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'{{Wiktionary}} '''Public works''' are the construction or engineering projects carried out by the [[Sovereign state|state]] on behalf of the [[community]]. ==Overview== The notion of '''internal improvements''' or '''public works''' is a concept in [[economics]] and [[politics]]. The term [[public]] [[infrastructure]] refers only to the [[infrastructural capital]] involved in these activities. An internal improvement is some [[construction|constructed]] object that augments a [[nation]]'s [[Economics|economic]] [[infrastructure]]; examples include [[airport]]s, [[canal]]s, [[dam]]s, [[dyke (construction)|dikes]], [[pipeline transport|pipelines]], [[railroad]]s, [[road]]s, [[tunnel]]s, and artificial [[harbour]]s. ''Public works'' is a slightly broader term, it can include such things as: [[Mining|mine]]s, [[school]]s, [[hospital]]s, [[water purification]] and [[sewage treatment]] centers. Municipal infrastructure, [[urban infrastructure]] and [[rural development]] are often used interchangeably but imply either large cities or [[developing nation]]s' concerns respectively. The terms public infrastructure or [[critical infrastructure]] are also used interchangeably but suggest the inclusion of some facilities like [[hospital]]s, [[bank]]s and concerns like [[national security]] and [[terrorism]] which are not under the mandate of local officials alone. Furthermore, the term ''Public works'' has recently been expanded to include digital public infrastructure projects. The first (US) nationwide digital public works project is an effort to create an open source software platform for e-voting (created and managed by the [[OSDV]])<ref>The TrustTheVote Project http://www.trustthevote.org</ref>. Reflecting increased concern with [[sustainability]], [[urban ecology]] and [[quality of life]], efforts to move towards [[sustainable municipal infrastructure]] are common in [[developed nation]]s, especially in [[European Union]] and [[Canada]] (where the [[FCM InfraGuide]] provides an officially mandated [[best practice exchange]] to move municipalities in this direction). == Public Works Programmes == A ''Public Works Programme (PWP)'' is the provision of [[employment]] by the creation of predominantly [[public goods]] at a prescribed [[wage]] for those unable to find alternative [[employment]]. This functions as a form of [[social safety net]]. PWPs are activities which entail the payment of a [[wage]] (in [[cash]] or in kind) by the [[Sovereign state|state]], or by an [[Agent (law)|agent]] acting on behalf of the state, in return for the provision of [[labour]]. These activities have the aim of enhancing [[employment]] or producing an [[asset]] (either physical or social), with the overall objective of providing [[social protection]]. As a study by the [[Overseas Development Institute]] has concluded, the majority of public works initiatives in [[developing countries]] offer either [[food]] or [[cash]] in return for physical [[labour]] and are known as food-for-work (FFW) or cash-for work (CFW). One particular form of public works, that of offering a short-term period of [[employment]], has come to dominate practice, particularly in regions such as [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. Applied in the short-term, this is appropriate as a response to transient shocks and acute labour market crises. <ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/specialist/natural-resource-perspectives/121-typology-of-public-works-programming.pdf|title=A typology for Public Works Programming|date=December 2008|publisher= [[Overseas Development Institute]]}}</ref> == Utility of investment == While it is argued that internal improvements can be used to reduce [[unemployment]], opponents of internal improvement programs argue that such projects should be undertaken by the [[private sector]], and not the [[public sector]], because public works projects are characteristic of [[socialism]]. However, in the private sector, entrepreneurs bear their own losses and so private sector firms are generally unwilling to undertake projects that could result in losses. Since it is politically unpopular for governments to use public revenues to bail out private firms that lose money, many times the preferred alternative is to have governments undertake unprofitable projects directly. Consequently, almost all significant infrastructure in the U.S., including the [[Transcontinental Railroad]], the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]], and the [[Interstate Highway System]], were created through federal investment (often employing private subcontractors). Since the disappearance of the [[Berlin Wall]], large public works are more and more being associated with the opening of internal frontiers, as in the case of the [[Erie Canal]] and [[Trans-Siberian Railway|Trans-Siberian Railway]].<sup style="padding-left:2px; cursor:help;">[[{{{2|WP:Citing sources}}}|[{{{3|''citation needed''}}}]]]</sup style="padding-left:2px; cursor:help;"> == Corruption, cost overrun and demand shortfall == [[Cost overruns]] and [[demand shortfalls]] frequently haunt public works projects. <ref>[http://members.home.nl/menno.visser/underest.htm List of public projects with cost overruns]</ref>The main causes of cost overrun and demand shortfall are [[optimism bias]] and [[strategic misrepresentation]] (Flyvbjerg et al. 2002, 2005). [[Reference class forecasting]] was developed to curb optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation and thus arrive at more accurate cost and demand estimates. Public works projects can be prone to corrupt practices in the form of waste, crony contracts and theft of funds and materials. Generally a system of [[call for bids|public tenders]] and [[construction manager|construction supervision]] by reputable engineering or architectural firms is used to reduce the risk of corrupt practices. <!-- Please rephrase following to end --> According to the research conducted at the Aalburg University, 86% of the public works often end up with cost overruns. Peculiars found in the research were that * technically difficult projects did not ended up more exceedings of the budget than technically easy projects * projects in which more people where directly and indirectly affected by the project turned out to be more susceptible to cost overruns * the projects generally did not learn from similar projects attempted in the past <ref>Natuurwetenschap & Techniek Magazine April 2009</ref><ref>http://members.home.nl/menno.visser/japaflyvbjerg.pdf Project peculiars]</ref> == Sources and further reading == *[http://flyvbjerg.plan.aau.dk/JAPAASPUBLISHED.pdf Bent Flyvbjerg, Mette K. Skamris Holm, and Søren L. Buhl (2002), "Underestimating Costs in Public Works Projects: Error or Lie?" Journal of the American Planning Association, vol. 68, no. 3, 279-295.] *[http://flyvbjerg.plan.aau.dk/Traffic91PRINTJAPA.pdf Bent Flyvbjerg, Mette K. Skamris Holm, and Søren L. Buhl (2005), "How (In)accurate Are Demand Forecasts in Public Works Projects?" Journal of the American Planning Association, vol. 71, no. 2, 131-146.] *[http://www.jetpress.org/volume4/space.htm "Political Economy of Very Large Space Projects", ''Journal of Evolution and Technology''. vol. 4. November 1999.] *[http://www.amazon.com/When-Public-Works-Peter-Middlebrook/dp/3838306724/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1253030308&sr=1-3 When the Public Works: Generating Employment and Social Protection in Ethiopia], [[Peter Middlebrook]] , Lambert Academic Publishing. 2009. ISBN-13: 978-3838306728 ==See also== *[[Egyptian Public Works]] *[[Infrastructure]] *[[New Deal]] *[[Opera Publica]] *[[Public good]], an economic discussion. *[[Public Works Administration]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== * [http://www.pwmag.com/ Public Works magazine] - The voice of professionals serving America's communities * [http://www.planete-tp.com/en/ Planete TP] - The world of public works * [http://www.apwa.net American Public Works Association] - Professional society * [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/specialist/natural-resource-perspectives/120-public-works-and-livelihoods.pdf Digging holes and filling them in again? How far do public works enhance livelihoods?] - ODI Natural Resource Perspectives Paper ==Some Public Works Communities== * [[Pennsylvania]] ** [[Derry Township]] ** [[Harrisburg]] ** [[Hummelstown]] ** [[South Hanover]] [[Category:Physical infrastructure| ]] [[Category:Public economics]] [[ca:Obra pública]] [[de:Arbeitsbeschaffung]] [[fr:Travaux publics]] [[it:Opere pubbliche]] [[ja:公共事業]] [[pl:Roboty publiczne]] [[pt:Obra pública]] [[sr:Јавни радови]]vbnnvnvncvnvbn [[sh:Javni radovi]]'