (3 vol 1904-07)' [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.49015000055823 vol. 1 online]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=QqlDAQAAMAAJ vol 2 online]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=agcOAAAAIAAJ vol 3 online]
* Osgood, Herbert L. ''The American colonies in the eighteenth century'' (4 vol, 1924–25)
{{refend}}
{{Portal bar|British Empire|Monarchy|North America|Politics}}<!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please do not add "Portal:United States" as it would be historically inaccurate. Thank you. -->
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Colonial Government In The Thirteen Colonies}}
[[Category:Colonial government in America| ]]
[[Category:Governance of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Thirteen Colonies]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Organization and structure of the British Colonial administration in the later US East Coast}}
[[File:Map of territorial growth 1775.svg|thumb|The thirteen colonies (shown in red) in 1775]]The governments of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] of [[British America]] developed in the 17th and 18th centuries under the influence of the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]]. After the Thirteen Colonies had become the [[United States]], the experience under colonial rule would inform and shape the new [[State constitution (United States)|state constitutions]] and, ultimately, the [[Constitution of the United States|United States Constitution]].{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=ix}}
The [[Executive (government)|executive branch]] was led by a [[governor]], and the [[Legislature|legislative branch]] was divided into two houses: a governor's council and a representative assembly. In the [[Crown colony|royal colonies]], the governor and the council were appointed by the British government. In [[Proprietary colony|proprietary colonies]], these officials were appointed by proprietors, and they were elected in [[Charter colony|charter colonies]]. In every colony, the assembly was elected by free, male, property owners.
In domestic matters, the colonies were largely self-governing on many issues; however, the British government did exercise [[veto]] power over colonial legislation, and regardless of the type of colonial government, retained control of the law and equity courts; judges were selected by the British government and served at the king's pleasure. Diplomatic affairs were handled by the British government, as were trade policies and wars with foreign powers (wars with [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] were generally handled by colonial governments).<ref name="Cooke222">Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2019}}
The [[American Revolution]] was a dispute over the British [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament's]] right to enact domestic legislation for the American colonies. The British government's position was that Parliament's authority was unlimited, while the American position was that colonial legislatures were coequal with Parliament and outside of its jurisdiction. As the Revolution progressed, the colonial governments were replaced by temporary [[Provincial Congress|provincial congresses]] and ultimately by [[Republic|republican]] constitutions.
== Relation to the British government ==
===British constitution===
{{Main|History of the constitution of the United Kingdom}}
After the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, Great Britain was governed as a [[constitutional monarchy]] with sovereignty residing in the [[King-in-Parliament]]. [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]] was a [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]]. Aristocrats inherited seats in the [[House of Lords]], while the [[Landed gentry|gentry]] and merchants controlled the elected [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]].{{Sfn|Taylor|2016|p=12}} The [[History of monarchy in the United Kingdom|British monarch]] possessed [[Executive (government)|executive]] authority, but he relied on the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|cabinet ministers]] of the [[Privy Council (United Kingdom)|Privy Council]] to actually run the government. These ministers depended on majority support in both houses of Parliament to govern effectively.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=16}} Under the [[British constitution]], the British people enjoyed more liberty than any other people in Europe.{{Sfn|Taylor|2016|p=12}}
By the start of the [[American Revolution]], the thirteen colonies had developed political systems featuring a [[governor]] exercising executive power and a bicameral legislature made up of a council and an assembly. The system was modeled on the British constitution, with the governor corresponding to the monarch, the council to the House of Lords and the assembly to the House of Commons.{{Sfn|Johnson|1987|p=|pp=349-350}} The American colonists were proud of their status as British subjects and claimed the same [[rights of Englishmen]] as their counterparts in the mother country.{{Sfn|Taylor|2016|p=13}}
=== Crown ===
[[File:King George III of England by Johann Zoffany.jpg|thumb|[[George III]] was king during the American Revolution and was the last monarch to reign over the Thirteen Colonies]]
The thirteen colonies were all founded with royal authorization, and authority continued to flow from the monarch as colonial governments exercised authority in the king's name.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=27}} A colony's precise relationship to the Crown depended on whether it was a [[charter colony]], [[proprietary colony]] or [[Crown colony|royal colony]] as defined in its [[Colonial charters in the Thirteen Colonies|colonial charter]]. Whereas royal colonies belonged to the Crown, proprietary and charter colonies were granted by the Crown to private interests.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=|pp=136-137}}
Control over a charter or corporate colony was granted to a [[joint-stock company]], such as the [[Virginia Company]]. Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island were founded as charter colonies. New England's charter colonies were virtually independent of royal authority and operated as [[republic]]s where property owners elected the governor and legislators.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=247}} Proprietary colonies were owned and governed by individuals. To attract settlers, however, proprietors agreed to share power with property owners.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=|pp=246-247}} Maryland, South Carolina, North Carolina, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania were founded as proprietary colonies.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=|pp=140, 263}}
In 1624, Virginia became the first royal colony when the bankrupt Virginia Company's charter was revoked.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=136}} Over time, more colonies transitioned to royal control. By the start of the American Revolution, all but five of the thirteen colonies were royal colonies. Maryland, Pennsylvania and Delaware remained proprietary, while Rhode Island and Connecticut continued as corporate colonies.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=27}}
Historian [[Robert Middlekauff]] describes royal administration of the colonies as inadequate and inefficient because lines of authority were never entirely clear. Before 1768, responsibility for colonial affairs rested with the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] and the [[Secretary of State for the Southern Department]]. The Secretary relied on the [[Board of Trade]] to supply him with information and pass on his instructions to colonial officials. After 1768, the [[Secretary of State for the Colonies|Secretary of State for Colonial Affairs]] was responsible for supervising the colonies; however, this ministry suffered from ineffective secretaries and the jealousy of other government ministers.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=|pp=27-28}}
=== Parliament ===
[[File:Old_England_-_a_pictorial_museum_of_regal,_ecclesiastical,_baronial,_municipal,_and_popular_antiquities_(1845)_(14587733099).jpg|thumb|The House of Commons during the reign of [[George II of Great Britain|George II]]]]
[[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament's]] authority over the colonies was also unclear and controversial in the 18th century.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=28}} As English government evolved from government by the Crown toward government in the name of the Crown (the [[King-in-Parliament]]),{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=3}} the convention that the colonies were ruled solely by the monarch gave way to greater involvement of Parliament by the mid 1700s. Acts of Parliament regulated commerce {{Crossreference|(see [[Navigation Acts]])}}, defined citizenship, and limited the amount of [[Early American currency|paper money issued in the colonies]].{{Sfn|Johnson|1987|p=342}}
The British government argued that Parliament's authority to legislate for the colonies was unlimited. This was stated explicitly in the [[Declaratory Act]] of 1766.{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=3}} The British also argued that the colonists, while not actually represented in Parliament, were nonetheless [[Virtual representation|virtually represented]].{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=4}}
The American view, shaped by [[Whiggism|Whig political philosophy]], was that Parliament's authority over the colonies was limited.{{Sfn|Hulsebosch|1998|p=322}} While the colonies initially recognized Parliament's right to legislate for the whole empire—such as on matters of trade—they argued that parliamentary taxation was a violation of the principle of [[Consent of the governed|taxation by consent]] since consent could only be granted by the colonists' own representatives. In addition, Americans argued that the colonies were outside of Parliament's jurisdiction and that the colonists owed allegiance only to the Crown. In effect, Americans argued that their colonial legislatures were coequal—not subordinate—to Parliament.{{Sfn|Johnson|1987|p=353}} These incompatible interpretations of the British constitution would become the central issue of the American Revolution.{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=2}}
=== Judicial appeals ===
{{Further|Judicial Committee of the Privy Council}}
In the United Kingdom, Parliament (technically, the King-in-Parliament) was the [[Judicial functions of the House of Lords|highest judicial authority]]. For the colonies, the Privy Council (technically, the [[King-in-Council]]) exercised [[appellate jurisdiction]]. In 1679, appellate jurisdiction was given to the Board of Trade, followed by an Appeals Committee in 1696.{{Sfn|Howell|2009|pp=7–13}}
The Appeals Committee of the Privy Council was severely flawed because its membership was actually a [[committee of the whole]] of the Privy Council, of whom a quorum was three. Even worse, many Privy Councillors were not lawyers, all Privy Councillors had equal voting power on appeals, and there was no requirement that any of the Privy Councillors hearing a particular appeal had to be a lawyer. As a result, parties to appeals could and did try to tilt the outcome of appeals in their favor by persuading nonlawyer Privy Councillors to show up for the hearings on their appeals. For this reason, the Appeals Committee fell into disrepute among better-informed lawyers and judges in the colonies.{{Sfn|Howell|2009|pp=7–13}}
== Branches ==
=== Governor ===
[[File:Tryon Palace.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Tryon Palace|Governor's Palace]] at [[New Bern, North Carolina]]]]
In royal colonies, governors were appointed by the Crown and represented its interests. Before 1689, governors were the dominant political figures in the colonies.{{Sfn|Greene|1961|p=451}} They possessed royal authority transmitted through their commissions and instructions.{{Sfn|Bonwick|1986|p=358}} Among their powers included the right to summon, [[Prorogation|prorogue]] and [[Dissolution of parliament|dissolve]] the elected assembly. Governors could also [[veto]] any [[Bill (law)|bill]] proposed by the colonial legislature.{{Sfn|Morton|1963|p=438}}
Gradually, the assemblies successfully restricted the power of governors by gaining control over [[money bill]]s, including the salaries of the governor and other officials.{{Sfn|Morton|1963|p=438}} Therefore, a governor could find his salary withheld by an uncooperative legislature. Governors were often placed in an untenable position. Their official instructions from London demanded that they protect the Crown's power—the [[Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom|royal prerogative]]—from usurpation by the assembly; at the same time, they were also ordered to secure more colonial funding for Britain's wars against France. In return for military funding, the assemblies often demanded more power.{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=|pp=286–288}}
To gain support for his agenda, the governor distributed [[patronage]]. He could reward supporters by appointing them to various offices such as attorney general, surveyor-general or as a local sheriff. These offices were sought after as sources of prestige and income. He could also reward supporters with [[land grant]]s. As a result of this strategy, colonial politics was characterized by a split between a governor's faction (the [[Country Party (Britain)|court party]]) and his opposition (the [[Country Party (Britain)|country party]]).{{Sfn|Taylor|2001|p=|pp=286–288}}
=== Governor's Council ===
{{Further|Virginia Governor's Council|Massachusetts Governor's Council#History|Executive Council of New Hampshire#Colonial era
}}
[[File:Council_Chamber_of_the_Royal_Governor,_Old_Statehouse,_Boston.jpg|thumb|Council Chamber of the Royal Governor, [[Old State House (Boston)|Old Statehouse]], Boston]]
The executive branch included an advisory council to the governor that varied in size ranging from ten to thirty members.{{Sfn|Morton|1963|p=438}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Colonial Councils|encyclopedia=Dictionary of American History|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/colonial-councils|access-date=November 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109180346/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/colonial-councils|archive-date=November 9, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In royal colonies, the Crown appointed a mix of placemen (paid officeholders in the government) and members of the upper class within colonial society. Councilors tended to represent the interests of businessmen, creditors and property owners in general.{{Sfn|Harrold|1970|p=|pp=282-283}} While lawyers were prominent throughout the thirteen colonies, merchants were important in the northern colonies and planters were more involved in the southern provinces.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}} Members served [[At His Majesty's pleasure|"at pleasure"]] rather than for life or fixed terms.{{Sfn|Harrold|1970|p=282}} When there was an absentee governor or an interval between governors, the council acted as the government.<ref name="Cooke22">Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</ref>
The governor's council also functioned as the [[upper house]] of the colonial legislature. In most colonies, the council could introduce bills, pass resolutions, and consider and act upon petitions. In some colonies, the council acted primarily as a chamber of revision, reviewing and improving legislation. At times, it would argue with the assembly over the amendment of money bills or other legislation.{{Sfn|Harrold|1970|p=|pp=282-283}}
In addition to being both an executive and legislative body, the council also had judicial authority. It was the final [[Appellate court|court of appeal]] within the colony. The council's multifaceted roles exposed it to criticism. [[Richard Henry Lee]] criticized Virginia's colonial government for lacking the balance and [[separation of powers]] found in the British constitution due to the council's lack of independence from the Crown.{{Sfn|Harrold|1970|p=282}}
===Assembly===
[[File:House_of_Burgesses_in_the_Capitol_Williamsburg_James_City_County_Virginia_by_Frances_Benjamin_Johnston.jpg|thumb|House of Burgesses chamber inside the Capitol building at [[Colonial Williamsburg]]]]
The [[lower house]] of a colonial legislature was a [[representative assembly]]. These assemblies were called by different names. Virginia had a [[House of Burgesses]], Massachusetts had a House of Deputies, and South Carolina had a Commons House of Assembly.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=General Court, Colonial|encyclopedia=Dictionary of American History|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/general-court-colonial|access-date=October 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031001133/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/general-court-colonial|archive-date=October 31, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.southcarolinapublicradio.org/post/c-commons-house-assembly-1670-1776|title="C" is for Commons House of Assembly (1670-1776)|last=Edgar|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Edgar|date=November 26, 2018|website=South Carolina Public Radio|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031004041/https://www.southcarolinapublicradio.org/post/c-commons-house-assembly-1670-1776|archive-date=October 31, 2019|access-date=October 30, 2019}}</ref> While names differed, the assemblies had several features in common. Members were elected annually by the propertied citizens of the towns or counties. Usually they met for a single, short session; but the council or governor could call a special session.<ref name="Cooke22"/>{{Page needed|date=October 2019}}
As in Britain, the [[Suffrage|right to vote]] was limited to men with [[Freehold (law)|freehold]] "landed property sufficient to ensure that they were personally independent and had a vested interest in the welfare of their communities".{{Sfn|Ratcliff|2013|p=220}} Due to the greater availability of land, the right to vote was more widespread in the colonies where by one estimate around 60 percent of adult white males could vote. In England and Wales, only 17–20 percent of adult males were eligible. Six colonies allowed alternatives to freehold ownership (such as personal property or tax payment) that extended voting rights to owners of urban property and even prosperous farmers who rented their land. Groups excluded from voting included laborers, [[tenant farmer]]s, unskilled workers and [[Indentured servitude|indentured servants]]. These were considered to lack a "stake in society" and to be vulnerable to [[corruption]].{{Sfn|Ratcliff|2013|p=220-221}}
Tax issues and budget decisions originated in the assembly. Part of the budget went toward the cost of raising and equipping the colonial [[Militia (United States)|militia]]. As the American Revolution drew near, this subject was a point of contention and conflict between the provincial assemblies and their respective governors.<ref name="Cooke22"/>
The perennial struggles between the colonial governors and the assemblies are sometimes viewed, in retrospect, as signs of a rising democratic spirit. However, those assemblies generally represented the privileged [[Social class|classes]], and they were protecting the colony against unreasonable executive encroachments.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} Legally, the crown governor's authority was unassailable. In resisting that authority, assemblies resorted to arguments based upon [[Natural rights and legal rights|natural rights]] and the common welfare, giving life to the notion that governments derived, or ought to derive, their authority from the [[consent of the governed]].{{Sfn|Green|1930|p=|pp=21–22}}
== Union proposals ==
Before the American Revolution, attempts to create a unified government for the thirteen colonies were unsuccessful. Multiple plans for a union were proposed at the [[Albany Congress]] in 1754. One of these plans, proposed by [[Benjamin Franklin]], was the [[Albany Plan]].{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=|pp=31-32}}
== Demise ==
During the [[American Revolution]], the colonial governments ceased to function effectively as royal governors prorogued and dissolved the assemblies. By 1773, [[committees of correspondence]] were governing towns and counties, and nearly all the colonies had established [[Provincial Congress|provincial congresses]], which were legislative assemblies acting outside of royal authority. These were temporary measures, and it was understood that the provincial congresses were not equivalent to proper legislatures.{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=313–317}}
By May 1775, the [[Massachusetts Provincial Congress]] felt that a permanent government was needed. On the advice of the [[Second Continental Congress]], Massachusetts once again operated under the [[Massachusetts Charter|Charter of 1691]] but without a governor (the [[Massachusetts Governor's Council|governor's council]] functioned as the executive branch).{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=130, 133}} In the fall of 1775, the Continental Congress recommended that New Hampshire, South Carolina and Virginia form new governments. New Hampshire [[Constitution of New Hampshire#1776 Constitution|adopted a republican constitution]] on January 5, 1776. [[Constitution of South Carolina#Constitution of 1776|South Carolina's constitution]] was adopted on March 26, and [[Constitution of Virginia#1776|Virginia's constitution]] was adopted on June 29.{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=133}}
In May 1776, the Continental Congress called for the creation of new governments "where no government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs have been hitherto established" and "that the exercise of every kind of authority under the ... Crown should be totally suppressed".{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=132}} The [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] in July further encouraged the states to form new governments, and most states had adopted new constitutions by the end of 1776. Because of [[American Revolutionary War|the war]], Georgia and New York were unable to complete their constitutions until 1777.{{Sfn|Wood|1998|pp=133}}
==See also==
* [[Colonial history of the United States]]
* [[Impeachment in the Thirteen Colonies]]
* [[Proprietary House]]
* [[Salutary neglect]]
== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{Reflist}}
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Bonwick|first=Colin|date=December 1986|title=The American Revolution as a Social Movement Revisited|journal=Journal of American Studies|publisher=British Association for American Studies|volume=20|issue=3|pages=355–373|doi=10.1017/S002187580001272X |jstor=27554789|s2cid=145105481 }}
*{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies|publisher=C. Scribner's Sons|year=1993|isbn=9780684192697|editor-last=Cooke|editor-first=Jacob Ernest|volume=3 Volumes}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5c0LKovqJUC&pg=PA21|title=Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776-1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy|last=Green|first=Fletcher Melvin|author-link=Fletcher Melvin Green|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=1930|isbn=9781584779285}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Greene|first=Jack P.|author-link=Jack P. Greene|date=November 1961|title=The Role of the Lower Houses of Assembly in Eighteenth-Century Politics|journal=The Journal of Southern History|publisher=Southern Historical Association|volume=27|issue=4|pages=451–474|doi=10.2307/2204309|jstor=2204309}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Harrold|first=Frances|date=July 1970|title=The Upper House in Jeffersonian Political Theory|journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography|publisher=[[Virginia Historical Society]]|volume=78|issue=3|pages=281–294|jstor=4247579}}
*{{cite book |last1=Howell |first1=P.A. |title=The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council: 1833-1876 Its Origins, Structure and Development |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521085595 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGmQ7Z-aQ1cC&q=APPEALS%20COMMITTEE&pg=PA11-IA12}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Hulsebosch|first=Daniel J.|date=Summer 1998|title=Imperia in Imperio: The Multiple Constitutions of Empire in New York, 1750-1777|journal=Law and History Review|publisher=American Society for Legal History|volume=16|issue=2|pages=319–379|doi=10.2307/744104|jstor=744104|s2cid=147371177 }}
*{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Richard R.|date=September 1987|title="Parliamentary Egotisms": The Clash of Legislatures in the Making of the American Revolution|journal=The Journal of American History|publisher=Organization of American Historians|volume=74|issue=2|pages=338–362|doi=10.2307/1900026|jstor=1900026}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nya0ODz-B-cC|title=The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789|last=Middlekauff|first=Robert|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-19-531588-2|edition=revised and expanded|series=[[Oxford History of the United States]]|volume=3|author-link=Robert Middlekauff}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Morton|first=W. L.|date=July 1963|title=The Local Executive in the British Empire 1763-1828|journal=The English Historical Review|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=78|issue=308|pages=436–457|doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXVIII.CCCVIII.436 |jstor=562144}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Ratcliff|first=Donald|date=Summer 2013|title=The Right to Vote and the Rise of Democracy, 1787—1828|journal=Journal of the Early Republic|publisher=Society for Historians of the Early American Republic|volume=33|issue=2|pages=219–254|doi=10.1353/jer.2013.0033 |jstor=24768843|s2cid=145135025 }}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPoAQRgkrOcC|title=American Colonies: The Settling of North America|last=Taylor|first=Alan|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2001|isbn=978-1-101-07581-4|series=Penguin History of the United States|volume=1|author-link=Alan Taylor (historian)}}
* {{cite book | last = Wood | first = Gordon S. | author-link = Gordon S. Wood | title = The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | year = 1998 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bLzqCQAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-8078-4723-7 }}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Andrews, Charles M. ''Colonial Self-Government, 1652-1689'' (1904) [https://archive.org/stream/colonialselfgov00andrgoog/colonialselfgov00andrgoog_djvu.txt full text online]
* Andrews, Charles M. ''The Colonial Period of American History'' (4 vol. 1934-38), the standard overview to 1700
* Bailyn, Bernard. ''The Origins of American Politics'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968): an influential book arguing that the roots of the American Revolution lie in the colonial legislatures' struggles with the governors.
* {{cite book | last = Dickerson | first = Oliver Morton | author-link = Oliver Morton Dickerson | title = American Colonial Government, 1696-1765 | publisher = Arthur H. Clark Company | year = 1912 | location = Cleveland, Ohio | isbn = 9780722265888 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TBgOAAAAIAAJ}}
* Dinkin, Robert J. ''Voting in Provincial America: A Study of Elections in the Thirteen Colonies, 1689-1776'' (1977)
* {{cite book|author=Green, Fletcher Melvin|title=Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776-1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5c0LKovqJUC&pg=PA21|year=1930|publisher=U. of North Carolina press|isbn=9781584779285}}
* Greene, Jack P. ''Negotiated Authorities: Essays in Colonial Political and Constitutional History'' (1994)
*Hawke, David F.; ''The Colonial Experience''; 1966, {{ISBN|0-02-351830-8}}. textbook
* Nagl, Dominik. ''No Part of the Mother Country, but Distinct Dominions - Law, State Formation and Governance in England, Massachusetts und South Carolina, 1630-1769'' (2013).[http://de.scribd.com/doc/204061491/Dominik-Nagl-No-Part-of-the-Mother-Country-but-Distinct-Dominions-Rechtstransfer-Staatsbildung-und-Governance-in-England-Massachusetts-und-South-C] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812090708/http://de.scribd.com/doc/204061491/Dominik-Nagl-No-Part-of-the-Mother-Country-but-Distinct-Dominions-Rechtstransfer-Staatsbildung-und-Governance-in-England-Massachusetts-und-South-C |date=2016-08-12 }}
*{{Cite book|title=The Upper House in Revolutionary America, 1763-1788|last=Main|first=Jackson Turner|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=1967}}
* Middleton, Richard, and Anne Lombard. ''Colonial America: A History to 1763'' (4th ed. 2011) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1405190043/ excerpt and text search]
* Osgood, Herbert L. ''The American colonies in the seventeenth century,'' (3 vol 1904-07)' [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.49015000055823 vol. 1 online]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=QqlDAQAAMAAJ vol 2 online]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=agcOAAAAIAAJ vol 3 online]
* Osgood, Herbert L. ''The American colonies in the eighteenth century'' (4 vol, 1924–25)
{{refend}}
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== Relation to the British government ==
-By the start of the [[American Revolution]], the thirteen colonies had developed political systems featuring a [[governor]] exercising [[Executive (government)|executive]] power and a [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]] made up of a council and an assembly. The system was similar to the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]], with the governor corresponding to the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]], the council to the [[House of Lords]] and the assembly to the [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]].{{Sfn|Johnson|1987|p=|pp=349-350}}
+===British constitution===
+{{Main|History of the constitution of the United Kingdom}}
+
+After the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, Great Britain was governed as a [[constitutional monarchy]] with sovereignty residing in the [[King-in-Parliament]]. [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]] was a [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]]. Aristocrats inherited seats in the [[House of Lords]], while the [[Landed gentry|gentry]] and merchants controlled the elected [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]].{{Sfn|Taylor|2016|p=12}} The [[History of monarchy in the United Kingdom|British monarch]] possessed [[Executive (government)|executive]] authority, but he relied on the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|cabinet ministers]] of the [[Privy Council (United Kingdom)|Privy Council]] to actually run the government. These ministers depended on majority support in both houses of Parliament to govern effectively.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=16}} Under the [[British constitution]], the British people enjoyed more liberty than any other people in Europe.{{Sfn|Taylor|2016|p=12}}
+
+By the start of the [[American Revolution]], the thirteen colonies had developed political systems featuring a [[governor]] exercising executive power and a bicameral legislature made up of a council and an assembly. The system was modeled on the British constitution, with the governor corresponding to the monarch, the council to the House of Lords and the assembly to the House of Commons.{{Sfn|Johnson|1987|p=|pp=349-350}} The American colonists were proud of their status as British subjects and claimed the same [[rights of Englishmen]] as their counterparts in the mother country.{{Sfn|Taylor|2016|p=13}}
=== Crown ===
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1 => '{{Main|History of the constitution of the United Kingdom}}',
2 => '',
3 => 'After the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, Great Britain was governed as a [[constitutional monarchy]] with sovereignty residing in the [[King-in-Parliament]]. [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]] was a [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]]. Aristocrats inherited seats in the [[House of Lords]], while the [[Landed gentry|gentry]] and merchants controlled the elected [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]].{{Sfn|Taylor|2016|p=12}} The [[History of monarchy in the United Kingdom|British monarch]] possessed [[Executive (government)|executive]] authority, but he relied on the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|cabinet ministers]] of the [[Privy Council (United Kingdom)|Privy Council]] to actually run the government. These ministers depended on majority support in both houses of Parliament to govern effectively.{{Sfn|Middlekauff|2005|p=16}} Under the [[British constitution]], the British people enjoyed more liberty than any other people in Europe.{{Sfn|Taylor|2016|p=12}} ',
4 => '',
5 => 'By the start of the [[American Revolution]], the thirteen colonies had developed political systems featuring a [[governor]] exercising executive power and a bicameral legislature made up of a council and an assembly. The system was modeled on the British constitution, with the governor corresponding to the monarch, the council to the House of Lords and the assembly to the House of Commons.{{Sfn|Johnson|1987|p=|pp=349-350}} The American colonists were proud of their status as British subjects and claimed the same [[rights of Englishmen]] as their counterparts in the mother country.{{Sfn|Taylor|2016|p=13}}'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => 'By the start of the [[American Revolution]], the thirteen colonies had developed political systems featuring a [[governor]] exercising [[Executive (government)|executive]] power and a [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]] made up of a council and an assembly. The system was similar to the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]], with the governor corresponding to the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]], the council to the [[House of Lords]] and the assembly to the [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]].{{Sfn|Johnson|1987|p=|pp=349-350}}'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Organization and structure of the British Colonial administration in the later US East Coast</div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.svg/220px-Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.svg/330px-Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.svg/440px-Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="662" /></a><figcaption>The thirteen colonies (shown in red) in 1775</figcaption></figure><p>The governments of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a> developed in the 17th and 18th centuries under the influence of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">British constitution</a>. After the Thirteen Colonies had become the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the experience under colonial rule would inform and shape the new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_constitution_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="State constitution (United States)">state constitutions</a> and, ultimately, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen1930ix_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1930ix-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive branch</a> was led by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Governor" title="Governor">governor</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative branch</a> was divided into two houses: a governor's council and a representative assembly. In the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">royal colonies</a>, the governor and the council were appointed by the British government. In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proprietary_colony" title="Proprietary colony">proprietary colonies</a>, these officials were appointed by proprietors, and they were elected in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charter_colony" title="Charter colony">charter colonies</a>. In every colony, the assembly was elected by free, male, property owners.
</p><p>In domestic matters, the colonies were largely self-governing on many issues; however, the British government did exercise <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Veto" title="Veto">veto</a> power over colonial legislation, and regardless of the type of colonial government, retained control of the law and equity courts; judges were selected by the British government and served at the king's pleasure. Diplomatic affairs were handled by the British government, as were trade policies and wars with foreign powers (wars with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> were generally handled by colonial governments).<sup id="cite_ref-Cooke222_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooke222-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> was a dispute over the British <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament's</a> right to enact domestic legislation for the American colonies. The British government's position was that Parliament's authority was unlimited, while the American position was that colonial legislatures were coequal with Parliament and outside of its jurisdiction. As the Revolution progressed, the colonial governments were replaced by temporary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provincial_Congress" title="Provincial Congress">provincial congresses</a> and ultimately by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republican</a> constitutions.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Relation_to_the_British_government"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Relation to the British government</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#British_constitution"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">British constitution</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Crown"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Crown</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Parliament"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Parliament</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Judicial_appeals"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Judicial appeals</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Branches"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Branches</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Governor"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Governor</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Governor's_Council"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Governor's Council</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Assembly"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Assembly</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Union_proposals"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Union proposals</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Demise"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Demise</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_the_British_government">Relation to the British government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Relation to the British government" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Relation to the British government"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_constitution">British constitution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: British constitution" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: British constitution"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the constitution of the United Kingdom">History of the constitution of the United Kingdom</a></div>
<p>After the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688, Great Britain was governed as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> with sovereignty residing in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/King-in-Parliament" title="King-in-Parliament">King-in-Parliament</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament</a> was a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameral legislature</a>. Aristocrats inherited seats in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>, while the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Landed_gentry" title="Landed gentry">gentry</a> and merchants controlled the elected <a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_Great_Britain" title="House of Commons of Great Britain">House of Commons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor201612_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor201612-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_monarchy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of monarchy in the United Kingdom">British monarch</a> possessed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a> authority, but he relied on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">cabinet ministers</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Privy_Council_(United_Kingdom)" title="Privy Council (United Kingdom)">Privy Council</a> to actually run the government. These ministers depended on majority support in both houses of Parliament to govern effectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200516_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200516-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="British constitution">British constitution</a>, the British people enjoyed more liberty than any other people in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor201612_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor201612-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>By the start of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, the thirteen colonies had developed political systems featuring a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Governor" title="Governor">governor</a> exercising executive power and a bicameral legislature made up of a council and an assembly. The system was modeled on the British constitution, with the governor corresponding to the monarch, the council to the House of Lords and the assembly to the House of Commons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987349–350_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987349–350-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The American colonists were proud of their status as British subjects and claimed the same <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rights_of_Englishmen" title="Rights of Englishmen">rights of Englishmen</a> as their counterparts in the mother country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor201613_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor201613-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crown">Crown</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Crown" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Crown"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:King_George_III_of_England_by_Johann_Zoffany.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/King_George_III_of_England_by_Johann_Zoffany.jpg/220px-King_George_III_of_England_by_Johann_Zoffany.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/King_George_III_of_England_by_Johann_Zoffany.jpg/330px-King_George_III_of_England_by_Johann_Zoffany.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/King_George_III_of_England_by_Johann_Zoffany.jpg/440px-King_George_III_of_England_by_Johann_Zoffany.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> was king during the American Revolution and was the last monarch to reign over the Thirteen Colonies</figcaption></figure>
<p>The thirteen colonies were all founded with royal authorization, and authority continued to flow from the monarch as colonial governments exercised authority in the king's name.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A colony's precise relationship to the Crown depended on whether it was a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charter_colony" title="Charter colony">charter colony</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proprietary_colony" title="Proprietary colony">proprietary colony</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">royal colony</a> as defined in its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonial_charters_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Colonial charters in the Thirteen Colonies">colonial charter</a>. Whereas royal colonies belonged to the Crown, proprietary and charter colonies were granted by the Crown to private interests.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001136–137_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001136–137-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Control over a charter or corporate colony was granted to a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joint-stock_company" title="Joint-stock company">joint-stock company</a>, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia_Company" title="Virginia Company">Virginia Company</a>. Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island were founded as charter colonies. New England's charter colonies were virtually independent of royal authority and operated as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republics</a> where property owners elected the governor and legislators.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001247_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001247-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proprietary colonies were owned and governed by individuals. To attract settlers, however, proprietors agreed to share power with property owners.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001246–247_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001246–247-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maryland, South Carolina, North Carolina, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania were founded as proprietary colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001140,_263_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001140,_263-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 1624, Virginia became the first royal colony when the bankrupt Virginia Company's charter was revoked.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001136_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001136-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, more colonies transitioned to royal control. By the start of the American Revolution, all but five of the thirteen colonies were royal colonies. Maryland, Pennsylvania and Delaware remained proprietary, while Rhode Island and Connecticut continued as corporate colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Middlekauff" title="Robert Middlekauff">Robert Middlekauff</a> describes royal administration of the colonies as inadequate and inefficient because lines of authority were never entirely clear. Before 1768, responsibility for colonial affairs rested with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Privy Council of the United Kingdom">Privy Council</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Southern_Department" title="Secretary of State for the Southern Department">Secretary of State for the Southern Department</a>. The Secretary relied on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Board_of_Trade" title="Board of Trade">Board of Trade</a> to supply him with information and pass on his instructions to colonial officials. After 1768, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies" title="Secretary of State for the Colonies">Secretary of State for Colonial Affairs</a> was responsible for supervising the colonies; however, this ministry suffered from ineffective secretaries and the jealousy of other government ministers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527–28_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527–28-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parliament">Parliament</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Parliament" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Parliament"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Old_England_-_a_pictorial_museum_of_regal,_ecclesiastical,_baronial,_municipal,_and_popular_antiquities_(1845)_(14587733099).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Old_England_-_a_pictorial_museum_of_regal%2C_ecclesiastical%2C_baronial%2C_municipal%2C_and_popular_antiquities_%281845%29_%2814587733099%29.jpg/220px-Old_England_-_a_pictorial_museum_of_regal%2C_ecclesiastical%2C_baronial%2C_municipal%2C_and_popular_antiquities_%281845%29_%2814587733099%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Old_England_-_a_pictorial_museum_of_regal%2C_ecclesiastical%2C_baronial%2C_municipal%2C_and_popular_antiquities_%281845%29_%2814587733099%29.jpg/330px-Old_England_-_a_pictorial_museum_of_regal%2C_ecclesiastical%2C_baronial%2C_municipal%2C_and_popular_antiquities_%281845%29_%2814587733099%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Old_England_-_a_pictorial_museum_of_regal%2C_ecclesiastical%2C_baronial%2C_municipal%2C_and_popular_antiquities_%281845%29_%2814587733099%29.jpg/440px-Old_England_-_a_pictorial_museum_of_regal%2C_ecclesiastical%2C_baronial%2C_municipal%2C_and_popular_antiquities_%281845%29_%2814587733099%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2208" data-file-height="3190" /></a><figcaption>The House of Commons during the reign of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain" title="George II of Great Britain">George II</a></figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament's</a> authority over the colonies was also unclear and controversial in the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200528_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200528-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As English government evolved from government by the Crown toward government in the name of the Crown (the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/King-in-Parliament" title="King-in-Parliament">King-in-Parliament</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen19303_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen19303-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the convention that the colonies were ruled solely by the monarch gave way to greater involvement of Parliament by the mid 1700s. Acts of Parliament regulated commerce <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033199720">.mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference">(see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Navigation_Acts" title="Navigation Acts">Navigation Acts</a>)</span>, defined citizenship, and limited the amount of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_American_currency" title="Early American currency">paper money issued in the colonies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987342_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987342-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The British government argued that Parliament's authority to legislate for the colonies was unlimited. This was stated explicitly in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Declaratory_Act" title="Declaratory Act">Declaratory Act</a> of 1766.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen19303_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen19303-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British also argued that the colonists, while not actually represented in Parliament, were nonetheless <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virtual_representation" title="Virtual representation">virtually represented</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen19304_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen19304-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The American view, shaped by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whig political philosophy</a>, was that Parliament's authority over the colonies was limited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsebosch1998322_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsebosch1998322-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the colonies initially recognized Parliament's right to legislate for the whole empire—such as on matters of trade—they argued that parliamentary taxation was a violation of the principle of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">taxation by consent</a> since consent could only be granted by the colonists' own representatives. In addition, Americans argued that the colonies were outside of Parliament's jurisdiction and that the colonists owed allegiance only to the Crown. In effect, Americans argued that their colonial legislatures were coequal—not subordinate—to Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987353_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987353-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These incompatible interpretations of the British constitution would become the central issue of the American Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen19302_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen19302-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_appeals">Judicial appeals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Judicial appeals" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Judicial appeals"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Judicial Committee of the Privy Council</a></div>
<p>In the United Kingdom, Parliament (technically, the King-in-Parliament) was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judicial_functions_of_the_House_of_Lords" title="Judicial functions of the House of Lords">highest judicial authority</a>. For the colonies, the Privy Council (technically, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/King-in-Council" title="King-in-Council">King-in-Council</a>) exercised <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appellate_jurisdiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Appellate jurisdiction">appellate jurisdiction</a>. In 1679, appellate jurisdiction was given to the Board of Trade, followed by an Appeals Committee in 1696.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowell20097–13_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowell20097–13-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The Appeals Committee of the Privy Council was severely flawed because its membership was actually a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_of_the_whole" title="Committee of the whole">committee of the whole</a> of the Privy Council, of whom a quorum was three. Even worse, many Privy Councillors were not lawyers, all Privy Councillors had equal voting power on appeals, and there was no requirement that any of the Privy Councillors hearing a particular appeal had to be a lawyer. As a result, parties to appeals could and did try to tilt the outcome of appeals in their favor by persuading nonlawyer Privy Councillors to show up for the hearings on their appeals. For this reason, the Appeals Committee fell into disrepute among better-informed lawyers and judges in the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowell20097–13_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowell20097–13-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branches">Branches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Branches" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Branches"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governor">Governor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Governor" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Governor"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tryon_Palace.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tryon_Palace.JPG/240px-Tryon_Palace.JPG" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tryon_Palace.JPG/360px-Tryon_Palace.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tryon_Palace.JPG/480px-Tryon_Palace.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tryon_Palace" title="Tryon Palace">Governor's Palace</a> at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Bern,_North_Carolina" title="New Bern, North Carolina">New Bern, North Carolina</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>In royal colonies, governors were appointed by the Crown and represented its interests. Before 1689, governors were the dominant political figures in the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene1961451_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene1961451-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They possessed royal authority transmitted through their commissions and instructions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonwick1986358_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonwick1986358-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among their powers included the right to summon, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prorogation" title="Prorogation">prorogue</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dissolution_of_parliament" title="Dissolution of parliament">dissolve</a> the elected assembly. Governors could also <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Veto" title="Veto">veto</a> any <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bill_(law)" title="Bill (law)">bill</a> proposed by the colonial legislature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton1963438_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1963438-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Gradually, the assemblies successfully restricted the power of governors by gaining control over <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Money_bill" title="Money bill">money bills</a>, including the salaries of the governor and other officials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton1963438_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1963438-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, a governor could find his salary withheld by an uncooperative legislature. Governors were often placed in an untenable position. Their official instructions from London demanded that they protect the Crown's power—the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_prerogative_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom">royal prerogative</a>—from usurpation by the assembly; at the same time, they were also ordered to secure more colonial funding for Britain's wars against France. In return for military funding, the assemblies often demanded more power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001286–288_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001286–288-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>To gain support for his agenda, the governor distributed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a>. He could reward supporters by appointing them to various offices such as attorney general, surveyor-general or as a local sheriff. These offices were sought after as sources of prestige and income. He could also reward supporters with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_grant" title="Land grant">land grants</a>. As a result of this strategy, colonial politics was characterized by a split between a governor's faction (the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Country_Party_(Britain)" title="Country Party (Britain)">court party</a>) and his opposition (the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Country_Party_(Britain)" title="Country Party (Britain)">country party</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001286–288_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001286–288-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governor's_Council"><span id="Governor.27s_Council"></span>Governor's Council</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Governor's Council" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Governor's Council"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia_Governor%27s_Council" title="Virginia Governor's Council">Virginia Governor's Council</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massachusetts_Governor%27s_Council#History" title="Massachusetts Governor's Council">Massachusetts Governor's Council § History</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Executive_Council_of_New_Hampshire#Colonial_era" title="Executive Council of New Hampshire">Executive Council of New Hampshire § Colonial era</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Council_Chamber_of_the_Royal_Governor,_Old_Statehouse,_Boston.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Council_Chamber_of_the_Royal_Governor%2C_Old_Statehouse%2C_Boston.jpg/220px-Council_Chamber_of_the_Royal_Governor%2C_Old_Statehouse%2C_Boston.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Council_Chamber_of_the_Royal_Governor%2C_Old_Statehouse%2C_Boston.jpg/330px-Council_Chamber_of_the_Royal_Governor%2C_Old_Statehouse%2C_Boston.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Council_Chamber_of_the_Royal_Governor%2C_Old_Statehouse%2C_Boston.jpg/440px-Council_Chamber_of_the_Royal_Governor%2C_Old_Statehouse%2C_Boston.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1359" /></a><figcaption>Council Chamber of the Royal Governor, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_State_House_(Boston)" title="Old State House (Boston)">Old Statehouse</a>, Boston</figcaption></figure>
<p>The executive branch included an advisory council to the governor that varied in size ranging from ten to thirty members.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton1963438_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1963438-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In royal colonies, the Crown appointed a mix of placemen (paid officeholders in the government) and members of the upper class within colonial society. Councilors tended to represent the interests of businessmen, creditors and property owners in general.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282–283_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282–283-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While lawyers were prominent throughout the thirteen colonies, merchants were important in the northern colonies and planters were more involved in the southern provinces.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Members served <a href="/enwiki/wiki/At_His_Majesty%27s_pleasure" title="At His Majesty's pleasure">"at pleasure"</a> rather than for life or fixed terms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When there was an absentee governor or an interval between governors, the council acted as the government.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooke22_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooke22-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The governor's council also functioned as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">upper house</a> of the colonial legislature. In most colonies, the council could introduce bills, pass resolutions, and consider and act upon petitions. In some colonies, the council acted primarily as a chamber of revision, reviewing and improving legislation. At times, it would argue with the assembly over the amendment of money bills or other legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282–283_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282–283-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In addition to being both an executive and legislative body, the council also had judicial authority. It was the final <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appellate_court" title="Appellate court">court of appeal</a> within the colony. The council's multifaceted roles exposed it to criticism. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a> criticized Virginia's colonial government for lacking the balance and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> found in the British constitution due to the council's lack of independence from the Crown.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assembly">Assembly</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Assembly" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Assembly"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:House_of_Burgesses_in_the_Capitol_Williamsburg_James_City_County_Virginia_by_Frances_Benjamin_Johnston.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/House_of_Burgesses_in_the_Capitol_Williamsburg_James_City_County_Virginia_by_Frances_Benjamin_Johnston.jpg/220px-House_of_Burgesses_in_the_Capitol_Williamsburg_James_City_County_Virginia_by_Frances_Benjamin_Johnston.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/House_of_Burgesses_in_the_Capitol_Williamsburg_James_City_County_Virginia_by_Frances_Benjamin_Johnston.jpg/330px-House_of_Burgesses_in_the_Capitol_Williamsburg_James_City_County_Virginia_by_Frances_Benjamin_Johnston.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/House_of_Burgesses_in_the_Capitol_Williamsburg_James_City_County_Virginia_by_Frances_Benjamin_Johnston.jpg/440px-House_of_Burgesses_in_the_Capitol_Williamsburg_James_City_County_Virginia_by_Frances_Benjamin_Johnston.jpg 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="763" /></a><figcaption>House of Burgesses chamber inside the Capitol building at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonial_Williamsburg" title="Colonial Williamsburg">Colonial Williamsburg</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">lower house</a> of a colonial legislature was a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Representative_assembly" title="Representative assembly">representative assembly</a>. These assemblies were called by different names. Virginia had a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_of_Burgesses" title="House of Burgesses">House of Burgesses</a>, Massachusetts had a House of Deputies, and South Carolina had a Commons House of Assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While names differed, the assemblies had several features in common. Members were elected annually by the propertied citizens of the towns or counties. Usually they met for a single, short session; but the council or governor could call a special session.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooke22_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooke22-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>As in Britain, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">right to vote</a> was limited to men with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freehold_(law)" title="Freehold (law)">freehold</a> "landed property sufficient to ensure that they were personally independent and had a vested interest in the welfare of their communities".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatcliff2013220_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatcliff2013220-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the greater availability of land, the right to vote was more widespread in the colonies where by one estimate around 60 percent of adult white males could vote. In England and Wales, only 17–20 percent of adult males were eligible. Six colonies allowed alternatives to freehold ownership (such as personal property or tax payment) that extended voting rights to owners of urban property and even prosperous farmers who rented their land. Groups excluded from voting included laborers, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">tenant farmers</a>, unskilled workers and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servants</a>. These were considered to lack a "stake in society" and to be vulnerable to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">corruption</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatcliff2013220-221_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatcliff2013220-221-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Tax issues and budget decisions originated in the assembly. Part of the budget went toward the cost of raising and equipping the colonial <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Militia_(United_States)" title="Militia (United States)">militia</a>. As the American Revolution drew near, this subject was a point of contention and conflict between the provincial assemblies and their respective governors.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooke22_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooke22-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The perennial struggles between the colonial governors and the assemblies are sometimes viewed, in retrospect, as signs of a rising democratic spirit. However, those assemblies generally represented the privileged <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">classes</a>, and they were protecting the colony against unreasonable executive encroachments.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Legally, the crown governor's authority was unassailable. In resisting that authority, assemblies resorted to arguments based upon <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">natural rights</a> and the common welfare, giving life to the notion that governments derived, or ought to derive, their authority from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen193021–22_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen193021–22-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Union_proposals">Union proposals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Union proposals" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Union proposals"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Before the American Revolution, attempts to create a unified government for the thirteen colonies were unsuccessful. Multiple plans for a union were proposed at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Albany_Congress" title="Albany Congress">Albany Congress</a> in 1754. One of these plans, proposed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Albany_Plan" title="Albany Plan">Albany Plan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200531–32_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200531–32-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demise">Demise</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Demise" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Demise"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>During the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, the colonial governments ceased to function effectively as royal governors prorogued and dissolved the assemblies. By 1773, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committees_of_correspondence" title="Committees of correspondence">committees of correspondence</a> were governing towns and counties, and nearly all the colonies had established <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provincial_Congress" title="Provincial Congress">provincial congresses</a>, which were legislative assemblies acting outside of royal authority. These were temporary measures, and it was understood that the provincial congresses were not equivalent to proper legislatures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1998313–317_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1998313–317-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>By May 1775, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massachusetts_Provincial_Congress" title="Massachusetts Provincial Congress">Massachusetts Provincial Congress</a> felt that a permanent government was needed. On the advice of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a>, Massachusetts once again operated under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massachusetts_Charter" title="Massachusetts Charter">Charter of 1691</a> but without a governor (the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massachusetts_Governor%27s_Council" title="Massachusetts Governor's Council">governor's council</a> functioned as the executive branch).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1998130,_133_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1998130,_133-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the fall of 1775, the Continental Congress recommended that New Hampshire, South Carolina and Virginia form new governments. New Hampshire <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_New_Hampshire#1776_Constitution" title="Constitution of New Hampshire">adopted a republican constitution</a> on January 5, 1776. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Carolina#Constitution_of_1776" title="Constitution of South Carolina">South Carolina's constitution</a> was adopted on March 26, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_Virginia#1776" title="Constitution of Virginia">Virginia's constitution</a> was adopted on June 29.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1998133_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1998133-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In May 1776, the Continental Congress called for the creation of new governments "where no government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs have been hitherto established" and "that the exercise of every kind of authority under the ... Crown should be totally suppressed".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1998132_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1998132-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> in July further encouraged the states to form new governments, and most states had adopted new constitutions by the end of 1776. Because of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">the war</a>, Georgia and New York were unable to complete their constitutions until 1777.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1998133_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1998133-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: See also"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial history of the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Impeachment_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Impeachment in the Thirteen Colonies">Impeachment in the Thirteen Colonies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proprietary_House" title="Proprietary House">Proprietary House</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salutary_neglect" title="Salutary neglect">Salutary neglect</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: References"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Notes"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen1930ix-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen1930ix_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1930">Green 1930</a>, p. ix.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cooke222-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cooke222_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor201612-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor201612_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor201612_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2016">Taylor 2016</a>, p. 12.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFTaylor2016 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200516-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200516_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddlekauff2005">Middlekauff 2005</a>, p. 16.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987349–350-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987349–350_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson1987">Johnson 1987</a>, pp. 349–350.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor201613-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor201613_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2016">Taylor 2016</a>, p. 13.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFTaylor2016 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddlekauff2005">Middlekauff 2005</a>, p. 27.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001136–137-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001136–137_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2001">Taylor 2001</a>, pp. 136–137.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001247-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001247_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2001">Taylor 2001</a>, p. 247.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001246–247-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001246–247_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2001">Taylor 2001</a>, pp. 246–247.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001140,_263-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001140,_263_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2001">Taylor 2001</a>, pp. 140, 263.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001136-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001136_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2001">Taylor 2001</a>, p. 136.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527–28-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200527–28_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddlekauff2005">Middlekauff 2005</a>, pp. 27–28.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200528-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200528_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddlekauff2005">Middlekauff 2005</a>, p. 28.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen19303-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen19303_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen19303_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1930">Green 1930</a>, p. 3.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987342-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987342_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson1987">Johnson 1987</a>, p. 342.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen19304-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen19304_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1930">Green 1930</a>, p. 4.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHulsebosch1998322-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHulsebosch1998322_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHulsebosch1998">Hulsebosch 1998</a>, p. 322.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987353-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1987353_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson1987">Johnson 1987</a>, p. 353.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen19302-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen19302_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1930">Green 1930</a>, p. 2.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowell20097–13-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowell20097–13_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowell20097–13_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHowell2009">Howell 2009</a>, pp. 7–13.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene1961451-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene1961451_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreene1961">Greene 1961</a>, p. 451.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonwick1986358-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonwick1986358_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonwick1986">Bonwick 1986</a>, p. 358.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1963438-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton1963438_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton1963438_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton1963438_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorton1963">Morton 1963</a>, p. 438.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001286–288-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001286–288_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2001286–288_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2001">Taylor 2001</a>, pp. 286–288.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/colonial-councils">"Colonial Councils"</a>. <i>Dictionary of American History</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181109180346/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/colonial-councils">Archived</a> from the original on November 9, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 2,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Colonial+Councils&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+American+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fhistory%2Fdictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases%2Fcolonial-councils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282–283-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282–283_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282–283_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarrold1970">Harrold 1970</a>, pp. 282–283.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrold1970282_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarrold1970">Harrold 1970</a>, p. 282.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Cooke22-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke22_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke22_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooke22_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/general-court-colonial">"General Court, Colonial"</a>. <i>Dictionary of American History</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191031001133/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/general-court-colonial">Archived</a> from the original on October 31, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 30,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=General+Court%2C+Colonial&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+American+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fhistory%2Fdictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases%2Fgeneral-court-colonial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgar2018" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Walter_Edgar" title="Walter Edgar">Edgar, Walter</a> (November 26, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.southcarolinapublicradio.org/post/c-commons-house-assembly-1670-1776">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"C" is for Commons House of Assembly (1670-1776)"</a>. <i>South Carolina Public Radio</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191031004041/https://www.southcarolinapublicradio.org/post/c-commons-house-assembly-1670-1776">Archived</a> from the original on October 31, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 30,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+Carolina+Public+Radio&rft.atitle=%22C%22+is+for+Commons+House+of+Assembly+%281670-1776%29&rft.date=2018-11-26&rft.aulast=Edgar&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.southcarolinapublicradio.org%2Fpost%2Fc-commons-house-assembly-1670-1776&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERatcliff2013220-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatcliff2013220_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRatcliff2013">Ratcliff 2013</a>, p. 220.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERatcliff2013220-221-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatcliff2013220-221_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRatcliff2013">Ratcliff 2013</a>, p. 220-221.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen193021–22-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen193021–22_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1930">Green 1930</a>, pp. 21–22.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200531–32-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff200531–32_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddlekauff2005">Middlekauff 2005</a>, pp. 31–32.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1998313–317-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1998313–317_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWood1998">Wood 1998</a>, pp. 313–317.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1998130,_133-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1998130,_133_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWood1998">Wood 1998</a>, pp. 130, 133.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1998133-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1998133_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1998133_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWood1998">Wood 1998</a>, pp. 133.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1998132-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1998132_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWood1998">Wood 1998</a>, pp. 132.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sources" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Sources"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonwick1986" class="citation journal cs1">Bonwick, Colin (December 1986). "The American Revolution as a Social Movement Revisited". <i>Journal of American Studies</i>. <b>20</b> (3). British Association for American Studies: 355–373. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002187580001272X">10.1017/S002187580001272X</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27554789">27554789</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145105481">145105481</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Studies&rft.atitle=The+American+Revolution+as+a+Social+Movement+Revisited&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=355-373&rft.date=1986-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145105481%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27554789%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS002187580001272X&rft.aulast=Bonwick&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooke1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Cooke, Jacob Ernest, ed. (1993). <i>Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies</i>. Vol. 3 Volumes. C. Scribner's Sons. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780684192697" title="Special:BookSources/9780684192697"><bdi>9780684192697</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+North+American+Colonies&rft.pub=C.+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780684192697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1930" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fletcher_Melvin_Green" title="Fletcher Melvin Green">Green, Fletcher Melvin</a> (1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A5c0LKovqJUC&pg=PA21"><i>Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776-1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781584779285" title="Special:BookSources/9781584779285"><bdi>9781584779285</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Development+in+the+South+Atlantic+States%2C+1776-1860%3A+A+Study+in+the+Evolution+of+Democracy&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1930&rft.isbn=9781584779285&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Fletcher+Melvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA5c0LKovqJUC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene1961" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jack_P._Greene" title="Jack P. Greene">Greene, Jack P.</a> (November 1961). "The Role of the Lower Houses of Assembly in Eighteenth-Century Politics". <i>The Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>27</b> (4). Southern Historical Association: 451–474. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2204309">10.2307/2204309</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2204309">2204309</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+the+Lower+Houses+of+Assembly+in+Eighteenth-Century+Politics&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=451-474&rft.date=1961-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2204309&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2204309%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Jack+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrold1970" class="citation journal cs1">Harrold, Frances (July 1970). "The Upper House in Jeffersonian Political Theory". <i>The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography</i>. <b>78</b> (3). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia_Historical_Society" title="Virginia Historical Society">Virginia Historical Society</a>: 281–294. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4247579">4247579</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Virginia+Magazine+of+History+and+Biography&rft.atitle=The+Upper+House+in+Jeffersonian+Political+Theory&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=281-294&rft.date=1970-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4247579%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Harrold&rft.aufirst=Frances&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowell2009" class="citation book cs1">Howell, P.A. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SGmQ7Z-aQ1cC&q=APPEALS%20COMMITTEE&pg=PA11-IA12"><i>The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council: 1833-1876 Its Origins, Structure and Development</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521085595" title="Special:BookSources/9780521085595"><bdi>9780521085595</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Judicial+Committee+of+the+Privy+Council%3A+1833-1876+Its+Origins%2C+Structure+and+Development&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780521085595&rft.aulast=Howell&rft.aufirst=P.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSGmQ7Z-aQ1cC%26q%3DAPPEALS%2520COMMITTEE%26pg%3DPA11-IA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHulsebosch1998" class="citation journal cs1">Hulsebosch, Daniel J. (Summer 1998). "Imperia in Imperio: The Multiple Constitutions of Empire in New York, 1750-1777". <i>Law and History Review</i>. <b>16</b> (2). American Society for Legal History: 319–379. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F744104">10.2307/744104</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/744104">744104</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147371177">147371177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+and+History+Review&rft.atitle=Imperia+in+Imperio%3A+The+Multiple+Constitutions+of+Empire+in+New+York%2C+1750-1777&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=319-379&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147371177%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F744104%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F744104&rft.aulast=Hulsebosch&rft.aufirst=Daniel+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1987" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, Richard R. (September 1987). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Parliamentary Egotisms": The Clash of Legislatures in the Making of the American Revolution". <i>The Journal of American History</i>. <b>74</b> (2). Organization of American Historians: 338–362. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1900026">10.2307/1900026</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1900026">1900026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=%22Parliamentary+Egotisms%22%3A+The+Clash+of+Legislatures+in+the+Making+of+the+American+Revolution&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=338-362&rft.date=1987-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1900026&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1900026%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Richard+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiddlekauff2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Middlekauff" title="Robert Middlekauff">Middlekauff, Robert</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nya0ODz-B-cC"><i>The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789</i></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oxford_History_of_the_United_States" title="Oxford History of the United States">Oxford History of the United States</a>. Vol. 3 (revised and expanded ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531588-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531588-2"><bdi>978-0-19-531588-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Glorious+Cause%3A+The+American+Revolution%2C+1763-1789&rft.series=Oxford+History+of+the+United+States&rft.edition=revised+and+expanded&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-531588-2&rft.aulast=Middlekauff&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnya0ODz-B-cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorton1963" class="citation journal cs1">Morton, W. L. (July 1963). "The Local Executive in the British Empire 1763-1828". <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>78</b> (308). Oxford University Press: 436–457. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FLXXVIII.CCCVIII.436">10.1093/ehr/LXXVIII.CCCVIII.436</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/562144">562144</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Local+Executive+in+the+British+Empire+1763-1828&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=308&rft.pages=436-457&rft.date=1963-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2FLXXVIII.CCCVIII.436&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F562144%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=W.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRatcliff2013" class="citation journal cs1">Ratcliff, Donald (Summer 2013). "The Right to Vote and the Rise of Democracy, 1787—1828". <i>Journal of the Early Republic</i>. <b>33</b> (2). Society for Historians of the Early American Republic: 219–254. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjer.2013.0033">10.1353/jer.2013.0033</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24768843">24768843</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145135025">145135025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Early+Republic&rft.atitle=The+Right+to+Vote+and+the+Rise+of+Democracy%2C+1787%E2%80%941828&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=219-254&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145135025%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24768843%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjer.2013.0033&rft.aulast=Ratcliff&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alan_Taylor_(historian)" title="Alan Taylor (historian)">Taylor, Alan</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NPoAQRgkrOcC"><i>American Colonies: The Settling of North America</i></a>. Penguin History of the United States. Vol. 1. Penguin Books. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-07581-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-07581-4"><bdi>978-1-101-07581-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Colonies%3A+The+Settling+of+North+America&rft.series=Penguin+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-101-07581-4&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNPoAQRgkrOcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Wood, Gordon S.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bLzqCQAAQBAJ"><i>The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4723-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4723-7"><bdi>978-0-8078-4723-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creation+of+the+American+Republic%2C+1776-1787&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4723-7&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Gordon+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbLzqCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Further reading"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">
<ul><li>Andrews, Charles M. <i>Colonial Self-Government, 1652-1689</i> (1904) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/colonialselfgov00andrgoog/colonialselfgov00andrgoog_djvu.txt">full text online</a></li>
<li>Andrews, Charles M. <i>The Colonial Period of American History</i> (4 vol. 1934-38), the standard overview to 1700</li>
<li>Bailyn, Bernard. <i>The Origins of American Politics</i> (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968): an influential book arguing that the roots of the American Revolution lie in the colonial legislatures' struggles with the governors.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickerson1912" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oliver_Morton_Dickerson" title="Oliver Morton Dickerson">Dickerson, Oliver Morton</a> (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TBgOAAAAIAAJ"><i>American Colonial Government, 1696-1765</i></a>. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780722265888" title="Special:BookSources/9780722265888"><bdi>9780722265888</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Colonial+Government%2C+1696-1765&rft.place=Cleveland%2C+Ohio&rft.pub=Arthur+H.+Clark+Company&rft.date=1912&rft.isbn=9780722265888&rft.aulast=Dickerson&rft.aufirst=Oliver+Morton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTBgOAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Dinkin, Robert J. <i>Voting in Provincial America: A Study of Elections in the Thirteen Colonies, 1689-1776</i> (1977)</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen,_Fletcher_Melvin1930" class="citation book cs1">Green, Fletcher Melvin (1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A5c0LKovqJUC&pg=PA21"><i>Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776-1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy</i></a>. U. of North Carolina press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781584779285" title="Special:BookSources/9781584779285"><bdi>9781584779285</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Development+in+the+South+Atlantic+States%2C+1776-1860%3A+A+Study+in+the+Evolution+of+Democracy&rft.pub=U.+of+North+Carolina+press&rft.date=1930&rft.isbn=9781584779285&rft.au=Green%2C+Fletcher+Melvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA5c0LKovqJUC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Greene, Jack P. <i>Negotiated Authorities: Essays in Colonial Political and Constitutional History</i> (1994)</li>
<li>Hawke, David F.; <i>The Colonial Experience</i>; 1966, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-351830-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-351830-8">0-02-351830-8</a>. textbook</li>
<li>Nagl, Dominik. <i>No Part of the Mother Country, but Distinct Dominions - Law, State Formation and Governance in England, Massachusetts und South Carolina, 1630-1769</i> (2013).<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://de.scribd.com/doc/204061491/Dominik-Nagl-No-Part-of-the-Mother-Country-but-Distinct-Dominions-Rechtstransfer-Staatsbildung-und-Governance-in-England-Massachusetts-und-South-C">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160812090708/http://de.scribd.com/doc/204061491/Dominik-Nagl-No-Part-of-the-Mother-Country-but-Distinct-Dominions-Rechtstransfer-Staatsbildung-und-Governance-in-England-Massachusetts-und-South-C">Archived</a> 2016-08-12 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMain1967" class="citation book cs1">Main, Jackson Turner (1967). <i>The Upper House in Revolutionary America, 1763-1788</i>. University of Wisconsin Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Upper+House+in+Revolutionary+America%2C+1763-1788&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Main&rft.aufirst=Jackson+Turner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+government+in+the+Thirteen+Colonies" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Middleton, Richard, and Anne Lombard. <i>Colonial America: A History to 1763</i> (4th ed. 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1405190043/">excerpt and text search</a></li>
<li>Osgood, Herbert L. <i>The American colonies in the seventeenth century,</i> (3 vol 1904-07)' <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.49015000055823">vol. 1 online</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QqlDAQAAMAAJ">vol 2 online</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=agcOAAAAIAAJ">vol 3 online</a></li>
<li>Osgood, Herbert L. <i>The American colonies in the eighteenth century</i> (4 vol, 1924–25)</li></ul>
</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/21px-British_Empire_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/32px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/42px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="849" /></span></span> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:British_Empire" title="Portal:British Empire">British Empire</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/20px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/31px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/40px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="115" data-file-height="108" /></a></span> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Monarchy" title="Portal:Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="map" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></span></span> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:North_America" title="Portal:North America">North America</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li></ul></div></div>' |
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