Examine individual changes

'{{Refimprove|date=February 2011}} The '''environmental impact of electricity generation''' is significant because modern society uses large amounts of electrical power. This power is normally [[electricity generation|generated]] at [[power plant]]s that convert some other kind of energy into electrical power. Each system has advantages and disadvantages, but many of them pose environmental concerns. ==Water usage== The amount of water usage is often of great concern for electricity generating systems as populations increase and droughts become a concern. Still, according to the [[U.S. Geological Survey]], thermoelectric power generation accounts for only 3.3 percent of net freshwater consumption with over 80 percent going to [[irrigation]]. Likely future trends in water consumption are covered here.<ref>AAAS Annual Meeting 17 - 21 Feb 2011, Washington DC. Sustainable or Not? Impacts and Uncertainties of Low-Carbon Energy Technologies on Water. Dr Evangelos Tzimas , European Commission, JRC Institute for Energy, Petten, Netherlands</ref> General numbers for fresh water usage of different power sources are shown below. {| class="wikitable" |- ! &nbsp; ! colspan=3 | Water usage (gal/MW-h) |- ! Power source ! Low case ! Medium/Average case ! High case |- | [[Nuclear power]] | 400 (once-through cooling) | 400 to 720 (pond cooling) | 720 (cooling towers) |- | [[Coal]] | 300 | | 480 |- | [[Natural gas]] | 100 (once-through cycle) | | 180 (with cooling towers) |- | [[Hydroelectricity]] | | 1,430 | |- | [[Solar thermal]] | | 1,060 | |- | [[Geothermal]] | 1,800 | | 4,000 |- | [[Biomass]] | 300 | | 480 |- | Solar [[photovoltaic]] | | 30 | |- | [[Wind power]] | .5 | 1 | 2.2 |} Steam-cycle plants (nuclear, coal, NG, solar thermal) require a great deal of water for cooling, to remove the heat at the steam condensors. The amount of water needed relative to plant output will be reduced with increasing [[boiler]] temperatures. Coal- and gas-fired boilers can produce high steam temperatures and so are more efficient, and require less cooling water relative to output. Nuclear boilers are limited in steam temperature by material constraints, and solar is limited by concentration of the energy source.<!-- Needs some citation --> Thermal cycle plants near the ocean have the option of using [[seawater]]. Such a site will not have cooling towers and will be much less limited by environmental concerns of the discharge temperature since dumping heat will have very little effect on water temperatures. This will also not deplete the water available for other uses. [[Nuclear power in Japan]] for instance, uses no cooling towers at all because all plants are located on the coast. If dry cooling systems are used, significant water from the water table will not be used. Other, more novel, cooling solutions exist, such as sewage cooling at the [[Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station]]. Hydroelectricity's main cause of water usage is both evaporation and seepage into the water table. Reference: [[Nuclear Energy Institute]] [http://www.nei.org/filefolder/water_consumption__npps_Nov_2007.pdf factsheet] using EPRI data and other sources.hOE {| style="font-size: 95%; text-align: right;" class="wikitable sortable" border="0" |+ '''Electricity Industry (incl. Gas & Liquid Fuels) Value Chain - Water Consumption,<ref name="WEF-Fall2008-CERA">{{cite journal | last = World Economic Forum | first = Cambridge Energy Research Associates | coauthors = US Department Of Energy et al. (See:Header/Footnote references & 'List of Key Contributors') | date = 2009-02-01 | title = Thirsty Energy: Water and Energy in the 21st Century | journal = [http://www.weforum.org/en/index.htm WEF] - [http://www.cera.com/aspx/cda/public1/home/home.aspx CERA] - [http://sustainabilityreport.duke-energy.com/water/withdrawal.asp Water and Energy - Withdrawal vs. Consumption] | url = http://www2.cera.com/docs/WEF_Fall2008_CERA.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 2009-11-01}}</ref> [[Life cycle assessment|LCA]] [[Emission intensity]] & [[Capacity factor]]''' |- ! Feedstock / Fuel / Resource ! Raw Material Production<br />L/MW·h<br />[L/GJ] ! [[Ethanol fermentation|Fermentation]]/ [[Natural gas processing|Processing]]/[[Refining]]<br />L/MW·h<br />[L/GJ] ! [[Electricity generation]]&nbsp;with [[Cooling tower|Closed-loop Cooling]] ! Total Water Consumption<br />L/MW·h<ref name="WEF-Fall2008-CERA"/> ! [[Carbon dioxide|CO₂]][[Carbon dioxide equivalent|-eq]]<br />kg/MW·h_e<br /> ! [[Sulfur dioxide|SO₂]]<br />kg/MW·h<br /> ! [[Nitrogen oxide|NO_x]]<br />kg/MW·h<br /> ! [[Hydrogen sulfide|H₂S]]<br />kg/MW·h<br /> ! [[Particulate]]<br />kg/MW·h<br /> ! [[Cadmium|Cd]]<br />mg/MW·h<br /> ! [[Mercury (element)|Hg]]<br />mg/MW·h<br /> ! On-Site Accidents<br />deaths/TW·yr<br /> ! Average Capacity Factor<br />% |- | align=left|[[Petroleum|Traditional Oil]] | {{Ntsh|18}}10.8-25.2<br />[3-7] | {{Ntsh|162}}90-234<br />[25-65] | {{Nts|1200}}~ | {{Ntsh|001380}}1,300.8-1,459.2 | {{Nts|893}}<ref name="IPCC">{{cite journal| first1=Ingvar B. | last1=Fridleifsson, | first2=Ruggero | last2=Bertani | first3=Ernst | last3=Huenges | first4=John W. | last4=Lund | first5=Arni | last5=Ragnarsson | first6=Ladislaus | last6=Rybach | date=2008-02-11 | title=The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitigation of climate change | conference =IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources | editor = O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin | location = Luebeck, Germany | pages = 59–80 | url = http://iga.igg.cnr.it/documenti/IGA/Fridleifsson_et_al_IPCC_Geothermal_paper_2008.pdf | format = pdf | accessdate = 2009-04-06}}</ref> | | | {{Nts|814}}<ref name="utilization"/> | | {{Nts|43.3}}<ref name="ECN2006">Alsema, E.A.; Wild - Scholten, M.J. de; Fthenakis, V.M. ''[http://www.ecn.nl/publicaties/PdfFetch.aspx?nr=ECN-RX--06-016 Environmental impacts of PV electricity generation - a critical comparison of energy supply options]'' [http://www.ecn.nl/publicaties/default.aspx?nr=ECN-RX--06-016 Abstract] ECN, September 2006; 7p. Presented at the 21st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Dresden, Germany, 4–8 September 2006.</ref> | {{Nts|9}}<ref name="naturalgas">http://www.naturalgas.org/environment/naturalgas.asp</ref> | | {{Nts|60}}~<ref name="RERLWind"/> |- | align=left|[[Enhanced oil recovery]] | {{Ntsh|16290}}180-32,400<br />[50-9,000] | {{Ntsh|162}}90-234<br />[25-65] | {{Nts|1200}}~ | {{Ntsh|17652}}1,470-33,834 | {{Nts|893}}<ref name="IPCC"/> | | | {{Nts|814}}<ref name="utilization"/> | | {{Nts|43.3}}<ref name="ECN2006"/> | {{Nts|9}}<ref name="naturalgas"/> | | {{Nts|60}}~<ref name="RERLWind"/> |- | align=left|[[Oil sands]] | {{Ntsh|3366}}252-6,480*<br />[70-1,800*] | {{Ntsh|162}}90-234<br />[25-65] | {{Nts|1200}}~ | {{Ntsh|4728}}1,542-7,914 | {{Nts|893}}<ref name="IPCC"/> | | | {{Nts|814}}<ref name="utilization"/> | | {{Nts|43.3}}<ref name="ECN2006"/> | {{Nts|9}}<ref name="naturalgas"/> | | {{Nts|60}}~<ref name="RERLWind"/> |- | align=left|[[Biofuel]]s:<br />[[Maize|Corn]] | {{Ntsh|196200}}32,400-360,000<br />[9,000-100,000] | {{Ntsh|174.6}}169.2-180<br />[[Ethanol]]:[47-50] | {{Nts|1200}}~ | {{Ntsh|197574.6}}33,769.2-361,380 | {{Nts|893}}~<ref name="IPCC"/> | | | {{Nts|814}}~<ref name="utilization"/> | | | {{Nts|9}}~<ref name="naturalgas"/> | | {{Nts|52}}~<ref name="IPCC"/> |- | align=left|[[Biofuel]]s:<br />[[Soybean]] | {{Ntsh|576000}}180,000-972,000<br />[50,000-270,000] | {{Nts|50.4}}<br />[[Biodiesel]]:[14] | {{Nts|1200}}~ | {{Ntsh|577250.4}}181,250.4-973,250.4 | {{Nts|893}}~<ref name="IPCC"/> | | | {{Nts|814}}~<ref name="utilization"/> | | | {{Nts|9}}~<ref name="naturalgas"/> | | {{Nts|52}}~<ref name="IPCC"/> |- | align=left|[[Coal]] | {{Ntsh|145}}20-270<br />[5-70] | {{Ntsh|648}}[[Coal liquefaction|504-792<br />-to-liquids:[140-220]]] | {{Ntsh|1600}}1,200-2,000 | {{Ntsh|1745}}Coal-to-liquids:N.C.<br />1,220-2,270 | {{Ntsh|994}}B:863-941<br />Br:1175<ref name="ISA2008"> {{cite journal | last = Prof. Bilek | first = Marcela | coauthors = Dr. Hardy, Clarence, Dr. Lenzen, Manfred & Dr. Dey, Christopher | year = 2008 | title = Life-cycle energy balance and greenhouse gas emissions of nuclear energy: A review | journal = [http://www.stormsmith.nl/ SLS] - [http://www.usyd.edu.au/index.shtml USyd] - [http://www.isa.org.usyd.edu.au/index.html USyd-ISA] - [http://www.isa.org.usyd.edu.au/publications/paper.shtml#Journal pubs] - [http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/66043/20061201-0000/www.dpmc.gov.au/umpner/docs/commissioned/ISA_report.pdf pandora-archive] Energy Conversion & Management | volume=49 | issue=8 | pages=2178–2199 | url = http://www.isa.org.usyd.edu.au/publications/documents/ISA_Nuclear_Report.pdf |format = PDF| accessdate = 2009-11-04}}</ref> | {{Nts|4.71}}<ref name="utilization">{{Citation | last = Lund | first = John W. | date =June 2007 | title =Characteristics, Development and utilization of geothermal resources | periodical =Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin | publication-place =Klamath Falls, Oregon | publisher =Oregon Institute of Technology | volume =28 | issue =2 | pages = 1–9 | url =http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull28-2/art1.pdf | issn =0276-1084 | accessdate =2009-04-16}}</ref> | {{Nts|1.95}}<ref name="utilization"/> | {{Nts|0}}<ref name="utilization"/> | {{Nts|1.01}}<ref name="utilization"/> | {{Ntsh|4.65}}H:3.1-<br />L:6.2<ref name="ECN2006"/> | {{Ntsh|20}}14-<br />61<ref name="naturalgas"/><ref name="4016e">http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/envision/techdocs/4016e.htm</ref> | {{Nts|342}}<ref name="wna">{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf06.html|title=Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors}}</ref> | {{Ntsh|80}}70-90<ref name="RERLWind">{{cite web|url=http://www.ceere.org/rerl/about_wind/RERL_Fact_Sheet_2a_Capacity_Factor.pdf |title=Wind Power: Capacity Factor, Intermittency, and what happens when the wind doesn't blow? |accessdate=2008-10-16 |format=PDF |work=Renewable Energy Research Laboratory, University of Massachusetts at Amherst }}</ref> |- | align=left|[[Natural gas|Traditional Gas]] | {{Ntsh|0}}Minimal | {{Nts|25.2}}<br />[7] | {{Nts|700}} | {{Nts|725.2}} | {{Nts|577}}:cc<ref name="ISA2008"/><br />(491-655) | | | {{Nts|550}}<ref name="utilization"/> | | {{Nts|0.2}}<ref name="ECN2006"/> | {{Ntsh|.2}}0.1-<br />0.6<ref name="4016e"/><!-- 1% of Coal --> | {{Nts|85}}<ref name="wna"/> | {{Nts|60}}~<ref name="RERLWind"/> |- | align=left|[[Natural gas]]:<br />[[Shale gas]] | {{Ntsh|162}}129.6-194.4<br />[36-54] | {{Nts|25.2}}<br />[7] | {{Nts|700}} | {{Ntsh|887.2}}854.8-919.6 | {{Nts|751}}:oc<ref name="ISA2008"/><br />(627-891) | | | {{Nts|550}}<ref name="utilization"/> | | {{Nts|0.2}}<ref name="ECN2006"/> | {{Ntsh|.2}}0.1-<br />0.6<ref name="4016e"/><!-- 1% of Coal --> | {{Nts|85}}<ref name="wna"/> | {{Nts|60}}~<ref name="RERLWind"/> |- | align=left|[[Uranium|U]] [[Nuclear power|Nuclear]] | {{Ntsh|370}}170-570 | {{Ntsh|0}}See:Raw Material | {{Nts|2700}} | {{Ntsh|3070}}2,870-3,270 | {{Ntsh|62.5}}60-65 (10-130)<ref name="ISA2008"/> | | | | | {{Nts|0.5}}<ref name="ECN2006"/> | | {{Nts|8}}<ref name="wna"/> | {{Ntsh|89.4}}86.8<ref name='WANOProgress'>{{cite web|url=http://www.wano.org.uk/PerformanceIndicators/PI_Trifold/WANO15yrsProgress.pdf |title=15 Years of Progress |accessdate=2008-10-20 |year=2006 |format=PDF |work=World Association of Nuclear Operators }}</ref>-92<ref name="RERLWind"/> |- | align=left|[[Hydroelectricity|Hydroelectric]] | | | {{Nts|17000}}[[Evaporation|:Evap.Avg]] | {{Nts|17000}} | {{Nts|15}}<ref name="ISA2008"/> | | | | | {{Nts|0.03}}<ref name="ECN2006"/> | | {{Nts|883}}<ref name="wna"/> | {{Nts|42}}<ref name="IPCC"/> |- | align=left|[[Geothermal power]] | | | {{Ntsh|10}}Fresh:0-20<ref name="utilization"/><br />5,300 | {{Ntsh|10}}Fresh:0-20<ref name="utilization"/><br />5,300 | {{Ntsh|40}}T_L0-1<ref name="IPCC"/><br />T_H91-122 | {{Nts|0.16}}<ref name="utilization"/> | {{Nts|0}}<ref name="utilization"/> | {{Nts|0.08}}<ref name="utilization"/> | {{Nts|0}}<ref name="utilization"/> | | | | {{Ntsh|82}}73-90+<ref name="IPCC"/> |- | align=left|[[Concentrating solar power|Conc. Solar]] | | | {{Ntsh|3150}}2,800-3,500 | {{Ntsh|3150}}2,800-3,500 | {{Nts|40}}±15# | | | | | | | | {{Ntsh|64.55}}56.2-72.9<ref name="NRELSolar">{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/csp/pdfs/35060.pdf |title=Executive Summary: Assessment of Parabolic Trough and Power Tower Solar Technology Cost and Performance Forecasts |accessdate=2008-10-16 |date=October 2003 |format=PDF |work=National Renewable Energy Laboratory }}</ref> |- | align=left|[[Photovoltaics]] | | | {{Ntsh|0}}Minimal | {{Ntsh|0}}Minimal | {{Nts|106}}<ref name="ISA2008"/> | | | | | {{Ntsh|0.6}}0.3-0.9<ref name="ECN2006"/> | | | {{Ntsh|16.5}}14<ref name="IPCC"/>-19<ref name="THSolarVsWind">{{cite web|url=http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/03/solar-versus-wind-power.php |title=Solar Versus Wind Power: Which Has The Most Stable Power Output? |accessdate=2008-10-16 |last=Laumer |first=John |date=June 2008 |work=Treehugger }}</ref> |- | align=left|[[Wind power]] | | | {{Ntsh|0}}Minimal | {{Ntsh|0}}Minimal | {{Nts|21}}<ref name="ISA2008"/> | | | | | | | 1314<ref>[http://www.wind-works.org/articles/BreathLife.html Wind Energy -- The Breath of Life or the Kiss of Death: Contemporary Wind Mortality Rates by Paul Gipe] "The worldwide mortality rate dropped more than half to 0.15 deaths per TWh by the end of 2000."</ref> | {{Ntsh|30.5}}21<ref name="IPCC"/>-40<ref name="THSolarVsWind"/><ref name='BWEAMyth'>{{cite web|url=http://www.bwea.com/pdf/ref_three.pdf |title=Blowing Away the Myths |accessdate=2008-10-16 |date=February 2005 |format=PDF |work=The British Wind Energy Association }}</ref> |- class="sortbottom" ! Feedstock / Fuel / Resource ! Raw Material Production<br />L/MW·h<br />[L/GJ] ! Fermentation/ Processing/Refining<br />L/MW·h<br />[L/GJ] ! Electricity Generation&nbsp;with Closed-loop Cooling&nbsp;L/MW·h ! Total Water Consumption<br />L/MW·h<ref name="WEF-Fall2008-CERA"/> ! CO₂-eq<br />kg/MW·h_e ! SO₂<br />kg/MW·h ! NO_x<br />kg/MW·h ! H₂S<br />kg/MW·h ! Particulate<br />kg/MW·h ! Cd<br />mg/MW·h ! Hg<br />mg/MW·h ! Lethal On-Site Accidents<br />deaths/TW·yr ! Average Capacity Factor<br />% |}Source(s): Adapted from US Department Of Energy, Energy Demand on Water Resources. Report to Congress on the Interdependence of Energy and Water, December 2006 (except where noted).<br />*Cambridge Energy Research Associates (CERA) estimate. #Educated estimate.<br />Water Requirements for Existing and Emerging Thermoelectric Plant Technologies. US Department Of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, August 2008.<br />Note(s): 3.6 GJ = gigajoule(s) == 1 MW·h = megawatt-hour(s), thus 1 L/GJ = 3.6 L/MW·h. B&nbsp;=&nbsp;Black&nbsp;coal&nbsp;(supercritical)-(new&nbsp;subcritical), Br&nbsp;=&nbsp;Brown&nbsp;coal&nbsp;(new&nbsp;subcritical), H&nbsp;=&nbsp;Hard&nbsp;coal, L&nbsp;=&nbsp;Lignite, cc&nbsp;=&nbsp;combined&nbsp;cycle, oc&nbsp;=&nbsp;open&nbsp;cycle, T_L&nbsp;=&nbsp;low-temperature/closed-circuit&nbsp;(geothermal&nbsp;doublet), T_H&nbsp;=&nbsp;high-temperature/open-circuit. ==Fossil fuels== {{Main|Fossil fuel}} {{See also|Environmental impact of the oil shale industry}} Most electricity today is generated by burning fossil fuels and producing [[steam]] which is then used to drive a [[steam turbine]] that, in turn, drives an [[electrical generator]]. Such systems allow electricity to be generated where it is needed, since fossil fuels can readily be transported. They also take advantage of a large infrastructure designed to support consumer [[automobile]]s. The world's supply of fossil fuels is large, but finite. Exhaustion of low-cost fossil fuels will have significant consequences for energy sources as well as for the manufacture of [[plastic]]s and many other things. Various estimates have been calculated for exactly when it will be exhausted (see [[Peak oil]]). New sources of fossil fuels keep being discovered, although the rate of discovery is slowing while the difficulty of extraction simultaneously increases. More serious are concerns about the emissions that result from [[Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion|fossil fuel burning]]. Fossil fuels constitute a significant repository of [[carbon]] buried deep underground. Burning them results in the conversion of this carbon to [[carbon dioxide]], which is then released into the atmosphere. The estimated CO2 emission from the world's electrical power industry is 10 billion tonnes yearly.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071114163448.htm]</ref> This results in an increase in the Earth's levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which enhances the [[greenhouse effect]] and contributes to [[global warming]]. The linkage between increased carbon dioxide and global warming is well accepted, though fossil-fuel producers vigorously contest these findings. [[File:Kraftwerk Ekibastus.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Flue-gas stacks at [[Ekibastuz GRES-1]] Power Plant in Ekibastus, Kazakhstan are 330 meters tall]] Depending on the particular fossil fuel and the method of burning, other emissions may be produced as well. [[Ozone]], sulfur dioxide, [[Nitrogen oxide|NO₂]] and other gases are often released, as well as [[particulate matter]]. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides contribute to [[smog]] and [[acid rain]]. In the past, plant owners addressed this problem by building very tall [[flue-gas stacks]], so that the pollutants would be diluted in the atmosphere. While this helps reduce local contamination, it does not help at all with global issues. Fossil fuels, particularly [[coal]], also contain dilute [[radioactive]] material, and burning them in very large quantities releases this material into the environment, leading to low levels of local and global [[radioactive contamination]], the levels of which are, ironically, higher than a [[nuclear power station]] as their radioactive contaminants are controlled and stored. Coal also contains traces of toxic heavy elements such as [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], [[arsenic]] and others. Mercury vaporized in a power plant's [[boiler]] may stay suspended in the atmosphere and circulate around the world. While a substantial inventory of mercury exists in the environment, as other man-made emissions of mercury become better controlled, power plant emissions become a significant fraction of the remaining emissions. Power plant emissions of mercury in the United States are thought to be about 50 tons per year in 2003, and several hundred tons per year in [[Electric power industry in China|China]]. Power plant designers can fit equipment to power stations to reduce emissions. According to Environment Canada: <blockquote>"The electricity sector is unique among industrial sectors in its very large contribution to emissions associated with nearly all air issues. Electricity generation produces a large share of Canadian nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide emissions, which contribute to smog and acid rain and the formation of fine particulate matter. It is the largest uncontrolled industrial source of mercury emissions in Canada. Fossil fuel-fired electric power plants also emit carbon dioxide, which may contribute to climate change. In addition, the sector has significant impacts on water and habitat and species. In particular, hydro dams and transmission lines have significant effects on water and biodiversity."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/cleanair-airpur/Electricity-WSDC4D330A-1_En.htm|title=Electricity Generation|accessdate=2007-03-23}} {{Dead link|date=November 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> </blockquote> Coal mining practices in the United States have also included [[surface mining|strip mining]] and [[mountaintop removal mining|removing mountain tops]]. Mill tailings are left out bare and have been leached into local rivers and resulted in most or all of the rivers in coal producing areas to run red year round with sulfuric acid that kills all life in the rivers. The efficiency of some of these systems can be improved by cogeneration and geothermal ([[combined heat and power]]) methods. Process steam can be extracted from steam turbines. Waste heat produced by [[thermal]] generating stations can be used for space heating of nearby buildings. By combining electric power production and heating, less fuel is consumed, thereby reducing the environmental effects compared with separate heat and power systems. ==Nuclear power== [[Image:Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant]] - a plant that cools by direct use of ocean water, not requiring a cooling tower.]] {{Main|Environmental effects of nuclear power}} {{See also|Nuclear power debate}} Nuclear power plants do not burn fossil fuels and so do not directly emit carbon dioxide; because of the high energy yield of nuclear fuels, the carbon dioxide emitted during mining, enrichment, fabrication and transport of fuel is small when compared with the carbon dioxide emitted by fossil fuels of similar energy yield. A large nuclear power plant may reject waste heat to a natural body of water; this can result in undesirable increase of the water temperature with adverse effect on aquatic life. Emission of radioactivity from a nuclear plant is controlled by regulations. Abnormal operation may result in release of radioactive material on scales ranging from minor to severe, although these scenarios are very rare. Mining of uranium ore can disrupt the environment around the mine. Disposal of spent fuel is controversial, with many proposed long-term storage schemes under intense review and criticism. Diversion of fresh or spent fuel to weapons production presents a risk of [[nuclear proliferation]]. Finally, the structure of the reactor itself becomes radioactive and will require decades of storage before it can be economically dismantled and in turn disposed of as waste. ==Hydroelectric power== {{main|Hydroelectricity}} Development of large-scale hydroelectric power has environmental impacts associated with the change in water flow and the impoundment of water in a reservoir. Dams may block the passage of fish. The natural flow of silt down the river will be interrupted, affecting downstream ecosystems. Where large reservoirs are not cleared of trees before flooding, the methane gas released by decaying wood can be comparable in greenhouse effect to the CO2 emissions of a fossil-fuel plant of similar output. The filling of large reservoirs can induce earth tremors, which may be large enough to be objectionable or destructive. For example, the [[1967 Koynanagar earthquake]] of 6.9 [[Richter magnitude scale|magnitude]] was created after the filling of the [[Koyna Dam]] in India, with 180 fatalities. A magnitude 7.9 earthquake near the [[Zipingpu Dam]], China, in 2004, with 70,000 fatalities may also have been triggered by the weight of the reservoir.<ref name=Fairley10/> ==Tidal power== {{Main|Tidal power}} In regions such as the [[Bay of Fundy]] with very large tidal swings, [[Tidal power|tidal power plants]] can be built to extract electrical power from the tidal motion. Tidal power is also renewable, in the sense that it will continue for as long as the [[Moon]] orbits the Earth. However, it has environmental problems similar to those of hydroelectric power. A tidal power plant usually requires a large dam, which can endanger ecosystems by restricting the motion of marine animals. Perhaps more seriously, a tidal power plant reduces or increases the tidal swing, which can severely disrupt ecosystems which depend on being periodically covered by water; resulting changes in fisheries or shellfish beds may result in adverse economic effects. Certain proposed tidal power plants in the [[Bay of Fundy]] would increase the tidal swing by an estimated 50&nbsp;cm as far south as the coast of [[Maine]] (where the tidal swing is not particularly large now). ==Biomass== {{Main|Biomass}} Electrical power can be generated by burning anything which will combust. Some electrical power is generated by burning crops which are grown specifically for the purpose. Usually this is done by fermenting plant matter to produce [[ethanol]], which is then burned. This may also be done by allowing organic matter to decay, producing [[biogas]], which is then burned. Also, when burned, wood is a form of biomass fuel. Burning biomass produces many of the same emissions as burning fossil fuels. However, growing biomass captures carbon dioxide out of the air, so that the net contribution to global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels is lessened. The process of growing biomass is subject to the same environmental concerns as any kind of [[agriculture]]. It uses a large amount of land, and [[fertilizer]]s and [[pesticide]]s may be necessary for cost-effective growth. Biomass that is produced as a by-product of agriculture shows some promise, but most such biomass is currently being used, for plowing back into the soil as fertilizer if nothing else. ==Wind power==<!-- This section is linked from [[Wind turbine]] --> {{Main|Environmental effects of wind power}} Wind power harnesses mechanical energy from the constant flow of air over the surface of the earth. Wind power stations generally consist of [[wind farm]]s, fields of [[wind turbine]]s in locations with relatively high winds. A primary publicity issue regarding wind turbines are their older predecessors, such as the [[Altamont Pass Wind Farm]] in California. These older, smaller, wind turbines are rather noisy and densely located, making them very unattractive to the local population. The downwind side of the turbine does disrupt local low-level winds. Modern large wind turbines have mitigated these concerns, and have become a commercially important energy source. Many homeowners in areas with high winds and expensive electricity set up small windmills to reduce their electric bills. A modern wind farm, when installed on agricultural land, has one of the lowest environmental impacts of all energy sources:<ref name=sustain>[http://www.sustainabilitycentre.com.au/WindPowersStrength.pdf Why Australia needs wind power]</ref> * It occupies less land area per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity generated than any other renewable energy conversion system, and is compatible with grazing and crops. * It generates the energy used in its construction within just months of operation. * Greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution produced by its construction are small and declining. There are no emissions or pollution produced by its operation. * Modern wind turbines rotate so slowly (in terms of revolutions per minute) that they are rarely a hazard to birds.<ref name=sustain/> Landscape and heritage issues may be a significant issue for certain wind farms. However, when appropriate planning procedures are followed, the heritage and landscape risks should be minimal. Some people may still object to wind farms, perhaps on the grounds of aesthetics, but there is still the supportive opinions of the broader community and the need to address the threats posed by climate change.<ref>http://www.tai.org.au/documents/dp_fulltext/DP91.pdf Wind Farms The facts and the fallacies</ref> ==Geothermal power== {{Main|Geothermal power}} Geothermal energy is the heat of the Earth, which can be tapped into to produce electricity in power plants. Warm water produced from geothermal sources can be used for industry, agriculture, bathing and cleansing. Where underground steam sources can be tapped, the steam is used to run a steam turbine. Geothermal steam sources have a finite life as underground water is depleted. Arrangements that circulate surface water through rock formations to produce hot water or steam are, on a human-relevant time scale, renewable. While a geothermal power plant does not burn any fuel, it will still have emissions due to substances other than steam which come up from the geothermal wells. These may include [[hydrogen sulfide]], and carbon dioxide. Some geothermal steam sources entrain non-soluble minerals that must be removed from the steam before it is used for generation; this material must be properly disposed. Any (closed cycle) steam power plant requires cooling water for [[Condenser (heat transfer)|condenser]]s; diversion of cooling water from natural sources, and its increased temperature when returned to streams or lakes, may have a significant impact on local ecosystems. Removal of ground water and accelerated cooling of rock formations can cause earth tremors. Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) fracture underground rock to produce more steam; such projects can cause earthquakes. Certain geothermal projects ( such as one near Basel, Switzerland in 2006) have been suspended or canceled owing to objectionable seismicity induced by geothermal recovery.<ref name=Fairley10>Peter Fairley, ''Earthquakes Hinder Green Energy Plans'', ''IEEE Spectrum'',ISSN 0018-9235, Volume 48 No. 10 (North American edition), April 2011 pp. 14-16</ref> However, risks associated with "hydrofracturing induced seismicity are low compared to that of natural earthquakes, and can be reduced by careful management and monitoring" and "should not be regarded as an impediment to further development of the Hot Rock geothermal energy resource".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/image_cache/GA11478.pdf |title=Induced Seismicity and Geothermal Power Development in Australia |author=Geoscience Australia |date= |publisher=Australian Government |page= }}</ref> ==Solar power== {{Main|Solar power}} Currently solar photovoltaic power is used primarily in Germany and Spain where the governments offer financial incentives. In the U.S., Washington State also provides financial incentives. Photovoltaic power is also more common, as one might expect, in areas where sunlight is abundant. It works by converting the sun's radiation into direct current (DC) power by use of [[photovoltaic]] cells. This power can then be converted into the more common AC power and fed to the [[Electrical grid|power grid]]. Solar photovoltaic power offers a viable alternative to fossils fuels for its cleanliness and supply, although at a high production cost. Future technology improvements are expected to bring this cost down to a more competitive range. Its negative impact on the environment lies in the creation of the solar cells which are made primarily of [[silica]] (from sand) and the extraction of silicon from silica may require the use of fossil fuels, although newer manufacturing processes have eliminated CO₂ production. Solar power carries an upfront cost to the environment via production, but offers clean energy throughout the lifespan of the solar cell. Large scale electricity generation using photovoltaic power requires a large amount of land, due to the low [[power density]] of photovoltaic power. Land use can be reduced by installing on buildings and other built up areas, though this reduces efficiency. ==Concentrated solar power== {{Main|Concentrated solar power}} Also known as [[Solar thermal energy|Solar thermal]], this technology uses various types of mirrors to concentrate sunlight and produce heat. This heat is used to generate electricity in a standard [[Rankine cycle]] turbine. Like most thermoelectric power generation, this consumes water. This can be a problem, as solar powerplants are most commonly located in a desert environment due to the need for sunlight and large amounts of land. Many concentrated solar systems also use exotic fluids to absorb and collect heat while remaining at low pressure. These fluids could be dangerous if spilled.<ref>http://articles.latimes.com/1999/feb/27/news/mn-12205</ref> ==Negawatt power== {{Main|Negawatt power}} Negawatt power refers to investment to reduce electricity consumption rather than investing to increase supply capacity. In this way investing in Negawatts can be considered as an alternative to a new power station and the costs and environmental concerns can be compared. Negawatt investment alternatives to reduce consumption by improving efficiency include: * Providing customers with energy efficient lamps - low environmental impact * Improved thermal insulation and airtightness for buildings - low environmental impact * Replacing older industrial plant - low environmental impact. Can have a positive impact due to reduced emissions. Negawatt investment alternatives to reduce peak electrical load by time shifting demand include; * [[Storage heater]]s - older systems had asbestos. Newer systems have low environmental impact. * [[Demand response]] control systems where the electricity board can control certain customer loads - minimal environmental impact * [[Thermal storage]] systems such as Ice storage systems to make ice during the night and store it to use it for air conditioning during the day - minimal environmental impact * [[Pumped storage hydroelectricity]] - Can have a significant environmental impact - see hydroelectricity. * other [[Grid energy storage]] technologies - impact varies. Note that time shifting does not reduce total energy consumed or system efficiency however it can be used to avoid the need to build a new power station to cope with a peak load. ==See also== {{Portal box|Energy|Sustainable development}} *[[Air pollution]] *[[Environmental impact of the energy industry]] *[[The Carbon Principles]] *[[EKOenergy]] *[[Eugene Green Energy Standard]] *[[Flue-gas desulfurization]] *[[Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion]] *[[Flue-gas stacks]] *[[Fossil-fuel power plant]] *[[List of countries by electricity production from renewable source]] *[[Power stations]] *[[Scientific opinion on climate change]] *[[Cost of electricity by source]] - includes environmental and health costs. ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== *[http://abc.net.au/4corners/special_eds/20050822/ Who's Afraid Of Nuclear Power?] - ABC Australia - 4 Corners - International Nuclear Energy Policy Histories, Trends & Debates {{Environmental effects of energy}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2011}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Environmental Concerns With Electricity Generation}} [[Category:Renewable energy policy]] [[Category:Landscape]] [[Category:Power stations]] [[Category:Environmental issues with energy|Electricity generation]] [[es:Preocupaciones medioambientales con la generación de energía eléctrica]]'