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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Seed of the coffee plant}}
{{about|the coffee bean seed|the coffee chain|The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf}}
{{Infobox beverage|name=Coffee beans|image=Roasted coffee beans.jpg|caption=Roasted coffee beans|type=|origin=|introduced=|color=|region=[[Horn of Africa]]<ref>Souza, Richard M. (2008) ''Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee''. Springer. p. 3. {{ISBN|978-1-4020-8720-2}}</ref>
and [[South Arabia]]<ref name="Wein34">{{cite book |last1=Weinberg |first1=Bennett Alan |last2=Bealer |first2=Bonnie K. |title=The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-92722-2 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/worldofcaffeines00benn |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/worldofcaffeines00benn/page/n28 3–4] |access-date=18 November 2015}}</ref>}}A '''coffee bean''' is a seed from the ''[[Coffea]]'' plant and the source for [[coffee]]. It is the [[drupe|pit]] inside the red or purple fruit. This fruit is often referred to as a '''coffee cherry''', and like the cherry, it is a fruit with a pit. Even though the coffee beans are not technically beans, they are referred to as such because of their resemblance to [[bean|true beans]]. The fruits most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides together. A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, called a "[[peaberry]]". Peaberries make up only around 10% to 15% of all coffee beans. It is a fairly common belief that they have more flavour than normal coffee beans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ilovebuttercoffee.com/peaberry-coffee-beans/|title=Peaberry Coffee Beans: Speciality Coffee Drinkers Guide|work=ilovebuttercoffee.com|access-date=1 Dec 2016|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163000/https://ilovebuttercoffee.com/peaberry-coffee-beans/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Like [[Brazil nut]]s (a seed) and white rice, coffee beans consist mostly of [[endosperm]].<ref>{{cite web
| title = Arabica and Robusta Coffee Plant
| publisher = Coffee Research Institute
| url = http://www.coffeeresearch.org/agriculture/coffeeplant.htm
| access-date = 25 August 2011}}</ref>
The two most economically important varieties of coffee plants are the [[Coffea arabica|Arabica]] and the [[Robusta coffee|Robusta]]; approximately 60% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and ~40% is Robusta.<ref name="CoffeeProduction">{{cite web |title=Coffee: World Markets and Trade |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture – Foreign Agricultural Service |date=June 16, 2017 |url=http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/fas/tropprod//2010s/2017/tropprod-06-16-2017.pdf |access-date=December 8, 2017}}</ref> Arabica beans consist of 0.8–1.4% [[caffeine]] and Robusta beans consist of 1.7–4.0% caffeine.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Botanical Aspects
|publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]]
|url=http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp
|access-date=25 August 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003123956/http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp
|archive-date=3 October 2011
}}</ref> As [[coffee]] is one of the world's most widely consumed beverages, coffee beans are a major [[cash crop]] and an important [[export]] product, accounting for over 50% of some developing nations' foreign exchange earnings.<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Story of Coffee
|publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]]
|url=http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp
|access-date=25 August 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003124016/http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp
|archive-date=3 October 2011
}}</ref> In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth US$19.9 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Voora, V. |author2=Bermudez, S. |author3=Larrea, C.|date=2019|title=Global Market Report: Coffee|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127012324/https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/ |archive-date=2021-01-27 |access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref> The global coffee industry is massive and valued at $495.50 billion as of 2023, the biggest producer of coffee and coffee beans is Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-19 |title=33+ Buzzing Coffee Industry Statistics [2023]: Cafes, Consumption, And Market Trends |url=https://www.zippia.com/advice/coffee-industry-statistics/ |access-date=2023-12-24 |website=Zippia |language=en}}</ref> Other main [[List of countries by coffee production|exporters of coffee beans]] are Colombia, Vietnam and Ethiopia.
==History==
{{Main article|History of coffee}}
===Significant dates===
*According to legend, the coffee plant was discovered in [[Ethiopia]] by a [[goat herder]] named [[Kaldi]] around 850 AD, who observed increased physical activity in his goats after they consumed coffee beans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The history of coffee|url=https://www.ncausa.org/about-coffee/history-of-coffee|access-date=2020-06-24|publisher=National Coffee Association of the United States}}</ref>
*The coffee plant was first found in the mountains of [[Yemen]]. Then by 1500, it was exported to the rest of the world through the port of [[Mocha, Yemen|Mokha, Yemen]].
*First cultivation in India ([[Chikmagalur]]) – 1600
*First cultivation in Europe – 1616
*First cultivation in Java – 1699
*First cultivation in Caribbean ([[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], [[Jamaica]], [[Puerto Rico]]) – 1715–1730
*First cultivation in South America – 1730
*First cultivation in Dutch East Indies – 1720
*Roasted beans first sold on retail market (Pittsburgh) – 1865
*Important spray-drying techniques developed in 1950s, which along with freeze drying are a method to create instant coffee
===Distribution===
[[File:Bean belt (top 20 coffee producers 2011).svg|thumb|The bean belt in yellow: The 20 largest producers (2011) are in green.]]
[[Coffee production in Brazil|Brazil produces]] about 45% of the world's total coffee [[Export|exports]]. The United States imports more coffee than any other nation. As of 2015, Americans consumed approximately 400 million cups of coffee per day, making the United States the leading consumer of coffee in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coffee Statistics 2015|url=http://www.e-importz.com/coffee-statistics.php|website=E-Imports|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref>
{{anchor|Bean belt}}[[Coffea|Coffee plants]] grow within a defined area between the tropics of [[Tropic of Cancer|Cancer]] and [[Tropic of Capricorn|Capricorn]], termed the bean belt or coffee belt.<ref>{{cite web|last=Klos |first=Beth|title=The Coffee Bean – Not a Fiend|url=http://www.brighamandwomens.org/Patients_Visitors/pcs/nutrition/services/healtheweightforwomen/special_topics/intelihealth1106.aspx|website=www.brighamandwomens.org|access-date=16 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Eija |last=Soin |title=Land use change patterns and livelihood dynamics on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania |journal=Agricultural Systems |volume=85 |issue=3 |date=September 2005 |pages=306–323 |doi=10.1016/j.agsy.2005.06.013|bibcode=2005AgSys..85..306S |url=https://zenodo.org/record/895944 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Lamb HH |title=Climate: present, past and future |year=1977 |volume=2 |page=681 |isbn=0-06-473881-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sevey |first=Glenn C. |title=Bean Culture: A Practical Treatise on the Production and Marketing of Beans |url=https://archive.org/details/beanculturepract00severich |year=1907 |publisher=Orange Judd Company |asin=B000863SS2}}</ref>
==Etymology==
The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] suggests that the [[European languages]] generally appear to have adopted the name from [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''kahveh'', about 1600, perhaps through [[Italian language|Italian]] ''caffè''. [[Arabic|Arab]] ''qahwah'', in Turkish pronounced ''kahveh'', the name of the [[infusion]] or [[beverage]]; said by [[Arab]] [[lexicographer]]s to have originally meant "[[wine]]" or some type of wine, and to be a derivative of a [[verb]]-[[root (linguistics)|root]] ''qahiya'' "to have no [[appetite]]". Another common theory is that the name derives from [[Kaffa Province, Ethiopia]], where the species may have originated.<ref>Souza, Richard M. (2008) ''Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee''. Springer. p. 3. {{ISBN|978-1-4020-8720-2}}</ref>
==Coffee plant==
[[File:Singararutang coffee flower.jpg|thumb|right|The flower of a Singararutang coffee tree]]
[[File:Coffee berries 1.jpg|thumb|right|Coffee berries]]
The coffee tree averages from {{cvt|5|–|10|m|ft}} in height. As the tree gets older, it produces less fruit and slowly loses any pest- and disease-resistance. The coffee beans come from the seeds which contained in fruits from trees and shrubs naturally grown in African forests. Humans produce coffee by [[Coffee roasting|roasting]], [[Coffee preparation#Grinding|grinding]] and [[Coffee preparation#Brewing|brewing]] the green coffee beans.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Farah |first1=Adriana |title=Chapter 1 – The Coffee Plant and Beans: An Introduction |date=2015-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095175000012 |work=Coffee in Health and Disease Prevention |pages=5–10 |editor-last=Preedy |editor-first=Victor R. |access-date=2023-04-20 |place=San Diego |publisher=Academic Press |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409517-5.00001-2 |isbn=978-0-12-409517-5 |last2=Ferreira dos Santos |first2=Thiago}}</ref>
Coffee plants are often grown in rows spaced apart depending on the desired density chosen by the farmer. Some farmers plant other trees, such as shade trees or other cash-crop trees, such as orange trees around them or plant the coffee on the sides of hills, because they need specific conditions to flourish. Ideally, Arabica coffee beans are grown at temperatures between {{cvt|15|and|24|C|F}} and Robusta between {{cvt|24|and|30|C|F}} and receive between {{cvt|500|and|3000|mm}} of rainfall per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://behold.coffee/thoughts/major-coffee-producer-country-map/|title=Major coffee producers|publisher=behold.coffee|date=2015|access-date=25 September 2015}}</ref> More rain is needed at the beginning of the season when the fruit is developing and less later in the season as it ripens.
Two lesser known species grown for consumption are ''[[Coffea liberica]]'' and ''[[Coffea racemosa]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/videos/tv/2015/01/05/spc-inside-africa-mozambique-conservation-c.cnn|title=Rare coffee plant could help communities |date=5 January 2015 |format=video|publisher=edition.cnn.com}}</ref>
===Processing===
{{Further|Processing of coffee}}
When the fruit is ripe, it is almost always handpicked, using either "selective picking", where only the ripe fruit is removed, or "strip-picking", where all of the fruit is removed from a limb all at once. Selective picking is often used to produce higher quality coffee because the cherries are picked at their ripest. Strip-picking is indiscriminate and will harvest unripe, ripe, and over-ripe fruit. To improve quality after strip-picking, the harvest must be sorted.
Two methods are primarily used to process coffee berries. The first, "wet" or "washed" process, has historically usually been carried out in Central America and areas of Africa. The flesh of the cherries is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented – soaked in water for about two days. This softens the mucilage, which is a sticky pulp residue that is still attached to the seeds. Then this mucilage is washed off with water.
The "dry processing" method, cheaper and simpler, was historically used for lower-quality beans in Brazil and much of Africa, but now brings a premium when done well. Twigs and other foreign objects are separated from the berries and the fruit is then spread out in the sun on concrete, bricks or raised beds for 2–3 weeks, turned regularly for even drying.
In Asia a third type of processing exists, where the [[Asian palm civet]] eats coffee berries and excretes the beans. Because the civet prefers the taste of the ripest cherries, the civet selectively harvests the cherries. Its digestive system then processes the beans by breaking down the mucilage and pulp surrounding the seed. Once the seeds are excreted by the civet, they can be harvested, processed and sold as a [[niche product]]. Once they are finally processed, these beans are called ''[[kopi luwak]]'', and are often marketed as a rare and expensive coffee.
==Composition==
[[File:Coffee cherry cross section.JPG|thumb|Coffee cherry cross-section]]
[[File:Freshly harvested coffee cherries.jpg|thumb|alt=Freshly harvested coffee cherries|Freshly harvested coffee cherries]]
The term "green coffee bean" refers to unroasted mature or immature coffee beans. These have been processed by wet or dry methods to remove the outer pulp and [[mucilage]] and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Nonvolatile and volatile compounds in green coffee beans, such as [[caffeine]], [[Plant defense against herbivory|deter]] many insects and animals from [[Seed predation|eating them]]. Further, both nonvolatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee bean when it is roasted. Nonvolatile [[nitrogen]]ous compounds (including [[alkaloid]]s, [[trigonelline]], proteins, and free [[amino acid]]s) and [[carbohydrate]]s are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee and for its biological action. Since the mid-2000s, [[green coffee extract]] has been sold as a nutritional supplement and has been clinically studied for its [[chlorogenic acid]] content and for its [[lipolytic]] and weight-loss properties.
===Nonvolatile alkaloids===
[[File:Coffea canephora W2 IMG 2430.jpg|thumb|190px|Immature ''[[Coffea canephora]]'' berries on a tree in [[Goa]], India]]
[[Caffeine]] (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is the [[alkaloid]] most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1.0% and 2.5% by weight of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans, but higher caffeine content is found in plants grown at higher altitudes.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Clifford, MN |author2=Kazi, M | year = 1987 | title = The influence of coffee bean maturity on the content of chlorogenic acids, caffeine, and trigonelline | journal = Food Chemistry | volume = 26 | pages = 59–69 | doi=10.1016/0308-8146(87)90167-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Girma |first1=Bealu |last2=Gure |first2=Abera |last3=Wedajo |first3=Feyisa |date=2020-08-12 |title=Influence of Altitude on Caffeine, 5-Caffeoylquinic Acid, and Nicotinic Acid Contents of Arabica Coffee Varieties |journal=Journal of Chemistry |language=en |volume=2020 |pages=e3904761 |doi=10.1155/2020/3904761 |doi-access=free |issn=2090-9063}}</ref> Lower concentrations of [[theophylline]], [[theobromine]], [[paraxanthine]], [[liberine]], and [[methylliberine]] can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in [[green tea]], is reduced during the roasting process, usually about 15 minutes at {{convert|230|C|F}}, whereas the concentrations of most other alkaloids are not changed.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, [[citric acid]], or [[tartaric acid]], all of which are present in green coffee beans. For example, {{convert|1|g|oz|abbr=on}} of caffeine dissolves in {{convert|46|mL|USfloz|abbr=on}} of water at room temperature, and {{convert|5.5|mL|USfloz|abbr=on}} at {{convert|80|C|F}}.<ref>''[[The Merck Index]]'', 13th Edition</ref> The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}
[[Trigonelline]] (''N''-methyl-nicotinate) is a derivative of [[vitamin B3|vitamin B<sub>3</sub>]] that is not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0.6% and 1.0%. At a roasting temperature of {{convert|230|C|F}}, 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to [[Niacin (substance)|nicotinic acid]], leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trigonelline in Coffee|url=https://www.coffeechemistry.com/trigonelline-in-coffee|access-date=2021-06-25|website=www.coffeechemistry.com|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Varnam|first=A. H.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40941014|title=Beverages : technology, chemistry and microbiology|date=1999|publisher=Aspen|others=Jane P. Sutherland|isbn=0-8342-1310-9|location=Gaithersburg, Maryland|oclc=40941014}}</ref>
===Proteins and amino acids===
[[Protein]]s account for 8% to 12% of dried green coffee beans. A majority of the proteins are of the 11-S storage kind<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baú |first1=Sandra M. T. |last2=Mazzafera |first2=Paulo |last3=Santoro |first3=Luiz G. |title=Seed storage proteins in coffee |journal=Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal |date=2001 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1590/S0103-31312001000100004 |doi-access=free }}</ref> (alpha – component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11-S storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature, thus are an additional source of bitter components due to generation of [[Maillard reaction]] products.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Montavon P, Duruz E, Rumo G, Pratz G |title=Evolution of green coffee protein profiles with maturation and relationship to coffee cup quality |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=51 |issue=8 |pages=2328–34 |date=April 2003 |pmid=12670177 |doi=10.1021/jf020831j }}</ref> High temperature and oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11-S storage proteins of green coffee beans to low-molecular-weight [[peptide]]s and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include [[enzyme]]s, such as [[catalase]] and [[polyphenol oxidase]], which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid/g robusta coffee and up to 4.5 mg amino acid/g arabica coffee). In ''Coffea arabica'', [[alanine]] is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg/g, followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in ''C. robusta'', alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF01192946 |pmid=8067059| title = Analysis of free amino acids in green coffee beans| journal = Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung| volume = 199|issue=1| pages = 22–25| year = 1994| last1 = Arnold | first1 = U. | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = E. | last3 = Kühn | first3 = R. | last4 = Möschwitzer | first4 = U. |s2cid=36134388}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Murkovic M, Derler K |title=Analysis of amino acids and carbohydrates in green coffee |journal=J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods |volume=69 |issue=1–2 |pages=25–32 |date=November 2006 |pmid=16563515 |doi=10.1016/j.jbbm.2006.02.001 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/890497}}</ref> The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste, making it impossible to prepare a desirable beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as: [[isoleucine]] 81 mg/kg, [[leucine]] 100 mg/kg, [[valine]] 93 mg/kg, [[tyrosine]] 81 mg/kg, [[phenylalanine]] 133 mg/kg. The concentration of [[gamma-Aminobutyric acid|gamma-aminobutyric acid]] (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg/kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from [[Tanzania]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Teutsch |first=I. A. |year=2004 |title=Einfluss der Rohkaffeeverarbeitung auf Aromastoffveränderungen in gerösteten Kaffeebohnen sowie im Kaffeebetränk |type=PhD |publisher=Department of Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Germany |url=https://mediatum.ub.tum.de/doc/601384/601384.pdf }}</ref> Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids; the amino acids in green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products (reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha-amino group of the amino acids). Further, [[diketopiperazine]]s, e.g. cyclo(proline-proline), cyclo(proline-leucine), and cyclo(proline-isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee.<ref>{{cite thesis |title= Bittere Diketopiperazine und chlorogensäurederivate in Roestkaffee |last=Ginz |first=M. |url = http://www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00001257 |year=2001 |type=PhD |publisher=Technical University Carolo-Wilhelminia, Brunswig, Germany}}</ref> The bitter flavor of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg/liter of water. The content of diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 to 30 mg, which is responsible for its [[Bitterness (taste)|bitterness]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso
|title=How to make the perfect espresso
|access-date=March 17, 2016
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324222246/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso
|archive-date=24 March 2016
|url-status=dead
|first=Amy
|last=Fleming
|date=9 May 2012
|work=[[The Guardian]]
}}</ref>
===Carbohydrates===
Carbohydrates make up about 50% of the dry weight of green coffee beans. The carbohydrate fraction of green coffee is dominated by [[polysaccharide]]s, such as [[arabinogalactan]], [[galactomannan]], and [[cellulose]], contributing to the tasteless flavor of green coffee. Arabinogalactan makes up to 17% of dry weight of green coffee beans, with a molecular weight of 90 kDa to 200 kDa. It is composed of beta-1-3-linked [[Galactose|galactan]] main chains, with frequent members of [[arabinose]] (pentose) and [[galactose]] (hexose) residues at the side chains comprising immunomodulating properties by stimulating the cellular defense system (Th-1 response) of the body. Mature brown to yellow coffee beans contain fewer residues of galactose and arabinose at the side chain of the polysaccharides, making the green coffee bean more resistant to physical breakdown and less soluble in water.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Redgwell RJ, Curti D, Rogers J, Nicolas P, Fischer M |s2cid=3011043 |title=Changes to the galactose/mannose ratio in galactomannans during coffee bean (''Coffea arabica'' L.) development: implications for in vivo modification of galactomannan synthesis |journal=Planta |volume=217 |issue=2 |pages=316–26 |date=June 2003 |pmid=12783340 |doi=10.1007/s00425-003-1003-x |bibcode=2003Plant.217..316R }}</ref> The molecular weight of the arabinogalactan in coffee is higher than in most other plants, improving the cellular defense system of the digestive tract compared to arabinogalactan with lower molecular weight.<ref>Gotoda, N and Iwai, K. (2006) "Arabinogalactan isolated from coffee seeds indicates immunomodulating properties", pp. 116–20 in ''Association for Science and Information on Coffee'', (ASIC) 21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France</ref> Free [[monosaccharide]]s are present in mature brown to yellow-green coffee beans. The free part of monosaccharides contains [[sucrose]] (gluco-fructose) up to 9000 mg/100 g of arabica green coffee bean, a lower amount in robustas, i.e. 4500 mg/100 g. In arabica green coffee beans, the content of free glucose was 30 to 38 mg/100 g, free fructose 23 to 30 mg/100 g; free galactose 35 mg/100 g and [[D-Mannitol|mannitol]] 50 mg/100 g dried coffee beans, respectively. Mannitol is a powerful scavenger for [[hydroxyl radical]]s, which are generated during the [[Lipid peroxidation|peroxidation]] of lipids in biological membranes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tressel |first1=R. |last2=Holzer |first2=M. |last3=Kamperschroer |first3=H. |year=1983 |chapter=Bildung von Aromastoffenin Roestkaffee in Abhaengigkeit vom Gehalt an freien Aminosaeren und reduzierenden Zuckern |title=10th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Salvador, Bahia 11 October to 14 Oct |publisher=ASIC |pages=279–92}}</ref>
===Lipids===
The lipids found in green coffee include: [[linoleic acid]], [[palmitic acid]], [[oleic acid]], [[stearic acid]], [[arachidic acid]], [[Terpene|diterpenes]], [[triglyceride]]s, [[Unsaturated fatty acids|unsaturated]] long-chain [[fatty acid]]s, [[ester]]s, and [[amide]]s. The total content of lipids in dried green coffee is 11.7–14 g/100 g.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roffi |first1=J. |last2=Corte dos Santos |first2=A. |last3=Mexia |first3=J. T. |last4=Busson |first4=F. |last5=Miagrot |first5=M. |year=1973 |chapter=Café verts et torrefiesde l Angola |title=Etude chimique, 5th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Lisboa, 14 June to 19 June 1971 |publisher=ASIC |pages=179–200}}</ref> Lipids are present on the surface and in the interior matrix of green coffee beans. On the surface, they include derivatives of carboxylic acid-5-hydroxytryptamides with an amide bond to fatty acids (unsaturated C6 to C24) making up to 3% of total lipid content or 1200 to 1400 microgram/g dried green coffee bean. Such compounds form a wax-like cover on the surface of the coffee bean (200–300 mg lipids/100 g dried green coffee bean) protecting the interior matrix against oxidation and insects. Further, such molecules have antioxidative activity due to their chemical structure.<ref>{{cite book |author=Clifford MN |chapter=Chemical and physical aspects of green coffee and coffee products|veditors=Clifford MN, Wilson KC |title=Coffee: botany, biochemistry, and production of beans and beverage |publisher=Croom Helm AVI |location=London |year=1985 |pages=305–74 |isbn=0-7099-0787-7 }}</ref> Lipids of the interior tissue are triglycerides, linoleic acid (46% of total free lipids), palmitic acid (30% to 35% of total free lipids), and esters. Arabica beans have a higher content of lipids (13.5–17.4 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans) than robustas (9.8–10.7 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans). The content of diterpenes is about 20% of the lipid fraction. The diterpenes found in green coffee include [[cafestol]], [[kahweol]] and [[16-O-methylcafestol]]. Some of these diterpenes have been shown in ''[[in vitro]]'' experiments to protect liver tissue against chemical oxidation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee KJ, Jeong HG |title=Protective effects of kahweol and cafestol against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress and DNA damage |journal=Toxicol. Lett. |volume=173 |issue=2 |pages=80–87 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17689207 |doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2007.06.008 }}</ref> In coffee oil from green coffee beans the diterpenes are [[esterification|esterified]] with saturated long chain [[fatty acid]]s.
===Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids===
[[Chlorogenic acid]]s belong to a group of compounds known as [[phenolic acid]]s, which are [[antioxidant]]s. The content of chlorogenic acids in dried green coffee beans of arabica is 65 mg/g and of robusta 140 mg/g, depending on the timing of harvesting.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nutraceuticals (Second Edition) Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity|last=Garg|first=Satish K.|chapter=Chapter 42 - Green coffee beans|year=2021|pages=725–748|publisher=Academic Press|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-821038-3.00042-2|isbn=9780128210383|s2cid=234240656|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128210383000422}}</ref> At roasting temperature, more than 70% of chlorogenic acids are destroyed, leaving a residue less than 30 mg/g in the roasted coffee bean. In contrast to green coffee, green tea contains an average of 85 mg/g polyphenols. These chlorogenic acids could be a valuable, inexpensive source of antioxidants. Chlorogenic acids are homologous compounds comprising [[caffeic acid]], [[ferulic acid]] and [[3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid]], which are connected by an ester bond to the [[hydroxyl]] groups of [[quinic acid]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Clifford |first=M. N. |chapter=Chlorogenic acids – their characterisation, transformation during roasting, and potential dietary significance |publisher=Association for Science and Information on Coffee, (ASIC) |title=21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France |chapter-url=http://asic-cafe.org/en/system/files/C301_2006.pdf |pages=36–49}}</ref> The antioxidant capacity of chlorogenic acid is more potent than of [[ascorbic acid]] (vitamin C) or mannitol, which is a selective hydroxy-radical scavenger.<ref>{{cite book |chapter = Anti-oxidant activities of chlorogenic acid |last1=Morishita |first1=H. |last2=Kido |first2=R. | chapter-url=http://asic-cafe.org/en/system/files/16_092.pdf |year=1995 |title=16th international colloqu. Chem. Coffee, Kyoto 9–14th April}}</ref> Chlorogenic acids have a bitter taste in low concentrations such as 50 mg/L water. At higher concentrations of 1 g/L water, they have a sour taste. Chlorogenic acids increase the solubility of caffeine and are important modulators of taste.
===Volatile compounds===
Volatile compounds of green coffee beans include short-chain fatty acids, [[aldehyde]]s, and nitrogen-containing aromatic molecules, such as derivatives of [[pyrazine]]s (green-herbaceous-earthy odor). Briefly, such volatile compounds are responsible for the less pleasing odor and taste of green coffee versus roasted coffee. Commercial success was realized by Starbucks in creating Green Bean Refreshers using a process that primarily isolates the caffeine from the green beans but does not actually use steeped liquid from the beans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.starbucks.com/promo/refreshers|title=Starbucks Refreshers™ Beverages|work=Starbucks Coffee Company|access-date=28 January 2016}}</ref> Many consumers experiment with creating green bean "extract" by steeping green coffee beans in hot water. Often, the recommended times of steeping (20 minutes to 1 hour) extract too much caffeine to provide a pleasant taste. A steeping time of 12 minutes or under provides a more palatable liquid that can be used as a base for a drink containing more of the nutrients and less caffeine that using just isolated caffeine extract.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lenscoffee.com/how-to-make-your-own-green-coffee-bean-beverages|title=Len's Coffee: How to make your own green coffee bean extract|access-date=28 January 2016}}</ref> The alkaline stock base that results can be paired with acidic or fruity extracts, with or without sweetener, to mask the vegetable-like taste of the extract.
When green coffee beans are roasted, other molecules with the typical pleasant aroma of coffee are generated, which are not present in fresh green coffee. During roasting, the major part of the unpleasant-tasting volatile compounds are neutralised. Unfortunately, other important molecules such as antioxidants and vitamins present in green coffee are destroyed. Volatile compounds with nauseating odor for humans have been identified, including [[acetic acid]] (pungent, unpleasant odor), [[propionic acid]] (odor of sour milk, or butter), [[butyric acid|butanoic acid]] (odor of rancid butter, present in green coffee with 2 mg/100 g coffee beans), [[Valeric acid|pentanoic acid]] (unpleasant fruity flavor, present in green coffee at 40 mg/100 g in coffee beans), [[hexanoic acid]] (fatty-rancid odor), [[heptanoic acid]] (fatty odor), [[Caprylic acid|octanoic acid]] (repulsive oily rancid odor); [[nonanoic acid]] (mild nut-like fatty odor); [[decanoic acid]] (sour repulsive odor), and derivatives of such fatty acids – [[3-methyl-valeric acid]] (sour, green-herbaceous, unpleasant odor), [[acetaldehyde]] (pungent-nauseating odor, even when highly diluted, present in dried green coffee beans at concentrations of about 5 mg/kg), [[propanal]] (choking effect on respiratory system, penetrating-nauseating), [[butyraldehyde|butanal]] (nauseating effect, present in dried green coffee beans at 2–7 mg/kg), or [[pentanal]] (very repulsive nauseating effect).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bessière-Thomas |first1=Yvonne |first2=Ivon |last2=Flament |title=Coffee flavor chemistry |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester |year=2002 |isbn=0-471-72038-0}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{Portal|Coffee|Agriculture|Drink}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Coffee beans}}
{{Coffee|nocat=1}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Coffea]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Coffee]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Seed of the coffee plant}}
{{about|the coffee bean seed|the coffee chain|The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf}}
{{Infobox beverage|name=Coffee beans|image=Roasted coffee beans.jpg|caption=Roasted coffee beans|type=|origin=|introduced=|color=|region=[[Horn of Africa]]<ref>Souza, Richard M. (2008) ''Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee''. Springer. p. 3. {{ISBN|978-1-4020-8720-2}}</ref>
and [[South Arabia]]<ref name="Wein34">{{cite book |last1=Weinberg |first1=Bennett Alan |last2=Bealer |first2=Bonnie K. |title=The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-92722-2 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/worldofcaffeines00benn |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/worldofcaffeines00benn/page/n28 3–4] |access-date=18 November 2015}}</ref>}}A '''coffee bean''' is a seed from the ''[[Coffea]]'' plant and the source for [[coffee]]. It is the [[drupe|pit]] inside the red or purple fruit. This fruit is often referred to as a '''coffee cherry''', and like the cherry, it is a fruit with a pit. Even though the coffee beans are not technically beans, they are referred to as such because of their resemblance to [[bean|true beans]]. The fruits most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides together. A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, called a "[[peaberry]]". Peaberries make up only around 10% to 15% of all coffee beans. It is a fairly common belief that they have more flavour than normal coffee beans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ilovebuttercoffee.com/peaberry-coffee-beans/|title=Peaberry Coffee Beans: Speciality Coffee Drinkers Guide|work=ilovebuttercoffee.com|access-date=1 Dec 2016|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163000/https://ilovebuttercoffee.com/peaberry-coffee-beans/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Like [[Brazil nut]]s (a seed) and white rice, coffee beans consist mostly of [[endosperm]].<ref>{{cite web
| title = Arabica and Robusta Coffee Plant
| publisher = Coffee Research Institute
| url = http://www.coffeeresearch.org/agriculture/coffeeplant.htm
| access-date = 25 August 2011}}</ref>
The two most economically important varieties of coffee plants are the [[Coffea arabica|Arabica]] and the [[Robusta coffee|Robusta]]; approximately 60% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and ~40% is Robusta.<ref name="CoffeeProduction">{{cite web |title=Coffee: World Markets and Trade |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture – Foreign Agricultural Service |date=June 16, 2017 |url=http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/fas/tropprod//2010s/2017/tropprod-06-16-2017.pdf |access-date=December 8, 2017}}</ref> Arabica beans consist of 0.8–1.4% [[caffeine]] and Robusta beans consist of 1.7–4.0% caffeine.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Botanical Aspects
|publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]]
|url=http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp
|access-date=25 August 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003123956/http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp
|archive-date=3 October 2011
}}</ref> As [[coffee]] is one of the world's most widely consumed beverages, coffee beans are a major [[cash crop]] and an important [[export]] product, accounting for over 50% of some developing nations' foreign exchange earnings.<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Story of Coffee
|publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]]
|url=http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp
|access-date=25 August 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003124016/http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp
|archive-date=3 October 2011
}}</ref> In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth US$19.9 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Voora, V. |author2=Bermudez, S. |author3=Larrea, C.|date=2019|title=Global Market Report: Coffee|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127012324/https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/ |archive-date=2021-01-27 |access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref> The global coffee industry is massive and valued at $495.50 billion as of 2023, the biggest producer of coffee and coffee beans is Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-19 |title=33+ Buzzing Coffee Industry Statistics [2023]: Cafes, Consumption, And Market Trends |url=https://www.zippia.com/advice/coffee-industry-statistics/ |access-date=2023-12-24 |website=Zippia |language=en}}</ref> Other main [[List of countries by coffee production|exporters of coffee beans]] are Colombia, Vietnam and Ethiopia. Hi
==History==
{{Main article|History of coffee}}
===Significant dates===
*According to legend, the coffee plant was discovered in [[Ethiopia]] by a [[goat herder]] named [[Kaldi]] around 850 AD, who observed increased physical activity in his goats after they consumed coffee beans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The history of coffee|url=https://www.ncausa.org/about-coffee/history-of-coffee|access-date=2020-06-24|publisher=National Coffee Association of the United States}}</ref>
*The coffee plant was first found in the mountains of [[Yemen]]. Then by 1500, it was exported to the rest of the world through the port of [[Mocha, Yemen|Mokha, Yemen]].
*First cultivation in India ([[Chikmagalur]]) – 1600
*First cultivation in Europe – 1616
*First cultivation in Java – 1699
*First cultivation in Caribbean ([[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], [[Jamaica]], [[Puerto Rico]]) – 1715–1730
*First cultivation in South America – 1730
*First cultivation in Dutch East Indies – 1720
*Roasted beans first sold on retail market (Pittsburgh) – 1865
*Important spray-drying techniques developed in 1950s, which along with freeze drying are a method to create instant coffee
===Distribution===
[[File:Bean belt (top 20 coffee producers 2011).svg|thumb|The bean belt in yellow: The 20 largest producers (2011) are in green.]]
[[Coffee production in Brazil|Brazil produces]] about 45% of the world's total coffee [[Export|exports]]. The United States imports more coffee than any other nation. As of 2015, Americans consumed approximately 400 million cups of coffee per day, making the United States the leading consumer of coffee in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coffee Statistics 2015|url=http://www.e-importz.com/coffee-statistics.php|website=E-Imports|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref>
{{anchor|Bean belt}}[[Coffea|Coffee plants]] grow within a defined area between the tropics of [[Tropic of Cancer|Cancer]] and [[Tropic of Capricorn|Capricorn]], termed the bean belt or coffee belt.<ref>{{cite web|last=Klos |first=Beth|title=The Coffee Bean – Not a Fiend|url=http://www.brighamandwomens.org/Patients_Visitors/pcs/nutrition/services/healtheweightforwomen/special_topics/intelihealth1106.aspx|website=www.brighamandwomens.org|access-date=16 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Eija |last=Soin |title=Land use change patterns and livelihood dynamics on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania |journal=Agricultural Systems |volume=85 |issue=3 |date=September 2005 |pages=306–323 |doi=10.1016/j.agsy.2005.06.013|bibcode=2005AgSys..85..306S |url=https://zenodo.org/record/895944 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Lamb HH |title=Climate: present, past and future |year=1977 |volume=2 |page=681 |isbn=0-06-473881-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sevey |first=Glenn C. |title=Bean Culture: A Practical Treatise on the Production and Marketing of Beans |url=https://archive.org/details/beanculturepract00severich |year=1907 |publisher=Orange Judd Company |asin=B000863SS2}}</ref>
==Etymology==
The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] suggests that the [[European languages]] generally appear to have adopted the name from [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''kahveh'', about 1600, perhaps through [[Italian language|Italian]] ''caffè''. [[Arabic|Arab]] ''qahwah'', in Turkish pronounced ''kahveh'', the name of the [[infusion]] or [[beverage]]; said by [[Arab]] [[lexicographer]]s to have originally meant "[[wine]]" or some type of wine, and to be a derivative of a [[verb]]-[[root (linguistics)|root]] ''qahiya'' "to have no [[appetite]]". Another common theory is that the name derives from [[Kaffa Province, Ethiopia]], where the species may have originated.<ref>Souza, Richard M. (2008) ''Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee''. Springer. p. 3. {{ISBN|978-1-4020-8720-2}}</ref>
==Coffee plant==
[[File:Singararutang coffee flower.jpg|thumb|right|The flower of a Singararutang coffee tree]]
[[File:Coffee berries 1.jpg|thumb|right|Coffee berries]]
The coffee tree averages from {{cvt|5|–|10|m|ft}} in height. As the tree gets older, it produces less fruit and slowly loses any pest- and disease-resistance. The coffee beans come from the seeds which contained in fruits from trees and shrubs naturally grown in African forests. Humans produce coffee by [[Coffee roasting|roasting]], [[Coffee preparation#Grinding|grinding]] and [[Coffee preparation#Brewing|brewing]] the green coffee beans.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Farah |first1=Adriana |title=Chapter 1 – The Coffee Plant and Beans: An Introduction |date=2015-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095175000012 |work=Coffee in Health and Disease Prevention |pages=5–10 |editor-last=Preedy |editor-first=Victor R. |access-date=2023-04-20 |place=San Diego |publisher=Academic Press |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409517-5.00001-2 |isbn=978-0-12-409517-5 |last2=Ferreira dos Santos |first2=Thiago}}</ref>
Coffee plants are often grown in rows spaced apart depending on the desired density chosen by the farmer. Some farmers plant other trees, such as shade trees or other cash-crop trees, such as orange trees around them or plant the coffee on the sides of hills, because they need specific conditions to flourish. Ideally, Arabica coffee beans are grown at temperatures between {{cvt|15|and|24|C|F}} and Robusta between {{cvt|24|and|30|C|F}} and receive between {{cvt|500|and|3000|mm}} of rainfall per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://behold.coffee/thoughts/major-coffee-producer-country-map/|title=Major coffee producers|publisher=behold.coffee|date=2015|access-date=25 September 2015}}</ref> More rain is needed at the beginning of the season when the fruit is developing and less later in the season as it ripens.
Two lesser known species grown for consumption are ''[[Coffea liberica]]'' and ''[[Coffea racemosa]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/videos/tv/2015/01/05/spc-inside-africa-mozambique-conservation-c.cnn|title=Rare coffee plant could help communities |date=5 January 2015 |format=video|publisher=edition.cnn.com}}</ref>
===Processing===
{{Further|Processing of coffee}}
When the fruit is ripe, it is almost always handpicked, using either "selective picking", where only the ripe fruit is removed, or "strip-picking", where all of the fruit is removed from a limb all at once. Selective picking is often used to produce higher quality coffee because the cherries are picked at their ripest. Strip-picking is indiscriminate and will harvest unripe, ripe, and over-ripe fruit. To improve quality after strip-picking, the harvest must be sorted.
Two methods are primarily used to process coffee berries. The first, "wet" or "washed" process, has historically usually been carried out in Central America and areas of Africa. The flesh of the cherries is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented – soaked in water for about two days. This softens the mucilage, which is a sticky pulp residue that is still attached to the seeds. Then this mucilage is washed off with water.
The "dry processing" method, cheaper and simpler, was historically used for lower-quality beans in Brazil and much of Africa, but now brings a premium when done well. Twigs and other foreign objects are separated from the berries and the fruit is then spread out in the sun on concrete, bricks or raised beds for 2–3 weeks, turned regularly for even drying.
In Asia a third type of processing exists, where the [[Asian palm civet]] eats coffee berries and excretes the beans. Because the civet prefers the taste of the ripest cherries, the civet selectively harvests the cherries. Its digestive system then processes the beans by breaking down the mucilage and pulp surrounding the seed. Once the seeds are excreted by the civet, they can be harvested, processed and sold as a [[niche product]]. Once they are finally processed, these beans are called ''[[kopi luwak]]'', and are often marketed as a rare and expensive coffee.
==Composition==
[[File:Coffee cherry cross section.JPG|thumb|Coffee cherry cross-section]]
[[File:Freshly harvested coffee cherries.jpg|thumb|alt=Freshly harvested coffee cherries|Freshly harvested coffee cherries]]
The term "green coffee bean" refers to unroasted mature or immature coffee beans. These have been processed by wet or dry methods to remove the outer pulp and [[mucilage]] and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Nonvolatile and volatile compounds in green coffee beans, such as [[caffeine]], [[Plant defense against herbivory|deter]] many insects and animals from [[Seed predation|eating them]]. Further, both nonvolatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee bean when it is roasted. Nonvolatile [[nitrogen]]ous compounds (including [[alkaloid]]s, [[trigonelline]], proteins, and free [[amino acid]]s) and [[carbohydrate]]s are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee and for its biological action. Since the mid-2000s, [[green coffee extract]] has been sold as a nutritional supplement and has been clinically studied for its [[chlorogenic acid]] content and for its [[lipolytic]] and weight-loss properties.
===Nonvolatile alkaloids===
[[File:Coffea canephora W2 IMG 2430.jpg|thumb|190px|Immature ''[[Coffea canephora]]'' berries on a tree in [[Goa]], India]]
[[Caffeine]] (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is the [[alkaloid]] most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1.0% and 2.5% by weight of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans, but higher caffeine content is found in plants grown at higher altitudes.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Clifford, MN |author2=Kazi, M | year = 1987 | title = The influence of coffee bean maturity on the content of chlorogenic acids, caffeine, and trigonelline | journal = Food Chemistry | volume = 26 | pages = 59–69 | doi=10.1016/0308-8146(87)90167-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Girma |first1=Bealu |last2=Gure |first2=Abera |last3=Wedajo |first3=Feyisa |date=2020-08-12 |title=Influence of Altitude on Caffeine, 5-Caffeoylquinic Acid, and Nicotinic Acid Contents of Arabica Coffee Varieties |journal=Journal of Chemistry |language=en |volume=2020 |pages=e3904761 |doi=10.1155/2020/3904761 |doi-access=free |issn=2090-9063}}</ref> Lower concentrations of [[theophylline]], [[theobromine]], [[paraxanthine]], [[liberine]], and [[methylliberine]] can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in [[green tea]], is reduced during the roasting process, usually about 15 minutes at {{convert|230|C|F}}, whereas the concentrations of most other alkaloids are not changed.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, [[citric acid]], or [[tartaric acid]], all of which are present in green coffee beans. For example, {{convert|1|g|oz|abbr=on}} of caffeine dissolves in {{convert|46|mL|USfloz|abbr=on}} of water at room temperature, and {{convert|5.5|mL|USfloz|abbr=on}} at {{convert|80|C|F}}.<ref>''[[The Merck Index]]'', 13th Edition</ref> The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}
[[Trigonelline]] (''N''-methyl-nicotinate) is a derivative of [[vitamin B3|vitamin B<sub>3</sub>]] that is not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0.6% and 1.0%. At a roasting temperature of {{convert|230|C|F}}, 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to [[Niacin (substance)|nicotinic acid]], leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trigonelline in Coffee|url=https://www.coffeechemistry.com/trigonelline-in-coffee|access-date=2021-06-25|website=www.coffeechemistry.com|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Varnam|first=A. H.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40941014|title=Beverages : technology, chemistry and microbiology|date=1999|publisher=Aspen|others=Jane P. Sutherland|isbn=0-8342-1310-9|location=Gaithersburg, Maryland|oclc=40941014}}</ref>
===Proteins and amino acids===
[[Protein]]s account for 8% to 12% of dried green coffee beans. A majority of the proteins are of the 11-S storage kind<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baú |first1=Sandra M. T. |last2=Mazzafera |first2=Paulo |last3=Santoro |first3=Luiz G. |title=Seed storage proteins in coffee |journal=Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal |date=2001 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1590/S0103-31312001000100004 |doi-access=free }}</ref> (alpha – component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11-S storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature, thus are an additional source of bitter components due to generation of [[Maillard reaction]] products.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Montavon P, Duruz E, Rumo G, Pratz G |title=Evolution of green coffee protein profiles with maturation and relationship to coffee cup quality |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=51 |issue=8 |pages=2328–34 |date=April 2003 |pmid=12670177 |doi=10.1021/jf020831j }}</ref> High temperature and oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11-S storage proteins of green coffee beans to low-molecular-weight [[peptide]]s and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include [[enzyme]]s, such as [[catalase]] and [[polyphenol oxidase]], which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid/g robusta coffee and up to 4.5 mg amino acid/g arabica coffee). In ''Coffea arabica'', [[alanine]] is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg/g, followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in ''C. robusta'', alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF01192946 |pmid=8067059| title = Analysis of free amino acids in green coffee beans| journal = Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung| volume = 199|issue=1| pages = 22–25| year = 1994| last1 = Arnold | first1 = U. | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = E. | last3 = Kühn | first3 = R. | last4 = Möschwitzer | first4 = U. |s2cid=36134388}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Murkovic M, Derler K |title=Analysis of amino acids and carbohydrates in green coffee |journal=J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods |volume=69 |issue=1–2 |pages=25–32 |date=November 2006 |pmid=16563515 |doi=10.1016/j.jbbm.2006.02.001 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/890497}}</ref> The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste, making it impossible to prepare a desirable beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as: [[isoleucine]] 81 mg/kg, [[leucine]] 100 mg/kg, [[valine]] 93 mg/kg, [[tyrosine]] 81 mg/kg, [[phenylalanine]] 133 mg/kg. The concentration of [[gamma-Aminobutyric acid|gamma-aminobutyric acid]] (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg/kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from [[Tanzania]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Teutsch |first=I. A. |year=2004 |title=Einfluss der Rohkaffeeverarbeitung auf Aromastoffveränderungen in gerösteten Kaffeebohnen sowie im Kaffeebetränk |type=PhD |publisher=Department of Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Germany |url=https://mediatum.ub.tum.de/doc/601384/601384.pdf }}</ref> Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids; the amino acids in green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products (reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha-amino group of the amino acids). Further, [[diketopiperazine]]s, e.g. cyclo(proline-proline), cyclo(proline-leucine), and cyclo(proline-isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee.<ref>{{cite thesis |title= Bittere Diketopiperazine und chlorogensäurederivate in Roestkaffee |last=Ginz |first=M. |url = http://www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00001257 |year=2001 |type=PhD |publisher=Technical University Carolo-Wilhelminia, Brunswig, Germany}}</ref> The bitter flavor of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg/liter of water. The content of diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 to 30 mg, which is responsible for its [[Bitterness (taste)|bitterness]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso
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===Carbohydrates===
Carbohydrates make up about 50% of the dry weight of green coffee beans. The carbohydrate fraction of green coffee is dominated by [[polysaccharide]]s, such as [[arabinogalactan]], [[galactomannan]], and [[cellulose]], contributing to the tasteless flavor of green coffee. Arabinogalactan makes up to 17% of dry weight of green coffee beans, with a molecular weight of 90 kDa to 200 kDa. It is composed of beta-1-3-linked [[Galactose|galactan]] main chains, with frequent members of [[arabinose]] (pentose) and [[galactose]] (hexose) residues at the side chains comprising immunomodulating properties by stimulating the cellular defense system (Th-1 response) of the body. Mature brown to yellow coffee beans contain fewer residues of galactose and arabinose at the side chain of the polysaccharides, making the green coffee bean more resistant to physical breakdown and less soluble in water.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Redgwell RJ, Curti D, Rogers J, Nicolas P, Fischer M |s2cid=3011043 |title=Changes to the galactose/mannose ratio in galactomannans during coffee bean (''Coffea arabica'' L.) development: implications for in vivo modification of galactomannan synthesis |journal=Planta |volume=217 |issue=2 |pages=316–26 |date=June 2003 |pmid=12783340 |doi=10.1007/s00425-003-1003-x |bibcode=2003Plant.217..316R }}</ref> The molecular weight of the arabinogalactan in coffee is higher than in most other plants, improving the cellular defense system of the digestive tract compared to arabinogalactan with lower molecular weight.<ref>Gotoda, N and Iwai, K. (2006) "Arabinogalactan isolated from coffee seeds indicates immunomodulating properties", pp. 116–20 in ''Association for Science and Information on Coffee'', (ASIC) 21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France</ref> Free [[monosaccharide]]s are present in mature brown to yellow-green coffee beans. The free part of monosaccharides contains [[sucrose]] (gluco-fructose) up to 9000 mg/100 g of arabica green coffee bean, a lower amount in robustas, i.e. 4500 mg/100 g. In arabica green coffee beans, the content of free glucose was 30 to 38 mg/100 g, free fructose 23 to 30 mg/100 g; free galactose 35 mg/100 g and [[D-Mannitol|mannitol]] 50 mg/100 g dried coffee beans, respectively. Mannitol is a powerful scavenger for [[hydroxyl radical]]s, which are generated during the [[Lipid peroxidation|peroxidation]] of lipids in biological membranes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tressel |first1=R. |last2=Holzer |first2=M. |last3=Kamperschroer |first3=H. |year=1983 |chapter=Bildung von Aromastoffenin Roestkaffee in Abhaengigkeit vom Gehalt an freien Aminosaeren und reduzierenden Zuckern |title=10th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Salvador, Bahia 11 October to 14 Oct |publisher=ASIC |pages=279–92}}</ref>
===Lipids===
The lipids found in green coffee include: [[linoleic acid]], [[palmitic acid]], [[oleic acid]], [[stearic acid]], [[arachidic acid]], [[Terpene|diterpenes]], [[triglyceride]]s, [[Unsaturated fatty acids|unsaturated]] long-chain [[fatty acid]]s, [[ester]]s, and [[amide]]s. The total content of lipids in dried green coffee is 11.7–14 g/100 g.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roffi |first1=J. |last2=Corte dos Santos |first2=A. |last3=Mexia |first3=J. T. |last4=Busson |first4=F. |last5=Miagrot |first5=M. |year=1973 |chapter=Café verts et torrefiesde l Angola |title=Etude chimique, 5th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Lisboa, 14 June to 19 June 1971 |publisher=ASIC |pages=179–200}}</ref> Lipids are present on the surface and in the interior matrix of green coffee beans. On the surface, they include derivatives of carboxylic acid-5-hydroxytryptamides with an amide bond to fatty acids (unsaturated C6 to C24) making up to 3% of total lipid content or 1200 to 1400 microgram/g dried green coffee bean. Such compounds form a wax-like cover on the surface of the coffee bean (200–300 mg lipids/100 g dried green coffee bean) protecting the interior matrix against oxidation and insects. Further, such molecules have antioxidative activity due to their chemical structure.<ref>{{cite book |author=Clifford MN |chapter=Chemical and physical aspects of green coffee and coffee products|veditors=Clifford MN, Wilson KC |title=Coffee: botany, biochemistry, and production of beans and beverage |publisher=Croom Helm AVI |location=London |year=1985 |pages=305–74 |isbn=0-7099-0787-7 }}</ref> Lipids of the interior tissue are triglycerides, linoleic acid (46% of total free lipids), palmitic acid (30% to 35% of total free lipids), and esters. Arabica beans have a higher content of lipids (13.5–17.4 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans) than robustas (9.8–10.7 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans). The content of diterpenes is about 20% of the lipid fraction. The diterpenes found in green coffee include [[cafestol]], [[kahweol]] and [[16-O-methylcafestol]]. Some of these diterpenes have been shown in ''[[in vitro]]'' experiments to protect liver tissue against chemical oxidation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee KJ, Jeong HG |title=Protective effects of kahweol and cafestol against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress and DNA damage |journal=Toxicol. Lett. |volume=173 |issue=2 |pages=80–87 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17689207 |doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2007.06.008 }}</ref> In coffee oil from green coffee beans the diterpenes are [[esterification|esterified]] with saturated long chain [[fatty acid]]s.
===Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids===
[[Chlorogenic acid]]s belong to a group of compounds known as [[phenolic acid]]s, which are [[antioxidant]]s. The content of chlorogenic acids in dried green coffee beans of arabica is 65 mg/g and of robusta 140 mg/g, depending on the timing of harvesting.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nutraceuticals (Second Edition) Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity|last=Garg|first=Satish K.|chapter=Chapter 42 - Green coffee beans|year=2021|pages=725–748|publisher=Academic Press|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-821038-3.00042-2|isbn=9780128210383|s2cid=234240656|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128210383000422}}</ref> At roasting temperature, more than 70% of chlorogenic acids are destroyed, leaving a residue less than 30 mg/g in the roasted coffee bean. In contrast to green coffee, green tea contains an average of 85 mg/g polyphenols. These chlorogenic acids could be a valuable, inexpensive source of antioxidants. Chlorogenic acids are homologous compounds comprising [[caffeic acid]], [[ferulic acid]] and [[3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid]], which are connected by an ester bond to the [[hydroxyl]] groups of [[quinic acid]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Clifford |first=M. N. |chapter=Chlorogenic acids – their characterisation, transformation during roasting, and potential dietary significance |publisher=Association for Science and Information on Coffee, (ASIC) |title=21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France |chapter-url=http://asic-cafe.org/en/system/files/C301_2006.pdf |pages=36–49}}</ref> The antioxidant capacity of chlorogenic acid is more potent than of [[ascorbic acid]] (vitamin C) or mannitol, which is a selective hydroxy-radical scavenger.<ref>{{cite book |chapter = Anti-oxidant activities of chlorogenic acid |last1=Morishita |first1=H. |last2=Kido |first2=R. | chapter-url=http://asic-cafe.org/en/system/files/16_092.pdf |year=1995 |title=16th international colloqu. Chem. Coffee, Kyoto 9–14th April}}</ref> Chlorogenic acids have a bitter taste in low concentrations such as 50 mg/L water. At higher concentrations of 1 g/L water, they have a sour taste. Chlorogenic acids increase the solubility of caffeine and are important modulators of taste.
===Volatile compounds===
Volatile compounds of green coffee beans include short-chain fatty acids, [[aldehyde]]s, and nitrogen-containing aromatic molecules, such as derivatives of [[pyrazine]]s (green-herbaceous-earthy odor). Briefly, such volatile compounds are responsible for the less pleasing odor and taste of green coffee versus roasted coffee. Commercial success was realized by Starbucks in creating Green Bean Refreshers using a process that primarily isolates the caffeine from the green beans but does not actually use steeped liquid from the beans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.starbucks.com/promo/refreshers|title=Starbucks Refreshers™ Beverages|work=Starbucks Coffee Company|access-date=28 January 2016}}</ref> Many consumers experiment with creating green bean "extract" by steeping green coffee beans in hot water. Often, the recommended times of steeping (20 minutes to 1 hour) extract too much caffeine to provide a pleasant taste. A steeping time of 12 minutes or under provides a more palatable liquid that can be used as a base for a drink containing more of the nutrients and less caffeine that using just isolated caffeine extract.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lenscoffee.com/how-to-make-your-own-green-coffee-bean-beverages|title=Len's Coffee: How to make your own green coffee bean extract|access-date=28 January 2016}}</ref> The alkaline stock base that results can be paired with acidic or fruity extracts, with or without sweetener, to mask the vegetable-like taste of the extract.
When green coffee beans are roasted, other molecules with the typical pleasant aroma of coffee are generated, which are not present in fresh green coffee. During roasting, the major part of the unpleasant-tasting volatile compounds are neutralised. Unfortunately, other important molecules such as antioxidants and vitamins present in green coffee are destroyed. Volatile compounds with nauseating odor for humans have been identified, including [[acetic acid]] (pungent, unpleasant odor), [[propionic acid]] (odor of sour milk, or butter), [[butyric acid|butanoic acid]] (odor of rancid butter, present in green coffee with 2 mg/100 g coffee beans), [[Valeric acid|pentanoic acid]] (unpleasant fruity flavor, present in green coffee at 40 mg/100 g in coffee beans), [[hexanoic acid]] (fatty-rancid odor), [[heptanoic acid]] (fatty odor), [[Caprylic acid|octanoic acid]] (repulsive oily rancid odor); [[nonanoic acid]] (mild nut-like fatty odor); [[decanoic acid]] (sour repulsive odor), and derivatives of such fatty acids – [[3-methyl-valeric acid]] (sour, green-herbaceous, unpleasant odor), [[acetaldehyde]] (pungent-nauseating odor, even when highly diluted, present in dried green coffee beans at concentrations of about 5 mg/kg), [[propanal]] (choking effect on respiratory system, penetrating-nauseating), [[butyraldehyde|butanal]] (nauseating effect, present in dried green coffee beans at 2–7 mg/kg), or [[pentanal]] (very repulsive nauseating effect).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bessière-Thomas |first1=Yvonne |first2=Ivon |last2=Flament |title=Coffee flavor chemistry |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester |year=2002 |isbn=0-471-72038-0}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{Portal|Coffee|Agriculture|Drink}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Coffee beans}}
{{Coffee|nocat=1}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Coffea]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Coffee]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -24,5 +24,5 @@
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003124016/http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp
|archive-date=3 October 2011
-}}</ref> In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth US$19.9 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Voora, V. |author2=Bermudez, S. |author3=Larrea, C.|date=2019|title=Global Market Report: Coffee|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127012324/https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/ |archive-date=2021-01-27 |access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref> The global coffee industry is massive and valued at $495.50 billion as of 2023, the biggest producer of coffee and coffee beans is Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-19 |title=33+ Buzzing Coffee Industry Statistics [2023]: Cafes, Consumption, And Market Trends |url=https://www.zippia.com/advice/coffee-industry-statistics/ |access-date=2023-12-24 |website=Zippia |language=en}}</ref> Other main [[List of countries by coffee production|exporters of coffee beans]] are Colombia, Vietnam and Ethiopia.
+}}</ref> In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth US$19.9 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Voora, V. |author2=Bermudez, S. |author3=Larrea, C.|date=2019|title=Global Market Report: Coffee|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127012324/https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/ |archive-date=2021-01-27 |access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref> The global coffee industry is massive and valued at $495.50 billion as of 2023, the biggest producer of coffee and coffee beans is Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-19 |title=33+ Buzzing Coffee Industry Statistics [2023]: Cafes, Consumption, And Market Trends |url=https://www.zippia.com/advice/coffee-industry-statistics/ |access-date=2023-12-24 |website=Zippia |language=en}}</ref> Other main [[List of countries by coffee production|exporters of coffee beans]] are Colombia, Vietnam and Ethiopia. Hi
==History==
' |
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0 => '}}</ref> In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth US$19.9 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Voora, V. |author2=Bermudez, S. |author3=Larrea, C.|date=2019|title=Global Market Report: Coffee|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127012324/https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/ |archive-date=2021-01-27 |access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref> The global coffee industry is massive and valued at $495.50 billion as of 2023, the biggest producer of coffee and coffee beans is Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-19 |title=33+ Buzzing Coffee Industry Statistics [2023]: Cafes, Consumption, And Market Trends |url=https://www.zippia.com/advice/coffee-industry-statistics/ |access-date=2023-12-24 |website=Zippia |language=en}}</ref> Other main [[List of countries by coffee production|exporters of coffee beans]] are Colombia, Vietnam and Ethiopia. Hi'
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Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '}}</ref> In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth US$19.9 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Voora, V. |author2=Bermudez, S. |author3=Larrea, C.|date=2019|title=Global Market Report: Coffee|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127012324/https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/ |archive-date=2021-01-27 |access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref> The global coffee industry is massive and valued at $495.50 billion as of 2023, the biggest producer of coffee and coffee beans is Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-19 |title=33+ Buzzing Coffee Industry Statistics [2023]: Cafes, Consumption, And Market Trends |url=https://www.zippia.com/advice/coffee-industry-statistics/ |access-date=2023-12-24 |website=Zippia |language=en}}</ref> Other main [[List of countries by coffee production|exporters of coffee beans]] are Colombia, Vietnam and Ethiopia.'
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] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Seed of the coffee plant</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the coffee bean seed. For the coffee chain, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Coffee_Bean_%26_Tea_Leaf" title="The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf">The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf</a>.</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox hrecipe hproduct"><caption class="infobox-title fn ingredient">Coffee beans</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg/220px-Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg/330px-Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg/440px-Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Roasted coffee beans</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region of origin</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabia</a><sup id="cite_ref-Wein34_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wein34-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table><p>A <b>coffee bean</b> is a seed from the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea" title="Coffea">Coffea</a></i> plant and the source for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>. It is the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drupe" title="Drupe">pit</a> inside the red or purple fruit. This fruit is often referred to as a <b>coffee cherry</b>, and like the cherry, it is a fruit with a pit. Even though the coffee beans are not technically beans, they are referred to as such because of their resemblance to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">true beans</a>. The fruits most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides together. A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, called a "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peaberry" title="Peaberry">peaberry</a>". Peaberries make up only around 10% to 15% of all coffee beans. It is a fairly common belief that they have more flavour than normal coffee beans.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brazil_nut" title="Brazil nut">Brazil nuts</a> (a seed) and white rice, coffee beans consist mostly of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">endosperm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The two most economically important varieties of coffee plants are the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_arabica" title="Coffea arabica">Arabica</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robusta_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Robusta coffee">Robusta</a>; approximately 60% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and ~40% is Robusta.<sup id="cite_ref-CoffeeProduction_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CoffeeProduction-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arabica beans consist of 0.8–1.4% <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a> and Robusta beans consist of 1.7–4.0% caffeine.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a> is one of the world's most widely consumed beverages, coffee beans are a major <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crop</a> and an important <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Export" title="Export">export</a> product, accounting for over 50% of some developing nations' foreign exchange earnings.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth US$19.9 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The global coffee industry is massive and valued at $495.50 billion as of 2023, the biggest producer of coffee and coffee beans is Brazil.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other main <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_countries_by_coffee_production" title="List of countries by coffee production">exporters of coffee beans</a> are Colombia, Vietnam and Ethiopia. Hi
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Significant_dates"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Significant dates</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Distribution"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Distribution</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Etymology"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Coffee_plant"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Coffee plant</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Processing"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Processing</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Composition"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Composition</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Nonvolatile_alkaloids"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Nonvolatile alkaloids</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Proteins_and_amino_acids"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Proteins and amino acids</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Carbohydrates"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Carbohydrates</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Lipids"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Lipids</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Nonvolatile_chlorogenic_acids"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Volatile_compounds"><span class="tocnumber">4.6</span> <span class="toctext">Volatile compounds</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_coffee" title="History of coffee">History of coffee</a></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Significant_dates">Significant dates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Significant dates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li>According to legend, the coffee plant was discovered in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Goat_herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Goat herder">goat herder</a> named <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaldi" title="Kaldi">Kaldi</a> around 850 AD, who observed increased physical activity in his goats after they consumed coffee beans.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>The coffee plant was first found in the mountains of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>. Then by 1500, it was exported to the rest of the world through the port of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mocha,_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mocha, Yemen">Mokha, Yemen</a>.</li>
<li>First cultivation in India (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chikmagalur" title="Chikmagalur">Chikmagalur</a>) – 1600</li>
<li>First cultivation in Europe – 1616</li>
<li>First cultivation in Java – 1699</li>
<li>First cultivation in Caribbean (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>) – 1715–1730</li>
<li>First cultivation in South America – 1730</li>
<li>First cultivation in Dutch East Indies – 1720</li>
<li>Roasted beans first sold on retail market (Pittsburgh) – 1865</li>
<li>Important spray-drying techniques developed in 1950s, which along with freeze drying are a method to create instant coffee</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distribution">Distribution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Bean_belt_(top_20_coffee_producers_2011).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg/220px-Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg/330px-Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg/440px-Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="914" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption>The bean belt in yellow: The 20 largest producers (2011) are in green.</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Brazil" title="Coffee production in Brazil">Brazil produces</a> about 45% of the world's total coffee <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Export" title="Export">exports</a>. The United States imports more coffee than any other nation. As of 2015, Americans consumed approximately 400 million cups of coffee per day, making the United States the leading consumer of coffee in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><span class="anchor" id="Bean_belt"></span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea" title="Coffea">Coffee plants</a> grow within a defined area between the tropics of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer" title="Tropic of Cancer">Cancer</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn" title="Tropic of Capricorn">Capricorn</a>, termed the bean belt or coffee belt.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> suggests that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="European languages">European languages</a> generally appear to have adopted the name from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> <i>kahveh</i>, about 1600, perhaps through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <i>caffè</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arab</a> <i>qahwah</i>, in Turkish pronounced <i>kahveh</i>, the name of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Infusion" title="Infusion">infusion</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Beverage">beverage</a>; said by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lexicographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexicographer">lexicographers</a> to have originally meant "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>" or some type of wine, and to be a derivative of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a>-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a> <i>qahiya</i> "to have no <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appetite" title="Appetite">appetite</a>". Another common theory is that the name derives from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaffa_Province,_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaffa Province, Ethiopia">Kaffa Province, Ethiopia</a>, where the species may have originated.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coffee_plant">Coffee plant</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Coffee plant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg/220px-Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg/330px-Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg/440px-Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1381" /></a><figcaption>The flower of a Singararutang coffee tree</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coffee_berries_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coffee_berries_1.jpg/220px-Coffee_berries_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coffee_berries_1.jpg/330px-Coffee_berries_1.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coffee_berries_1.jpg/440px-Coffee_berries_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Coffee berries</figcaption></figure>
<p>The coffee tree averages from 5–10 m (16–33 ft) in height. As the tree gets older, it produces less fruit and slowly loses any pest- and disease-resistance. The coffee beans come from the seeds which contained in fruits from trees and shrubs naturally grown in African forests. Humans produce coffee by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_roasting" title="Coffee roasting">roasting</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_preparation#Grinding" title="Coffee preparation">grinding</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_preparation#Brewing" title="Coffee preparation">brewing</a> the green coffee beans.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Coffee plants are often grown in rows spaced apart depending on the desired density chosen by the farmer. Some farmers plant other trees, such as shade trees or other cash-crop trees, such as orange trees around them or plant the coffee on the sides of hills, because they need specific conditions to flourish. Ideally, Arabica coffee beans are grown at temperatures between 15 and 24 °C (59 and 75 °F) and Robusta between 24 and 30 °C (75 and 86 °F) and receive between 500 and 3,000 mm (20 and 118 in) of rainfall per year.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More rain is needed at the beginning of the season when the fruit is developing and less later in the season as it ripens.
</p><p>Two lesser known species grown for consumption are <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_liberica" title="Coffea liberica">Coffea liberica</a></i> and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_racemosa" title="Coffea racemosa">Coffea racemosa</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Processing">Processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Processing_of_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Processing of coffee">Processing of coffee</a></div>
<p>When the fruit is ripe, it is almost always handpicked, using either "selective picking", where only the ripe fruit is removed, or "strip-picking", where all of the fruit is removed from a limb all at once. Selective picking is often used to produce higher quality coffee because the cherries are picked at their ripest. Strip-picking is indiscriminate and will harvest unripe, ripe, and over-ripe fruit. To improve quality after strip-picking, the harvest must be sorted.
</p><p>Two methods are primarily used to process coffee berries. The first, "wet" or "washed" process, has historically usually been carried out in Central America and areas of Africa. The flesh of the cherries is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented – soaked in water for about two days. This softens the mucilage, which is a sticky pulp residue that is still attached to the seeds. Then this mucilage is washed off with water.
</p><p>The "dry processing" method, cheaper and simpler, was historically used for lower-quality beans in Brazil and much of Africa, but now brings a premium when done well. Twigs and other foreign objects are separated from the berries and the fruit is then spread out in the sun on concrete, bricks or raised beds for 2–3 weeks, turned regularly for even drying.
</p><p>In Asia a third type of processing exists, where the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asian_palm_civet" title="Asian palm civet">Asian palm civet</a> eats coffee berries and excretes the beans. Because the civet prefers the taste of the ripest cherries, the civet selectively harvests the cherries. Its digestive system then processes the beans by breaking down the mucilage and pulp surrounding the seed. Once the seeds are excreted by the civet, they can be harvested, processed and sold as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niche_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche product">niche product</a>. Once they are finally processed, these beans are called <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kopi_luwak" title="Kopi luwak">kopi luwak</a></i>, and are often marketed as a rare and expensive coffee.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composition">Composition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG/220px-Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG/330px-Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG/440px-Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2040" data-file-height="1568" /></a><figcaption>Coffee cherry cross-section</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Freshly_harvested_coffee_cherries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Freshly harvested coffee cherries" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Freshly_harvested_coffee_cherries.jpg/220px-Freshly_harvested_coffee_cherries.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Freshly_harvested_coffee_cherries.jpg/330px-Freshly_harvested_coffee_cherries.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Freshly_harvested_coffee_cherries.jpg/440px-Freshly_harvested_coffee_cherries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Freshly harvested coffee cherries</figcaption></figure>
<p>The term "green coffee bean" refers to unroasted mature or immature coffee beans. These have been processed by wet or dry methods to remove the outer pulp and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mucilage" title="Mucilage">mucilage</a> and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Nonvolatile and volatile compounds in green coffee beans, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">deter</a> many insects and animals from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seed_predation" title="Seed predation">eating them</a>. Further, both nonvolatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee bean when it is roasted. Nonvolatile <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogenous</a> compounds (including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloids</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trigonelline" title="Trigonelline">trigonelline</a>, proteins, and free <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee and for its biological action. Since the mid-2000s, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_coffee_extract" title="Green coffee extract">green coffee extract</a> has been sold as a nutritional supplement and has been clinically studied for its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chlorogenic_acid" title="Chlorogenic acid">chlorogenic acid</a> content and for its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lipolytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipolytic">lipolytic</a> and weight-loss properties.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nonvolatile_alkaloids">Nonvolatile alkaloids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nonvolatile alkaloids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg/190px-Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg/285px-Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg/380px-Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg 2x" data-file-width="657" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Immature <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_canephora" title="Coffea canephora">Coffea canephora</a></i> berries on a tree in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a>, India</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a> (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloid</a> most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1.0% and 2.5% by weight of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans, but higher caffeine content is found in plants grown at higher altitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lower concentrations of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theophylline" title="Theophylline">theophylline</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theobromine" title="Theobromine">theobromine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paraxanthine" title="Paraxanthine">paraxanthine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberine" title="Liberine">liberine</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Methylliberine" title="Methylliberine">methylliberine</a> can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_tea" title="Green tea">green tea</a>, is reduced during the roasting process, usually about 15 minutes at 230 °C (446 °F), whereas the concentrations of most other alkaloids are not changed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric acid</a>, or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tartaric_acid" title="Tartaric acid">tartaric acid</a>, all of which are present in green coffee beans. For example, 1 g (0.035 oz) of caffeine dissolves in 46 mL (1.6 US fl oz) of water at room temperature, and 5.5 mL (0.19 US fl oz) at 80 °C (176 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trigonelline" title="Trigonelline">Trigonelline</a> (<i>N</i>-methyl-nicotinate) is a derivative of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vitamin_B3" title="Vitamin B3">vitamin B<sub>3</sub></a> that is not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0.6% and 1.0%. At a roasting temperature of 230 °C (446 °F), 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niacin_(substance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (substance)">nicotinic acid</a>, leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proteins_and_amino_acids">Proteins and amino acids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Proteins and amino acids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a> account for 8% to 12% of dried green coffee beans. A majority of the proteins are of the 11-S storage kind<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (alpha – component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11-S storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature, thus are an additional source of bitter components due to generation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maillard_reaction" title="Maillard reaction">Maillard reaction</a> products.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High temperature and oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11-S storage proteins of green coffee beans to low-molecular-weight <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a> and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catalase" title="Catalase">catalase</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polyphenol_oxidase" title="Polyphenol oxidase">polyphenol oxidase</a>, which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid/g robusta coffee and up to 4.5 mg amino acid/g arabica coffee). In <i>Coffea arabica</i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">alanine</a> is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg/g, followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in <i>C. robusta</i>, alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste, making it impossible to prepare a desirable beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isoleucine" title="Isoleucine">isoleucine</a> 81 mg/kg, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leucine" title="Leucine">leucine</a> 100 mg/kg, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Valine" title="Valine">valine</a> 93 mg/kg, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a> 81 mg/kg, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">phenylalanine</a> 133 mg/kg. The concentration of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">gamma-aminobutyric acid</a> (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg/kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids; the amino acids in green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products (reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha-amino group of the amino acids). Further, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diketopiperazine" title="Diketopiperazine">diketopiperazines</a>, e.g. cyclo(proline-proline), cyclo(proline-leucine), and cyclo(proline-isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bitter flavor of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg/liter of water. The content of diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 to 30 mg, which is responsible for its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bitterness_(taste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bitterness (taste)">bitterness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbohydrates">Carbohydrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Carbohydrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Carbohydrates make up about 50% of the dry weight of green coffee beans. The carbohydrate fraction of green coffee is dominated by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabinogalactan" title="Arabinogalactan">arabinogalactan</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galactomannan" title="Galactomannan">galactomannan</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, contributing to the tasteless flavor of green coffee. Arabinogalactan makes up to 17% of dry weight of green coffee beans, with a molecular weight of 90 kDa to 200 kDa. It is composed of beta-1-3-linked <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">galactan</a> main chains, with frequent members of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabinose" title="Arabinose">arabinose</a> (pentose) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">galactose</a> (hexose) residues at the side chains comprising immunomodulating properties by stimulating the cellular defense system (Th-1 response) of the body. Mature brown to yellow coffee beans contain fewer residues of galactose and arabinose at the side chain of the polysaccharides, making the green coffee bean more resistant to physical breakdown and less soluble in water.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The molecular weight of the arabinogalactan in coffee is higher than in most other plants, improving the cellular defense system of the digestive tract compared to arabinogalactan with lower molecular weight.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Free <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharides</a> are present in mature brown to yellow-green coffee beans. The free part of monosaccharides contains <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> (gluco-fructose) up to 9000 mg/100 g of arabica green coffee bean, a lower amount in robustas, i.e. 4500 mg/100 g. In arabica green coffee beans, the content of free glucose was 30 to 38 mg/100 g, free fructose 23 to 30 mg/100 g; free galactose 35 mg/100 g and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/D-Mannitol" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Mannitol">mannitol</a> 50 mg/100 g dried coffee beans, respectively. Mannitol is a powerful scavenger for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hydroxyl_radical" title="Hydroxyl radical">hydroxyl radicals</a>, which are generated during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lipid_peroxidation" title="Lipid peroxidation">peroxidation</a> of lipids in biological membranes.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lipids">Lipids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lipids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The lipids found in green coffee include: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Linoleic_acid" title="Linoleic acid">linoleic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palmitic_acid" title="Palmitic acid">palmitic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oleic_acid" title="Oleic acid">oleic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stearic_acid" title="Stearic acid">stearic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arachidic_acid" title="Arachidic acid">arachidic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Terpene" title="Terpene">diterpenes</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Triglyceride" title="Triglyceride">triglycerides</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unsaturated_fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsaturated fatty acids">unsaturated</a> long-chain <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">esters</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amide" title="Amide">amides</a>. The total content of lipids in dried green coffee is 11.7–14 g/100 g.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lipids are present on the surface and in the interior matrix of green coffee beans. On the surface, they include derivatives of carboxylic acid-5-hydroxytryptamides with an amide bond to fatty acids (unsaturated C6 to C24) making up to 3% of total lipid content or 1200 to 1400 microgram/g dried green coffee bean. Such compounds form a wax-like cover on the surface of the coffee bean (200–300 mg lipids/100 g dried green coffee bean) protecting the interior matrix against oxidation and insects. Further, such molecules have antioxidative activity due to their chemical structure.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lipids of the interior tissue are triglycerides, linoleic acid (46% of total free lipids), palmitic acid (30% to 35% of total free lipids), and esters. Arabica beans have a higher content of lipids (13.5–17.4 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans) than robustas (9.8–10.7 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans). The content of diterpenes is about 20% of the lipid fraction. The diterpenes found in green coffee include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cafestol" title="Cafestol">cafestol</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kahweol" title="Kahweol">kahweol</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/16-O-methylcafestol" class="mw-redirect" title="16-O-methylcafestol">16-O-methylcafestol</a>. Some of these diterpenes have been shown in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i> experiments to protect liver tissue against chemical oxidation.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In coffee oil from green coffee beans the diterpenes are <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esterification" class="mw-redirect" title="Esterification">esterified</a> with saturated long chain <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nonvolatile_chlorogenic_acids">Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chlorogenic_acid" title="Chlorogenic acid">Chlorogenic acids</a> belong to a group of compounds known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phenolic_acid" title="Phenolic acid">phenolic acids</a>, which are <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidants</a>. The content of chlorogenic acids in dried green coffee beans of arabica is 65 mg/g and of robusta 140 mg/g, depending on the timing of harvesting.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At roasting temperature, more than 70% of chlorogenic acids are destroyed, leaving a residue less than 30 mg/g in the roasted coffee bean. In contrast to green coffee, green tea contains an average of 85 mg/g polyphenols. These chlorogenic acids could be a valuable, inexpensive source of antioxidants. Chlorogenic acids are homologous compounds comprising <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeic_acid" title="Caffeic acid">caffeic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ferulic_acid" title="Ferulic acid">ferulic acid</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/3,4-dimethoxycinnamic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid">3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid</a>, which are connected by an ester bond to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> groups of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quinic_acid" title="Quinic acid">quinic acid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The antioxidant capacity of chlorogenic acid is more potent than of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ascorbic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascorbic acid">ascorbic acid</a> (vitamin C) or mannitol, which is a selective hydroxy-radical scavenger.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chlorogenic acids have a bitter taste in low concentrations such as 50 mg/L water. At higher concentrations of 1 g/L water, they have a sour taste. Chlorogenic acids increase the solubility of caffeine and are important modulators of taste.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volatile_compounds">Volatile compounds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Volatile compounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Volatile compounds of green coffee beans include short-chain fatty acids, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehydes</a>, and nitrogen-containing aromatic molecules, such as derivatives of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyrazine" title="Pyrazine">pyrazines</a> (green-herbaceous-earthy odor). Briefly, such volatile compounds are responsible for the less pleasing odor and taste of green coffee versus roasted coffee. Commercial success was realized by Starbucks in creating Green Bean Refreshers using a process that primarily isolates the caffeine from the green beans but does not actually use steeped liquid from the beans.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many consumers experiment with creating green bean "extract" by steeping green coffee beans in hot water. Often, the recommended times of steeping (20 minutes to 1 hour) extract too much caffeine to provide a pleasant taste. A steeping time of 12 minutes or under provides a more palatable liquid that can be used as a base for a drink containing more of the nutrients and less caffeine that using just isolated caffeine extract.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alkaline stock base that results can be paired with acidic or fruity extracts, with or without sweetener, to mask the vegetable-like taste of the extract.
</p><p>When green coffee beans are roasted, other molecules with the typical pleasant aroma of coffee are generated, which are not present in fresh green coffee. During roasting, the major part of the unpleasant-tasting volatile compounds are neutralised. Unfortunately, other important molecules such as antioxidants and vitamins present in green coffee are destroyed. Volatile compounds with nauseating odor for humans have been identified, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> (pungent, unpleasant odor), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Propionic_acid" title="Propionic acid">propionic acid</a> (odor of sour milk, or butter), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Butyric_acid" title="Butyric acid">butanoic acid</a> (odor of rancid butter, present in green coffee with 2 mg/100 g coffee beans), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Valeric_acid" title="Valeric acid">pentanoic acid</a> (unpleasant fruity flavor, present in green coffee at 40 mg/100 g in coffee beans), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hexanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexanoic acid">hexanoic acid</a> (fatty-rancid odor), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heptanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Heptanoic acid">heptanoic acid</a> (fatty odor), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caprylic_acid" title="Caprylic acid">octanoic acid</a> (repulsive oily rancid odor); <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonanoic acid">nonanoic acid</a> (mild nut-like fatty odor); <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Decanoic acid">decanoic acid</a> (sour repulsive odor), and derivatives of such fatty acids – <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=3-methyl-valeric_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3-methyl-valeric acid (page does not exist)">3-methyl-valeric acid</a> (sour, green-herbaceous, unpleasant odor), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a> (pungent-nauseating odor, even when highly diluted, present in dried green coffee beans at concentrations of about 5 mg/kg), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Propanal" class="mw-redirect" title="Propanal">propanal</a> (choking effect on respiratory system, penetrating-nauseating), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Butyraldehyde" title="Butyraldehyde">butanal</a> (nauseating effect, present in dried green coffee beans at 2–7 mg/kg), or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pentanal" title="Pentanal">pentanal</a> (very repulsive nauseating effect).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<ol class="references">
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGirmaGureWedajo2020" class="citation journal cs1">Girma, Bealu; Gure, Abera; Wedajo, Feyisa (2020-08-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2020%2F3904761">"Influence of Altitude on Caffeine, 5-Caffeoylquinic Acid, and Nicotinic Acid Contents of Arabica Coffee Varieties"</a>. <i>Journal of Chemistry</i>. <b>2020</b>: e3904761. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2020%2F3904761">10.1155/2020/3904761</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2090-9063">2090-9063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Influence+of+Altitude+on+Caffeine%2C+5-Caffeoylquinic+Acid%2C+and+Nicotinic+Acid+Contents+of+Arabica+Coffee+Varieties&rft.volume=2020&rft.pages=e3904761&rft.date=2020-08-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2020%2F3904761&rft.issn=2090-9063&rft.aulast=Girma&rft.aufirst=Bealu&rft.au=Gure%2C+Abera&rft.au=Wedajo%2C+Feyisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1155%252F2020%252F3904761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming2012" class="citation news cs1">Fleming, Amy (9 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160324222246/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso">"How to make the perfect espresso"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso">the original</a> on 24 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 17,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=How+to+make+the+perfect+espresso&rft.date=2012-05-09&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Flifeandstyle%2F2012%2Fmay%2F09%2Fhow-to-make-the-perfect-espresso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedgwellCurtiRogersNicolas2003" class="citation journal cs1">Redgwell RJ, Curti D, Rogers J, Nicolas P, Fischer M (June 2003). "Changes to the galactose/mannose ratio in galactomannans during coffee bean (<i>Coffea arabica</i> L.) development: implications for in vivo modification of galactomannan synthesis". <i>Planta</i>. <b>217</b> (2): 316–26. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Plant.217..316R">2003Plant.217..316R</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00425-003-1003-x">10.1007/s00425-003-1003-x</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12783340">12783340</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3011043">3011043</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Planta&rft.atitle=Changes+to+the+galactose%2Fmannose+ratio+in+galactomannans+during+coffee+bean+%28Coffea+arabica+L.%29+development%3A+implications+for+in+vivo+modification+of+galactomannan+synthesis&rft.volume=217&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=316-26&rft.date=2003-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00425-003-1003-x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3011043%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12783340&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Plant.217..316R&rft.aulast=Redgwell&rft.aufirst=RJ&rft.au=Curti%2C+D&rft.au=Rogers%2C+J&rft.au=Nicolas%2C+P&rft.au=Fischer%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarg2021" class="citation book cs1">Garg, Satish K. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128210383000422">"Chapter 42 - Green coffee beans"</a>. <i>Nutraceuticals (Second Edition) Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity</i>. Academic Press. pp. 725–748. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-821038-3.00042-2">10.1016/B978-0-12-821038-3.00042-2</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128210383" title="Special:BookSources/9780128210383"><bdi>9780128210383</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234240656">234240656</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+42+-+Green+coffee+beans&rft.btitle=Nutraceuticals+%28Second+Edition%29+Efficacy%2C+Safety+and+Toxicity&rft.pages=725-748&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234240656%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-821038-3.00042-2&rft.isbn=9780128210383&rft.aulast=Garg&rft.aufirst=Satish+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB9780128210383000422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.starbucks.com/promo/refreshers">"Starbucks Refreshers™ Beverages"</a>. <i>Starbucks Coffee Company</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Starbucks+Coffee+Company&rft.atitle=Starbucks+Refreshers%E2%84%A2+Beverages&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.starbucks.com%2Fpromo%2Frefreshers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lenscoffee.com/how-to-make-your-own-green-coffee-bean-beverages">"Len's Coffee: How to make your own green coffee bean extract"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Len%27s+Coffee%3A+How+to+make+your+own+green+coffee+bean+extract&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flenscoffee.com%2Fhow-to-make-your-own-green-coffee-bean-beverages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBessière-ThomasFlament2002" class="citation book cs1">Bessière-Thomas, Yvonne; Flament, Ivon (2002). <i>Coffee flavor chemistry</i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-72038-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-72038-0"><bdi>0-471-72038-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coffee+flavor+chemistry&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-471-72038-0&rft.aulast=Bessi%C3%A8re-Thomas&rft.aufirst=Yvonne&rft.au=Flament%2C+Ivon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Coffee" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Coffee" title="Template:Coffee"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Coffee" title="Template talk:Coffee"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Coffee" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Coffee"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Coffee" class="hrecipe fn ingredient" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">Coffee</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economics_of_coffee" title="Economics of coffee">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fair_trade_coffee" title="Fair trade coffee">Fair trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_coffee" title="History of coffee">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Coffee_Day" title="International Coffee Day">International Coffee Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Single-origin_coffee" title="Single-origin coffee">Single-origin coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third-wave_coffee" title="Third-wave coffee">Third-wave coffee</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production" title="Coffee production">Coffee production</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organic_coffee" title="Organic coffee">Organic coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shade-grown_coffee" title="Shade-grown coffee">Shade-grown coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sustainable_coffee" title="Sustainable coffee">Sustainable coffee</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_countries_by_coffee_production" title="List of countries by coffee production">List of countries by coffee production</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_roasting" title="Coffee roasting">Coffee roasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_wastewater" title="Coffee wastewater">Coffee wastewater</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decaffeination" title="Decaffeination">Decaffeination</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Home_roasting_coffee" title="Home roasting coffee">Home roasting</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea" title="Coffea">Species</a> and <br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffee_varieties" title="List of coffee varieties">varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_arabica" title="Coffea arabica">Arabica</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benguet_coffee" title="Benguet coffee">Benguet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jamaican_Blue_Mountain_Coffee" title="Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee">Blue Mountain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guadeloupe_Bonifieur" title="Guadeloupe Bonifieur">Bonifieur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bourbon_coffee" title="Bourbon coffee">Bourbon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geisha_(coffee)" title="Geisha (coffee)">Geisha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kona_coffee" title="Kona coffee">Kona</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maracaturra_coffee" title="Maracaturra coffee">Maracaturra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maragogipe_Coffee" title="Maragogipe Coffee">Maragogipe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molokai_coffee" title="Molokai coffee">Molokai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/S795_coffee" title="S795 coffee">S795</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sagada_coffee" title="Sagada coffee">Sagada</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_charrieriana" title="Coffea charrieriana">Charrieriana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_liberica" title="Coffea liberica">Liberica</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kapeng_barako" title="Kapeng barako">Barako</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_racemosa" title="Coffea racemosa">Racemosa</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robusta_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Robusta coffee">Robusta</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kahawa_Sug" title="Kahawa Sug">Sulu</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cafestol" title="Cafestol">Cafestol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeic_acid" title="Caffeic acid">Caffeic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coffee bean</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Furan-2-ylmethanethiol" title="Furan-2-ylmethanethiol">Furan-2-ylmethanethiol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kahweol" title="Kahweol">Kahweol</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_preparation" title="Coffee preparation">Preparation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/AeroPress" title="AeroPress">AeroPress</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabic_coffee" title="Arabic coffee">Arabic coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jebena" title="Jebena">Jebena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brewed_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewed coffee">Brewed coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chemex_Coffeemaker" title="Chemex Coffeemaker">Chemex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cezve" title="Cezve">Cezve</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chorreador" title="Chorreador">Chorreador</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffeemaker" title="Coffeemaker">Coffeemaker</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_brew_coffee" title="Cold brew coffee">Cold brew</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nitro_cold_brew_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitro cold brew coffee">nitro</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drip_coffee" title="Drip coffee">Drip coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Espresso" title="Espresso">Espresso</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doppio" title="Doppio">doppio</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lungo" title="Lungo">lungo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ristretto" title="Ristretto">ristretto</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Espresso_machine" title="Espresso machine">Espresso machine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_drip" class="mw-redirect" title="French drip">French drip</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karlsbad_coffee_maker" class="mw-redirect" title="Karlsbad coffee maker">Karlsbad coffee maker</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_press" title="French press">French press</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Instant_coffee" title="Instant coffee">Instant coffee</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_syrup" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffee syrup">Coffee syrup</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Knockbox" title="Knockbox">Knockbox</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moka_pot" title="Moka pot">Moka pot</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neapolitan_flip_coffee_pot" title="Neapolitan flip coffee pot">Neapolitan flip coffee pot</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_percolator" title="Coffee percolator">Percolator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_coffee" title="Turkish coffee">Turkish coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vacuum_coffee_maker" title="Vacuum coffee maker">Vacuum maker</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Single-serve_coffee_container" title="Single-serve coffee container">Single-serve coffee container</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffee_drinks" title="List of coffee drinks">Coffee drinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Affogato" title="Affogato">Affogato</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_Americano" class="mw-redirect" title="Caffè Americano">Americano</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beaten_coffee" title="Beaten coffee">Beaten coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bica_(coffee)" title="Bica (coffee)">Bica</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bicerin" title="Bicerin">Bicerin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Russian" title="Black Russian">Black Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietnamese_iced_coffee" title="Vietnamese iced coffee">Cà phê sữa đá</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_au_lait" title="Café au lait">Café au lait</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_com_cheirinho" title="Café com cheirinho">Café com cheirinho</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_con_leche" title="Café con leche">Café con leche</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_de_olla" title="Café de olla">Café de olla</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Touba" title="Café Touba">Café Touba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_corretto" title="Caffè corretto">Caffè corretto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_crema" title="Caffè crema">Caffè crema</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_macchiato" title="Caffè macchiato">Caffè macchiato</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_mocha" title="Caffè mocha">Caffè mocha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cappuccino" title="Cappuccino">Cappuccino</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carajillo" title="Carajillo">Carajillo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_cabinet" title="Coffee cabinet">Coffee cabinet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_milk" title="Coffee milk">Coffee milk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cortado" title="Cortado">Cortado</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuban_espresso" title="Cuban espresso">Café Cubano</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dalgona_coffee" title="Dalgona coffee">Dalgona coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egg_coffee" title="Egg coffee">Egg coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Espresso" title="Espresso">Espresso</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flat_white" title="Flat white">Flat white</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frapp%C3%A9_coffee" title="Frappé coffee">Frappé coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frappuccino" title="Frappuccino">Frappuccino</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gal%C3%A3o" title="Galão">Galão</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffee_drinks#Garoto" title="List of coffee drinks">Garoto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gassosa_al_caff%C3%A8" title="Gassosa al caffè">Gassosa al caffè</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iced_coffee" title="Iced coffee">Iced coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_filter_coffee" title="Indian filter coffee">Indian filter coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ipoh_white_coffee" title="Ipoh white coffee">Ipoh white coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irish_coffee" title="Irish coffee">Irish coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karsk" title="Karsk">Karsk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kopi_(drink)" title="Kopi (drink)">Kopi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kopi_luwak" title="Kopi luwak">Kopi luwak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kopi_tubruk" title="Kopi tubruk">Kopi tubruk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kurdish_coffee" title="Kurdish coffee">Kurdish coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latte_macchiato" title="Latte macchiato">Latte macchiato</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latte" title="Latte">Latte</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liqueur_coffee" title="Liqueur coffee">Liqueur coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Long_black" title="Long black">Long black</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lungo" title="Lungo">Lungo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marocchino" title="Marocchino">Marocchino</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mazagran_(drink)" title="Mazagran (drink)">Mazagran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moretta_(coffee)" title="Moretta (coffee)">Moretta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oliang" title="Oliang">Oliang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raf_coffee" title="Raf coffee">Raf coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffee_drinks#Red_eye" title="List of coffee drinks">Red eye</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ristretto" title="Ristretto">Ristretto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/R%C3%BCdesheimer_Kaffee" title="Rüdesheimer Kaffee">Rüdesheimer Kaffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tenom_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenom coffee">Tenom coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_coffee" title="Turkish coffee">Turkish coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_coffee" title="White coffee">White coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Russian_(cocktail)" title="White Russian (cocktail)">White Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wiener_Melange" title="Wiener Melange">Wiener Melange</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuenyeung" title="Yuenyeung">Yuenyeung</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organization lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_bakery_caf%C3%A9s" class="mw-redirect" title="List of bakery cafés">Bakery cafés</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffee_companies" title="List of coffee companies">Coffee companies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffeehouse_chains" title="List of coffeehouse chains">Coffeehouses</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lifestyle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barista" title="Barista">Barista</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bikini_barista" title="Bikini barista">Bikini barista</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_sospeso" title="Caffè sospeso">Caffè sospeso</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Break_(work)#Coffee_break" title="Break (work)">Coffee break</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_ceremony_of_Ethiopia_and_Eritrea" title="Coffee ceremony of Ethiopia and Eritrea">Coffee ceremony of Ethiopia and Eritrea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/CoffeeCon" title="CoffeeCon">CoffeeCon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_culture" title="Coffee culture">Coffee culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_cupping" title="Coffee cupping">Coffee cupping</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_palace" title="Coffee palace">Coffee palace</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">Coffeehouse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/English_coffeehouses_in_the_17th_and_18th_centuries" title="English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries">Historical coffeehouses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kopi_tiam" title="Kopi tiam">Kopi tiam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latte_art" title="Latte art">Latte art</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viennese_coffee_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Viennese coffee house">Viennese coffee house</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_substitute" title="Coffee substitute">Substitutes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_d%27orzo" title="Caffè d'orzo">Barley coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barley_tea" title="Barley tea">Barley tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barleycup" title="Barleycup">Barleycup</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caro_(drink)" title="Caro (drink)">Caro</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cereal_coffee" title="Cereal coffee">Cereal coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chicory" title="Chicory">Chicory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dandelion_coffee" title="Dandelion coffee">Dandelion coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inka_(drink)" title="Inka (drink)">Inka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brosimum_alicastrum" title="Brosimum alicastrum">Maya nut</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postum" title="Postum">Postum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qishr" title="Qishr">Qishr</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serving vessels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_cup" title="Coffee cup">Coffee cup</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_cup_sleeve" title="Coffee cup sleeve">sleeve</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cezve" title="Cezve">Cezve</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demitasse" title="Demitasse">Demitasse</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demitasse_spoon" title="Demitasse spoon">spoon</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tasse_%C3%A0_caf%C3%A9" title="Tasse à café">Tasse à café</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zarf" title="Zarf">Zarf</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Barista_Championship" title="United States Barista Championship">United States Barista Championship</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Barista_Championship" title="World Barista Championship">World Barista Championship</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Brewers_Cup" title="World Brewers Cup">World Brewers Cup</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Misc.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_and_doughnuts" title="Coffee and doughnuts">Coffee and doughnuts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_bag" title="Coffee bag">Coffee bag</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_service" title="Coffee service">Coffee service</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_leaf_rust" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffee leaf rust">Coffee leaf rust</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_wars" title="Coffee wars">Coffee wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gustav_III_of_Sweden%27s_coffee_experiment" title="Gustav III of Sweden's coffee experiment">Gustav III of Sweden's coffee experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canned_coffee" title="Canned coffee">Canned coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_vending_machine" title="Coffee vending machine">Coffee vending machine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Used_coffee_grounds" title="Used coffee grounds">Used coffee grounds</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sustainable_coffee" title="Sustainable coffee">Sustainable coffee</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Emblem-relax.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Emblem-relax.svg/16px-Emblem-relax.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Emblem-relax.svg/24px-Emblem-relax.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Emblem-relax.svg/32px-Emblem-relax.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="60" /></a></span> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Coffee" title="Portal:Coffee">Coffee portal</a></b></li>
<li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Coffee" title="Category:Coffee">Category: Coffee</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q153697#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Kaffeebohne"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4162996-6">Germany</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1731476496' |