Examine individual changes

'{{short description|Overview of Islam in the Indian state of Kerala}} {{Infobox religious group | group = Islam in Kerala | image = Cheraman juma masjid Old.jpg | caption = A rebuilt structure of the old [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]], [[Kodungallur]] | population = {{Circa|'''9 million'''|lk=yes}} (26.56%) in 2011<ref name="thehindu.com">T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" ''The Hindu'' August 26, 2015 [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/5472-of-population-in-kerala-are-hindus/article7581145.ece]</ref><ref name="Miller1"/> | popplace = [[Kerala]], [[Lakshadweep]],<ref name="Logan"/> [[Tulu Nadu]], [[Kodagu]], [[Nilgiris district|Nilgiris]],<ref name="Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha 1996">Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha. Coastal Karnataka: Studies in Folkloristic and Linguistic Traditions of Dakshina Kannada Region of the Western Coast of India. Udupi: Rashtrakavi Govind Pai Samshodhana Kendra, 1996.P- '''ix''' . {{ISBN|81-86668-06-3}} . First All India Conference of Dravidian Linguistics, Thiruvananthapuram, 1973</ref> [[Kerala Gulf diaspora|States of Persian Gulf]]<ref>''Gulf Dream: For Indians The Golden Beaches Still gleam'', [[Malayala Manorama]] Yearbook 1990;</ref> | native_name = | native_name_lang = | languages = [[Malayalam]], [[Arabi Malayalam]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kottaparamban|first=Musadhique|date=1 October 2019|title=Sea, community and language: a study on the origin and development of Arabi- Malayalam language of mappila muslims of Malabar|url=https://mjsshonline.com/index.php/journal/article/view/97|journal=Muallim Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities|language=en|pages=406–416|doi=10.33306/mjssh/31|issn=2590-3691|doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuzhiyan|first=Muneer Aram|title=Poetics of Piety Devoting and Self Fashioning in the Mappila Literary Culture of South India|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/213506|publisher=The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad|hdl=10603/213506}}</ref> | religions = [[Islam]] }} {{Islam}} {{Sunni Islam}} {{Islam in India}} [[Islam]] arrived in [[Kerala]], the [[Malayalam]]-speaking region in the south-western tip of India, through Middle Eastern merchants.<ref name="Miller13">Miller, E. Roland. "Mappila Muslim Culture" State University of New York Press, Albany (2015); p. xi.</ref><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> The Indian coast has an ancient relation with West Asia and the Middle East, even during the pre-Islamic period. Kerala Muslims or Malayali Muslims from north Kerala are generally referred to as [[Mappila]]s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [http://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref> According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled Muslim community in South Asia.<ref name="Miller13"/><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22">Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in ''The Encyclopedia of Islam'' Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 p. 458-66 [https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBkMSIZ2LYC&q=editions:lTASeHyksMsC]</ref> As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from Kerala (former [[Malabar District]]) of different origins.<ref name=":3"/><ref name="KunhaliV2"/> Native Muslims of [[Kerala]] were known as Mouros da Terra, or Mouros Malabares in medieval period. Settled foreign Muslims of Kerala were known as Mouros da Arabia/Mouros de Meca.<ref name="Subrahmanyam2">Subrahmanyam, Sanjay."The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650" Cambridge University Press, (2002)</ref> Unlike the common misconception, the [[Caste|caste system]] does exist among the Muslims of Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Caste system exists among Muslims though not overtly |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2019/sep/01/caste-system-exists-among-muslims-though-not-overtly-2027243.html |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> Muslims in Kerala share a common language ([[Malayalam]]) with the rest of the non-Muslim population and have a culture commonly regarded as the Malayali culture.<ref name="brill">[https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ Pg 461, Roland Miller, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol VI, Brill 1988]</ref> Islam is the second largest practised religion in Kerala (26.56%) next to [[Hinduism in Kerala|Hinduism]].<ref>Panikkar, K. N., ''Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921''</ref> The calculated Muslim population (Indian Census, 2011) in Kerala state is 8,873,472.<ref name="thehindu.com">T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" ''The Hindu'' August 26, 2015 [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/5472-of-population-in-kerala-are-hindus/article7581145.ece]</ref><ref name="Miller13" /> Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow [[Sunni Islam]] of [[Shafi'i|Shāfiʿī School]] of thought, while a large minority follow modern movements (such as [[Salafi movement|Salafism]]) that developed within [[Sunni Islam]].<ref name="brill12">Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56.</ref><ref name="KunhaliV2" /> ==History== [[File:Silk route.jpg|left|thumb|[[Silk Road]] trade routes. The spice trade was mainly by water (blue).]] [[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|left|thumbnail|Names, routes and locations of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century CE)]] Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000&nbsp;BCE, according to [[Sumer|Sumerian records]] and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/of-kerala-egypt-and-the-spice-link/article5625620.ece |first=Kaavya |last=Pradeep Kumar |work=The Hindu |title=Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link |date=28 January 2014 |access-date=12 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006">{{Cite book|title=Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala|last1=Chattopadhyay|first1=Srikumar|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2006|isbn=978-81-8069-294-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC|last2=Franke|first2=Richard W.}}</ref>{{rp|79}} Kerala's spices attracted ancient [[Arab]]s, [[Babylonians]], [[Assyria]]ns and [[Egyptians]] to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. [[Phoenicians]] established trade with Kerala during this period.<ref name="Menon57">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA57 |access-date=10 October 2012 |date=1 January 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-81-264-1578-6 |pages=57–58}}</ref> [[Arab]]s and [[Phoenicians]] were the first to enter [[Malabar Coast]] to trade [[Spice]]s.<ref name="Menon57"/> The Arabs on the coasts of [[Yemen]], [[Oman]], and the [[Persian Gulf]], must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other [[Eastern world|eastern countries]].<ref name="Menon57"/> They must have brought the [[Cinnamon]] of Kerala to the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Menon57"/> The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.<ref name="Menon57"/> In the past, there were many Muslim traders in the ports of Malabar.<ref>{{cite book|last=Muhammed |first=Hedayuthabdulla|title=kabir:The Apposaitle of Hindu Muslim Unity|date=January 2009|publisher=Motilal Banarasidess|page=47|isbn=9788120833739}}</ref> There had been considerable trade relations between [[Middle East]] and [[Malabar Coast]] even before the time of [[Muhammad]] (c. 570 – 632 AD).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fuller|first=C. J.|date=March 1976|title=Kerala Christians and the Caste System|journal=Man|series=New Series|publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|volume=11|issue=1|pages=53–70|doi=10.2307/2800388|jstor=2800388}}</ref><ref name="PPRazakAbdul2">P. P., Razak Abdul "Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of muslims of Malabar" Unpublished PhD thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicut [http://hdl.handle.net/10603/13105]</ref> Muslim tombstones with ancient dates, short inscriptions in medieval mosques, and rare Arab coin collections are the major sources of early Muslim presence on the Malabar Coast.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> Islam arrived in [[Kerala]], a part of the larger [[Indian Ocean]] rim, via spice and silk traders from the [[Middle East]]. Historians do not rule out the possibility of [[Islam]] being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.<ref name="indiatimes3">{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Trade-not-invasion-brought-Islam-to-India/articleshow/2144414.cms |title=Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India |last=Sethi |first=Atul |date=24 June 2007 |work=Times of India |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated20002">Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.</ref> Notable has been the occurrence of [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals|Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin]], the Hindu King that moved to [[Arabia]] to meet the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] and converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Varghese |first1=Theresa |title=Stark World Kerala |date=2006 |publisher=Stark World Pub. |isbn=9788190250511 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=Satish |title=India's National Security: Annual Review 2009 |date=27 February 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-esAgAAQBAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin&pg=PA346 |publisher=Routledge |language=en|isbn=9781136704918 }}</ref><ref>Minu Ittyipe; [[Solomon]] to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012</ref> Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the [[Mappila]]s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref name="Divakaruni20112">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0wLgfQyvFAC |title=The Palace of Illusions |author=Chitra Divakaruni |date=16 February 2011 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-0-330-47865-6 |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at [[Kodungallur]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]] (c. 570–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999|isbn=9780765601049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson|author2=Kai Kresse|title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333|access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-70024-5|pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book|author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt|title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458|access-date=25 July 2012|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07929-8|pages=458–459}}</ref><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book|author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi|title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179|access-date=25 July 2012|year=2007|publisher=Other Books|isbn=978-81-903887-8-8|pages=179–}}</ref> According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the [[Mosque|''Masjids'']] at [[Kodungallur]], [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kannur]], [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayini]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of [[Malik Dinar]], and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in [[Indian Subcontinent]].<ref>Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.</ref> It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">Pg 58, Cultural heritage of [[Kerala]]: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978</ref> According to popular tradition, [[Islam]] was brought to [[Lakshadweep]] islands, situated just to the west of [[Malabar Coast]], by [[Sheikh Ubaidullah|Ubaidullah]] in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of [[Andrott]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|publisher=lakshadweep.nic.in|access-date=1 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514235511/http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|archive-date=14 May 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A few [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from [[Kothamangalam]] in the eastern part of [[Ernakulam district]].<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |author-link=Roland E. Miller |article=Mappila |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Islam |volume=VI |publisher=E. J. Brill |year=1988 |pages=458–66}}</ref> [[File:3rd Tiruvalla Copper Plate.jpg|left|thumb|The earliest major epigraphic evidence of Muslim merchants in Kerala is the [[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] (9th century AD)|214x214px]] [[File:Madhhab Map3.png|300px|thumbnail|[[Shafiʽi school]] (shaded in dark blue) is the most-prominent school among the [[Muslim]]s of [[Kerala]], coastal [[Karnataka]], and [[Sri Lanka]] unlike from rest of [[South Asia]]]] The known earliest mention about [[Muslim]]s of Kerala is in the [[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] of 9th century CE, granted by the ruler of [[Kollam]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cereti|first=C. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams|title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams|publisher=Harrassowitz|year=2009|isbn=9783447059374|editor-last=Sundermann|editor-first=W.|location=Wiesbaden|pages=|chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates|editor-last2=Hintze|editor-first2=A.|editor-last3=de Blois|editor-first3=F.}}</ref> A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable [[Muslim]] population in the [[Malabar Coast]]. Arab writers such as [[Al-Masudi]] of [[Baghdad]] (896–956 AD), [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] (1100–1165 AD), [[Abulfeda]] (1273–1331 AD), and [[Al-Dimashqi (geographer)|Al-Dimashqi]] (1256–1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar|last=Razak|first=Abdul|publisher=|year=2013}}</ref> Some historians assume that the [[Mappila]]s can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Kupferschmidt1987"/><ref name="Kulakarṇī1996">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC&pg=PA54|title=Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi|author=A. Rā Kulakarṇī|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=1996|isbn=978-81-7154-579-7|pages=54–55|access-date=24 July 2012}}</ref> [[Al-Biruni]] (973–1048 CE) appears to be the first writer to call [[Malabar Coast]] as ''Malabar''.<ref name="askh"/> Authors such as [[Ibn Khordadbeh]] and [[Al-Baladhuri]] mention Malabar ports in their works.<ref name="K.M."/> The Arab writers had called this place ''Malibar'', ''Manibar'', ''Mulibar'', and ''Munibar''. ''Malabar'' is reminiscent of the word ''Malanad'' which means ''the land of hills''.<ref name="Logan">{{cite book |author=William Logan |url=https://archive.org/details/malabarmanual0000loga/mode/2up |title=Malabar Manual (Volume-I) |publisher=Madras Government Press |year=1887 |pages=1}}</ref> According to [[William Logan (author)|William Logan]], the word ''Malabar'' comes from a combination of the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] word ''Mala'' (hill) and the [[Persian Language|Persian]]/[[Arabic]] word ''Barr'' (country/continent).<ref name="Logan"/> The [[Cheraman Juma Mosque|Kodungallur Mosque]], has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style.<ref name="K.M.">{{Cite book|title=Arab Relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries|last=Muhammad|first=K. M.|publisher=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year=1999|pages=226–234}}</ref> The [[Arabic]] inscription on a copper slab within the [[Madayi Palli|Madayi Mosque]] in [[Kannur]] records its foundation year as 1124 CE.<ref name="Madayi">{{cite book | author = Charles Alexander Innes | year=1908 | title= Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press |pages=423–424 | url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up }}</ref><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /><ref name="K.M."/> The monopoly of overseas spice trade from [[Malabar Coast]] was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ovxq8enmRKUC&pg=PA144|title=Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa)|author=Mehrdad Shokoohy|date=29 July 2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-30207-4|pages=144|access-date=30 July 2012}}</ref> The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] royal courts.<ref name="google2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC|title=The Legacy of Kerala|last=Menon|first=A. Sreedhara|publisher=Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala|year=1982|isbn=978-8-12643-798-6|edition=Reprinted|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.<ref name="Miller13"/> Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/><ref name=":3">Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast''. Cambridge University Press, 2018.</ref> The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an [[Old Malayalam]] inscription written in a mixture of ''[[Vatteluttu]]'' and [[Grantha script]]s which dates back to 10th century CE.<ref name="Okay">Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), ''South Indian Inscriptions.'' VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.</ref> It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a [[Hindu]] king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the [[Muslim]]s of Kerala.<ref name="Okay"/> A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and [[Arabic]], at [[Muchundi Mosque]] in [[Kozhikode]] mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.<ref name="Narayanan2017">M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) {{ISBN|978-81-8267-114-0}}</ref> The [[Morocco|Moroccan]] traveller [[Ibn Battuta]]h (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.<ref name="Miller1">{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |authorlink=Roland E. Miller |title=Mappila Muslim Culture |date=27 April 2015 |publisher=State University of New York Press |page=xi |isbn=978-1-4384-5601-0}}</ref> By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of [[Kozhikode|Calicut (Kozhikode)]] as the major port city in Kerala.<ref name=":3" /> Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of [[Zamorin of Calicut]], such as that of the port commissioner, were held by [[Muslim]]s.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2">K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.</ref> The port commissioner, the ''Shah Bandar'', represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Battutah mentions Shah Bandars in [[Calicut]] as well as [[Kollam|Quilon]] (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar).<ref name="Miller1"/><ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> The [[Ali Raja]]s of [[Arakkal kingdom]], based at [[Kannur]], ruled the [[Lakshadweep]] Islands.<ref name="askh"/> [[Arab]]s had the monopoly of trade in [[Malabar Coast]] and [[Indian Ocean]] until the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] [[Age of Discovery]].<ref name="askh"/> The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> The arrival of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] explorers in the late 15th century checked the then well-established and wealthy Muslim community's progress.<ref name="google1" /> Following the discovery of sea route from [[Europe]] to [[Kozhikode]] in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between [[Ormus]] and the [[Malabar Coast]] and south to [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288</ref><ref>{{Cite book | author = Knox, Robert | author-link = Robert Knox (sailor) | year = 1681 | title = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon | pages = 19–47 |publisher = Reprint. Asian Educational Services | place = London| title-link = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon }}</ref> The ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'' written by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] (born around 1532) of [[Ponnani]] during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in [[Arabic]] and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of [[Kunjali Marakkar]] alongside the [[Zamorin of Calicut]] from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize [[Malabar coast]].<ref name="Noorani">AG Noorani {{cite web|url=http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm |title=Islam in Kerala |access-date=5 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221021629/http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm |archive-date=21 December 2012 }}</ref> It was first printed and published in [[Lisbon]]. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of [[Al-Azhar University]], [[Cairo]].<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011">A. Sreedhara Menon. ''Kerala History and its Makers''. D C Books (2011)</ref><ref name="frontline.in">A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala. Books [http://www.frontline.in/enwiki/static/html/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm]</ref><ref>Roland E. Miller. ''Mappila Muslim Culture'' SUNY Press, 2015</ref> ''Tuhfatul Mujahideen'' also describes the history of [[Mappila]] [[Muslim]] community of Kerala as well as the general condition of [[Malabar Coast]] in the 16th century CE.<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011"/> With the end of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] era, [[Arab]]s lost their monopoly of trade in [[Malabar Coast]].<ref name="askh">A Survey of Kerala History, A. Sreedhara Menon, DC Books, Kottayam (2007)</ref> As the Portuguese tried to establish monopoly in spice trade, bitter naval battles with the zamorin ruler of Calicut became a common sight.<ref name="Subrahmanyam1998">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AA3bu058pI4C&pg=PA294|title=The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama|author=Sanjay Subrahmanyam|date=29 October 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64629-1|pages=293–294|access-date=26 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="MorseStephens1897">{{cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm|title=Albuquerque|author=Henry Morse Stephens|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1897|isbn=978-81-206-1524-3|series=[[Rulers of India series]]|chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> The Portuguese naval forces attacked and looted the Muslim dominated port towns in the Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ovxq8enmRKUC&pg=PA147|title=Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa)|author=Mehrdad Shokoohy|date=29 July 2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-30207-4|page=147|access-date=30 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfbNcIXQwSAC&q=moplahs&pg=PA181|title=The Edinburgh review: or critical journal – Sydney Smith, Lord Francis Jeffrey Jeffrey, Macvey Napier, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, William Empson, Harold Cox, Henry Reeve, Arthur Ralph Douglas Elliot (Hon.)|year=1922|access-date=17 February 2012}}</ref> Ships containing trading goods were drowned, often along with the crew. This activities, in the long run, resulted in the Muslims losing control of the spice trade they had dominated for more than five hundred years. Historians note that in the post-Portuguese period, once-rich Muslim traders turned inland (southern interior Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce.<ref name="google1" /> By the mid-18th century the majority of the Muslims of Kerala were landless labourers, poor fishermen and petty traders, and the community was in "a psychological retreat".<ref name="google1" /> The community tried to reverse the trend during the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] invasion of Malabar District (late 18th century).<ref name="Elgood1995">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=epaMx7jSZjIC&pg=PA164|title=Firearms of the Islamic World: in the Tared Rajab Museum, Kuwait|author=Robert Elgood|date=15 November 1995|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-963-9|pages=164–|access-date=25 July 2012}}</ref> The victory of the [[East India Company|English East India Company]] and princely Hindu confederacy in 1792 over the Kingdom of Mysore placed the Muslims once again in economical and cultural subjection.<ref name="google1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC&q=Muslims+Kerala |title=Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation |first=Thomas Johnson |last=Nossiter |date=January 1982 |isbn=9780520046672 |access-date=2012-11-15}}</ref><ref name="Kurien2002">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMmSFw8G4wgC&pg=PA51|title=Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India|author=Prema A. Kurien|date=7 August 2002|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3089-5|pages=51–|access-date=25 July 2012}}</ref> The subsequent partisan rule of British authorities throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries brought the landless Muslim peasants of Malabar District into a condition of destitution, and this led to a series of uprisings (against the Hindu landlords and British administration). The series of violence eventually exploded as the [[Malabar Rebellion|Mappila Uprising]] (1921–22).<ref name="google1" /><ref name="gazette">{{Cite book |last=Kerala (India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZF0bAAAAIAAJ |title=Kerala District Gazetteers: Kozhikode (supplement) |date=1962 |publisher=Superintendent of Government Presses |language=en}}</ref><ref name="brill" /><ref name="Books.google.co.in">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&q=history+muslims+kerala|title=Cultural heritage of Kerala – A Sreedhara Menon – Google Books|isbn=9788126419036|access-date=2012-11-16|last1=Sreedhara Menon|first1=A.|year=2008}}</ref> The Muslim material strength - along with modern education, theological reform, and active participation in democratic process - recovered slowly after the 1921-22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in state and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Muslim literacy rate was only 5% in 1931.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf countries]] in the following years (c. 1970s). This widespread participation in the "Gulf Rush" produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. A great influx of funds from the earnings of the employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment, and educational backwardness began to change.<ref name="Miller13"/> The Muslims in Kerala are now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change, and positive involvement in the modern world. Malayali Muslim women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> [[University of Calicut]], with the former Malabar District being its major catchment area, was established in 1968.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.universityofcalicut.info/|title=Official website of Calicut University – Home|website=www.universityofcalicut.info|access-date=2018-10-11|archive-date=2018-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111210221/http://www.universityofcalicut.info/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Calicut International Airport]], currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kozhikodeairport.com/#|title=Kozhikode Calicut International Airport (CCJ)|website=www.kozhikodeairport.com|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Silver-jubilee-does-not-bring-cheer-to-Karipur-airport-users/articleshow/12498757.cms|title=Silver jubilee does not bring cheer to Karipur airport users – Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> An [[Indian Institutes of Management|Indian Institute of Management]] (IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996.<ref name="About IIM K">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iimk.ac.in/iimk/about/about.php|title=The Institute|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508141700/http://www.iimk.ac.in/iimk/about/about.php|archive-date=8 May 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=10 May 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Demography == The last Indian Census was conducted in 2011. According to the [[2011 Census of India]], the district-wise distribution of the Muslim population is as shown below:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html|title=Population By Religious Community – 2011 Census of India|access-date=2020-10-19|website=Census of India|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India}}</ref> {|class="wikitable sortable" |- ! {{nowrap|District wise map of Kerala}} !'''District''' !'''Total Pop''' !'''Muslims''' !'''% of Pop''' !'''% of Muslims''' |- |rowspan ="15"| [[File:Political map of Kerala.svg|300px]] |'''[[Kerala]]''' |'''33,406,061''' |'''8,873,472''' |'''26.56%''' |'''100.0%''' |- |[[Kasaragod district|Kasargod]] |1,307,375 |486,913 |37.24% |5.49% |- |[[Kannur district|Kannur]] |2,523,003 |742,483 |29.43% |8.37% |- |[[Wayanad district|Wayanad]] |817,420 |234,185 |28.65% |2.64% |- |[[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode]] |3,086,293 |1,211,131 |39.24% |13.65% |- |[[Malappuram district|Malappuram]] |4,112,920 |2,888,849 |70.24% |32.56% |- |[[Palakkad district|Palakkad]] |2,809,934 |812,936 |28.93% |9.16% |- |[[Thrissur district|Thrissur]] |3,121,200 |532,839 |17.07% |6.00% |- |[[Ernakulam district|Ernakulam]] |3,282,388 |514,397 |15.67% |5.80% |- |[[Idukki district|Idukki]] |1,108,974 |82,206 |7.41% |0.93% |- |[[Kottayam district|Kottayam]] |1,974,551 |126,499 |6.41% |1.43% |- |[[Alappuzha district|Alappuzha]] |2,127,789 |224,545 |10.55% |2.53% |- |[[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]] |1,197,412 |55,074 |4.60% |0.62% |- |[[Kollam district|Kollam]] |2,635,375 |508,500 |19.30% |5.73% |- |[[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]] |3,301,427 |452,915 |13.72% |5.10% |} [[File:Distribution of Muslim population in Kerala (2011 Census of India).svg|thumb|right|350px|Distribution of [[Muslim]]s in [[Kerala]] – District-wise.]] == Theological orientations/denominations == Most of the Muslims of Kerala follow [[Sunni Islam]] of [[Shafi'i|Shāfiʿī]] school of religious law (known in Kerala as the traditionalist 'Sunnis') while a large minority follow modern movements that developed within [[Sunni Islam]].<ref name="Miller13"/><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> The latter section consists of majority [[Salafi movement|Salafists (the Mujahids)]] and the minority [[Islamism|Islamists]]. Both the traditional Sunnis and Mujahids again have been divided to sub-identities.<ref>Shajahan Madampat, "Malappuram Isn't Mini Kashmir" ''Outlook'' 21 August 2017 [https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/malappuram-isnt-mini-kashmir/299195]</ref><ref name="Miller13"/><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> * [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī Islam]]<ref name=":2">[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/2788279.pdf Islamism and Social Reform in Kerala, South India] Modern Asian Studies</ref> **[[Shafi'i|Shāfi'ī]]<ref name=":2"/>—mainly two groups (majority of traditional Sunnis in Kerala are Shafi{{ayin}}is). **[[Hanafi|Ḥanafī]] *[[Salafi movement|Salafists (the Mujahids)]]—with different splinter factions (with varying degrees of puritanism).<ref name=":2"/> [[Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen]] (K. N. M) is the largest Mujahid organisation in Kerala.<ref name=":2" /> *[[Islamism|Islamists]] ([[Jamaat-e-Islami Hind|the Jama'at-i-Islami India]])—representing [[political Islam]] in Kerala.<ref name=":2"/> * [[Shia Islam|Shīiah Islam]] *Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama'at – Head Quarters of [[Ahmadiyya muslim community|Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]] in Kerala is located at Baitul Quddoos,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Malayalam HomePage|url=https://www.alislam.org/malayalam/|access-date=2021-01-28|website=www.alislam.org}}</ref> G.H Road Kozhikode (Calicut). [[Ahmadiyya]] Muslim Community. == Communities == * '''[[Mappila Muslims|Mappilas]]:''' The largest community among the Muslims of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from north Kerala (former Malabar District) of different ethnic origins. In south Kerala Malayali Muslims are not called Mappilas.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> A Mappila is either, # A descendant of any native convert<ref>{{Cite journal|title=MAPPILA|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0673|access-date=2021-03-22|website=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0673}}</ref>) to Islam<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=E.|first=Miller, Roland|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/928782482|title=Mappila muslim culture.|date=2016|publisher=State Univ Of New York Pr|isbn=978-1-4384-5600-3|oclc=928782482}}</ref> (or) # A descendant of a marriage alliance between a [[Middle Eastern]] individual and a native low caste woman<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite journal|title=MAPPILA|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_com_0673|access-date=2021-07-17|website=Encyclopédie de l’Islam|doi=10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_com_0673}}</ref> The term Mappila is still in use in Malayalam to mean "bridegroom" or "son-in-law".<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> * '''[[Pusalan]]s:''' Mostly converts from the [[Mukkuvar (India)|Mukkuvan]] caste. Formerly a low status group among the Muslims of Kerala.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Schneider|first1=David Murray|title=Matrilineal Kinship|last2=Gough|first2=Kathleen|date=1974|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02529-5|pages=415|language=en}}</ref> The other Mappilas used call them "Kadappurattukar", while themselves were known as "Angadikkar". The Kadappurattukar were divided into two endogamous groups on the basis of their occupation, "Valakkar" and "Bepukar". The Bepukar were considered superior to Valakkar.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> In addition to the two endogamous groups there were other service castes like "Kabaru Kilakkunnavar", "Alakkukar", and "Ossans" in Pusalan settlements. Ossan occupied the lowest position in the old hierarchy.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> * '''[[Ossan]]s:''' the Ossans were the traditional barbers among the Muslims of Kerala. Formed the lowest rank in the old hierarchy, and were an indispensable part of the village community of Muslims of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> * '''[[Thangal]]s (the [[Sayyid]]s):''' Claiming descent from the family of [[Muhammed]]. People who had migrated from Middle East. Elders of a number of widely respected [[Thangal|Thangal families]] often served as the focal point of the Muslim community in old Malabar District.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> * [[Rowther]]s: The Muslim community originated in [[Tamilakam]]. Mainly they settled in [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]], [[Alappuzha|Alapuzha]], [[Kochi]], [[kottayam]], [[kollam]], [[Idukki district|Idukki]], [[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]], [[Pandalam]], [[Palakkad]] regions in kerala. Rowther sect is a prominent and prosperous muslim community in [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pottamkulam |first=George Abraham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kvYyEAAAQBAJ&dq=Rawthers+kerala+travancore&pg=PT322 |title=Kerala A Journey in Time Part II: Kingdom Of Cochin & Thekamkoor Rajyam; People Places and Potpourri |date=2021-06-11 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-63873-514-4 |language=en}}</ref> * '''Vattakkolis (the Bhatkalis) or [[Nawayath|Navayats]]:''' ancient community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, originally settled at Bhatkal, Uttara Kannada. Speaks Navayati language. Once distributed in the towns of northern Kerala as a mercantile community. They are mainly distributed in the Northern parts of Malabar bordering [[Karnataka]].<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> * '''[[Nakhuda|Nahas]]:''' The origin of the name Naha is supposed to be a transformation of "nakhuda" which means captain of ship. Community concentrated mainly in [[Parappanangadi]], south of Kozhikode who trace their origins to [[Persians|Persian]] ship owners.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Citation|last=Chakravarti|first=Ranabir|title=Nakhuda Nuruddin Firuz at Somanātha: AD 1264|date=2020-06-09|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003084129-11|work=Trade and Traders in Early Indian Society|pages=220–242|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781003084129-11|isbn=978-1-003-08412-9|s2cid=225771373|access-date=2021-03-22}}</ref> * '''[[Marakkar]]s:''' once multilingual maritime trading community settled in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, the Palk Strait and Sri Lanka. The most famous of the Marakkar were "[[Kunjali Marakkar]]s", or the naval captains of the [[Zamorin of Calicut]]. The Muslims of pure Middle Eastern descent held themselves superior to Marakkars.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> * '''[[Keyi family|Keyis]]:''' community of wealthy merchants, mainly settled in [[Kannur]], [[Thalassery]] and [[Parappanangadi]] with [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] origin.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=Santhosh|date=2017-10-04|title=The Keyi Mappila Muslim Merchants of Tellicherry and the Making of Coastal Cosmopolitanism on the Malabar Coast|journal=Asian Review of World Histories|volume=5|issue=2|pages=145–162|doi=10.1163/22879811-12340009|issn=2287-965X|doi-access=free}}</ref> * '''[[Koya (Malabar)|Koyas]]:''' Muslim community, in the city of Kozhikode forming a significant majority in Kozhikode and its adjoining areas. May be of [[Omani people|Omani]] origin. It is said that the name is a corruption of “Khawaja”. Held administrative positions in the Kozhikode court of the zamorins.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ravindranath|first1=D.|last2=Injeti|first2=M.S.|last3=Busi|first3=B.R.|date=1984|title=Anthropometric Variation among Koyas|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000153449|journal=Human Heredity|volume=34|issue=2|pages=131–132|doi=10.1159/000153449|pmid=6745953|issn=1423-0062}}</ref> * '''Kurikkals''': a community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, settled around [[Manjeri]] in Malappuram District.The family was first settled in Mavvancheri in North Malabar and moved to Manjeri in the beginning of the 16th century. Many of the members of the family served as instructor in the use of fire-arms in the employ of various chiefs of Malabar.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> * '''[[Nainars]]:''' a community of Tamil origin. Settled only in [[Cochin]], [[Mattancherry|Mattanchery]], [[Fort Kochi]] and [[Kodungallur]]. It is believed that the Nainars first settled in Kerala in the 15th century, entering into contract for certain works with the chiefs of Cochin.<ref name="KunhaliV2" /> * '''[[Deccanis|Dakhnis]] or Pathans:''' "[[Deccani language|Dakhni]]" speaking community. Migrated as cavalry men under various chiefs, especially in South Travancore. Some of them came South India along with the invasion of the Coromandel by the [[Khalji dynasty|Khaljis]]. Many of the Dakhnis had also come as traders and businessmen.<ref name="KunhaliV2"/> *'''[[Kutchi Memon]]s''': They are a [[Kutchi language|Kutchi]] speaking Gujarati ethnic group from the [[Kutch district|Kutch]] region. They are descended from the [[Lohana]] community among Gujarati Hindus.They were mainly traders who had migrated to Central Kerala with the other Gujarati traders.<ref>{{Cite book|last=LLC.|first=General Books|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/949589339|title=Social Groups of Gujarat : Parsi, Kutchi Gurjar Kashtriya, Ahirs, Mughal, Dhangar, Meghwal, Charan, Nagar Brahmins, Mers, Sıddi, Lohar, Chhipa, Vaghela, Sulaymani, Gauda Brahmins, Gujarati Muslims, Kumhar, Memon People, LOhana, Hujaratı People, Rabari, Khateek, Samma, Jadeja|date=2011|publisher=General Books LLC|isbn=978-0-7103-0849-8|oclc=949589339}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mukadam|first1=Anjoom Amir|last2=Mawani|first2=Sharmina|date=2007-11-22|title=Diaspora Revisited: Second-Generation Nizari Ismaili Muslims of Gujarati Ancestry|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9789048501069.008|journal=Global Indian Diasporas|pages=195–210|doi=10.1017/9789048501069.008|isbn=9789048501069}}</ref> *'''[[Beary|Beary/Byary]]''': Muslims: community Stretching along the Tulunadu region. In Kerala they inhabits the coastal area of Kasargod district.They speak their own tongue which is called [[Beary language]]. They are originally mercantile community, hece the name 'beary', from the Sanskrit word 'Vyapari'(merchant). * '''[[Sunni Bohra|Bohras]] ([[Dawoodi Bohra|Daudi Bohras]])''': Western ([[Mustaʽli Ismailism|Mustaalis]]) Ismaili [[Shia Islam|Shiah]] community. Settled in a few major town in Kerala like [[Kozhikode]], [[Kannur]], [[Kochi]] and [[Alappuzha]]. Bohras migrated from [[Gujarat]] to Kerala. They form the major part of the Shia community in Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2" /><ref>{{Citation|last=Qutbuddin|first=Tahera|title=The Daʾudi Bohra Tayyibis: Ideology, Literature, Learning and Social Practice|date=2011|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780755610259.ch-013|work=A Modern History of the Ismailis|pages=331–354 |publisher=I.B.Tauris|doi=10.5040/9780755610259.ch-013|isbn=978-1-84511-717-7|access-date=2021-03-22}}</ref> ==Culture== === Literature === {{See also|Arabi Malayalam|Arabi Malayalam script}} Mappila Songs (or Mappila Poems) is a famous [[folklore]] tradition emerged in ''c.'' 16th century. The ballads are compiled in complex blend of Dravidian (Malayalam/Tamil) and Arabic, Persian/Urdu in a modified Arabic script.<ref name="hindu_may092">{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/07/stories/2006050719690300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107014307/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/07/stories/2006050719690300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 November 2012|title=Preserve identity of Mappila songs|date=7 May 2006|access-date=15 August 2009|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Mappila songs have a distinct cultural identity, as they sound a mix of the ethos and culture of Dravidian South India as well as West Asia. They deal with themes such as religion, satire, romance, heroism, and politics. Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1875–91) is generally considered as the poet laureate of Mappila Songs.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> As the modern Malayali Muslim literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Kerala Muslim authors of the modern age.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> Muslim periodical literature and newspaper dailies – all in Malayalam – are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "[[Chandrika (newspaper)|Chandrika]]", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Muslim community.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam22"/> === Kerala Muslim folk arts === * '''Oppana''' was a popular form of social entertainment. It was generally performed by a group of women, as a part of wedding ceremonies a day before the wedding day. The bride, dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments, is the chief "spectator"; she sits on a pitham, around which the singing and dancing take place. While the women sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride in steps. * '''Kolkkali''' was a dance form popular among the Muslims. It was performed by a group of dozen young men with two sticks, similar to the [[Dandiya Raas|Dandiya]] dance of Gujarat in Western India. * '''Duff Muttu'''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WcJ7kNsdrA |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/4WcJ7kNsdrA |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live|title=Madikeri, Coorg, "Gaddige Mohiyadeen Ratib" Islamic religious "dikr" is held once in a year. |publisher=YouTube |access-date=17 February 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims, using the traditional duff, or [[daf]], also called tappitta. Performers dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff. * '''Arabana muttu''' was an art form named after the ''aravana'', a hand-held, one-sided flat tambourine or drumlike musical instrument. It is made of wood and animal skin, similar to the duff but a little thinner and bigger. * '''Muttum Viliyum''' was a traditional orchestral musical performance. It is basically the confluence of three musical instruments—kuzhal, chenda and cheriya chenda. Muttum Viliyum is also known by the name "Cheenimuttu". * '''Vattappattu''' was an art form once performed in the Malabar region on the eve of the wedding. It was traditionally performed by a group of men from the groom’s side with the putiyappila (the groom) sitting in the middle. ===Mappila Cuisine=== {{See also|Thalassery cuisine}} {{Multiple image |align= centre |direction = horizontal |width= 150 |header_align = left/right/center |footer_align = left/right/center |header_background = |footer_background = |image1 = Pathiri.jpg |caption1 = ''[[Pathiri]]'', a pancake made of [[rice flour]], is one of the common breakfast dishes in Malabar |image2 = KallummakkayaNirachath.jpg |caption2 = ''Kallummakkaya nirachathu'' or ''arikkadukka'' (mussels stuffed with rice) |image3 = Chicken Biriyani with Raita.jpg |caption3 = Thalassery ''biryani'' with ''[[raita]]'' |image4 = Calicut Halwa.jpg |caption4 = Halwas are popular in towns like [[Kannur]], [[Thalassery]], [[Kozhikode]], and [[Ponnani]] }} The [[Mappila]] cuisine is a blend of traditional [[Kerala]], [[Cuisine of Iran|Persian]], [[Yemeni cuisine|Yemenese]] and [[Arab]] food culture.<ref name="MC">{{Cite news|title=Straight from the Malabar Coast|url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/straight-from-the-malabar-coast/article27942808.ece|last=Sabhnani|first=Dhara Vora|date=June 14, 2019|access-date=January 26, 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref> This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes.<ref name="MC"/> ''Kallummakkaya'' ([[mussels]]) [[curry]], ''irachi puttu'' (''irachi'' meaning meat), ''parottas'' (soft flatbread),<ref name="MC"/> ''[[Pathiri]]'' (a type of rice pancake)<ref name="MC"/> and ''[[ghee]]'' rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—[[black pepper]], [[cardamom]] and [[clove]] are used profusely. The [[Malabar District|Malabar]] version of ''[[biryani]]'', popularly known as ''kuzhi mandi'' in [[Malayalam]] is another popular item, which has an influence from [[Yemen]]. Various varieties of ''biriyanis'' like [[Thalassery biriyani|Thalassery ''biriyani'']], Kannur ''biriyani'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-06-23|title=Thalassery Chicken Biriyani|url=https://www.thetakeiteasychef.com/thalassery-chicken-biriyani-recipe|access-date=2021-05-13|website=The Take It Easy Chef|language=en-GB}}</ref> Kozhikode ''biriyani''<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shamsul|date=2016-05-07|title=Calicut Biryani Recipe I Kozhikodan Biriyani Recipe|url=https://www.cookawesome.com/calicut-biryani-recipe-kozhikodan-biriyani-recipe/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=CookAwesome|language=en-US}}</ref> and Ponnani ''biriyani''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chicken and rosewater biryani recipe|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/chicken_and_rosewater_70042|access-date=2021-05-13|website=BBC Food|language=en}}</ref> are prepared by the Mappila community.<ref name="MC"/> The snacks include ''[[Unnakai|unnakkaya]]'' (deep-fried, boiled ripe [[banana]] paste covering a mixture of cashew, [[raisins]] and [[sugar]]),<ref name="MC_2">{{Cite news|title=Flavours unlimited from the Malabar coast|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Food/flavours-unlimited-from-the-malabar-coast/article6170291.ece|last=Kurian|first=Shijo|date=July 2, 2014|access-date=January 26, 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref> ''[[Pazham pori|pazham nirachathu]]'' (ripe banana filled with [[coconut]] grating, [[molasses]] or sugar),<ref name="MC_2"/> ''[[Fios de ovos|muttamala]]'' made of [[egg as food|eggs]],<ref name="MC"/> ''[[chatti pathiri]]'', a [[dessert]] made of flour, like a baked, layered ''chapati'' with rich filling, ''arikkadukka'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-30|title=Arikkadukka – Spicy Stuffed Mussels|url=https://www.facesplacesandplates.com/arikkadukka-spicy-stuffed-mussels/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=Faces Places and Plates|language=en-US}}</ref> and more.<ref name="MC"/> == Religious education == {{excerpt|Religious education in Kerala|Islam}} == See also == *[[Arabi Malayalam]] *[[Arabi Malayalam script]] *[[Onam and Islam]] *[[Beary|Beary Muslims]] *[[Beary language]] *[[Tamil Muslim]] *[[Sri Lankan Moors]] *[[Saint Thomas Christians|Nasrani Mappila]] == Bibliography == * P. Shabna & K. Kalpana (2022) Re-making the self: Discourses of ideal Islamic womanhood in Kerala, Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 28:1, 24-43, {{doi|10.1080/12259276.2021.2010907}} == References == {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * {{Citation | author = S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar | year=1942 | title= Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language | publisher=University of Madras | url= https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage | access-date = 3 December 2020}} (The English translation of the historic book [[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]] written about the society of Kerala by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] during sixteenth century CE) * Muhsin, S. M. . (2021). [https://journals.iium.edu.my/jiasia/index.php/jia/article/view/1045 Three Fatwas on Marriage in South India] (Tiga Fatwa Perkahwinan di India Selatan). ''Journal of Islam in Asia (E-ISSN 2289-8077)'', ''18''(1), 251–282. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.31436/jia.v18i1.1045</nowiki> {{Asia in topic|Islam in}} {{Islam in India by region}} [[Category:Islam in Kerala| ]] [[Category:Islam in India by state or union territory|Kerala]]'