Examine individual changes

'{{Use British English|date=March 2013}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2013}} {{Pp-move-indef}} {{Multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical |width=200 |image1=Agasthiyamalai range and Tirunelveli rainshadow.jpg |alt1=Daytime view of an almost lifeless expanse, dry rocks and sand marked only by the odd lone shrub. The dry terrain reaches to a chain of mountains in the far distance, near the horizon. A bank of clouds soars above the void, but it does not appear to hold the promise of rain. A far darker, larger, more turgid cloud bank sits above the distant mountains, above the horizon. |caption1=A semi-[[arid]] wasteland near [[Tirunelveli]], Tamil Nadu. [[Monsoon in India|Monsoon]] clouds dump torrents of rain on lush forests only kilometres away in [[windward and leeward|windward]]-facing [[Kerala]]. The [[Agastya Malai|Agasthyamalai Range]] mostly [[rain shadow|stops]] them from reaching Tirunelveli. |image2=Valley of flowers uttaranchal full view.JPG |alt2=Daytime view of a montaine valley set between two peaks at left and right, their peaks cloaked by cloud cover. All present an aspect of summer verdure: grassland meadows and wildflowers. Rocky snow-capped peaks are seen in the far distance, between the flanking peaks in the middle distance. |caption2=[[Uttarakhand]]'s [[Valley of Flowers National Park]]. Its mountainous [[windward and leeward|windward]]-facing location wedged between the [[Zanskar Range|Zanskars]] and the [[Great Himalayas|Greater Himalayas]] affords it ample [[orographic lift|orographic precipitation]]. }} <!--PLEASE USE COMMONWEALTH ENGLISH THROUGHOUT THIS ARTICLE.--> Analysed according to the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen system]], the '''climate of India''' resolves into six major climatic subtypes; their influences give rise to desert in the west, [[alpine tundra]] and glaciers in the north, humid tropical regions supporting rain forests in the southwest, and Indian Ocean island territories that flank the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Regions have starkly different—yet tightly clustered—[[microclimate]]s. The nation is largely subject to four seasons: winter (January and February), summer (March to May), a [[Monsoon of Indian subcontinent|monsoon]] (rainy) season (June to September), and a post-monsoon period (October to December). India's [[geography of India|geography]] and [[geology of India|geology]] are climatically pivotal: the [[Thar Desert]] in the northwest and the [[Himalayas]] in the north work in tandem to effect a [[Culture of India|culturally]] and [[Economy of India|economically]] break-all monsoonal regime. As Earth's highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayan system bars the influx of frigid [[katabatic wind]]s from the icy [[Tibetan Plateau]] and northerly Central Asia. Most of [[North India]] is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter; the same thermal dam keeps most regions in India hot in summer. Though the [[Tropic of Cancer]]—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical. As in much of the tropics, monsoonal and other weather patterns in India can be wildly unstable: epochal droughts, floods, cyclones, and other natural disasters are sporadic, but have displaced or ended millions of human lives. There is widespread scientific consensus that South Asia is likely to see such climatic events, along with their aleatory unpredictability, to change in frequency and [[Effects of global warming on South Asia|are likely to increase]] in severity. Ongoing and future vegetative changes and [[current sea level rise]]s and the attendant inundation of India's low-lying coastal areas are other impacts, current or predicted, that are attributable to [[global warming]].{{Sfn|Ravindranath|Bala|Sharma|2011}} ==History== [[File:India-view of shilla.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Daytime view of a chain of snow-capped mountains. They advance diagonally back from the far-middle distance at left to the far distance at right. In the foreground are high montaine meadows and brushland.|The formation of the Himalayas during the [[Ypresian|Early Eocene]] some 53 million years ago was key in determining India's current climate; global climate and ocean chemistry may have been impacted.{{Sfn|Rowley|1996}}]] <!--[[File:Great rann of kutch.JPG|thumb|The [[Rann of Kutch]], a vast [[salt marsh]] south of the Thar Desert in [[Gujarat]]. During the monsoon season, the region fills with standing waters.]]--> <!--[[File:Jaisalmer-3.jpg|thumb|left|[[Jaisalmer]], in western Rajasthan, is situated in the heart of the Thar Desert. The region is arid and dusty.]]--> <!--[[File:India Goa Fort Chapora Chapora River.jpg|thumb|Clear skies prevail during the post-monsoon and winter seasons in most parts of India, including the coastal state of [[Goa]].]]--> <!--[[File:Cherrapunji.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Cherrapunji in Meghalaya is the world's rainiest place, holding the world record for annual precipitation.]]--> <!--[[File:Gulmarg-Gondala.JPG|thumb|right|upright|[[Gulmarg]] in eastern Kashmir is one of India's snowiest places.]]--> <!--[[File:Ladakh india monsoon clouds.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The monsoon over Ladakh, in eastern Jammu and Kashmir.]]--> <!--[[File:Gurudongmar north sikkim himalayas india.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gurudogmar Lake]] in winter, elevation {{Convert|5148|m|ft|0}}, in [[North Sikkim]].]]--> <!--[[File:Rathong from Zemathang2.jpg|thumb|right|The Indian Himalayas regularly experience heavy snowfall and other inclement conditions. Pictured is Goecha Peak in [[West Sikkim]].]]--> <!--[[File:Nainital snow lake.jpg|thumb|right|A winter scene by a lake in [[Nainital]], Uttarakhand.]]--> During the [[Triassic]] period of some 251–199.6&nbsp;[[annum|Ma]], the Indian subcontinent was part of a vast [[supercontinent]] known as [[Pangaea]]. Despite its position within a high-latitude belt at 55–75°&nbsp;S—as opposed to its current position between 5 and 35°&nbsp;N, latitudes now occupied by [[Greenland]] and parts of the [[Antarctic Peninsula]]—India likely experienced a humid temperate climate with warm and frost-free weather, though with well-defined seasons.{{Sfn|Chumakov|Zharkov|2003}} India later merged into the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]], a process beginning some 550–500&nbsp;Ma. During the Late [[Paleozoic]], Gondwana extended from a point at or near the [[South Pole]] to near the equator, where the [[Indian craton]] (stable [[continental crust]]) was positioned, resulting in a mild climate favourable to hosting high-[[biomass]] [[ecosystems]]. This is underscored by India's vast coal reserves—much of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequence—the fourth-largest reserves in the world.{{Sfn|CIA World Factbook}} During the [[Mesozoic]], the world, including India, was considerably warmer than today. With the coming of the [[Carboniferous]], [[global cooling]] stoked extensive [[glaciation]], which spread northwards from South Africa towards India; this cool period lasted well into the [[Permian]].{{Sfn|Grossman et al.|2002}} [[Plate tectonics|Tectonic movement]] by the [[Indian Plate]] caused it to pass over a geologic [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]]—the [[Réunion hotspot]]—now occupied by the volcanic island of [[Réunion]]. This resulted in a massive [[flood basalt]] event that laid down the [[Deccan Traps]] some 60–68&nbsp;Ma,{{Sfn|Sheth|2006}}{{Sfn|Iwata|Takahashi|Arai|1997}} at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period. This may have contributed to the global [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]], which caused India to experience significantly reduced [[insolation]]. Elevated atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formed[[aerosol]]s such as [[sulphur dioxide]] and [[sulphuric acid]], similar to those found in the [[atmosphere of Venus]]; these precipitated as [[acid rain]]. Elevated [[carbon dioxide]] emissions also contributed to the [[greenhouse effect]], causing [[climate change|warmer weather]] that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust and aerosols had cleared. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the [[Laurasia]]n landmass, were severe enough to cause the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.{{Sfn|Karanth|2006}} The formation of the Himalayas resulted in blockage of frigid Central Asian air, preventing it from reaching India; this made its climate significantly warmer and more tropical in character than it would otherwise have been.{{Sfn|Wolpert|1999|p=4}}<!--<ref>{{Citation|title=Water Resources of India: Physiographic Conditions|publisher=Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India}}</ref>--> ==Regions== {{Main|Climatic regions of India}} {| align="right" |- | style="vertical-align:top;"| [[File:India average annual temperature map en.svg|thumb|upright|alt="India Average Temperature Map": A map of India overlaid with five zones. A violet zone, with ambient temperatures averaging less than 20.0 degrees Celsius, envelops Himalayan and trans-Himalayan India, as well as the Khasi Hills on the Meghalaya Plateau. A transitionary blue zone of between 20.0 and 22.5 degrees, lies just south of the violet areas; another blue area lies in the extreme southwest of the country, focused on the high Western Ghats. Two contiguous green areas (averaging 22.5 to 25.0 degrees) envelop the blue regions, with the northern one snaking into the Vindhya Range of central India. The remaining yellow and red areas, designating average temperatures above 25.0 degrees Celsius, constitute by far the greater part of the country.|Average annual temperatures across India:{{break}}{{break}} {| cellspacing="0" align="center" style="background:#F9F9F9; font-size:100%; width:100%; %border:1px#000000;" |- | {{legend|#C6A0F3|< 20.0&nbsp;°C}}|| (< 68.0&nbsp;°F) |- | {{legend|#80B3F3|20.0–22.5&nbsp;°C}}|| (68.0–72.5&nbsp;°F) |- | {{legend|#CDDE7B|22.5–25.0&nbsp;°C}}|| (72.5–77.0&nbsp;°F) |- | {{legend|#FFF2B3|25.0–27.5&nbsp;°C}}|| (77.0–81.5&nbsp;°F) |- | {{legend|#DE877B|> 27.5&nbsp;°C}}|| (> 81.5&nbsp;°F) |} ]] | style="vertical-align:top;"| [[File:India climatic zone map en.svg|thumb|upright|alt="India Climatic Zone Map".|Climatic zones in India, based on the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen classification system]]:{{break}}{{break}} {| cellspacing="0" align="center" style="background:#F9F9F9; font-size:100%; width:100%; %border:1px #000000;" |- | {{legend|#C6A0F3|[[Alpine climate|Alpine]]}}|| '''E'''|| ''(ETh)'' |- | {{legend|#A0C6F3|[[Humid subtropical climate|Humid subtropical]]}}|| '''C'''|| ''(Cwa)'' |- | {{legend|#D4EFB7|[[Tropical savanna climate|Tropical wet-dry]]}}|| '''A'''|| ''(Aw)'' |- | {{legend|#739A4D|[[Tropical monsoon climate|Tropical wet]]}}|| '''A'''|| ''(Am)'' |- | {{legend|#FFE674|[[Semi-arid]]}}|| '''B'''|| ''(BSh)'' |- | {{legend|#DE877B|[[Arid]]}}|| '''B'''|| ''(BWh)'' |} ]] |} India is home to an extraordinary variety of climatic regions, ranging from tropical in the south to temperate and alpine in the Himalayan north, where elevated regions receive sustained winter snowfall. The nation's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert.{{Sfn|Chang|1967}} The Himalayas, along with the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains in Pakistan, prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar [[latitude]]s.{{Sfn|Posey|1994|p=118}} Simultaneously, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.{{Sfn|Chang|1967}}{{Sfn|NCERT|p=28}} Four major climatic groupings predominate, into which fall seven climatic zones that, as designated by experts, are defined on the basis of such traits as temperature and precipitation.{{Sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|p=97}} Groupings are assigned codes (see chart) according to the Köppen climate classification system. ===Tropical wet=== A tropical rainy climate governs regions experiencing persistent warm or high temperatures, which normally do not fall below {{Convert|18|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}}. India hosts two climatic subtypes that fall under this group. The most humid is the tropical wet climate—also known as a [[tropical monsoon climate]]—that covers a strip of southwestern lowlands abutting the [[Malabar Coast]], the [[Western Ghats]], and southern Assam. India's two island territories, Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are also subject to this climate. Characterised by moderate to high year-round temperatures, even in the foothills, its rainfall is seasonal but heavy—typically above {{Convert|2000|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} per year.{{Sfn|Chouhan|1992|p=7}} Most rainfall occurs between May and November; this moisture is enough to sustain lush forests and other vegetation for the rest of the mainly dry year. December to March are the driest months, when days with precipitation are rare. The heavy monsoon rains are responsible for the exceptionally biodiverse tropical wet forests in parts of these regions. In India a [[tropical savanna climate|tropical wet and dry climate]] is more common. Noticeably drier than areas with a tropical monsoon climate, it prevails over most of inland peninsular India except for a semi arid rain shadow east of the Western Ghats. Winter and early summer are long and dry periods with temperatures averaging above {{Convert|18|°C|°F|0}}. Summer is exceedingly hot; temperatures in low-lying areas may exceed {{Convert|50|°C|°F|0}} during May, leading to heat waves that can each kill hundreds of Indians.{{Sfn|Farooq|2002}} The rainy season lasts from June to September; annual rainfall averages between {{Convert|750|–|1500|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} across the region. Once the dry northeast monsoon begins in September, most precipitation in India falls on Tamil Nadu, leaving other states comparatively dry. The state's normal annual rainfall is about {{Convert|945|mm|in|abbr=on}}, of which 48% is delivered by the northeast monsoon and 32% by the southwest monsoon. Since the state is entirely dependent on rains for recharging its water resources, monsoon failures lead to acute water scarcity and severe drought. Tamil Nadu is classified into seven agro-climatic zones: northeast, northwest, west, southern, high rainfall, high altitude hilly, and the [[Kaveri]] delta, the last being the most fertile agricultural zone. The table below shows the maximum and minimum temperatures that the state experiences in the plains and hills. The Ganges Delta lies mostly in the tropical wet climate zone: it receives between {{Convert|1500|to|2000|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} of rainfall each year in the western part, and {{Convert|2000|to|3000|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} in the eastern part. The coolest month of the year, on average, is January; April and May are the warmest months. Average temperatures in January range from {{Convert|14|to|25|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}}, and average temperatures in April range from {{Convert|25|to|35|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}}. July is on average the wettest month: over {{Convert|330|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} of rain falls on the delta<!--(temperature averages from Kolkata)-->.{{Sfn|Healy}} ===Tropical dry=== A tropical [[arid climate|arid]] and [[semi-arid]] climate dominates regions where the rate of moisture loss through [[evapotranspiration]] exceeds that from precipitation; it is subdivided into three climatic subtypes. The first, a tropical semi-arid steppe climate, predominates over a long stretch of land south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the Western Ghats and the [[Cardamom Hills]]. The region, which includes Karnataka, inland Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh, and central Maharashtra, gets between {{Convert|400|–|750|mm|1}} annually. It is drought-prone, as it tends to have less reliable rainfall due to sporadic lateness or failure of the southwest monsoon.{{Sfn|Caviedes|2001|p=124}} Karnataka is divided into three zones – coastal, north interior and south interior. Of these, the coastal zone receives the heaviest rainfall with an average rainfall of about 3,638.5&nbsp;mm (143&nbsp;in) per annum, far in excess of the state average of 1,139&nbsp;mm (45&nbsp;in). In contrast to norm, Agumbe in the Shivamogga district receives the second highest annual rainfall in India. North of the [[Krishna River]], the summer monsoon is responsible for most rainfall; to the south, significant post-monsoon rainfall also occurs in October and November. In December, the coldest month, temperatures still average around {{Convert|20|–|24|C|F}}. The months between March to May are hot and dry; mean monthly temperatures hover around 32 °C, with {{Convert|320|mm|in|0}}precipitation. Hence, without artificial irrigation, this region is not suitable for permanent agriculture. [[File:Thar Desert Sunset Rajasthan India.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=View of dunes at sunset. The setting sun hangs low and dim in a sky graded from fiery orange at top to maroon near the horizon. Terrestrial features are difficult to discern in the crepuscular illumination.|The [[Thar Desert]].]] [[File:Dust Strom in India.jpg|thumb|upright|Dust storm in the [[Thar Desert]].]] Most of western Rajasthan experiences an arid climatic regime. [[Cloudburst]]s are responsible for virtually all of the region's annual precipitation, which totals less than {{Convert|300|mm|in|1}}. Such bursts happen when monsoon winds sweep into the region during July, August, and September. Such rainfall is highly erratic; regions experiencing rainfall one year may not see precipitation for the next couple of years or so. Atmospheric moisture is largely prevented from precipitating due to continuous [[vertical draft|downdrafts]] and other factors.{{Sfn|Singhvi|Kar|2004}} The summer months of May and June are exceptionally hot; mean monthly temperatures in the region hover around {{Convert|35|°C|°F|0}}, with daily maxima occasionally topping {{Convert|50|°C|°F|0}}. During winters, temperatures in some areas can drop below freezing due to waves of cold air from Central Asia. There is a large diurnal range of about {{Convert|14|C-change|1}} during summer; this widens by several degrees during winter. To the west, in Gujarat, diverse climate conditions obtain. The winters are mild, pleasant, and dry with average daytime temperatures around 29 °C (84 °F) and nights around 12 °C (54 °F) with virtually full sun and clear nights. Summers are hot and dry with daytime temperatures around 41 °C (106 °F) and nights no lower than 29 °C (84 °F). In the weeks before the monsoon temperatures are similar to the above, but high humidity makes the air more uncomfortable. Relief comes with the monsoon. Temperatures are around 35 °C (95 °F) but humidity is very high; nights are around 27 °C (81 °F). Most of the rainfall occurs in this season, and the rain can cause severe floods. The sun is often occluded during the monsoon season. East of the Thar Desert, the Punjab-Haryana-Kathiawar region experiences a tropical and sub-tropical steppe climate. Haryana's climate resembles other states of the northern plains: extreme summer heat of up to 50 °C and winter cold as low as 1 °C. May and June are hottest; December and January are coldest. Rainfall is varied, with the Shivalik Hills region being the wettest and the Aravali Hills region being the driest. About 80% of the rainfall occurs in the monsoon season of July–September, which can cause flooding. The Punjabi climate is also governed by extremes of hot and cold. Areas near the Himalayan foothills receive heavy rainfall whereas those eloigned from them are hot and dry. Punjab's three-season climate sees summer months that spans from mid-April to the end of June. Temperatures typically range from–2 °C to 40 °C, but can reach 47 °C (117 °F) in summer and −4 °C in winter. The zone, a transitional climatic region separating tropical desert from humid sub-tropical savanna and forests, experiences temperatures that are less extreme than those of the desert. Average annual rainfall is {{Convert|300|–|650|mm|in|1}}, but is very unreliable; as in much of the rest of India, the southwest monsoon accounts for most precipitation. Daily summer temperature maxima rise to around {{Convert|40|°C|°F|0}}; this results in natural vegetation typically comprises short, coarse grasses. ===Subtropical humid=== Most of Northeast India and much of North India are subject to a [[humid subtropical climate]]. Though they experience hot summers, temperatures during the coldest months may fall as low as {{Convert|0|°C|°F|0}}. Due to ample monsoon rains, India has only one subtype of this climate under the Köppen system: ''Cwa''.{{Sfn|Kimmel|2000}} In most of this region, there is very little precipitation during the winter, owing to powerful anticyclonic and katabatic (downward-flowing) winds from Central Asia. Humid subtropical regions are subject to pronounced dry winters. Winter rainfall—and occasionally snowfall—is associated with large storm systems such as "Nor'westers" and "[[Western disturbances]]"; the latter are steered by [[westerlies]] towards the Himalayas.{{Sfn|Das et al.|2002}} Most summer rainfall occurs during powerful thunderstorms associated with the southwest summer monsoon; occasional [[tropical cyclones]] also contribute. Annual rainfall ranges from less than {{Convert|1000|mm|in|0}} in the west to over {{Convert|2500|mm|in|0}} in parts of the northeast. As most of this region is far from the ocean, the wide temperature swings more characteristic of a [[continental climate]] predominate; the swings are wider than in those in tropical wet regions, ranging from {{Convert|24|°C|°F|0}} in north-central India to {{Convert|27|°C|°F|0}} in the east. ===Mountain=== [[File:Pangong Tso lake.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Daytime view of a large body of water standing before a prominent peak, which communicates with several others partly out of view and behind. A gravel beach at the far end of the lake gives way to steep slopes leading up to the peaks; The mountains lack trees. Patchy snowcover defines their recesses, and whitish vein-like streaks extend up from the base of the largest.|[[Pangong Tso|Pangong Lake]] in [[Ladakh]], an [[arid]] montane region lying deep within the Himalayas.]] India's northernmost areas are subject to a montane, or alpine, climate. In the Himalayas, the rate at which an air mass's temperature falls per kilometre (3,281&nbsp;ft) of altitude gained (the [[lapse rate|dry adiabatic lapse rate]]) is 9.8&nbsp;°C/km.{{Sfn|Carpenter|2005}} In terms of [[environmental lapse rate]], ambient temperatures fall by {{Convert|6.5|C-change|1}} for every {{Convert|1000|m|ft|0}} rise in altitude. Thus, climates ranging from nearly tropical in the foothills to tundra above the [[snow line]] can coexist within several hundred metres of each other. Sharp temperature contrasts between sunny and shady slopes, high diurnal temperature variability, temperature inversions, and altitude-dependent variability in rainfall are also common. The northern side of the western Himalayas, also known as the trans-Himalayan belt, is a region of barren, arid, frigid, and wind-blown wastelands. Most precipitation occurs as snowfall during the late winter and spring months. Areas south of the Himalayas are largely protected from cold winter winds coming in from the Asian interior. The leeward side (northern face) of the mountains receives less rain while the southern slopes, well-exposed to the monsoon, get heavy rainfall. Areas situated at elevations of 1,070–2,290 metres (3,510–7,510&nbsp;ft) receive the heaviest rainfall, which decreases rapidly at elevations above {{Convert|2290|m|ft|0}}. The Himalayas experience their heaviest snowfall between December and February and at elevations above {{Convert|1500|m|ft|0}}. Snowfall increases with elevation by up to several dozen millimetres per 100&nbsp;metre (~2&nbsp;in; 330&nbsp;ft) increase. Elevations above {{Convert|5000|m|ft|0}} never experience rain; all precipitation falls as snow.{{Sfn|Singh|Kumar|1997}} ==Seasons== [[File:Fort Bandhavgarh National Park Madhya Pradesh India.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Daytime view of a small marshy lake surrounded by dry brush in winter. Behind the lake in the far-middle distance, a large stand of trees interposes itself in front of a lone massif in the far distance. The sun is out of view to the left.|A winter scene in [[Bandhavgarh National Park]], Madhya Pradesh.]] The [[India Meteorological Department]] (IMD) designates four climatological seasons:{{Sfn|India Meteorological Department|B}} * '''Winter''', occurring from December to March. The year's coldest months are December and January, when temperatures average around {{Convert|10|–|15|C|F}} in the northwest; temperatures rise as one proceeds towards the equator, peaking around {{Convert|20|–|25|C|F}} in mainland India's southeast. * '''Summer''' or '''pre-monsoon''' season, lasting from April to June (April to July in northwestern India). In western and southern regions, the hottest month is April; for northern regions, May is the hottest month. Temperatures average around {{Convert|32|–|40|C|F}} in most of the interior. * '''Monsoon''' or '''rainy''' season, lasting from July to September. The season is dominated by the humid southwest summer monsoon, which slowly sweeps across the country beginning in late May or early June. Monsoon rains begin to recede from North India at the beginning of October. South India typically receives more rainfall. * '''Post-monsoon''' or '''autumn''' season, lasting from October through November. In northwestern India, October and November are usually cloudless. Tamil Nadu receives most of its annual precipitation in the northeast monsoon season. The Himalayan states, being more temperate, experience an additional season, ''spring'', which coincides with the first weeks of summer in southern India. Traditionally, Indians note six seasons or ''Ritu'', each about two months long. These are the spring season (''{{Lang-sa|vasanta}}''), summer (''grīṣma''), monsoon season (''varṣā''), autumn (''śarada''), winter (''hemanta''), and prevernal season<ref>{{cite web | author = Michael Allaby | title = A Dictionary of Zoology | year = 1999 | url = http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O8-prevernal.html | accessdate= 2012-05-30}}</ref> (''śiśira''). These are based on the astronomical division of the twelve months into six parts. The ancient [[Hindu calendar]] also reflects these seasons in its arrangement of months. ===Winter=== Once the monsoons subside, average temperatures gradually fall across India. As the Sun's vertical rays move south of the equator, most of the country experiences moderately cool weather; temperatures change by about {{Convert|0.6|C-change|2|abbr=on}} per degree of latitude. December and January are the coldest months, with mean temperatures of {{Convert|10|–|15|C|F}} in Indian Himalayas. Mean temperatures are higher in the east and south, where they reach {{Convert|20|–|25|C|F}}. [[File:Gulmarg.JPG|thumb|upright| snowy ridge onto a mountain valley far below, lost in mist. Continuing into the far distance at right, a series of high snow-covered mountains continue the ridge. The mountains are mostly covered in evergreen forest; dappled sunlight strikes the snow cover.|Inclement conditions in the Indian Himalayas: a view of [[Gulmarg]], a popular tourist destination in Jammu and Kashmir in winter.]] In northwestern India, virtually cloudless conditions prevail in October and November, resulting in wide diurnal temperature swings; as in much of the Deccan Plateau, they register at {{Convert|16|–|20|C|F|0|abbr=on}}. However, from March to May, "western disturbances" bring heavy bursts of rain and snow. These extra-tropical [[low pressure area|low-pressure systems]] originate in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.{{Sfn|Hatwar|Yadav|Rama Rao|2005}} They are carried towards India by the subtropical [[westerlies]], which are the prevailing winds blowing at North India's range of latitude.{{Sfn|Das et al.|2002}} Once their passage is hindered by the Himalayas, they are unable to proceed further, and they release significant precipitation over the southern Himalayas. There is a huge variation in the climatic conditions of Himachal Pradesh due to variation in altitude (450–6500 metres). The climate varies from hot and sub-humid tropical (450–900 metres) in the southern low tracts, warm and temperate (900–1800 metres), cool and temperate (1900–2400 metres) and cold glacial and alpine (2400–4800 metres) in the northern and eastern high elevated mountain ranges. By October, nights and mornings are very cold. Snowfall at elevations of nearly 3000 m is about 3 m and lasts from December start to March end. Elevations above 4500 m support perpetual snow. The spring season starts from mid February to mid April. The weather is pleasant and comfortable in the season. The rainy season starts at the end of the month of June. The landscape lushes green and fresh. During the season streams and natural springs are replenished. The heavy rains in July and August cause a lot of damage resulting into erosion, floods and landslides. Out of all the state districts, Dharamsala receives the highest rainfall, nearly about {{Convert|3400|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}. Spiti is the driest area of the state, where annual rainfall is below 50&nbsp;mm.{{Sfn|Hara|Kimura|Yasunari}} The three Himalayan states (Jammu and Kashmir in the extreme north, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand) experience heavy snowfall; in Jammu and Kashmir, [[blizzard]]s occur regularly, disrupting travel and other activities. The rest of North India, including the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]], almost never receives snow. Temperatures in the plains occasionally fall below freezing, though never for more one or two days. Winter highs in Delhi range from {{Convert|16|to|21|C|F|0|abbr=on}}. Nighttime temperatures average {{Convert|2|–|8|C|F}}. In the plains of Punjab, lows can fall below freezing, dropping to around {{Convert|-6|°C|°F|0}} in [[Amritsar]]. Frost sometimes occurs, but the hallmark of the season is the notorious fog, which frequently disrupts daily life; fog grows thick enough to hinder visibility and disrupt air travel 15–20&nbsp;days annually. In Bihar in middle of the Ganges plain, hot weather sets in and the summer lasts until the middle of June. The highest temperature is often registered in May which is the hottest time. Like the rest of the north, Bihar also experiences dust-storms, thunderstorms and dust raising winds during the hot season. Dust storms having a velocity of {{Convert|48|–|64|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} are most frequent in May and with second maximum in April and June. The hot winds (loo) of [[Bihar]] plains blow during April and May with an average velocity of {{Convert|8|–|16|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}. These hot winds greatly affects human comfort during this season. Rain follows.{{Sfn|Government of Bihar}} The rainy season begins in June. The rainiest months are July and August. The rains are the gifts of the southwest monsoon. There are in Bihar three distinct areas where rainfall exceeds {{Convert|1800|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}. Two of them are in the northern and northwestern portions of the state; the third lies in the area around [[Netarhat]]. The southwest monsoon normally withdraws from Bihar in the first week of October.{{Sfn|Air India|2003}} Eastern India's climate is much milder, experiencing moderately warm days and cool nights. Highs range from {{Convert|23|°C|°F|0}} in [[Patna]] to {{Convert|26|°C|°F|0}} in [[Kolkata]] (Calcutta); lows average from {{Convert|8|°C|°F|0}} in Patna to {{Convert|14|°C|°F|0}} in Kolkata. Frigid winds from the Himalayas can depress temperatures near the [[Brahmaputra River]].{{Sfn|Singh|Ojha|Sharma|2004|p=168}} The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau by preventing frigid and dry Arctic winds from blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the [[Monsoon of Indian subcontinent|monsoon]] winds, keeping them from travelling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the [[Terai]] region instead. The Himalayas are indeed believed to play an important role in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the [[Taklamakan]] and [[Gobi]]. The mountain ranges prevent western winter disturbances in Iran from travelling further east, resulting in much snow in Kashmir and rainfall for parts of [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and northern India. Despite being a barrier to the cold northernly winter winds, the Brahmaputra valley receives part of the frigid winds, thus lowering the temperature in Northeast India and Bangladesh. The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain the greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asia's largest rivers flow from there. The two Himalayan states in the east, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, receive substantial snowfall. The extreme north of [[West Bengal]] centred around [[Darjeeling]] experiences snowfall, but only rarely. Parts of Uttar Pradesh are also affected by snowfall of several metres in places. Rainfall in that state ranges from {{Convert|1000|–|2000|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} in the east to {{Convert|600|–|1000|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} in the west. In [[South India]], particularly the hinterlands of Maharashtra, [[Madhya Pradesh]], parts of Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, somewhat cooler weather prevails. Minimum temperatures in western Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and [[Chhattisgarh]] hover around {{Convert|10|°C|°F|0}}; in the southern Deccan Plateau, they reach {{Convert|16|°C|°F|0}}. Coastal areas—especially those near the [[Coromandel Coast]] and adjacent low-elevation interior tracts—are warm, with daily high temperatures of {{Convert|30|°C|°F|0}} and lows of around {{Convert|21|°C|°F|0}}. The Western Ghats, including the [[Nilgiris (mountains)|Nilgiri Range]], are exceptional; lows there can fall below freezing.{{Sfn|Blasco|Bellan|Aizpuru|1996}} This compares with a range of {{Convert|12|–|14|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}} on the Malabar Coast; there, as is the case for other coastal areas, the Indian Ocean exerts a strong moderating influence on weather.{{Sfn|Posey|1994|p=118}} The region averages {{Convert|800|mm|in}} per year, most of which falls between October and December. The topography of the Bay of Bengal and the staggered weather pattern prevalent during the season favours the northeast monsoon, which has a tendency to cause cyclones and hurricanes rather than steady precipitation. As a result the coast is hit by what can mildly be termed as inclement weather almost every year between October and January. ===Summer=== [[File:Khajjiar.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Daytime sunlit view of a verdant bowl-shaped meadow with a small pond in a valley rimmed by several prominent hills covered in evergreen forest. At centre-left and looking out on the meadow, a small cluster of tourist lodges with pitched roofs, one a bright red. Around them and the pond are small, gaily coloured gazebos and shade-giving umbrellas. Several dozen tourists and sheep mill about the pond and in the meadow.|A summer view of [[Khajjiar]], a hill station in Himachal Pradesh.]] Summer in northwestern India lasts from April to July, and in the rest of the country from March to June. The temperatures in the north rise as the vertical rays of the Sun reach the Tropic of Cancer. The hottest month for the western and southern regions of the country is April; for most of North India, it is May. Temperatures of {{Convert|50|°C|°F|0}} and higher have been recorded in parts of India during this season.{{Sfn|Farooq|2002}} In cooler regions of North India, immense pre-monsoon [[squall]]-line thunderstorms, known locally as "Nor'westers", commonly drop large hailstones. In Himachal Pradesh, Summer lasts from mid April till the end of June and most parts become very hot (except in [[Alpine climate|alpine]] zone which experience mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from {{Convert|28|°C|°F|0}} to {{Convert|32|°C|°F|0}}. Winter lasts from late November till mid March. Snowfall is generally common in alpine tracts that are above {{Convert|2200|m|ft|0}}, especially those in the higher- and trans-Himalayan regions.{{Sfn|Changnon|1971}} Near the coast the temperature hovers around {{Convert|36|°C|°F|0}}, and the proximity of the sea increases the level of humidity. In southern India, the temperatures are higher on the east coast by a few degrees compared to the west coast. By May, most of the Indian interior experiences mean temperatures over {{Convert|32|°C|°F|0}}, while maximum temperatures often exceed {{Convert|40|°C|°F|0}}. In the hot months of April and May, western disturbances, with their cooling influence, may still arrive, but rapidly diminish in frequency as summer progresses.{{Sfn|Pisharoty|Desai|1956}} Notably, a higher frequency of such disturbances in April correlates with a delayed monsoon onset (thus extending summer) in northwest India. In eastern India, monsoon onset dates have been steadily advancing over the past several decades, resulting in shorter summers there.{{Sfn|Das et al.|2002}} Altitude affects the temperature to a large extent, with higher parts of the [[Deccan Plateau]] and other areas being relatively cooler. [[Hill station]]s, such as [[Ootacamund]] ("Ooty") in the Western Ghats and [[Kalimpong]] in the eastern Himalayas, with average maximum temperatures of around {{Convert|25|°C|°F|0}}, offer some respite from the heat. At lower elevations, in parts of northern and western India, a strong, hot, and dry wind known as the [[Loo (wind)|Looblows]] in from the west during the daytime; with very high temperatures, in some cases up to around {{Convert|45|°C|°F|0}}; it can cause fatal cases of [[Hyperthermia|sunstroke]]. [[Tornado]]es may also occur, concentrated in a corridor stretching from northeastern India towards Pakistan. They are rare, however; only several dozen have been reported since 1835.{{Sfn|Peterson|Mehta|1981}} ===Monsoon=== {{Main|Monsoon in India}} {{Double image |1=right |2=India southwest summer monsoon onset map en.svg |3=150 |4=India annual rainfall map en.svg |5=150 |6=Onset dates and prevailing wind currents of the southwest summer and northeast winter monsoons. |7=Regional variation in rainfall across India. The monsoon season delivers four-fifths of the country's precipitation. |8=India monsoon onset map. |9=India average annual rainfall map. A map of India overlaid with various zones of differing shades of blue. Each shade represents a region receiving a similar annual precipitation total. The wettest region comprises the northeastern "Seven Sisters" states centred on Assam; the southwestern littoral in Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra is another wet region of over 250 centimetres per annum, depicted in a dark shade of navy blue. The rest of the country in between them is shown in lighter shades; the driest region is seen in the northwest near the borders with Pakistan and China, parts of which, according to the legend, are seen to obtain less than 20 centimetres per annum. }} [[File:Parked boats at Anjarle Creek.jpg|220px|thumb|Fishing boats parked in the [[Anjarle]] creek for the monsoon season. Fishing in the coastal areas is not possible now due to the harsh weather conditions.]] The southwest summer monsoon, a four-month period when massive convective thunderstorms dominate India's weather, is Earth's most productive wet season.{{Sfn|Collier|Webb|2002|p=91}} A product of southeast [[trade wind]]s originating from a high-pressure mass centred over the southern Indian Ocean, the monsoonal torrents supply over 80% of India's annual rainfall.{{Sfn|Bagla|2006}} Attracted by a low-pressure region centred over South Asia, the mass spawns surface winds that ferry humid air into India from the southwest.{{Sfn|Caviedes|2001|p=118}} These inflows ultimately result from a northward shift of the local jet stream, which itself results from rising summer temperatures over [[Tibet]] and the Indian subcontinent. The void left by the jet stream, which switches from a route just south of the Himalayas to one tracking north of Tibet, then attracts warm, humid air.{{Sfn|Burroughs|1999|pp=138–139}} The main factor behind this shift is the high summer temperature difference between Central Asia and the Indian Ocean.{{Sfn|Burns et al.|2003}} This is accompanied by a seasonal excursion of the normally equatorial [[Intertropical Convergence Zone|intertropical convergence zone]] (ITCZ), a low-pressure belt of highly unstable weather, northward towards India.{{Sfn|Burroughs|1999|pp=138–139}} This system intensified to its present strength as a result of the [[Tibetan Plateau]]'s [[orogeny|uplift]], which accompanied the [[Eocene]]–[[Oligocene]] transition event, a major episode of global cooling and [[aridification]] which occurred 34–49&nbsp;Ma.{{Sfn|Dupont-Nivet et al.|2007}} The southwest monsoon arrives in two branches: the [[Bay of Bengal]] branch and the [[Arabian Sea]] branch. The latter extends towards a low-pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times stronger than the Bay of Bengal branch. The monsoon typically breaks over Indian territory by around 25 May, when it lashes the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the Bay of Bengal. It strikes the Indian mainland around 1 June near the [[Malabar Coast]] of Kerala.{{Sfn|India Meteorological Department|A}} By 9 June, it reaches Mumbai; it appears over Delhi by 29 June. The Bay of Bengal branch, which initially tracks the Coromandal Coast northeast from [[Cape Comorin]] to Orissa, swerves to the northwest towards the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]. The Arabian Sea branch moves northeast towards the Himalayas. By the first week of July, the entire country experiences monsoon rain; on average, South India receives more rainfall than North India. However, [[North-East India|Northeast India]] receives the most precipitation. Monsoon clouds begin retreating from North India by the end of August; it withdraws from Mumbai by 5 October. As India further cools during September, the southwest monsoon weakens. By the end of November, it has left the country.{{Sfn|Burroughs|1999|pp=138–139}} [[File:Mumbai india monsoon clouds.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Daytime view over a city: de-laminating concrete housing blocks surrounded by rough slum tenements. In the middle distance, an expanse of trees: perhaps a park. Near the horizon, the largely concrete structures that compose the city continue. The whole is enveloped by an ominous sky filled with storm clouds promising imminent heavy rain.|Pre-monsoon clouds, as they appear in [[Mumbai]], western Maharashtra.]] Monsoon rains impact the health of the [[economy of India|Indian economy]]; as [[agriculture in India|Indian agriculture]] employs 600 million people and composes 20% of the national GDP,{{Sfn|CIA World Factbook}} good monsoons correlate with a booming economy. Weak or failed monsoons (droughts) result in widespread agricultural losses and substantially hinder overall economic growth.{{Sfn|Vaswani|2006b}}{{Sfn|BBC|2004}}{{Sfn|BBC Weather|A}} Yet such rains reduce temperatures and can replenish groundwater tables, rivers, and lakes. ===Post-monsoon=== During the post-monsoon months of October to December, a different monsoon cycle, the northeast (or "retreating") monsoon, brings dry, cool, and dense Central Asian air masses to large parts of India. Winds spill across the Himalayas and flow to the southwest across the country, resulting in clear, sunny skies.{{Sfn|Caviedes|2001|p=119}} Though the [[India Meteorological Department]] (IMD) and other sources refers to this period as a fourth ("post-monsoon") season,{{Sfn|Parthasarathy|Munot|Kothawale|1994}}{{Sfn|India Meteorological Department|B}}{{Sfn|Library of Congress}} other sources designate only three seasons.{{Sfn|O'Hare|1997}} Depending on location, this period lasts from October to November, after the southwest monsoon has peaked. Less and less precipitation falls, and vegetation begins to dry out. In most parts of India, this period marks the transition from wet to dry seasonal conditions. Average daily maximum temperatures range between {{Convert|28|and|34|C|F}}. The northeast monsoon, which begins in September, lasts through the post-monsoon seasons, and only ends in March. It carries winds that have already lost their moisture while crossing central Asia and the vast rain shadow region lying north of the Himalayas. They cross India diagonally from northeast to southwest. However, the large indentation made by the Bay of Bengal into India's eastern coast means that the flows are humidified before reaching [[Cape Comorin]] and rest of Tamil Nadu, meaning that the state, and also some parts of Kerala, experience significant precipitation in the post-monsoon and winter periods.{{Sfn|Healy}} However, parts of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, [[Rainfall in Karnataka|Karnataka]] and Northeast India also receive minor precipitation from the northeast monsoon. ==Statistics== Shown below are temperature and precipitation data for selected Indian cities; these represent the full variety of major Indian climate types. Figures have been grouped by the four-season classification scheme used by the IMD;{{#tag:ref|The IMD-designated post-monsoon season coincides with the northeast monsoon, the effects of which are significant only in some parts of India.|group=N}} year-round averages and totals are also displayed. ===Temperature=== {|style="clear:all; width:100%;" |- |style="vertical-align: top;"| {|class="toc" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=2 width=500px style="float:center; margin:1em 1em 1em 1em; padding:0.5e text-align:left; clear:all; margin-left:3px; font-size:85%" |+<big>'''Average temperatures in various Indian cities (°C)'''</big>{{Sfn|BBC Weather|B}}{{Sfn|Weatherbase}}{{Sfn|Weather Channel}}{{Sfn|Weather Underground}} |-align=center style="background:#e9e9e9;" | colspan=1 abbr="" | '''—''' ! colspan=3 abbr="Cold Weather Season" | Winter{{break}}(Dec – Feb) ! colspan=3 abbr="Hot Weather Season" | Summer{{break}}(Mar – May) ! colspan=3 abbr="Advancing Monsoon Season" | Monsoon{{break}}(Jun – Sep) ! colspan=3 abbr="Retreating Monsoon Season"| Post-monsoon{{break}}(Oct – Nov) ! colspan=1 abbr="year-round" | Year-round |-align=center !City ! abbr="Minimum"| Min ! abbr="Average"| Avg ! abbr="Maximum"| Max ! abbr="Minimum"| Min ! abbr="Average"| Avg ! abbr="Maximum"| Max ! abbr="Minimum"| Min ! abbr="Average"| Avg ! abbr="Maximum"| Max ! abbr="Minimum"| Min ! abbr="Average"| Avg ! abbr="Maximum"| Max ! abbr="Average"| Avg |-align="center" ![[Port Blair]] |23||'''26'''||28||25||'''27'''||29||25||27||27||25||26||28||27 |- align="center" bgcolor="#eeeeee" ![[Thiruvananthapuram]] |23||'''26'''||29||24||'''27'''||30||24||26||28||23||29||23||26 |- align="center" ![[Bangalore]] |7||'''12'''||18||13||18||23||15||'''19'''||23||8||13||18||17 |- align="center" bgcolor="#eeeeee" ![[Nagpur]] |14||'''21'''||28||24||'''32'''||40||24||27||30||16||22||28||26 |- align="center" ![[Bhopal]] |13||'''18'''||24||23||'''30'''||36||23||26||28||16||22||26||25 |- align="center" bgcolor="#eeeeee" ![[Guwahati]] |11||'''17'''||24||19||25||31||25||'''28'''||32||17||22||27||24 |- align="center" ![[Lucknow]] |10||'''15'''||21||23||'''30'''||35||24||29||33||15||20||25||25 |- align="center" ![[Jaisalmer]] |7||'''14'''||23||24||'''33'''||40||23||29||35||12||19||27||22 |- align="center" bgcolor="#eeeeee" ![[Dehradun]] |4||'''12'''||20||14||23||32||22||'''26'''||30||7||15||23||18 |- align="center" ![[Amritsar]] |4||'''10'''||18||13||25||34||25||'''28'''||32||10||16||24||21 |- align="center" ![[Shimla]] |1||'''5'''||9||10||14||18||15||'''18'''||20||7||10||13||13 |- align="center" ![[Srinagar]] |−2||'''4'''||6||7||14||19||16||'''22'''||30||1||8||16||13 |- align="center" ![[Leh]] |−13||'''−6'''||0||−1||6||12||10||'''16'''||24||−7||0||7||6 |} |style="vertical-align: top;" align="right"| {{Climate chart |[[Leh]] |−13|-1|11.8 |−12|0|8.6 |−6|6|11.9 |−1|12|6.9 |2|17|6.5 |6|21|4.3 |10|24|15.1 |10|24|19.5 |5|21|12.2 |0|14|0 |−6|8|2.9 |−10|1|8.0 |source=[http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weatherall.php3?s=44534&refer=&units=metric Weatherbase],[http://www.planholidays.com/ladakh/climate.php Plan Holidays] |float=right |clear=none }} |} ===Precipitation=== {|style="clear:all; width:100%;" |- |style="vertical-align: top;" align="left"| {|class="toc" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=2 width=500px style="float:center; margin:1em 1em 1em 1em; padding:0.5e text-align:left; clear:all; margin-left:3px; font-size:85%" |+<big>'''Average precipitation in various Indian cities (mm)'''</big>{{Sfn|BBC Weather|B}}{{Sfn|Weatherbase}}{{Sfn|Weather Channel}}{{Sfn|Weather Underground}} |-align=center style="background:#e9e9e9;" | colspan=1 abbr="" | '''—''' ! colspan=3 abbr="winter" | Winter{{break}}(Jan – Feb) ! colspan=3 abbr="summer" | Summer{{break}}(Mar – May) ! colspan=3 abbr="monsoon" | Monsoon{{break}}(Jun – Sep) ! colspan=3 abbr="post-monsoon"| Post-monsoon{{break}}(Oct – Dec) ! colspan=1 abbr="year-round" | Year-round |-align=center !City ! abbr="January" | Jan ! abbr="February" | Feb ! abbr="March" | Mar ! abbr="April" | Apr ! abbr="May" | May ! abbr="June" | Jun ! abbr="July" | Jul ! abbr="August" | Aug ! abbr="September"| Sep ! abbr="October" | Oct ! abbr="November" | Nov ! abbr="December" | Dec ! Total |-align="center" ![[Port Blair]] |40||20||10||60||360||'''480'''||400||400||460||290||220||150||2,890 |-align="center" ![[Thiruvananthapuram]] |26||21||33||125||202||'''306'''||175||152||179||223||206||65||1,713 |-align="center" ![[Bangalore]] |31||20||61||110||150||212||249||279||'''315'''||291||210||140||1,962 |-align="center" ![[Nagpur]] ||16||22||15||8||18||168||290||'''291'''||157||73||17||19||1,094 |-align="center" ![[Bhopal]] ||4||3||1||3||11||136||279||'''360'''||185||52||21||7||1,043 |-align="center" ![[Guwahati]] |8||21||47||181||226||309||'''377'''||227||199||92||25||10||1,722 |-align="center" ![[Lucknow]] |20||18||8||8||20||114||'''305'''||292||188||33||5||8||1,019 |-align="center" ![[Jaisalmer]] |–||–||3||–||7||10||'''90'''||88||15||–||6||–||219 |-align="center" ![[Dehradun]] |47||55||52||21||54||230||'''631'''||627||261||32||11||3||2,024 |-align="center" ![[Amritsar]] |24||33||48||30||45||27||'''231'''||187||79||18||6||18||746 |-align="center" ![[Shimla]] |60||60||60||50||60||170||420||'''430'''||160||30||10||20||1,530 |-align="center" ![[Srinagar]] |74||71||91||'''94'''||61||36||58||61||38||31||10||33||658 |-align="center" ![[Leh]] |12||9||12||6||7||4||16||'''20'''||12||7||3||8||116 |} |style="vertical-align: top;" align="right"| {{Climate chart |[[Bangalore]] |15|27|3 |17|30|7 |19|32|4 |22|34|46 |21|33|120 |20|29|81 |20|28|110 |19|27|137 |19|28|195 |19|28|180 |17|27|65 |16|26|21 |source=[http://www.worldweather.org/066/c00523.htm= World Weather Information Service] |float=right |clear=none }} |} ==Disasters== {{Main|Natural disasters in India}} {{Double image |1=right |2=India climatic disaster risk map en.svg |3=150 |4=India wind zone map en.svg |5=150 |6=Disaster-prone regions in India, shaded by type. |7=Map showing winds zones, shaded by distribution of average speeds of prevailing winds. |8=India climatic disasters risk map. |9=India wind zone map. A map of India overlaid with zones of various shades of blue, each representing a region that experiences a similar level of windiness. The entire eastern littoral and the northern half of the country are shaded in relatively dark blues, signifying relatively windy prevailing conditions of between 30 and 50 metres per second. The darkest blue region is in the extreme north, beyond the Himalayas in Ladakh, on the Tibetan Plateau; there, sustained winds average over 50 metres per second. The inland central, south, and especially the southwestern portions are shaded in light blues: they are relatively windless, averaging less than 30 metres per second. }} Climate-related natural disasters cause massive losses of Indian life and property. Droughts, flash floods, cyclones, avalanches, landslides brought on by torrential rains, and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which usually track from north to south; they cause extensive property damage in North India{{Sfn|Balfour|2003|p=995}} and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions. Hail is also common in parts of India, causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat. ===Floods and landslides=== {{See also|2007 South Asian floods|2008 Indian floods}} In the Lower Himalaya, landslides are common. The young age of the region's hills result in [[lability|labile]] rock formations, which are susceptible to slippages. Rising population and development pressures, particularly from logging and tourism, cause deforestation. The result, denuded hillsides, exacerbates the severity of landslides, since tree cover impedes the downhill flow of water.{{Sfn|Allaby|Garratt|2001|p=26}} Parts of the Western Ghats also suffer from low-intensity landslides. Avalanches occur in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Sikkim. Floods are the most common natural disaster in India. The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, the floods can kill thousands and displace millions. Excess, erratic, or untimely monsoon rainfall may also wash away or otherwise ruin crops.{{Sfn|Allaby|1997|pp=15, 42}} Almost all of India is flood-prone, and extreme precipitation events, such as flash floods and torrential rains, have become increasingly common in central India over the past several decades, coinciding with rising temperatures. Mean annual precipitation totals have remained steady due to the declining frequency of weather systems that generate moderate amounts of rain.{{Sfn|Goswami et al.|2006}} ===Cyclones=== [[File:Cyclone 05B 1999 India Bay of Bengal satellite image NOAA cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Satellite view looking over the Bay of Bengal, deliminated by India to its west, Bangladesh to its north, and Indochina to its west. Various patches of substantial storm tracts define the southern margins of the shot, but a larger buzzsaw-shaped whorl of clouds sits above the northern Bay, just beginning to communicate with parts of Orissa, West Bengal, and Bangladesh.|Satellite imagery of Cyclone 05B in the [[Bay of Bengal]].]] [[Tropical cyclone]]s, which are severe storms spun off from the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]], may affect thousands of Indians living in coastal regions. [[Tropical cyclogenesis]] is particularly common in the northern reaches of the Indian Ocean in and around the Bay of Bengal. Cyclones bring with them heavy rains, [[storm surge]]s, and winds that often cut affected areas off from relief and supplies. In the North Indian Ocean Basin, the cyclone season runs from April to December, with peak activity between May and November.{{Sfn|AOML FAQ G1}} Each year, an average of eight storms with sustained wind speeds greater than {{Convert|63|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} form; of these, two strengthen into true tropical cyclones, which have sustained gusts greater than {{Convert|117|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. On average, a major ([[Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale|Category 3]] or higher) cyclone develops every other year.{{Sfn|AOML FAQ G1}}{{Sfn|AOML FAQ E10}} During summer, the [[Bay of Bengal]] is subject to intense heating, giving rise to humid and unstable air masses that morph into cyclones. The [[1737 Calcutta Cyclone|1737 Calcutta cyclone]], the [[1970 Bhola cyclone]], and the [[1991 Bangladesh cyclone]] rank among the [[list of wettest tropical cyclones by country#India|most powerful cyclones to strike India]], devastating the coasts of eastern India and neighbouring Bangladesh. Widespread death and property destruction are reported every year in the exposed coastal states of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. India's western coast, bordering the more placid Arabian Sea, experiences cyclones only rarely; these mainly strike Gujarat and, less frequently, Kerala. [[Cyclone 05B (1999)|Cyclone 05B]], a supercyclone that struck Orissa on 29 October 1999, was the deadliest in more than a quarter-century. With peak winds of {{Convert|160|mph|km/h|0}}, it was the equivalent of a [[Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale|Category 5 hurricane]].{{Sfn|Typhoon Warning Centre}} Almost two million people were left homeless;{{Sfn|BAPS|2005}}another 20 million people lives were disrupted by the cyclone.{{Sfn|BAPS|2005}} Officially, 9,803 people died from the storm;{{Sfn|Typhoon Warning Centre}} unofficial estimates place the death toll at over 10,000.{{Sfn|BAPS|2005}} ===Droughts=== {{Main|Drought in India}} [[File:Niranjana dry river bed bihar india.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A daytime view of a desiccated, scappled expanse that wholly fills the fore- and middle ground and arcs away to the horizon at left. Of clouds in the sky there are none whatever. At extreme right in the middle distance, a thin bank of trees sits on a slightly higher level, reaching to the middle and rightward horizon; people and livestock mill about before them. Several pink buildings, perhaps a village, sit similarly elevated in front of the trees at middle-right, beyond the dominating dusty expanse.|The dry bed of the Niranjana River, Bihar.]] Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoon as a source of water. In some parts of India, the failure of the monsoons result in water shortages, resulting in below-average crop yields. This is particularly true of major drought-prone regions such as southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. In the past, droughts have periodically led to [[famine in India|major Indian famines]]. These include the [[Bengal famine of 1770]], in which up to one third of the population in affected areas died; the 1876–1877 famine, in which over five million people died; the 1899 famine, in which over 4.5 million died; and the [[Bengal famine of 1943]], in which over five million died from starvation and famine-related illnesses.{{Sfn|Nash|2002|pp=22–23}}{{Sfn|Collier|Webb|2002|p=67}} All such episodes of severe drought correlate with [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation]] (ENSO) events.{{Sfn|Kumar et al.|2006}}{{Sfn|Caviedes|2001|p=121}} El Niño-related droughts have also been implicated in periodic declines in Indian agricultural output.{{Sfn|Caviedes|2001|p=259}} Nevertheless, ENSO events that have coincided with abnormally high sea surfaces temperatures in the Indian Ocean—in one instance during 1997 and 1998 by up to {{Convert|3|°C|°F|0}}—have resulted in increased oceanic evaporation, resulting in unusually wet weather across India. Such anomalies have occurred during a sustained warm spell that began in the 1990s.{{Sfn|Nash|2002|pp=258–259}} A contrasting phenomenon is that, instead of the usual high pressure air mass over the southern Indian Ocean, an ENSO-related oceanic low pressure convergence centre forms; it then continually pulls dry air from Central Asia, desiccating India during what should have been the humid summer monsoon season. This reversed air flow causes India's droughts.{{Sfn|Caviedes|2001|p=117}} The extent that an ENSO event raises [[sea surface temperature]]s in the central Pacific Ocean influences the extent of drought.{{Sfn|Kumar et al.|2006}} ==Extremes== [[File:Alwar rajasthan india cropped.JPG|thumb|right|upright|alt=Daytime view of a more-or-less cone-shaped peak, perhaps reaching two hundred feet above the surrounding terrain. It is sparsely covered in poor-looking shrubs and trees; it otherwise reveals only an aspect of heated naked rock. Assorted parti-coloured blocky concrete buildings reach down from its lower slopes to a temple tank in the near foreground, around which is arrayed the more rounded and ornate temple structures.|Alwar, on the fringes of the Thar Desert, registered a temperature of {{Convert|50.6|°C|°F}}, India's highest.]] ===Extreme Temperatures: Low=== India's lowest recorded temperature was {{Convert|-45|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}} in [[Dras]], Ladakh, in eastern Jammu and Kashmir; the reading was taken with non-standard equipment. Figures as low as {{Convert|-30.6|°C|°F|0}} have been taken in [[Leh]], further east in Ladakh. However, temperatures on the disputed but Indian-controlled [[Siachen Glacier]] near [[Bilafond La]] ({{Convert|5450|m|ft|0|disp=or}}) and [[Sia La]] ({{Convert|5589|m|ft|0|disp=or}}) have fallen below {{Convert|-55|°C|°F|0}},{{Sfn|McGirk|Adiga|2005}} while blizzards bring wind speeds in excess of {{Convert|250|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}},{{Sfn|Ali|2002}} or [[hurricane]]-force winds ranking at 12—the maximum—on the [[Beaufort scale]]. These conditions, not hostile actions, caused more than 97% of the roughly 15,000 casualties suffered among Indian and Pakistani soldiers during the [[Siachen conflict]].{{Sfn|McGirk|Adiga|2005}}{{Sfn|Ali|2002}}{{Sfn|Desmond|1989}} ===Extreme Temperatures: High=== The highest reliable temperature reading was {{Convert|50.6|°C|°F}} in [[Alwar]], Rajasthan in 1955. The India Meteorological Department doubts the validity of {{Convert|55|°C|°F|0}} readings reported in Orissa during 2005.{{Sfn|Mago|2005}} ===Rain=== The average annual precipitation of {{Convert|11871|mm|in|0}} in the village of [[Mawsynram]], in the hilly northeastern state of Meghalaya, is the highest recorded in Asia, and possibly on Earth.{{Sfn|NCDC|2004}} The village, which sits at an elevation of {{Convert|1401|m|ft|0}}, benefits from its proximity to both the Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal. However, since the town of [[Cherrapunji]], {{Convert|5|km|mi|1}} to the east, is the nearest town to host a meteorological office—none has ever existed in Mawsynram—it is officially credited as being the world's wettest place.{{Sfn|BBC|Giles}} In recent years the Cherrapunji-Mawsynram region has averaged between {{Convert|9296|and|10820|mm|in|0}}{{Sfn|Wolpert|1999|p=4}} of rain annually, though Cherrapunji has had at least one period of daily rainfall that lasted almost two years.{{Sfn|Kushner|2006}} India's highest recorded one-day rainfall total occurred on 26 July 2005, when Mumbai received more than {{Convert|650|mm|in|0|abbr=on}};{{Sfn|BBC|2005}} the massive flooding that resulted killed over 900 people.{{Sfn|The Hindu|2006}}{{Sfn|Vaswani|2006a}} ===Snowfall=== Remote regions of Jammu and Kashmir such as [[Baramulla district]] in the east and the [[Pir Panjal Range]] in the southeast experience exceptionally heavy snowfall. In southern areas around Jammu the climate is typically monsoonal, though the region is sufficiently far west to average {{Convert|40|–|100|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} of rain monthly from January and March. In the hot season, Jammu city is very hot and can reach up to 40 °C (104 °F) while in July and August, very heavy—though erratic—rainfall occurs with monthly extremes of up to {{Convert|650|mm|in}}. Rainfall declines in September; by October conditions are extremely dry, with temperatures of around 29 °C (84 °F). Across from the Pir Panjal range, the South Asian monsoon is no longer a factor and most precipitation falls in the spring from southwestern cloudbands. Because of its closeness to the Arabian Sea, Srinagar receives as much as 25&nbsp;inches (635&nbsp;mm) of rain from this source, with the wettest months being March to May with around 85&nbsp;mm (3.3&nbsp;inches) per month. === Ladakh and the Zanskars=== North of the main Himalaya Range, even the southwestern cloudbands break up or founder; hence the climate of Ladakh and the Zanskars is extremely dry and cold. Annual precipitation is only around 100&nbsp;mm (4&nbsp;inches) per year and humidity is very low. This region is almost entirely above 3,000 metres (9,750&nbsp;ft) above sea level; thus winters are extremely cold. In the Zanskars, the average January temperature is {{Convert|−20|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}} with extremes as low as {{Convert|−40|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}}. All rivers freeze over; locals cross unbridged rivers in winter because summer glacier melt deepens the waters and inhibits fording. Summer in Ladakh and the Zanskars are a pleasantly warm 20 °C (68 °F), but the low humidity and thin air can render nights cold. Kashmir's highest recorded monthly snowfall occurred in February 1967, when {{Convert|8.4|m|ft|1}} fell in [[Gulmarg]], though the IMD has recorded snowdrifts up to {{Convert|12|m|ft|1}}in several Kashmiri districts. In February 2005, more than 200 people died when, in four days, a western disturbance brought up to {{Convert|2|m|ft|1}} of snowfall to parts of the state.{{Sfn|GOI Ministry of Home Affairs|2005}} ==Global warming== {{Main|Effects of global warming on South Asia}} {{See also|2007 South Asian heat wave}} [[File:LakshadweepIsland.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Daytime edge-on view of a small forested island amid a shallow turquoise lagoon. The dark sky blue above is streaked by thin, wispy clouds of various sizes. The lone island is evenly low-slung, no part of it reaching any substantial height whatever.|The tiny low-lying islands of Lakshadweep may be inundated by sea level rises associated with global warming.]] [[Current sea level rise]], increased cyclonic activity, increased ambient temperatures, and increasingly fickle precipitation patterns are [[effects of global warming]] that have affected or are projected to impact India. Thousands of people have been displaced by ongoing sea level rises that have submerged low-lying islands in the [[Sundarbans]].{{Sfn|Harrabin|2007}} Temperature rises on the Tibetan Plateau are causing [[retreat of glaciers since 1850|Himalayan glaciers to retreat]], threatening the [[volumetric flow rate|flow rate]] of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, [[Yamuna]], and other major rivers; the livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of farmers depend on these rivers.{{Sfn|Times of India|2007}} A 2007 [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) report states that the [[Indus River]] may run dry for the same reason.{{Sfn|BBC|2007}} Severe landslides and floods are projected to become increasingly common in such states as Assam.{{Sfn|Dasgupta|2007}} Ecological disasters, such as a 1998 [[coral bleaching]] event that killed off more than 70% of corals in the reef ecosystems off Lakshadweep and the Andamans and was brought on by elevated ocean temperatures tied to global warming, are also projected to become increasingly common.{{Sfn|Aggarwal|Lal}}{{Sfn|Normile|2000}}{{Sfn|Union of Concerned Scientists}} Meghalaya and other northeastern states are also concerned that rising sea levels will submerge much of Bangladesh and spawn a refugee crisis. If severe climate changes occurs, Bangladesh and parts of India that border it may lose vast tracts of coastal land.{{Sfn|Hossain|2011|p=130}} The [[Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research]] has reported that, if the predictions relating to global warming made by the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] come to fruition, climate-related factors could cause India's GDP to decline by up to 9%. Contributing to this would be shifting growing seasons for major crops such as rice, production of which could fall by 40%. Around seven million people are projected to be displaced due to, among other factors, submersion of parts of Mumbai and Chennai if global temperatures were to rise by a mere {{Convert|2|C-change|1|abbr=on}}.{{Sfn|Sethi|2007}} Such shifts are not new. Earlier in the [[Holocene]] epoch (4,800–6,300&nbsp;years ago), parts of what is now the Thar Desert were wet enough to support perennial lakes; researchers have proposed that this was due to much higher winter precipitation, which coincided with stronger monsoons.{{Sfn|Enzel et al.|1999}} Kashmir's erstwhile subtropical climate dramatically cooled 2.6–3.7&nbsp;Ma and experienced prolonged cold spells starting 600,000 years ago.{{Sfn|Pant|2003}} ==Atmospheric pollution== [[File:Hazesmoke Gangeticbasin.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Satellite view of the northern portion of South Asia. The arc of a substantial range of mountains, the Himalayas, dips into the shot, then back up out of view. Immediately beneath, a large region of plains is hidden by a continuous cloud-like opaque mass that has collected along the southern margins of the mountains. It proceeds eastward, staying just south of the Himalayas, then bends due south to reach the Bay of Bengal. Two parts of the mass appear particularly dense, showing up as bright white blobs in the shot.|Clouds of thick haze and smoke may form over the Ganges river basin.]] Thick haze and smoke originating from burning biomass in northwestern India{{Sfn|Badarinath et al.|2006}} and air pollution from large industrial cities in northern India{{Sfn|Lau|2005}} often concentrate over the [[Ganges Basin]]. Prevailing westerlies carry aerosols along the southern margins of the sheer-faced Tibetan Plateau towards eastern India and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Dust and [[black carbon]], which are blown towards higher altitudes by winds at the southern margins of the Himalayas, can absorb shortwave radiation and heat the air over the Tibetan Plateau. The net atmospheric heating due to aerosol absorption causes the air to warm and [[convection|convect]] upwards, increasing the concentration of moisture in the mid-[[troposphere]] and providing positive feedback that stimulates further heating of aerosols.{{Sfn|Lau|2005}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=N}} {{Clear}} ==Citations== {{Reflist|colwidth=22em}} ==References== '''Articles''' {{Refbegin|colwidth=33em}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Ali}}|first=A.|publication-date=November 2002|year=2002|title=A Siachen Peace Park: The Solution to a Half-Century of International Conflict?|periodical=Mountain Research and Development|volume=22|issue=4|pages=316–319|issn=0276-4741|doi=10.1659/0276-4741(2002)022[0316:ASPPTS]2.0.CO;2}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Badarinath}}|first=K. V. S.|last2={{Smallcaps|Chand}}|first2=T. R. K.|last3={{Smallcaps|Prasad}}|first3=V. 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H.|publication-date=1 November 2002|year=2002|title=Floods, Droughts, and Climate Change|publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]]|isbn=978-0-8165-2250-7<!--0816522502-->}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Heitzman}}|first=J.|last2={{Smallcaps|Worden}}|publication-date=August 1996|first2=R. L.|year=1996 |title=India: A Country Study|edition=5th|work=[[Library of Congress]]|series=Area Handbook Series|publisher=[[United States Government Printing Office]]|isbn=978-0-8444-0833-0<!--0844408336-->}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Hossain}}|first=M.|publication-date=11 May 2011|year=2011|title=Climate Change and Growth in Asia|chapter=Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Bangladesh|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-84844-245-0<!--1848442459-->}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Nash}}|first=J. M.|publication-date=12 March 2002|year=2002|title=El Niño: Unlocking the Secrets of the Master Weather Maker|publisher=Warner Books|isbn=978-0-446-52481-0<!--0446524816-->}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Posey}}|publication-date=1 November 1994|first=C. A.|year=1994|title=The Living Earth Book of Wind and Weather|publisher=[[Reader's Digest Association]]|isbn=978-0-89577-625-9<!--0895776251-->}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Singh}}|first=V. P. (editor)|last2={{Smallcaps|Ojha}}|first2=C. S. P. (editor)|last3={{Smallcaps|Sharma}}|first3=N. (editor)|publication-date=29 February 2004|year=2004|title=The Brahmaputra Basin Water Resources|edition=1st|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-1737-7<!--1402017375-->}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Wolpert}}|first=S.|author-link=Stanley Wolpert|publication-date=25 November 1999|year=1999|title=A New History of India|edition=6th|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-512877-2<!--019512877X-->}} {{Refend}} '''Items''' {{Refbegin|colwidth=33em}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Aggarwal}}|first=D.|last2={{Smallcaps|Lal}}|first2=M.|title=Vulnerability of the Indian Coastline to Sea Level Rise|work=SURVAS Flood Hazard Research Centre<!--|url=http://www.survas.mdx.ac.uk/pdfs/3dikshas.pdf|accessdate=5 April 2007|format=PDF-->|ref={{Sfnref|Aggarwal|Lal}}}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Dasgupta}}|first=S.|publication-date=3 February 2007|year=2007|title=Warmer Tibet Can See Brahmaputra Flood Assam|publisher=[[Times of India]]|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/NEWS/India/Warmer_Tibet_can_see_Brahmaputra_flood_Assam/articleshow/1556649.cms|accessdate=1 October 2011}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Desmond}}|first=E. W.|publication-date=31 July 1989|year=1989|title=The Himalayas: War at the Top of the World|publisher=Time|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,958254-1,00.html|accessdate=7 April 2007}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Farooq}}|first=O.|publication-date=17 May 2002|year=2002|title=India's Heat Wave Tragedy|work=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1994174.stm|accessdate=1 October 2011}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Giles}}|first=B.|title=Deluges|work=[[BBC Weather]]<!--|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/deluges.shtml-->|ref={{Sfnref|BBC|Giles}}}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Hara}}|first=M.|last2={{Smallcaps|Kimura}}|first2=F.|last3={{Smallcaps|Yasunari}}|first3=T.|title=The Generation Mechanism of the Western Disturbances over the Himalayas|work=Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Centre|publisher=Nagoya University}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Harrabin}}|first=R.|publication-date=1 February 2007|year=2007|title=How climate change hits India's poor|publisher=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6319921.stm|accessdate=1 October 2011}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Healy}}|first=M.|title=South Asia: Monsoons|publisher=Harper College|url=http://www.harpercollege.edu/mhealy/g101ilec/sasia/ssd/ssmon/ssmonfr.htm|accessdate=1 October 2011|ref={{Sfnref|Healy}}}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Kimmel}}|first=T. M.|publication-date=2000|year=2000|title=Weather and Climate: Koppen Climate Classification Flow Chart|publisher=University of Texas at Austin||url=http://www.utexas.edu/depts/grg/kimmel/GRG301K/grg301kkoppen.html|accessdate=8 April 2007}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Lau}}|first=W. K. M.|publication-date=20 February 2005|year=2005|title=Aerosols May Cause Anomalies in the Indian Monsoon|publisher=Climate and Radiation Branch, [[Goddard Space Flight Centre]], [[NASA]]|url=http://climate.gsfc.nasa.gov/viewImage.php?id=110|format=PHP|accessdate=10 September 2011}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Mago}}|first=C.|publication-date=20 June 2005|year=2005|title=High Water, Heat Wave, Hope Floats|publisher=[[Times of India]]}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|McGirk}}|first=T.|last2={{Smallcaps|Adiga}}|first2=A.|publication-date=4 May 2005|year=2005|title=War at the Top of the World|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1079528,00.html|accessdate=1 October 2011}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Ravindranath}}|first=N. H.|last2={{Smallcaps|Bala}}|first2=G.|last3={{Smallcaps|Sharma}}|first3=S. K.|publication-date=10 August 2011|year=2011|title=In This Issue|periodical=Current Science|volume=101|issue=3|pages=255–256|url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/10aug2011/255.pdf|accessdate=3 October 2011}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Sethi}}|first=N.|publication-date=3 February 2007|year=2007|title=Global Warming: Mumbai to Face the Heat|publisher=[[Times of India]]|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/NEWS/India/Global_warming_Mumbai_to_face_the_heat/articleshow/msid-1556662,curpg-1.cms|accessdate=18 March 2007}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Vaswani}}|first=K.|publication-date=20 June 2006|year=2006|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/5087442.stm|accessdate=23 April 2007|title=India's Forgotten Farmers Await Monsoon|ref={{Sfnref|Vaswani|2006a}}}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Vaswani}}|first=K.|publication-date=27 July 2006|year=2006|title=Mumbai Remembers Last Year's Floods|publisher=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/5219082.stm|accessdate=1 October 2011|ref={{Sfnref|Vaswani|2006b}}}} {{Refend}} '''Other''' {{Refbegin|colwidth=33em}} * {{Citation|publication-date=17 December 2003|year=2003|title=Air India Reschedules Delhi-London/New York and Frankfurt Flights Due to Fog|work=Air India|url=http://www.airindia.com/article.asp?articleid=235|accessdate=18 March 2007|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060719134022/http://www.airindia.com/article.asp?articleid=235|archivedate=19 July 2006|ref={{Sfnref|Air India|2003}}}} * {{Citation|author=[[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory]], Hurricane Research Division|title=Frequently Asked Questions: What Are the Average, Most, and Least Tropical Cyclones Occurring in Each Basin?|publisher=[[NOAA]]|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/E10.html|accessdate=25 July 2006|ref={{Sfnref|AOML FAQ E10}}}} * {{Citation|author=[[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory]], Hurricane Research Division|title=Frequently Asked Questions: When Is Hurricane Season?|publisher=[[NOAA]]|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html|accessdate=25 July 2006|ref={{Sfnref|AOML FAQ G1}}}} * {{Citation|publication-date=2005|year=2005|title=1999 Supercyclone of Orissa|work=BAPS Care International|ref={{Sfnref|BAPS|2005}}}} * {{Citation|publication-date=1 August 2005|title=Millions Suffer in Indian Monsoon|publisher=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4733897.stm|accessdate=1 October 2011|ref={{Sfnref|BBC|2005}}}} * {{Citation|publication-date=31 March 2004|year=2004|title=India Records Double-Digit Growth|work=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3585225.stm|accessdate=23 April 2007|ref={{Sfnref|BBC|2004}}}} * {{Citation|publication-date=20 March 2007|title=Rivers Run Towards "Crisis Point"|publisher=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6468451.stm|accessdate=1 October 2011|ref={{Sfnref|BBC|2007}}}} * {{Citation|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/monsoon_impacts.shtml|title=The Impacts of the Asian Monsoon|work=BBC Weather|accessdate=23 April 2007|ref={{Sfnref|BBC Weather|A}}}} * {{Citation|title=Country Guide: India|work=[[BBC Weather]]|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002240|accessdate=23 March 2007|ref={{Sfnref|BBC Weather|B}}}} * {{Citation|title=Soil and Climate of Bihar|publisher=Government of Bihar|url=http://gov.bih.nic.in/profile/climate.htm|accessdate=13 September 2011|ref={{Sfnref|Government of Bihar}}}} * {{Citation|publication-date=28 February 2005|title=Snow Fall and Avalanches in Jammu and Kashmir|work=National Disaster Management Division|publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, [[Government of India]]|url=http://mha.nic.in/press-release/pr240205.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=24 March 2007|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070701042024/http://mha.nic.in/press-release/pr240205.pdf|archivedate=1 July 2007|ref={{Sfnref|GOI Ministry of Home Affairs|2005}}}} * {{Citation|publisher=The Hindu|publication-date=5 July 2006|title=Rain Brings Mumbai to a Halt, Rescue Teams Deployed|url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/05/stories/2006070505741300.htm|accessdate=1 October 2011|ref={{Sfnref|The Hindu|2006}}}} * {{Citation|title=Southwest Monsoon: Normal Dates of Onset|publisher=India Meteorological Department|url=http://www.imd.gov.in/section/climate/monsoon-onset.htm|accessdate=1 October 2011|ref={{Sfnref|India Meteorological Department|A}}}} * {{Citation|title=Rainfall during pre-monsoon season|work=India Meteorological Department|url=http://www.imd.ernet.in/section/nhac/dynamic/TABLE-1.htm|accessdate=26 March 2007|ref={{Sfnref|India Meteorological Department|B}}}} * {{Citation|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html|title=A Country Study: India|work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|publisher=[[Library of Congress]] ([[Federal Research Division]])|accessdate=26 March 2007|ref={{Sfnref|Library of Congress}}}} * {{Citation|publication-date=9 August 2004|year=2004|title=Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation|publisher=National Climatic Data Centre|url=http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html#highpre|accessdate=1 October 2011|ref={{Sfnref|NCDC|2004}}}} * {{Citation|title=Climate|work=National Council of Educational Research and Training|page=28|url=http://www.ncert.nic.in/book_publishing/Class%209/Geography/Chapter%204.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=31 March 2007|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070228113123/http://www.ncert.nic.in/book_publishing/Class+9/Geography/Chapter+4.pdf|archivedate=28 February 2007|ref={{Sfnref|NCERT|p=28}}}} * {{Citation|publication-date=3 April 2007|title=Himalayan Meltdown Catastrophic for India|publisher=[[Times of India]]|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Himalayan_meltdown_catastrophic_for_India/articleshow/1848002.cms|accessdate=1 October 2011|ref={{Sfnref|Times of India|2007}}}} * {{Citation|title=Tropical Cyclone 05B|work=Naval Maritime Forecast Centre (Joint Typhoon Warning Centre)|publisher=[[United States Navy]]<!--|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1999atcr/pdf/05b.pdf|accessdate=8 April 2007|format=PDF-->|ref={{Sfnref|Typhoon Warning Centre}}}} * {{Citation|year=2005|title=Early Warning Signs: Coral Reef Bleaching|work=Union of Concerned Scientists|url=http://www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/science/early-warning-signs-of-global-warming-coral-reef-bleaching.html|accessdate=1 October 2011|ref={{Sfnref|Union of Concerned Scientists}}}} * {{Citation|title=Weatherbase|work=Weatherbase|url=http://www.weatherbase.com|accessdate=24 March 2007|ref={{Sfnref|Weatherbase}}}} * {{Citation|title=Wunderground|work=Weather Underground|url=http://www.wunderground.com|accessdate=24 March 2007|ref={{Sfnref|Weather Underground}}}} * {{Citation|url=http://www.weather.com|title=Weather.com|work=[[The Weather Channel (United States)|The Weather Channel]]|accessdate=23 March 2007|ref={{Sfnref|Weather Channel}}}} * {{Citation|title=India|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html |accessdate=1 October 2011|ref={{Sfnref|CIA World Factbook}}}} {{Refend}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin}} * {{Citation|last={{Smallcaps|Toman}}|first=M. A.|last2={{Smallcaps|Chakravorty}}|first2=U.|last3={{Smallcaps|Gupta}}|first3=S.|publication-date=1 June 2003|year=2003|title=India and Global Climate Change: Perspectives on Economics and Policy from a Developing Country|publisher=Resources for the Future Press|isbn=978-1-891853-61-6<!--1891853619-->}} {{Refend}} ==External links== <!--BLOGS AND COMMERCIAL SITES WILL BE REMOVED. SEE [[WP:EL]].--> {|align="right" |- |style="vertical-align:top;"| {{Portal|Environment|India}} |style="vertical-align:top;"| [[File:Monsoon season beach Tamil Nadu India.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Late daytime view looking far out over an ocean from a beach, which is out of view off the bottom margin. Three-fourths of the shot features a sky marked by heavy cloud cover, which is parting near the middle, revealing a dazzlingly bright cerulean blue sky that darkens near the margins. The ocean is striated with waves coming in parallel to the horizon.|Late-season monsoonal sunset, [[Coromandel Coast]].]] |} {{Refbegin}} '''General overview''' * {{Citation |title=Country Guide: India |work=[[BBC Weather]] |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002240 }} '''Maps, imagery, and statistics''' * {{Citation |title=India Meteorological Department |work=[[Government of India]] |url=http://www.imd.gov.in/ }} * {{Citation |title=Weather Resource System for India |work=[[National Informatics Centre]] |url=http://www.weather.nic.in/ }} * {{Citation |title=Extreme Weather Events over India in the last 100 years |work=[[Indian Geophysical Union]] |url=http://www.igu.in/9-3/3usde.pdf |format=PDF }} '''Forecasts''' * {{Citation |title=India: Current Weather Conditions |work=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |url=http://weather.noaa.gov/weather/IN_cc.html }} {{Refend}} ---- {{Navboxes|title=Links to related articles|list= {{Asia topic|Climate of}} {{Climate of India by state or territory}} {{Geography of India}} {{Life in India}} }} {{Subject bar|b=y|commons=y|n=y|q=y|s=y|v=y}} {{Featured article}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Climate of India}} [[Category:Climate of India| ]]'