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'{{Protestantism}} '''Protestantism''' encompasses forms of [[Christianity|Christian]] faith and practice that originated with doctrines and religious, political, and ecclesiological impulses of the [[Protestant Reformation]] against what they considered the errors of the [[Catholic Church]]. The term refers to the letter of protestation by [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] princes against the decision of the [[Diet of Speyer (1529)|Diet of Speyer]] in 1529, which reaffirmed the edict of the [[Diet of Worms]] condemning the teachings of [[Martin Luther]] as [[heresy]]. However, the term has been used in several different senses, often as a general term to refer to [[Western Christianity]] that is not subject to [[pope|papal]] authority, including some traditions that were not part of the original Protestant movement; a "branch" of Christianity.<ref>{{cite web |title=protestant |url=http://mw3.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/protestantism |work=Merriam-Webster |accessdate=5 November 2013}}</ref> The Protestant movement has its origins in Germany and is popularly considered to have begun in 1517 when Luther published [[The Ninety-Five Theses]] as a reaction against [[Medieval Christian theology|medieval doctrines and practices]], especially with regard to [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]], [[Justification (theology)|justification]], and [[ecclesiology]]. The various Protestant denominations share a rejection of the [[papal supremacy|authority]] of the [[pope]] and generally deny the Catholic doctrine of [[transubstantiation]], although they disagree among themselves about [[Eucharistic theology|the doctrine]] of Christ's presence in the [[Eucharist]]. They generally emphasize the [[priesthood of all believers]], the doctrine of [[sola fide|justification by faith alone]] (''sola fide'') apart from good works, and a belief in [[Bible|the Bible]] alone (rather than with [[Sacred tradition|Catholic tradition]]) as the supreme authority in matters of faith and [[Christian ethics|morals]] (''[[sola scriptura]]''). [[File:Mikolow protestant church pulpit.jpg|thumb|right|Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]] depicted on a church [[pulpit]].]] In the [[Christianity in the 16th century|16th century]], the followers of Martin Luther established the [[Lutheran]] churches of Germany and Scandinavia. [[Calvinism|Reformed]] churches in [[Reformed Church in Hungary|Hungary]], [[Church of Scotland|Scotland]], [[Swiss Reformation|Switzerland]] and [[Reformed Church of France|France]] were established by other reformers such as [[John Calvin]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], and [[John Knox]]. The [[Church of England]] declared independence from papal authority in 1534, and was influenced by some Reformation principles, notably during the reign of [[Edward VI]]. There were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the [[Radical Reformation]] which gave rise to the [[Anabaptist]], [[Moravian Church|Moravian]], and other [[Pietism|pietistic]] movements. Protestants generally may be divided among four basic groups: The [[mainline Protestant|"mainline" churches]] with direct roots in the Protestant reformers; the Radical Reform movement emphasizing adult baptism; [[nontrinitarian]] churches; and the [[Restorationism|Restorationist]] movements of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. There are over 33,000 [[Christianity#Major denominations within Christianity|Protestant denominations]], and not every one fits neatly into these categories. [[File:2006 Berliner Dom Front.jpg|thumb|right|The ''Berliner Dom'' ([[Berlin Cathedral]]), Protestant cathedral in [[Berlin]].]] ==Etymology== The exact origin of the term ''protestant'' is uncertain, and may come either from French ''[[:wikt:protestant#French|protestant]]'' or German ''[[:wikt:Protestant#German|Protestant]]''. However, it is certain that both languages derived their word from the {{lang-la|protestantem}}, meaning "one who publicly declares/protests",<ref>{{cite web|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Protestant&allowed_in_frame=0|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> which refers to the protest against some beliefs and practices of the early 16th century [[Catholic Church]]. The term ''protestant'' was not initially applied to the reformers, but later was used to describe all groups protesting Catholic orthodoxy. Since that time, the term ''protestant'' has been used in many different senses, often as a general term merely to signify [[Christians]] who belong to none of the historic traditions ([[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Monophysite]], or [[Assyrian Church of the East|Nestorian]]). im awesome == Fundamental principles == [[File:Lucas Cranach d. Ä. 027.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], ''The Lamentation of Christ'' (1503)]] The three fundamental principles of traditional Protestantism are the following: ;Scripture alone: The belief in the Bible as the [[Sola scriptura|supreme source of authority]] for the church. The early churches of the Reformation believed in a critical, yet serious, reading of scripture and holding the Bible as a source of authority higher than that of [[Sacred Tradition|church tradition]]. The many abuses that had occurred in the Western Church prior to the Protestant Reformation led the reformers to reject much of the tradition of the Western Church, though some would maintain tradition has been maintained and reorganized in the liturgy and in the [[Confession of Faith|confessions]] of the Protestant churches of the Reformation. In the early 20th century there developed a less critical reading of the Bible in the United States that has led to a "fundamentalist" reading of scripture. Christian fundamentalists read the Bible as the "inerrant, infallible" word of God, as do the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican churches, to name a few, but interpret it in a more literal way. ;Justification by faith alone: "The subjective principle of the Reformation is [[Justification (theology)|justification]] by [[Sola fide|faith alone]], or, rather, by free grace through faith operative in good works. It has reference to the personal appropriation of the Christian salvation and aims to give [[soli deo gloria|all glory to Christ]] by declaring that the sinner is justified before God (i.e., is acquitted of guilt and declared righteous) solely on the ground of the [[Solus Christus|all-sufficient merits of Christ]] as apprehended by a living faith, in opposition to the theory — then prevalent and substantially sanctioned by the [[Council of Trent]] — which makes faith and good works coordinate sources of justification, laying the chief stress upon works. Protestantism does not depreciate good works, but it denies their value as sources or conditions of justification and insists on them as the necessary fruits of faith and evidence of justification."<ref name="SchaffHerzog">Johann Jakob Herzog, Philip Schaff, Albert. ''The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge''. 1911, page 419. http://books.google.com/books?id=AmYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA419</ref>'' ;Universal priesthood of believers: The universal [[Priesthood of all believers|priesthood of believers]] implies the right and duty of the Christian laity not only to read the Bible in the [[vernacular]], but also to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the Church. It is opposed to the hierarchical system which puts the essence and authority of the Church in an exclusive priesthood, and makes ordained priests the necessary mediators between God and the people.<ref name="SchaffHerzog" /> ==Theology== ===The Ninety-Five Theses === [[File:Luther95theses.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Martin Luther nailing his 95 theses to the door of [[All Saints' Church, Wittenberg|All Saints' Church]] on 31 October 1517, sparking the Reformation.]] In 1517, Martin Luther, a German [[Augustinian Order|Augustinian friar]], published ''The Ninety-Five Theses''. Popular history holds that these theses were nailed to a church door in the university town of [[Wittenberg]] by Luther himself, but this claim has recently come under scrutiny (see article on Martin Luther for discussion). Luther's propositions challenged some portions of Catholic doctrine and a number of specific practices. [[File:Luther-melanch-kreuzkirche-bretten.jpg|thumb|left|[[Philipp Melanchthon]] and [[Martin Luther]] ]] Luther was particularly criticizing a common church practice of the day, the selling of [[indulgence]]s. In Catholic theology, an indulgence is the full or partial remission of temporal punishment due for sins which have already been forgiven. However, [[Pope Leo X]] had declared that indulgences were not only for the remission of temporal punishment, but also for guilt itself.{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}} To Luther, it appeared that selling indulgences was tantamount to selling salvation, something that he felt was against both biblical teaching and Catholic doctrine. At the time, Rome was using the sale of indulgences as a means to raise money for a massive church project, the construction of [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. The ''Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences'' (commonly known as ''The Ninety-Five Theses'')<ref>{{cite book|last=Luther|first=Martin|title=Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences|year=1517|location=Wittenburg|url=http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/ninetyfive.txt}}</ref> was a request for a formal disputation that criticized the practice of selling indulgences. This kind of disputation was a common academic exercise during this era. Luther maintained that justification (salvation) was granted by faith alone, saying that good works and the sacraments were not necessary in order to be saved. A copy of the disputation eventually made it to the hands of the regional bishop, who in turn forwarded the disputation to Rome.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Protestant Reformation|url=http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1136.html|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> ===Five solae=== {{Main|Five solae}} {{Five solae}} [[File:Beeldenstorm.jpg|thumb|200px|Protestant [[iconoclasm]]: the ''[[Beeldenstorm]]'' during the [[History of religion in the Netherlands#Reformation and counter-reformation|Dutch reformation]]]] The Five ''solae'' are five [[Latin]] phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and summarize the reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the [[Catholic Church]] of the day. The Latin word ''sola'' means "alone", "only", or "single". The use of the phrases as summaries of teaching emerged over time during the reformation, based on the overarching principle of ''[[sola scriptura]]'' (by scripture alone). This idea contains the four main doctrines on the Bible: that its teaching is needed for salvation (necessity); that all the doctrine necessary for salvation comes from the Bible alone (sufficiency); that everything taught in the Bible is correct (inerrancy); and that, by the Holy Spirit overcoming sin, believers may read and understand truth from the Bible itself, though understanding is difficult, so the means used to guide individual believers to the true teaching is often mutual discussion within the church (clarity). The necessity and inerrancy were well-established ideas, garnering little criticism, though they later came under debate from outside during the Enlightenment. The most contentious idea at the time though was the notion that anyone could simply pick up the Bible and learn enough to gain salvation. Though the reformers were concerned with ecclesiology (the doctrine of how the church as a body works), they had a different understanding of the process in which truths in scripture were applied to life of believers, compared to the Catholics' idea that certain people within the church, or ideas that were old enough, had a special status in giving understanding of the text. The second main principle, ''[[sola fide]]'' (by faith alone), states that faith in Christ is sufficient alone for eternal salvation. Though argued from scripture, and hence logically consequent to ''sola scriptura'', this is the guiding principle of the work of Luther and the later reformers. Because ''sola scriptura'' placed the Bible as the only source of teaching, ''sola fide'' epitomises the main thrust of the teaching the reformers wanted to get back to, namely the direct, close, personal connection between Christ and the believer, hence the reformers' contention that their work was Christocentric. The other solas, as statements, emerged later, but the thinking they represent was also part of the early reformation. * ''[[Solus Christus]]'': ''Christ alone''. : The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of works made meritorious by Christ, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of Christ and his saints, as a denial that Christ is the ''only'' mediator between [[God]] and man. Catholics, on the other hand, maintained the traditional understanding of Judaism on these questions, and appealed to the universal consensus of Christian tradition.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matt.|16:18}}, {{Bibleref2|1Cor.|3:11||1 Cor. 3:11}}, {{Bibleref2|Eph.|2:20}}, {{Bibleref2|1Pet.|2:5–6||1 Pet. 2:5–6}}, {{Bibleref2|Rev.|21:14}}</ref> * ''[[Sola Gratia]]'': ''Grace alone''. : Protestants perceived Roman Catholic salvation to be dependent upon the grace of God and the merits of one's own works. The reformers posited that salvation is a gift of God (i.e., God's act of free grace), dispensed by the Holy Spirit owing to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without regard for the merit of his works, for no one ''deserves'' salvation.{{Bibleref2c|Matt.|7:21}} * ''[[Soli Deo Gloria]]'': ''Glory to God alone'' : All glory is due to God alone since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action — not only the gift of the all-sufficient [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]] of [[Jesus]] on [[Christian cross|the cross]] but also the gift of faith in that atonement, created in the heart of the believer by the [[Holy Spirit]]. The reformers believed that human beings — even saints [[canonization|canonized]] by the Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy — are not worthy of the glory. === Christ's presence in the Eucharist === {{Main|Eucharistic theology}} [[File:Abendmahl-1547-LC.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A Lutheran depiction of the [[Last Supper]], by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], 1547]] The Protestant movement began to diverge into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late 16th century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the [[Eucharist]]. Early Protestants rejected the Roman Catholic [[dogma]] of [[transubstantiation]], which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the body, blood, soul, and divinity of Christ. They disagreed with one another concerning the presence of Christ and his body and blood in Holy Communion. * Lutherans hold that within the [[Eucharist#Lutherans: Sacramental union: "in, with, and under the forms of bread and wine"|Lord's Supper]] the consecrated elements of bread and wine are the true body and blood of Christ "in, with, and under the form" of bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it,{{bibleref2c|1Cor|10:16|47}} {{bibleref2c-nb|1Cor|11:20,27|47}} <ref>Engelder, T.E.W., ''[http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1 Popular Symbolics]. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 95, Part XXIV. "The Lord's Supper", paragraph 131.</ref> a doctrine that the [[Formula of Concord]] calls the [[Sacramental union]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bookofconcord.com/fc-sd/supper.html |title=The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article 8, The Holy Supper |publisher=Bookofconcord.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> God earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament,{{bibleref2c|Lk|22:19-20|50}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Graebner |first=Augustus Lawrence |url=http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt|title=Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology |page=162 |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1910}}</ref> forgiveness of sins,{{bibleref2c|Mt|26:28|50}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Graebner |first=Augustus Lawrence |url=http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt|title=Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology |page=163 |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1910}}</ref> and eternal salvation.<ref>[[Luther's Small Catechism]], [http://www.bookofconcord.org/smallcatechism.php#sacrament Part IV, The Sacrament of the Altar], "What is the benefit of such eating and drinking? That is shown us in these words: Given, and shed for you, for the remission of sins; namely, that in the Sacrament forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation are given us through these words. For where there is forgiveness of sins, there is also life and salvation." {{cite book |last=Graebner |first=Augustus Lawrence |url=http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt|title=Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology |page=163 |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1910}}</ref> * The [[Calvinism|reformed closest to Calvin]] emphasize the ''[[real presence]]'', or ''sacramental presence'', of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which only the elect believer actually partakes of Christ, but merely ''with'' the bread and wine rather than in the elements. Calvinists deny the Lutheran assertion that all communicants, both believers and unbelievers, orally receive Christ's body and blood in the elements of the [[sacrament]] but instead affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith — toward which the supper is an outward and visible aid. This is often referred to as ''dynamic presence''. * A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the body of Christ (a view referred to somewhat derisively as ''memorialism''). == History == {{Main|History of Protestantism}} ===Proto-Reformation=== ;12th century * [[Peter Waldo]], founder of the [[Waldensians]], proto-reformed group that continues to exist to this day in Italy. ;14th century *[[John Wycliffe]], English reformer, the "Morning Star of Reformation". ;15th century [[File:Muttich, Kamil Vladislav - Mistr Jan Hus na hranici v Kostnici 1415.jpg|thumb|200px|Execution of Jan Hus in 1415]] *[[Jan Hus]], Catholic priest and professor, influenced by John Wycliff's writings, founder of an early Protestant church (Moravians), Czech reformist/dissident; burned to death in [[Constance]], [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1415 by Church authorities "for unrepentant and persistent heresy." After the devastations of the [[Hussite Wars]] some of his followers founded the [[Unitas Fratrum]] in 1457, "Unity of the Brethren", which was renewed under the leadership of Count [[Zinzendorf]] in [[Herrnhut]], [[Saxony]] in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the [[30 Years War]] and [[Counter-Reformation]]. Today it is usually referred to in English as the [[Moravian Church]], in [[German language|German]] the [[Herrnhuter Brüdergemeinde]]. === Reformation proper === {{Main|Protestant Reformation}} ; 16th century * [[Jacobus Arminius]], Dutch theologian, founder of school of thought known as [[Arminianism]] * [[Heinrich Bullinger]], successor of [[Zwingli]], leading reformed theologian * [[John Calvin]], French theologian, [[Protestant Reformation|reformer]] and resident of [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], he founded the school of theology known as [[Calvinism]] * [[Balthasar Hubmaier]], influential Anabaptist theologian, author of numerous works during his five years of ministry, tortured at Zwingli's behest, and executed in Vienna * [[John Knox]], Scottish Calvinist and leader of the [[Scottish Reformation]] * [[Martin Luther]], church reformer and founder of Protestantism whose theological works guided those now known as [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] * [[Philipp Melanchthon]], early Lutheran leader * [[Menno Simons]], Anabaptist leader who, through his writings, articulated and thereby formalized [[Mennonitism]] * [[John Smyth (Baptist minister)|John Smyth]], early [[Baptist]] leader * [[Huldrych Zwingli]], founder of [[Reformation in Switzerland|Swiss Reformed]] tradition [[File:HolyRomanEmpire 1618.png|thumb|250px|Distribution of Protestantism (red) and Catholicism (blue) in Central Europe on the eve of the [[Thirty Years' War]]]] The [[Protestant Reformation]] of the early 16th century began as an attempt to reform the [[Catholic Church]]. German theologian [[Martin Luther]] wrote his ''[[The Ninety-Five Theses|Ninety-Five Theses]]'' on the sale of indulgences in 1517. Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of [[Ulrich Zwingli]]. The political separation of the [[Church of England]] from Rome under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], beginning in 1529 and completed in 1536, brought England alongside this broad reformed movement. The [[Scottish Reformation]] of 1560 decisively shaped the [[Church of Scotland]]<ref>Article 1, of the [[Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland]] 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'.</ref> and, through it, all other [[Presbyterian]] churches worldwide. Following the [[excommunication]] of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of [[John Calvin]] were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in [[Switzerland]], [[Scotland]], [[Hungary]], [[Germany]] and elsewhere. In the course of this religious upheaval, the [[German Peasants' War]] of 1524&ndash;1525 swept through the [[Bavaria]]n, [[Thuringia]]n and [[Swabia]]n principalities. After the [[Eighty Years' War]] (1568–1648) in the [[Low Countries]] and the [[French Wars of Religion]] (1562–1598), the confessional division of the [[states of the Holy Roman Empire]] eventually erupted in the [[Thirty Years' War]] of 1618&ndash;1648. This left Germany weakened and [[Kleinstaaterei|fragmented]] for more than two centuries, until the unification of Germany under the [[German Empire]] of 1871. The success of the [[Counter-Reformation]] on the continent and the growth of a [[Puritan]] party dedicated to further protestant reform polarized the [[Elizabethan Age]], although it was not until the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] of the 1640s that England underwent religious strife comparable to that which its neighbours had suffered some generations before. The "[[Great Awakenings]]" were periods of rapid and dramatic [[Christian revival|religious revival]] in Anglo-American religious history, generally recognized as beginning in the 1730s. They have also been described as periodic revolutions in [[Christianity in the United States|colonial religious thought]]. In the 20th century, Protestantism, especially [[Protestantism in the United States|in the United States]], was characterized by accelerating fragmentation. The century saw the rise of both liberal and conservative splinter groups, as well as a general secularization of Western society. Notable developments in the 20th century of American protestantism were the rise of [[Pentecostalism]], [[Christian fundamentalism]] and [[Evangelicalism]]. While these movements have spilled over to Europe to a limited degree, the development of protestantism in Europe was more dominated by secularization, leading to an increasingly "[[post-Christian Europe]]". == Denominations == {{Main|Protestants by country}} [[File:A lutheri es kalvini reformacio különbsegei.JPG|thumb||upright=1.25|17th-century painting depicting the differences between Lutheranism and Calvinism]] [[File:Protestant-world-by-country.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Global Protestantism. {{legend|#8FD521|Dominant religion (over 50%)}} {{legend|#DCEEAC|A large religious minority (over 10%)}}]] Protestants refer to specific groupings of churches that share in common foundational doctrines and the name of their groups as "[[List of Christian Denominations#Protestant|denominations]]". Protestants reject the Catholic Church as the [[one true church]]. Some Protestant denominations are less accepting of other denominations, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith, [[Non-denominational]] groups and organizations are also considered Protestant. Due to all these factors, an exact count is not possible, but it is estimated that there are approximately 33,000 Protestant denominations.<ref>The World Christian Encyclopedia by David B. Barrt, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson (2001 edition)</ref> [[File:Antichrist1.jpg|thumb|left|''Passional Christi und Antichristi'', by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], from Luther's 1521 ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. The Pope as the Antichrist, signing and selling [[indulgence]]s.]] Various [[Christian ecumenism|ecumenical movements]] have attempted cooperation or reorganization of the various divided Protestant denominations, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the churches owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief. There are about 800 million Protestants worldwide,<ref>Jay Diamond, Larry. Plattner, Marc F. and Costopoulos, Philip J. ''World Religions and Democracy''. 2005, page 119.( [http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/bmoraski/Democratization/Woodberry04_JOD.pdf also in PDF file], p49), saying "''Not only do Protestants presently constitute 13 percent of the world's population—about 800 million people—but since 1900 Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.''"</ref> among approximately 2.1 billion Christians.<ref>"between 1,250 and 1,750 million adherents, depending on the criteria employed": McGrath, Alister E. ''[http://books.google.com.hk/books?id=ZYN3Rowp8ZYC&pg=PR16&lpg=PR16&source=web&ots=bNVoHZwx6H&sig=D961IonSSKBgItV4v57UCeYhvs0 Christianity: An Introduction]''. 2006, page xv1.</ref><ref>"2.1 thousand million Christians": Hinnells, John R. ''The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion''. 2005, page 441.</ref> These include 170 million in North America, 160 million in Africa, 120 million in Europe, 70 million in Latin America, 60 million in Asia, and 10 million in Oceania. Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the Magisterial Reformation, Radical Reformation and the Puritan Reformation. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning individual denominations within denominational families. Only denominational families are listed below (due to the earlier stated multitude of [[List of Christian denominations|denominations]]); some of these groups do not consider themselves as part of the Protestant movement, but are generally viewed as such by the public at large.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} === Denominational Families === {{Denominations of Christianity}} (Alphabetical) * [[Anglican]] * [[Baptist]] * [[Congregational church|Congregational]] * [[Lutheran]] * [[Methodist]] * [[Presbyterian]] * [[Reformed churches|Reformed]] === Historical chart === [[File:Protestant branches.svg|650px|center|Historical chart of the main Protestant branches]] ==Catholic and Orthodox view on Protestant denominations== [[File:Francois Dubois 001.jpg|thumb|240px|[[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] of French Protestants, 1572]] The view of the [[Catholic Church]] is that Protestant denominations cannot be considered "churches" but rather that they are ''ecclesial communities'' or "specific faith-believing communities" because their ordinances and doctrines are not historically the same as the Catholic sacraments and dogmas, and the Protestant communities have no sacramental ministerial priesthood and therefore lack true [[apostolic succession]].<ref>Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church, June 29, 2007, Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.</ref><ref name=AFAC>{{cite book|last=Stuard-will|first=Kelly|title=A Faraway Ancient Country.|year=2007|publisher=Gardners Books|location=United States|isbn=978-0-615-15801-3|page=216|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q469xc7mbksC&lpg=PA1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|author=Emissary|editor=Karitas Publishing}}</ref> According to Bishop [[Hilarion (Alfeyev)]] the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] share the same opinion on the subject.<ref>[http://orthodoxeurope.org/page/14/124.aspx#2 Bishop Hilarion of Vienna and Austria: The Vatican Document Brings Nothing New]</ref> Contrary to how the Protestant Reformers were often characterized, the concept of a ''catholic'' or universal Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. On the contrary, the visible unity of the Church was seen by the Reformers as an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial Reformers, such as [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]], and [[Ulrich Zwingli]], believed that they were "reforming" the Church, which they viewed as having become corrupted. Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the Church that had left them.<ref>The Protestant Reformers formed a new and radically different theological opinion on ecclesiology, that the visible Church is "catholic" (lower-case "c") rather than "Catholic" (upper-case "C"). Accordingly, there is not an indefinite number of parochial, congregational or national churches, constituting, as it were, so many ecclesiastical individualities, but one great spiritual republic of which these various organizations form a part, although they each have very different opinions. This was markedly far-removed from the traditional and historic understanding that the Catholic (upper-case "C") Church is the one true Church of Christ. Yet in the Protestant understanding, the "visible church" is not a genus, so to speak, with so many species under it. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is a ''totum integrale,'' it is an empire, with an ethereal emperor, rather than a visible one. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all.... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century. James Walker in ''The Theology of Theologians of Scotland.'' (Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp.95-6.</ref> In order to justify their departure from the Catholic Church, Protestants often posited a new argument, saying that there was no real visible Church with divine authority, only a "spiritual", "invisible", and "hidden" church— this notion began in the early days of the Protestant Reformation.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national Protestant church envisioned to be a part of the whole "invisible church", but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters, namely the Papacy and central authority of the Catholic Church. The Reformed churches thus believed in some form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible [[ecclesiastical]] organization based on the 14th and 15th century [[Conciliarism|Conciliar movement]], rejecting the [[papacy]] and [[papal infallibility]] in favor of [[ecumenical council]]s, but rejecting the latest ecumenical council, the [[Council of Trent]]. Religious unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, doctrine, belief, and collaborative action. The Church, citing {{nasb|1Corinthians|1:10-13|1 Corinthians 1:10-13}}, {{nasb|Ephesians|4:1-6|Ephesians 4:1-6}}, {{nasb|Philippians|2:1-2|Philippians 2:1-2}}, and {{nasb|1Peter|3:8|1 Peter 3:8}}, opposed this view. Today there is a growing movement of Protestants, especially of the [[Calvinist]] tradition, that reject the designation "Protestant" because of the negative idea that the word invokes in addition to its primary meaning, preferring the designation "Reformed", "Evangelical" or even "Reformed Catholic" expressive of what they call a "Reformed Catholicity" and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant [[Confession of Faith|confessions]].<ref>''The Canadian Reformed Magazine,'' 18 (September 20–27, October 4–11, 18, November 1, 8, 1969) http://spindleworks.com/library/faber/008_theca.htm</ref> == Radical Reformation == {{Main|Radical Reformation}} Unlike mainstream Protestant/Evangelical ([[Lutheran]]) and Protestant/Evangelical/Reformed ([[Calvinist]], [[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwinglian]]) movements, the [[Radical Reformation]], which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church visible" as distinct from the "Church invisible". It was a rational extension of the state-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. The Radical Reformation was non-mainstream. Protestant ecclesial leaders such as [[Balthasar Hubmaier|Hubmaier]] and [[Melchior Hoffman|Hofmann]] preached the invalidity of infant baptism, advocating baptism as following conversion ([[Believers baptism|"believer's baptism"]]) instead. This was not a doctrine new to the reformers, but was taught by earlier groups, such as the Albigenses in 1147.{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}} In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, the [[Magisterial Reformation]] had not gone far enough. Radical Reformer, [[Andreas Karlstadt|Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt]], for example, referred to the Lutheran theologians at [[Wittenberg]] as the "new papists".<ref>[http://www.reformationhappens.com/movements/magisterial/ The Magisterial Reformation].</ref> A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice of [[Hans Hut]], although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism. The Radical Reformation caused Modalist and Arian doctrines to be restored; these doctrines were taken further to develop Oneness and Socinianism. == Movements == ===Anglicanism=== [[File:StColumbs.JPG|thumb|right|[[St Columb's Cathedral]] is the first Anglican cathedral to be built after the Reformation in the British Isles and the first non-Roman Catholic cathedral to be built in Western Europe]] {{Main|Anglicanism}} The original separation of the [[Church of England]] (then including the [[Church in Wales|Wales]]) and the [[Church of Ireland]] from Rome under [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] was largely political and its religious dimension smaller than some historians have assumed.<ref>Keith Randell. ''Henry VIII and the Reformation in England'', Hodder & Stoughton (1998) p. 88.</ref> Apart from the introduction of the vernacular "Great Bible" in 1539 and a few minor changes, official stances on Christian faith and practice remained virtually unchanged until Henry's death.<ref name="HAI">William P. Haugaard. "The History of Anglicanism I", ''The Study of Anglicanism'', Stephen Sykes and John Booty (eds) SPCK 1988, p.7; pp.7-8; pp.8-9 (respectively)</ref> A "programme of coherent Protestant reform" was implemented after his death by the Privy Council, its chief component being [[Thomas Cranmer|Cranmer]]'s two [[Book of Common Prayer|Books of Common Prayer]] of 1549 and 1552.<ref name="HAI"/> This reform was reversed by [[Mary I of England|Mary I]] (1553-8) but restored in a slightly more conservative shape by [[Elizabeth I]] in 1559, who resisted all attempts to move the Church of England towards a more extreme form of Protestantism.<ref name="HAI"/> In the 19th century some of the [[Oxford Movement|Tractarians]] argued that the Church of England and the other Anglican churches were not Protestant but a "reformed Catholic" or middle path ''([[via media]])'' between Rome and Protestantism. This assertion was attacked by, among others, the [[Church Association]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.churchsociety.org/publications/tracts/CAT049_ProtestantCofE.pdf |title=Church Association Tract 049 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> Today, the [[Anglican Communion]] continues to be composed of theologically diverse traditions, from reformed [[Sydney Anglicanism]] to [[Anglo-Catholicism]], but the general understanding of its position is now that it contains both "Catholic" and "Protestant" elements of doctrine and practice.<ref>''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (1974), art. "Anglicanism", ''New International Dictionary of the Christian Church'', Paternoster Press, Exeter (1974), art. "England, Church of".</ref> === Pietism and Methodism === {{Main|Pietism|Methodism}} The German [[Pietism|Pietist]] movement, together with the influence of the [[Puritan]] Reformation in England in the 17th century, were important influences upon [[John Wesley]] and [[Methodism]], as well as new groups such as the [[Religious Society of Friends]] ("Quakers") and the [[Moravian Church|Moravian]] Brethren from [[Herrnhut]], [[Saxony]], Germany. The practice of a spiritual life, typically combined with social engagement, predominates in classical Pietism, which was a protest against the doctrine-centered "Protestant orthodoxy" of the times, in favor of depth of religious experience. Many of the more conservative Methodists went on to form the [[Holiness movement]], which emphasized a rigorous experience of holiness in practical, daily life. === Evangelicalism === {{Main|Evangelicalism}} {{See also|Conservative evangelicalism}} [[File:Gateway Church 114 Campus.jpg|thumb|An event at [[Gateway Church (Texas)|Gateway Church]]'s 114 Southlake Campus]] Beginning at the end of 18th century, several international revivals of Pietism (such as the [[First Great Awakening|Great Awakening]] and the [[Second Great Awakening]]) took place across denominational lines, largely in the English-speaking world. Their teachings and successor groupings are referred to generally as the Evangelical movement. The chief emphases of this movement were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, [[public morality]] often including [[temperance (virtue)|temperance]] and [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]], de-emphasis of formalism in worship and in doctrine, a broadened role for laity (including women){{citation needed|date=January 2014}} in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines. Some of the major figures in this movement include [[Billy Graham]], [[Harold John Ockenga]], [[John Stott]], and [[Martyn Lloyd-Jones]]. During the 20th century evangelicals reacted to perceived excesses of [[Christian fundamentalism]], adding to concern for biblical authority, an emphasis on liberal arts, cooperation among churches, Christian [[apologetics]], and non-denominational evangelization. === Adventism === {{Main|Adventism}} Adventism is a [[Christianity|Christian]] movement which began in the 19th century, in the context of the [[Second Great Awakening]] in the [[United States]]. The name refers to belief in the imminent [[Second Coming of Christ|Second Coming (or "Second Advent") of Jesus Christ]]. It was started by Baptist minister [[William Miller (preacher)|William Miller]], whose followers became known as [[Millerism|Millerites]]. Today, the largest church within the movement is the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]. The Adventist family of churches is regarded today as conservative.<ref name="Handbook">"Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches" section (p. 256–276) in Frank S. Mead, Samuel S. Hill and Craig D. Atwood, ''Handbook of Denominations in the United States'', 12th edn. Nashville: Abingdon Press</ref> Although these churches hold much in common, their [[Christian theology|theology]] differs on whether the [[intermediate state]] is [[Soul sleep|unconscious sleep]] or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is [[annihilationism|annihilation]] or eternal torment, the nature of [[immortality]], whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of {{bibleverse||Daniel|8|NKJV}} refers to the one in [[heavenly sanctuary|heaven]] or one on earth.<ref name="Handbook"/> The movement has encouraged examination of the [[New Testament]], leading it to observe the [[Sabbath in Seventh-day Adventism|Sabbath]]. === Modernism and Liberalism === {{Main|Liberal Christianity}} Modernism and liberalism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. === Pentecostalism === {{Main|Pentecostalism}} Pentecostalism, as a movement, began in the United States early in the 20th century, starting especially within the Holiness movement. Seeking a return to the operation of New Testament gifts of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues as evidence of the "baptism of the Holy Ghost" or to make the unbeliever believe became the leading feature. Divine healing and miracles were also emphasized. Pentecostalism swept through much of the Holiness movement, and eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations in the United States. A later [[Charismatic movement|"charismatic"]] movement also stressed the gifts of the Spirit, but often operated within existing denominations, rather than by coming out of them. === Fundamentalism === {{Main|Christian fundamentalism}} In reaction to liberal Bible critique, [[fundamentalism]] arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalist theology tends to stress [[Biblical inerrancy]] and [[Biblical literalism]]. Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism, however the labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism. === Neo-orthodoxy and Paleo-orthodoxy === {{Main|Neo-orthodoxy|Paleo-orthodoxy}} A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with [[Karl Barth]] and [[Jürgen Moltmann]], neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "Crisis theology", according to the influence of philosophical [[existentialism]] on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called ''neo-evangelicalism''. Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early creeds and church councils as a means of properly understanding the scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational and the most notable exponent in the movement is [[United Methodist]] theologian [[Thomas Oden]]. === Biblical Unitarian Movement === {{Main|Biblical Unitarianism}} Biblical Unitarianism<ref>Generally capitalized "b. U." - Dowley 1977 Larsen 2011 Robertson 1929 BFER 1882 PTR 1929 New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1987. See [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (capital letters)]], article [[English capitalisation]] cites source: L. Sue Baugh Essentials of English Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of English (9780844258218) Second Edition 1994 p59 "Religious Names and Terms: The names of all religions, denominations, and local groups are capitalized." Uncapitalized: Ankerberg.</ref> identifies the [[Christianity#Beliefs|Christian belief]] that the [[Bible]] teaches God is a singular person—the Father—and that [[Jesus]] is a distinct being, his son. [[Biblical Unitarianism#Denominations|A few denominations]] use this term to describe themselves, clarifying the distinction between them and those churches<ref>Tuggy, Dale, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/unitarianism.html'Unitarianism' (2009). ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'']. Accessed 10-30-2010</ref> which, from the late 19th century, evolved into [[General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches|modern British Unitarianism]] and, primarily in the United States, [[Unitarian Universalism]]. === Latter Day Saint Movement (Mormonism) === The Latter-Day Saint Movement, founded by [[Joseph Smith|Joseph Smith, Jr.]] in 1830, encompasses many separate denominations within itself, such as the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and the [[Community of Christ]] (formerly [[Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]]), and fundamentalist Mormon sects, such as the [[Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]]. Its status as "Christian" is a subject of debate among mainline Protestants and Catholics. As with the rise of Protestantism in past centuries, and more specifically the rise of Protestant churches during the [[First Great Awakening]] and [[Second Great Awakening]], the Latter-Day Saint Movement was organized under a banner separate from Catholicism. Joseph Smith, revered by adherents of the movement as a modern day prophet of God, organized the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (the largest denomination within Mormonism) on April 6, 1830. Latter-Day Saints (commonly referred to as [[Mormons]]) believe that [[Mormonism]] is the restoration of the first century Christian church established by Jesus Christ during his mortal ministry, which causes much of their conflict with other denominations.<ref name="mormon1">{{cite web|url=http://answeringprotestants.com/2014/01/27/when-was-it/ |title=When was it? |publisher=Answering Protestants |date= |accessdate=3 March 2014}}</ref> Mormons believe that after the resurrection of Jesus Christ, and the subsequent deaths of the apostles, wickedness and iniquity ran rampant throughout the church of Jesus Christ, and eventually fell into apostasy and corruption, thus being lost from the earth. Mormons therefore believe that from the late first century A.D. to 1830, the true church of Jesus Christ and the authority to baptize and perform other ordinances was absent from the earth. As a result of their restoration, adherents of Mormonism claim that they alone stand as the legitimate holders of authority to perform ordinances in Jesus Christ's name. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (and, on a more confusing level, all of the other denominations within Mormonism) claim to be the one true church, and that all others are invalid because they do not hold the [[priesthood (Latter Day Saints)]], or authority to perform ordinances in the name of Jesus Christ. All denominations within the Latter Day Saint Movement recognize and accept Joseph Smith as a modern day prophet of God, and the majority of the denominations are led today by men they believe are modern day prophets. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints recognizes [[Thomas S. Monson]] as its incumbent president/prophet. Mormons believe in a priesthood organization consisting of prophets, apostles, patriarchs, high priests, elders, priests, teachers, and deacons.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/scriptures/pgp/a-of-f/1?lang=eng Articles of Faith, verse 6]</ref> Mormons hold to a literal priesthood authority given to worthy male members to teach the Gospel and administer its ordinances.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/scriptures/pgp/a-of-f/1?lang=eng Articles of Faith, verse 5]</ref> Mormons do not hold to ''sola scriptura.''<ref>[http://www.lds.org/scriptures/pgp/a-of-f/1?lang=eng Articles of Faith, verse 8]</ref> Neither do they hold to ''sola fide.'' Mormons hold to combined efforts of deity and man to achieve salvation, that salvation is through the atonement of Jesus Christ ''and'' obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel, and that covenants are made to establish the standards necessary for salvation.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/scriptures/pgp/a-of-f/1?lang=eng Articles of Faith, verses 3-4]</ref> Mormons identify themselves as Christians, but do not identify themselves as members of Catholicism or Protestantism, nor are they considered by mainstream Christians to be Evangelicals, and as a result stand as a movement all their own.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2012/06/21/opinion/obeidallah-christians-radicals/index.html "Where are the good Christians?", CNN.com, June 21, 2012.]</ref> Because of the Book of Mormon, their beliefs about the Trinity and baptism,<ref name="mormon2">{{cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/theology/mormbap1.htm |title=THE QUESTION OF THE VALIDITY OF BAPTISM CONFERRED IN THE CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF LATTER-DAY SAINTS |publisher=EWTN |date= |accessdate=3 March 2014}}</ref> [[temples (LDS Church)|temple practices]], the religion's past practice of [[polygamy]],<ref name="mormon3">{{cite web|url=http://answeringprotestants.com/2013/10/10/polygamy-and-mormonism/ |title=Polygamy and Mormonism |publisher=Answering Protestants |date= |accessdate=3 March 2014}}</ref> and some of the religion's other beliefs, some Protestants and Catholics do not accept Mormonism as part of Christianity. ==Protestant culture== [[File:Artikulárny kostol - Svätý Kríž.JPG|thumb|300px|Protestant (Lutheran) church in [[Svätý Kríž]] ([[Slovakia]]).]] Although the Reformation was a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317-319, 325-326</ref> All Protestant churches allow their clergy to marry. Many of their families contributed to the development of intellectual elites in their countries.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', p. 319</ref> Since about 1950, women have entered the ministry, and some have assumed leading positions (e.g. [[bishop]]s), in most Protestant churches. As the reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, education on all levels got a strong boost. For example, the [[Puritans]] who established [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1628 founded [[Harvard College]] only eight years later. About a dozen other colleges followed in the 18th century, including [[Yale]] (1701). [[Pennsylvania]] also became a centre of learning.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), ''History of Religion in the United States'', Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 69-80, 88-89, 114-117, 186-188</ref><ref>M. Schmidt, ''Kongregationalismus'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1770</ref> The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties, including the power of reason. That means that they are allowed to explore God's creation and, according to [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis+2%3A15&version=NIV Genesis 2:15], make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of the [[humanities]] and the [[sciences]].<ref>[[Gerhard Lenski]] (1963), ''The Religious Factor: A Sociological Study of Religion's Impact on Politics, Economics, and Family Life'', Revised Edition, A Doubleday Anchor Book, Garden City, N.Y., pp.348-351</ref> Another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow God's commandments. Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a strong sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code.<ref>Cf. [[Robert Middlekauff]] (2005), ''The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789'', Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-516247-9, p. 52</ref><ref>Jan Weerda, ''Soziallehre des Calvinismus'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 934</ref> In particular, Calvin rejected luxury. Therefore craftsmen, industrialists, and other businessmen were able to reinvest the greater part of their profits in the most efficient machinery and the most modern production methods that were based on progress in the sciences and technology. As a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. The chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors.<ref>Eduard Heimann, ''Kapitalismus'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1136-1141</ref><ref>Hans Fritz Schwenkhagen, ''Technik'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', 3. Auflage, col. 1029-1033</ref><ref>Georg Süßmann, ''Naturwissenschaft und Christentum'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 1377-1382</ref><ref>C. Graf von Klinckowstroem, ''Technik. Geschichtlich'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 664-667</ref> The [[Protestant work ethic]] was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated [[mass action (sociology)|mass action]] that influenced the development of [[capitalism]] and the [[Industrial Revolution]]. This idea is also known as the "Protestant Ethic thesis."<ref name="SEP">{{cite web | url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/ | title=Max Weber | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University | work=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | date=Fall 2008 | accessdate=21 August 2011 | author=Kim, Sung Ho}}</ref> [[File:Butler Library - 1000px - AC.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Columbia University]] was established by the [[Church of England]].]] Protestantism has had an important influence on science. According to the [[Merton Thesis]], there was a positive [[correlation]] between the rise of [[Protestant]] [[pietism]] and early [[experimental science]].<ref name=sztompka2003>Sztompka, 2003</ref> The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and [[methodology]]; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in [[England]] in 17th century, and the religious [[demography]] of the [[Royal Society]] (English scientists of that time were predominantly [[Protestants]] or [[Puritans]]) can be explained by a [[correlation]] between Protestantism and the scientific values.<ref name=gregory1998>Gregory, 1998</ref> He focuses on English Puritanism and [[Spener|German Pietism]] as responsible for the development of the [[scientific revolution]] of the 17th and 18th centuries. Merton explains that the connection between [[religious affiliation]] and interest in science is a result of a significant synergy between the [[ascetic]] Protestant values and those of modern science.<ref name=becker1992>Becker, 1992</ref> Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to identify the [[God]] influence on world and thus providing religious justifications for scientific research.<ref name=sztompka2003/> In the Middle Ages, the Church and the worldly authorities were closely related. Martin Luther separated the religious and the worldly realms in principle ([[doctrine of the two kingdoms]]).<ref>Heinrich Bornkamm, ''Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums'' in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937</ref> The believers were obliged to use reason to govern the worldly sphere in an orderly and peaceful way. Luther's doctrine of the [[priesthood of all believers]] upgraded the role of laymen in the church considerably. The members of a congregation had the right to elect a minister and, if necessary, to vote for his dismissal (Treatise ''On the right and authority of a Christian assembly or congregation to judge all doctrines and to call, install and dismiss teachers, as testified in Scripture''; 1523).<ref>Original German title: ''Dass eine christliche Versammlung oder Gemeine Recht und Macht habe, alle Lehre zu beurteilen und Lehrer zu berufen, ein- und abzusetzen: Grund und Ursach aus der Schrift''</ref> Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen ([[church elder]]s, [[presbyter]]s) in his representative church government.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 4-10</ref> The [[Huguenots]] added regional [[synod]]s and a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin's system of church self-government. This system was taken over by the other reformed churches.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', 11. Auflage, p. 325</ref> Politically, Calvin favoured a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages of [[democracy]]: "It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords."<ref>Quoted in Jan Weerda, ''Calvin'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 210</ref> Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances ([[separation of powers]]). Thus he and his followers resisted political [[Absolute monarchy|absolutism]] and paved the way for the rise of modern democracy.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', p. 10</ref> Besides England, the [[Netherlands]] were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers like [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Pierre Bayle]]. [[Hugo Grotius]] was able to teach his natural-law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', S. 396-397</ref> [[File:Bible Kralicka.JPG|thumb|Czech Protestant [[Bible of Kralice]] (1593)]] Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies. In seventeenth-century England, the most important persons and events in this process were the [[English Civil War]], [[Oliver Cromwell]], [[John Milton]], [[John Locke]], the [[Glorious Revolution]], the [[English Bill of Rights]], and the [[Act of Settlement 1690|Act of Settlement]].<ref>Cf. M. Schmidt, ''England. Kirchengeschichte'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band II (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 476-478</ref> Later, the British took their democratic ideals to their colonies, e.g. [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[India]]. In North America, [[Plymouth Colony]] ([[Pilgrim Fathers]]; 1620) and [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] (1628) practised democratic self-rule and [[separation of powers]].<ref>Nathaniel Philbrick (2006), ''Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War'', Penguin Group, New York, N.Y., ISBN 0-670-03760-5</ref><ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 65-76</ref><ref>Christopher Fennell (1998), ''Plymouth Colony Legal Structure'', <http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html></ref><ref>Hanover Historical Texts Project <http://history.hanover.edu/texts/masslib.html></ref> These [[Congregationalist]]s were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.<ref>M. Schmidt, ''Pilgerväter'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V (1961), col. 384</ref> The [[Mayflower Compact]] was a [[social contract]].<ref>Christopher Fennell, ''Plymouth Colony Legal Structure''</ref><ref>Allen Weinstein and David Rubel (2002), ''The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower'', DK Publishing, Inc., New York, N.Y., ISBN 0-7894-8903-1, p. 61</ref> Protestants also took the initiative in creating [[religious freedom]], the starting-point of [[human rights]]. Freedom of conscience had had high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agendas since Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] at Worms (1521). In his view, faith was a free work of the Holy Spirit and could therefore not be forced on a person.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', p. 5</ref> The persecuted [[Anabaptists]] and [[Huguenots]] demanded freedom of conscience, and they practised [[separation of church and state]].<ref>Heinrich Bornkamm, ''Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937-938</ref> In the early seventeenth century, Baptists like [[John Smyth (Baptist minister)|John Smyth]] and [[Thomas Helwys]] published tracts in defence of religious freedom.<ref>H. Stahl, ''Baptisten'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 863</ref> Their thinking influenced [[John Milton]] and [[John Locke]]'s stance on tolerance.<ref>G. Müller-Schwefe, ''Milton, John'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 955</ref><ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', p. 398</ref> Under the leadership of Baptist [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]], Congregationalist [[Thomas Hooker]], and Quaker [[William Penn]], respectively, [[Rhode Island]], [[Connecticut]], and [[Pennsylvania]] combined democratic constitutions with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including [[Jews]].<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 99-106, 111-117, 124</ref><ref>Edwin S. Gaustad (1999), ''Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America'', Judson Press, Valley Forge, p. 28</ref><ref>Hans Fantel (1974), ''William Penn: Apostle of Dissent'', William Morrow & Co., New York, N.Y., pp. 150-153</ref> The [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the [[United States Constitution]], and the American [[Bill of Rights]] with its fundamental human rights made this tradition permanent by giving it a legal and political framework.<ref>Robert Middlekauff (2005), ''The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789'', Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y., ISBN 978-0-19-516247-9, pp. 4-6, 49-52, 622-685</ref> The great majority of American Protestants, both clergy and laity, strongly supported the independence movement. All major Protestant churches were represented in the First and Second Continental Congresses.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 192-209</ref> In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the American democracy became a model for numerous other countries and regions throughout the world (e.g., [[Latin America]], [[Japan]], and [[Germany]]). The strongest link between the American and [[French Revolution]]s was [[Marquis de Lafayette]], an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. The French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] was mainly based on Lafayette’s draft of this document.<ref>Cf. R. Voeltzel, ''Frankreich. Kirchengeschichte'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band II (1958), col. 1039</ref> The [[United Nations Declaration]] and [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] also echo the American constitutional tradition.<ref>Douglas K. Stevenson (1987), ''American Life and Institutions'', Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart (Germany), p. 34</ref><ref>G. Jasper, ''Vereinte Nationen'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 1328-1329</ref><ref>Cf. G. Schwarzenberger, ''Völkerrecht'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 1420-1422</ref> Democracy, social-contract theory, separation of powers, religious freedom, separation of church and state – these achievements of the Reformation and early Protestantism were elaborated on and popularized by [[Enlightenment (spiritual)|Enlightenment]] thinkers. The philosophers of the English, Scottish, German, and Swiss Enlightenment - [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]], [[John Toland]], [[David Hume]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]], [[Immanuel Kant]], and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] - had a Protestant background.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', 11. Auflage, pp. 396-399, 401-403, 417-419</ref> For example, John Locke, whose political thought was based on "a set of Protestant Christian assumptions",<ref>Jeremy Waldron (2002), ''God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke’s Political Thought'', Cambridge University Press, New York, N.Y., ISBN 978-0521-89057-1, p. 13</ref> derived the equality of all humans, including the equality of the genders ("Adam and Eve"), from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search= Genesis 1, 26-28]. As all persons were created equally free, all governments needed the consent of the governed.<ref>Jeremy Waldron, ''God, Locke, and Equality'', pp. 21-43, 120</ref> These Lockean ideas were fundamental to the United States Declaration of Independence, which also deduced human rights from the biblical belief in creation: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are ''created'' equal, that they are endowed by their ''Creator'' with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” These rights were theonomous ideas ([[theonomy]]).<ref>W. Wertenbruch, ''Menschenrechte'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 869</ref> Also, other human rights were initiated by Protestants. For example, [[torture]] was abolished in [[Prussia]] in 1740, [[slavery]] in Britain in 1834 and in the United States in 1865 ([[William Wilberforce]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Abraham Lincoln]]).<ref>Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, ''The Story of America'', pp. 189-309</ref><ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', 11. Auflage, pp. 403, 425</ref> [[Hugo Grotius]] and [[Samuel Pufendorf]] were among the first thinkers who made significant contributions to [[international law]].<ref>M. Elze,''Grotius, Hugo'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band II, col. 1885-1886</ref><ref>H. Hohlwein, ''Pufendorf, Samuel'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 721</ref> The [[Geneva Convention]], an important part of humanitarian [[international law]], was largely the work of [[Henry Dunant]], a reformed [[pietist]]. He also founded the [[Red Cross]].<ref>R. Pfister, ''Schweiz. Seit der Reformation'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band V (1961), col. 1614-1615</ref> Protestants have founded hospitals, homes for disabled or elderly people, educational institutions, organizations that give aid to developing countries, and other social welfare agencies.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 484-494</ref><ref>H. Wagner, ''Diakonie'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 164-167</ref><ref>J.R.H. Moorman, ''Anglikanische Kirche'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 380-381</ref> In the nineteenth century, throughout the Anglo-American world, numerous dedicated members of all Protestant denominations were active in social reform movements such as the abolition of slavery, prison reforms, and [[woman suffrage]].<ref>Clifton E.Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 461-465</ref><ref>Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, ''The Story of America'', pp. 274-275</ref><ref>M. Schmidt, ''Kongregationalismus'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band III, col. 1770</ref> As an answer to the "social question" of the nineteenth century, Germany under Chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] introduced insurance programs that led the way to the [[welfare state]] ([[health insurance]], [[accident insurance]], [[disability insurance]], [[old-age pension]]s). To Bismarck this was "practical Christianity".<ref>K. Kupisch, ''Bismarck, Otto von'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 1312-1315</ref><ref>P. Quante, ''Sozialversicherung'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', Band VI, col. 205-206</ref> These programs, too, were copied by many other nations, particularly in the Western world. The arts have been strongly inspired by Protestant beliefs. [[Martin Luther]], [[Paul Gerhardt]], [[George Wither]], [[Isaac Watts]], [[Charles Wesley]], [[William Cowper]], and many other authors and composers created well-known church hymns. Musicians like [[Heinrich Schütz]], [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], [[George Frederick Handel]], [[Henry Purcell]], [[Johannes Brahms]], and [[Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy]] composed great works of music. Prominent painters with Protestant background were, for example, [[Albrecht Dürer]], [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], [[Lucas Cranach the Elder|Lucas Cranach]], [[Rembrandt]], and [[Vincent van Gogh]]. World literature was enriched by the works of [[Edmund Spenser]], [[John Milton]], [[John Bunyan]], [[John Donne]], [[John Dryden]], [[Daniel Defoe]], [[William Wordsworth]], [[Jonathan Swift]], [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Matthew Arnold]], [[Conrad Ferdinand Meyer]], [[Theodor Fontane]], [[Washington Irving]], [[Robert Browning]], [[Emily Dickinson]], [[Emily Brontë]], [[Charles Dickens]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Thomas Stearns Eliot]], [[John Galsworthy]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[William Faulkner]], [[John Updike]], and many others. == Ecumenism == {{Main|Christian ecumenism}} The ecumenical movement has had an influence on [[Mainline (Protestant)|mainline]] churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the [[Edinburgh Missionary Conference]]. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the [[World Council of Churches]] has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the [[Church of South India]], the [[Church of North India]], the US-based [[United Church of Christ]], the [[United Church of Canada]], the [[Uniting Church in Australia]] and the [[United Church of Christ in the Philippines]] which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0804/__P1T.HTM |title=Orthodox Church: text - IntraText CT |publisher=Intratext.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> A Protestant [[baptism]] is held to be valid by the Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize. However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack of [[apostolic succession]] and the disunity from Catholic Church, all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who become Catholics may be ordained to the [[Catholic priesthood|priesthood]] after a period of study. In 1999, the representatives of [[Lutheran World Federation]] and Catholic Church signed the [[Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]], apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of [[Justification (theology)|justification]] which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although [[Confessional Lutheran]]s reject this statement.<ref>[http://arkiv.lbk.cc/faq/site.pl@1518cutopic_topicid19cuitem_itemid6741.htm WELS Topical Q&A: Justification], stating: "''A document which is aimed at settling differences needs to address those differences unambiguously. The Joint Declaration does not do this. At best, it sends confusing mixed signals and should be repudiated by all Lutherans.''"</ref> This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On July 18, 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umc.org/site/c.gjJTJbMUIuE/b.1863123/k.FF49/World_Methodists_approve_further_ecumenical_dialogue.htm |title=News Archives |publisher=UMC.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0604186.htm |title=CNS STORY: Methodists adopt Catholic-Lutheran declaration on justification |publisher=Catholicnews.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Anti-Catholicism]] * [[Anti-Protestantism]] * [[European Wars of Religion]] * [[Islam and Protestantism]] * [[List of Protestant churches]] * [[Protestant work ethic]] == References == {{Reflist|2}} ==Further reading== *Cook, Martin L. (1991). ''The Open Circle: Confessional Method in Theology''. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press. xiv, 130 p. N.B.: Discusses the place of Confessions of Faith in Protestant theology, especially in Lutheranism. ISBN 0-8006-2482-3 *Dillenberger, John, and Claude Welch (1988). ''Protestant Christianity, Interpreted through Its Development''. Second ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. ISBN 0-02-329601-1 *{{cite book|title=Christianity's Dangerous Idea|last=McGrath|first=Alister E.|author-link=Alister McGrath|year=2007|location=New York|publisher=[[HarperOne]]}} *Nash, Arnold S., ed. (1951). ''Protestant Thought in the Twentieth Century: Whence & Whither''? New York: Macmillan Co. *{{cite book|title=Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction|last=Noll|first=Mark A.|author-link=Mark Noll|year=2011|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} == External links == {{External links|date=August 2010}} {{Wiktionary|Protestant|Protestantism|evangelical}} {{Commons category|Protestantism}} ; Supporting * [http://www.inplainsite.org/html/sola_scriptura.html#Concoction "Is Sola Scriptura a Protestant Concoction?"] by [[Greg Bahnsen]] * [http://www.ianpaisley.org European Institute of Protestant Studies] ; Critical * [http://homepages.paradise.net.nz/mischedj/ct1_solascript.html Catholic websites on ''sola scriptura''] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12495a.htm "Protestantism"] from the 1917 ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' * [http://catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0097.html "Why Only Catholicism Can Make Protestantism Work"] by Mark Brumley ; Miscellaneous * [http://protestant.christianityinview.com/ Protestantism—Christianity in View] * [http://day1.org/ Archive of mainline protestant sermons and preaching] * [http://www.oikoumene.org World Council of Churches] World body for mainline protestant churches {{Christianity footer}} {{Religion topics|state = collapsed}} [[Category:Protestantism| ]] [[Category:Christianity in Europe]] [[Category:Christian theology by tradition]] [[Category:Christian terms]]'