Examine individual changes

'{{Infobox disease| Name = Sprained ankle | Image = Ankle en.svg | Caption = Lateral view of the human ankle | DiseasesDB = 726 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|S|93|4|s|90}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|845.00}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 003167 | eMedicineSubj = search| eMedicineTopic = ankle%20sprain | MeshID = |}} A '''sprained ankle''', also known as an '''ankle sprain''', '''twisted ankle''', '''rolled ankle''', '''floppy ankle''', '''ankle injury''' or '''ankle ligament injury''', is a common medical condition where one or more of the [[ligaments]] of the [[ankle]] is torn or partially torn. ==Signs and symptoms== Knowing the symptoms that can be experienced with a sprain is important in determining that the injury is not really a break in the bone. When a sprain occurs, blood vessels will leak fluid into the tissue that surrounds the joint. [[White blood cells]] responsible for inflammation migrate to the area, and blood flow increases as well.<ref>[http://www.emedicinehealth.com/ankle_sprain/page3_em.htm#Ankle%20Sprain%20Symptoms Ankle Sprains Symptoms -eMedicineHealth.com], Retrieved on 2010-01-22.</ref> Along with this inflammation, swelling from the fluid and pain is experienced. The nerves in the area become more sensitive when the injury is suffered, so pain is felt as throbbing and will worsen if there is pressure placed on the area. Warmth and redness are also seen as blood flow is increased. Also present is a decreased ability to move the joint, and difficulty using the affected leg. <gallery> Image:Freshspraininbrace.JPG|Right foot, housed in an air brace, has become swollen as a result of a more severe 2nd degree sprain to the ankle. Image:Sprained foot.jpg|Right foot. A light sprain, two days after injury. Patient had trouble walking normally for 2 months. File:Schwellung am Fußknloechel und Blutergussl.jpg|Right foot. One day after injury. </gallery> ==Cause== Movements - especially twisting, turning, and rolling of the foot - are the primary cause of an ankle sprain.<ref name="Sprained Ankle - American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons">[http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00150 Sprained Ankle - American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons], Retrieved on 2010-01-22.</ref> The risk of a sprain is greatest during activities that involve explosive side-to-side motion, such as tennis or basketball. Sprained ankles can also occur during normal daily activities such as stepping off a curb or slipping on ice. Returning to activity before the ligaments have fully healed may cause them to heal in a stretched position, resulting in less stability at the ankle joint. This can lead to a condition known as Chronic Ankle Instability (CAI), and an increased risk of ankle sprains. The following factors can contribute to an increased risk of ankle sprains: *Weak muscles/tendons that cross the ankle joint, especially the muscles of the lower leg that cross the outside, or lateral aspect of the ankle joint (i.e. peroneal or fibular muscles); *Weak or lax ligaments that join together the bones of the ankle joint – this can be hereditary or due to overstretching of ligaments as a result of repetitive ankle sprains; *Poor ankle flexibility;{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} *Lack of warm-up and/or stretching before activity;{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} *Inadequate joint proprioception (i.e. sense of joint position); *Slow neuron muscular response to an off-balance position; *Running on uneven surfaces; *Shoes with inadequate heel support; and *Wearing high-heeled shoes – due to the weak position of the ankle joint with an elevated heel, and a small base of support. [[http://www.orthogate.org/patient-education/ankle/ankle-sprain-and-instability.html/ Ankle sprains]] occur usually through excessive stress on the ligaments of the ankle. This is can be caused by excessive external rotation, inversion or eversion of the foot caused by an external force. When the foot is moved past its range of motion, the excess stress puts a strain on the ligaments. If the strain is great enough to the ligaments past the yield point, then the ligament becomes damaged, or sprained<ref>Wikstrom, Erik A., Wikstrom, April M., Hubbard-Turner, Tricia., Ankle Sprains: Treating to Prevent the Long-Term Consequences. JAAPA. October 2012. 25(10)</ref><ref>Gehring, D., Wissler, S., Mornieux, G., Gollhofer, A., How to Sprain Your Ankle – A Biomechanical Case Report of an Inversion Trauma. Journal of Biomechanics. 46 (2013) 175-178</ref> ==Classification== Ankle sprains are classified as grade 1, 2, and 3.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Moreira V, Antunes F |title=[Ankle sprains: from diagnosis to management. the physiatric view] |language=Portuguese |journal=Acta Med Port |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=285–92 |year=2008 |pmid=18674420 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Depending on the amount of damage or the number of ligaments that are damaged, each sprain is classified from mild to severe. A grade 1 sprain is defined as mild damage to a ligament or ligaments without instability of the affected joint. A grade 2 sprain is considered a partial tear to the ligament, in which it is stretched to the point that it becomes loose. A grade 3 sprain is a complete tear of a ligament, causing instability in the affected joint.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sprained Ankle|url=http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00150|publisher=American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons|accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref> Bruising may occur around the ankle. <ref>{{cite web|last=Stanley|first=James|title=Sprained Ankle|url=http://james-stanley.co.uk/treatment/ankle-treatment/injuries-problems/sprained-ankle|publisher=North Yorkshire Orthopaedic Specialists|accessdate=2 November 2012}}</ref> ===Inversion (lateral) ankle sprain=== The most common type of ankle sprain occurs when the foot is inverted too much, affecting the lateral side of the foot. When this type of ankle sprain happens, the outer, or lateral, ligaments are stretched too much. The [[anterior talofibular ligament]] is one of the most commonly involved ligaments in this type of sprain. Approximately 70-85% of ankle sprains are inversion injuries. [[File:Ankle Inversion.jpg|right|thumb|Ankle Inversion]] When the ankle becomes inverted, the anterior talofibular and calcaneofibular ligaments are damaged. This is the most common ankle sprain. ===Eversion (medial) ankle sprain=== A less common type of ankle sprain is called an eversion injury, affecting the medial side of the foot. When this occurs, the [[Medial ligament of talocrural joint|medial]], or deltoid, ligament is stretched too much. ===High ankle sprain=== A [[high ankle sprain]] is an injury to the large ligaments above the ankle that join together the two long bones of the lower leg, called the tibia and fibula. High ankle sprains commonly occur from a sudden and forceful outward twisting of the foot, which commonly occurs in contact and cutting sports such as football, rugby, ice hockey, roller derby, basketball, volleyball, lacrosse, softball, baseball, track, ultimate frisbee, soccer, tennis and badminton. ==Diagnosis== The diagnosis of a sprain relies on the [[medical history]], including symptoms, as well as making a [[differential diagnosis]], mainly in distinguishing it from strains or bone fractures. The [[Ottawa ankle rules|Ottawa ankle rule]] is a simple, widely-used rule to help differentiate fractures of the ankle or mid-foot from other ankle injuries that do not require x-ray [[radiography]]. It has a [[Sensitivity and specificity|sensitivity]] of nearly 100%, meaning that a patient who tests negative, according to the rule almost certainly does not have an ankle fracture.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 12595378 | doi=10.1136/bmj.326.7386.417 | volume=326 | issue=7386 | title=Accuracy of Ottawa ankle rules to exclude fractures of the ankle and mid-foot: systematic review | pmc=149439 | year=2003 | month=February | author=Bachmann LM, Kolb E, Koller MT, Steurer J, ter Riet G | journal=BMJ | pages=417}}</ref> ==Treatment== Use of a proper compression wrap is the most important first step, that could include warming pads and icing. Remember P.R.I.C.E, Protect, Rest, Icing, Compression wrap and Elevation. Elevation means to keep the affected part above the heart level. The idea is to reduce the blood flow in the affected part. {{Howto|date=June 2011}} ===Conservative measures=== If the ankle is not swollen, it just hurts to walk on and has limited mobilization, it is generally recommended that the injured wear an orthopedic walking boot for two weeks and be on crutches for the first week at least. Ice is often used to reduce swelling in cycles of 20–30 minutes on and 20–30 minutes off. Icing an ankle too long may cause cold injuries, indicated if the area turns white.<ref name="mayo2">[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sprained-ankle/DS01014/DSECTION=lifestyle-and-home-remedies Lifestyle and home remedies], MayoClinic.com. Retrieved 3 May 2010.</ref> In uncomplicated lateral ankle sprains, swelling of the soft tissue can be prevented with compression around both malleoli, elevation of the injured ankle higher than the heart, and pain-free exercises.<ref>Aronen JG, Garrick JG. [http://www.consultantlive.com/display/article/10162/1454322 Acute Ankle Injuries, Part 2: Treatment of Uncomplicated Lateral Ankle Sprains.] Consultant. 2009;49:734-740. [http://www.consultantlive.com/display/article/10162/1419969 Aronen JG, Garrick JG. Acute Ankle Injuries, Part 1: Office Evaluation and Management.] Consultation. 2009;49:413-421.</ref> An orthopedic walking boot is often used for the treatment of a sprained ankle injury. Braces and crutches are also used to help alleviate the pain so the injured ankle can heal as quickly and painlessly as possible. Although found to be less effective than casts, compression bandages are used to provide support and compression for sprained ankles. Wrapping is started at the ball of the foot and slowly continued up to the base of the calf muscle, pushing the swelling up toward the center of the body so that it does not gather in the foot. Bandages are kept tight, but not so tight as to cut off the circulation in the foot.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} ==Rehabilitation== Many different types of rehabilitation exercises can be done to aid an [[ankle sprain]] regardless of the severity of the injury. The purpose of rehabilitation gives the ability for the ankle to regain strength and flexibility. A sprained ankle becomes swollen due to the increased amount of [[edema]] within the tissue, since this physiological effect is the foundation of the pain the decline of edema is the main goal during the beginning of rehabilitation <ref> Coté, Debra. Prentice, William E. Hooker, Daniel N. Shields, Edgar. “Comparison of Three Treatment Procedures for Minimizing Ankle Sprain Swelling for Minimizing Ankle sprain Swelling.” Physical Therapy Journal of American PTA, 1988; 68:1072-1076. http://www.physicaltherapyjournal.com/content/68/7/1072.full.pdf</ref>. This can be done instantly by implementing the [[RICE]] mechanism which is resting the ankle, applying ice, compressing, and elevating it <ref> Wolfe, Michael. “Management of Ankle Sprains, American Family Physician.” American Family Physician. 2001 Jan 1; 63(1):93-105. < http://www.aafp.org/afp/2001/0101/p93.html>. </ref>. The emphasis of the first week of rehabilitation should be on protecting the ankle to avoid further damage and as progression increases stress can be applied by different mechanisms until the ankle is fully recovered <ref> Mattacola, Carl G. Dwyer, Maureen K. “Rehabilitation of the Ankle After Acute Sprain or Chronic Instability.” Journal of Athletic Training. 2002. Oct-Dec; 37(4): 413–429. < http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC164373/> </ref>. The key for a fast recovery is to implement all the different types of ankle sprain exercises so the [[range of motion]] will increase while the pain will decrease <ref> Zöch, C. Fialka-Moser, F. Quittan, M. “Rehabilitation of ligamentous ankle injuries: a review of recent studies”. Br J Sports Med 2003; 37:291-295. < http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/37/4/291.full.pdf+html> </ref>. In the case that the ankle doesn’t heal in an appropriate amount of time, other exercises will need to be implemented so the strength and flexibility can be regained. [[Physical therapists]] assign different types of ankle sprain exercises that deal with ankle flexibility, strengthening, balance, and [[agility]]. If an ankle sprain does not heal properly, the joint may become unstable and may lead to chronic pain.<ref name="Sprained Ankle Overview - Webmd.com">[http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/ankle-sprain-overview?page=2 Sprained Ankle Overview - Webmd.com], Retrieved on 2010-01-22.</ref> Receiving proper treatment and performing exercises that promote ankle function is important to strengthen the ankle and prevent further injury. ===Mobilization=== A short period of [[immobilization]] in a below-knee cast or in an Aircast leads to a faster recovery at 3 months compared to a tubular compression bandage.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Lamb SE, Marsh JL, Hutton JL, Nakash R, Cooke MW |title=Mechanical supports for acute, severe ankle sprain: a pragmatic, multicentre, randomised controlled trial |journal=Lancet |volume=373 |issue=9663 |pages=575–81 |year=2009 |month=February |pmid=19217992 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60206-3 |url=}}</ref> Yet, a randomized controlled trial has concluded that appropriate exercise immediately after a sprain improves function and recovery.<ref name=Bleakley2010>{{Cite journal|author=Bleakley CM, O'Connor SR, Tully MA, ''et al.'' |title=Effect of accelerated rehabilitation on function after ankle sprain: randomised controlled trial |journal=BMJ |volume=340 |issue= |pages=c1964 |year=2010 |pmid=20457737 |doi= 10.1136/bmj.c1964|url=}}</ref> The exercises were focused on increasing ankle range of movement, activation and strengthening of ankle musculature, and restoring normal sensorimotor control, and were carried out for 20 minutes, three times a day.<ref name="Bleakley2010"/> After the injury its probably best to not to walk for a couple of days complete bed rest will increase the healing process and will also eliminate the chance of mishandling of the affected part,if right ankle is injured do not drive at all. The amount of therapy that a person can handle will depend on their level of pain and the grade of sprain they experienced. It is not recommended to return to sports or extreme physical activities until hopping on the ankle is achieved without pain. Wearing high-top tennis shoes may also help prevent ankle sprains if the shoes used are laced snugly and if the ankle is taped with a wide, nonelastic adhesive tape.<ref name="Ankle Sprains: Healing and Preventing Injury - Family doctor.org ">[http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/healthy/physical/injuries/010.html Ankle Sprains: Healing and Preventing Injury - Family doctor.org], Retrieved on 2010-01-22.</ref> ===Ankle exercises=== To prevent sprains or re-injury from occurring, strengthening and stretching exercises should be done through a full range of ankle motion. To improve ankle mobility, ankle circles can be performed by extending the legs in front of the body and then moving the foot up and down, side to side, or rotating the foot in a circle. Another common exercise to improve mobility as well as proprioception is to use the toes to draw the letters of the alphabet in the air. Most importantly, the lateral aspect of the ankle joint should be strengthened with eversion exercises (i.e. underside of the foot is turned outward against resistance) to improve lateral ankle stability.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnold BL, Linens SW, de la Motte SJ, Ross SE |title=Concentric evertor strength differences and functional ankle instability: A meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Athletic Training |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=653–662 |year=2009 |month=Nov/Dec|pmid=19911093|pmc=2775368 |doi=10.4085/1062-6050-44.6.653 |url=}}</ref> Stretching is also an important component of a strengthening program, to help maintain joint flexibility. Balance and stability training are especially important to retrain the ankle muscles to work together to support the joint.<ref name="Sprained Ankle: Treatment and Drugs - Mayoclinic.com">[http://mayoclinic.com/health/sprained-ankle/DS01014/DSECTION=treatments-and-drugs Sprained Ankle: Treatment and Drugs - Mayo clinic.com], Retrieved on 2010-01-22.</ref> This includes exercises that are performed by standing on one foot and using the injured ankle to lift the body onto its toes. To further enhance balance and stability, exercise devices such as the [[balance board|wobble board]] can be used, progressing from double-leg to single-leg stance, first with eyes open and then with eyes closed, for enhanced effectiveness. === Flexibility exercises === Example of a flexibility exercise is a [[http://www.livestrong.com/article/470163-ankle-towel-stretch// towel stretch]] and writing the alphabet with toes which will increase the range of motion. === Strengthening exercises === Ankle strengthening exercises are step ups and walking on toes which will strengthen the muscles around the swollen area. === Balance exercises === Balance exercises include the use of a [[wobble board]] which help the whole body function together. The use of wobble boards have shown to produce significantly positive results in gaining proper balance compared to not using it <ref> Wester Ulrik, Jens. Jespersen Mindedahl, Stig. Nielsen Daubjerg, Keld. Neumann, Lars. “Wobble Board Training After Partial Sprains of the Lateral Ligaments of the Ankle: A Prospective Randomized Study.” Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy. Volume 23. Number 5. May 1996. < http://www.therabandacademy.com/elements/clients/docs/wester1996__201009DD_015302.pdf</ref> === Agility exercises === [[Plyometrics]] exercises such as [[http://www.fitsugar.com/How-Do-Jump-Squats-994573/ squat jumps]] and power skipping are implemented so the ankle can regain agility. [[File:Rehabilitation Exercises for an ankle sprain.jpg|px180|Rehabilitation Exercises for an ankle sprain]] Other strategies that can be used to prevent ankle injury include: *Ensure proper warm-up prior to stretching and activity; *When running, choose level surfaces and avoid rocks or holes; *Ensure that shoes have adequate heel support; and... *If high-heeled shoes are worn, ensure that heels are no more than 2 inches in height, and avoid heels with a narrow base. ==Prognosis== Most people improve significantly in the first two weeks. Some however still have problems with pain and instability after one year (5&ndash;30%). Reinjury is also common.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Margo KL |title=Review: many adults still have pain and subjective instability at 1 year after acute lateral ankle sprain |journal=Evid Based Med |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=187 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19043045 |doi=10.1136/ebm.13.6.187 |url=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Lenia Teo |title=How to prevent ankle sprains from happening … again|journal=Musculoskeletal Consumer Review |volume=|issue=|pages=|year=2010|month=April|pmid=|doi=|url=http://mcr.coreconcepts.com.sg/how-to-prevent-ankle-sprains-from-happening-again/}}</ref> [[File:Adolescents vs general population ankle sprain incidences.jpg|thumb|left|Adolescents vs general population ankle sprain incidences]] == Epidemiology on Ankle Sprains == Ankle sprains can occur through either sports or activities of daily living, and individuals can be at higher or lower risk depending on a variety of circumstances including their homeland, race, age, sex, or profession <ref> Waterman, B. R., Owens, B. D., Davey, S., Zacchilli, M. A., & Belmont, P. J. (2010). The epidemiology of ankle sprains in the united states. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 92(13), 2279-2284. </ref> In addition, there are different types of ankle sprains such as eversion ankle sprains and inversion ankle sprains. Overall, the most common type of ankle sprain to occur is an inversion ankle sprain, where excessive [[ plantar flexion ]] and [[ supination ]] cause the [[ anterior talofibular ligament ]] to be affected. A study showed that for a population of [[ Scandinavians ]], [[ inversion ]] ankle sprains accounted for 85% of all ankle sprains <ref> Wester, J. U., Jespersen, S. M., Nielsen, K. D., & Neumann, L. (1996). Wobble board training after partial sprains of the lateral ligaments of the ankle: A - prospective randomized studv. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 23(5), 332-336. </ref> Most ankle sprains are involved with the more active population, such as athletes and regular exercisers. [[File:Ankle Sprain Epidemiology- U.S. Military vs General Population.jpg|thumb|left|Ankle Sprain Epidemiology- U.S. Military vs General Population]] === Age === In a study comparing the [[ prevalence ]] of ankle sprains between age, race, and sex, individuals who were aged 10-19 years old had highest incidences of ankle sprains <ref> Bridgman, S. A., Clement, D., Downing, A., Walley, G., Phair, I., & Maffulli, N. (2003). Population based epidemiology of ankle sprains attending accident and emergency units in the west midlands of england, and a survey of uk practice for severe ankle sprains. Emergency Medical Journal, 1(20), 508-510. </ref> It can suggested that [[ adolescents ]] are more physically active, which leads to higher chances of ankle sprains. Since sports deal with high utilization of the ankle, over 50% of ankle sprains are due from sport related injuries <ref> Yeung, M. S., Chan, K., So, C. H., & Yuan, W. Y. (1994). An epidemiological survey on ankle sprain. Journal of Sports Medicine, 28(2), 112-116. </ref> [[File:Ankle sprain incidence rates of average males to females.jpg|thumb|right|Ankle sprain incidence rates of average males to females]] === US Military === Moreover, average ankle sprains for the general U.S. population are estimated at 5-7 ankle sprains for every 1000 person-years; however a study showed that for military cadets’ incidences for ankle sprains were about 10 times those of the general population <ref> Belmont, P. J., Waterman, B. R., Cameron, K. L., DeBeradino, T. M., & Owens, B. D. (2010). Epidemiology of ankle sprain at the united states military academy. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 38(4), 797-803. </ref> === Male vs. Female === Another study comparing gender influences on ankle sprains found that male and female counterparts had relatively the same incidence rates of ankle sprains. However, at a specific age range of 19-24 years old, males were found to have a substantial increased rate of ankle sprains than females. Furthermore, at ages 30 and over, females showed higher incidences of ankle sprains than males. <ref> Waterman, B. R., Owens, B. D., Davey, S., Zacchilli, M. A., & Belmont, P. J. (2010). The epidemiology of ankle sprains in the united states. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 92(13), 2279-2284. </ref> From this, it can be said that age and activity levels are better indicators of ankle sprain risks than gender. === References === {{reflist}}   ==References== {{Reflist|1}} ==External links== * [http://nemsi.uchc.edu/clinical_services/orthopaedic/footankle/ankle_sprain.html Overview at uchc.edu] {{Dislocations, sprains and strains}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sprained Ankle}} [[Category:Dislocations, sprains and strains]] [[ar:وثء الكاحل]] [[ar:وثء]] [[ca:Esquinç]] [[cs:Podvrtnutí kotníku]] [[de:Supinationstrauma]] [[de:Verstauchung]] [[el:Διάστρεμμα ποδοκνημικής]] [[es:Esguince]] [[fa:پیچ‌خوردگی]] [[fr:Entorse de la cheville]] [[fr:Entorse (médecine)]] [[it:Distorsione (medicina)]] [[he:נקע בקרסול]] [[he:נקע]] [[hu:Boka rándulás]] [[ml:ഉളുക്ക്]] [[ja:捻挫]] [[no:Forstuelse]] [[pl:Skręcenie]] [[pt:Entorse]] [[ro:Entorsă acută a gleznei]] [[ru:Растяжение связок]] [[simple:Sprain]] [[sr:Угануће зглоба]] [[sv:Stukning]] [[te:బెణుకు]] [[vi:Bong gân]]'