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'{{other uses}} {{redirect|Liar}} {{multiple issues| {{refimprove|date=April 2013}} {{original research|date=April 2013}} }} [[File:Pinocchio.jpg|thumb|[[Pinocchio]], a symbol of untruthfulness.]] A '''lie''' is a statement that the stating party believes to be false and that is made with the intention to deceive. The practice of communicating lies is called '''lying''', and a person who communicates a lie may be termed a '''liar'''. Lies may be employed to serve a variety of instrumental, interpersonal, or psychological functions for the individuals who use them. Generally, the term "lie" carries a negative connotation, and depending on the context a person who communicates a lie may be subject to social, legal, religious, or criminal sanctions. In certain situations, however, lying is permitted, expected, or even encouraged. Believing and acting on false information can have serious consequences. Therefore, scientists and others have attempted to develop reliable methods for distinguishing lies from true statements. ==Types== ===Bad faith=== {{Main|Bad faith (existentialism)|Bad faith}} [[File:Percent of new good faith and bad faith editors, 2004-2011.png|thumb|The percent of [[good faith]] editors, [[vandalism|vandals]], [[spammer]]s, and [[sockpuppet (internet)|sockpuppets]] from 2004–2011, out of a random sample of 150–200 new editors per year on Wikipedia]] As defined by [[Sartre]], "bad faith" is [[Self-deception|lying to oneself]]. Specifically, it is failing to acknowledge one's own ability to act and determine one's possibilities, falling back on the determinations of the various historical and current totalizations which have produced one as if they relieved one of one's freedom to do so. ===Barefaced lie=== A barefaced (or bald-faced) lie is one that is obviously a lie to those hearing it. The phrase comes from 17th-century British usage referring to those without facial hair as being seen as acting in an unconcealed or open way. {{Citation needed|date=February 2015}} A variation that has been in use almost as long is ''bold-faced lie'', referring to a lie told with a straight and confident face (hence "bold-faced"), usually with the corresponding tone of voice and emphatic body language of one confidently speaking the truth. ''Bold-faced lie'' can also refer to misleading or inaccurate newspaper headlines, but this usage appears to be a more recent appropriation of the term.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-bal2.htm |title=Worldwidewords.org |publisher=Worldwidewords.org |date=2009-06-13 |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> ===Big lie=== {{Main|Big lie}} A lie which attempts to trick the victim into believing something major which will likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or by their common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed, due to the victim's reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale would indeed be concocted. ===Bluffing=== To bluff is to pretend to have a capability or intention one does not actually possess. Bluffing is an act of deception that is rarely seen as immoral when it takes place in the context of a game, such as [[poker]], where this kind of deception is consented to in advance by the players. For instance, a [[gambler]] who deceives other players into thinking he has different cards to those he really holds, or an athlete who hints he will move left and then dodges right is not considered to be lying (also known as a [[feint]] or juke). In these situations, deception is acceptable and is commonly expected as a tactic. ===Bullshit=== {{Main|Bullshit}} Bullshit does not necessarily have to be a complete fabrication. While a lie is related by a speaker who believes what is said is false, bullshit is offered by a speaker who does not care whether what is said is true because the speaker is more concerned with giving the hearer some impression. Thus bullshit may be either true or false, but demonstrates a lack of concern for the truth which is likely to lead to falsehoods.<ref>[[On Bullshit]]. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-691-12294-6. [https://athens.indymedia.org/local/webcast/uploads/frankfurt__harry_-_on_bullshit.pdf link]</ref> ===Contextual lie=== One can state part of the truth out of context, knowing that without complete information, it gives a false impression. Likewise, one can actually state accurate facts, yet deceive with them. To say "Yeah, that's right, I ate ''all'' the white chocolate, by myself", using [[sarcasm]], a form of assertion by ridiculing the fact(s) implying the liar believes it to be preposterous. ===Cover-up=== {{main|Cover-up}} A cover-up may be used to deny, defend or obfuscate one's own (or one's allies or group's) errors, one's embarrassing actions or lifestyle, and/or one's lie(s) that they made previously. One may deny a lie made on a previous occasion, or one may alternatively claim that a previous lie was not as egregious as it actually was. For example, to claim that a premeditated lie was really "only" an emergency lie, or to claim that a self-serving lie was really "only" a white lie or noble lie. Not to be confused with [[confirmation bias]] in which the deceiver is deceiving themselves. ===Deception=== {{main|Deception}} Deception is the act of propagating [[belief]]s in things that are not [[truth|true]], or not the whole truth (as in half-truths] or lying by omission. Deception can involve [[dissimulation]], [[propaganda]], and [[sleight of hand]], as well as distraction, camouflage, or concealment. There is also [[self-deception]], as in bad faith. ===Defamation=== {{see also|Slander|Libel}} [[Defamation]] is the communication of a false statement that harms the reputation of an individual person, business, product, group, government, religion, or nation. Other various kinds of defamation{{Example needed |s}} retaliate against groundless criticism. ===Deflecting=== Avoiding the subject that the lie is about, not giving attention to the lie. When attention is given to the subject the lie is based around, deflectors ignore or refuse to respond. Skillful deflectors are passive-aggressive people, who when confronted with the subject choose to ignore and not respond.<ref name="Patterns for College Writing">{{cite book |last1=Ericsson |first1=Stephanie |title=Patterns for College Writing |date=2010 |publisher=Bedford |location=St. martins |isbn=978-0-312-60152-2 |page=487 |edition=11th}}</ref> ===Disinformation=== {{main|Disinformation}} Disinformation is intentionally [[Falsity|false]] or misleading [[information]] that is spread in a calculated way to deceive target audiences. ===Economical with the truth=== {{main|Economical with the truth}} Economy with the truth is popularly used as a [[euphemism]] for deceit, whether by volunteering false information (i.e., lying) or by deliberately holding back relevant facts. More literally, it describes a careful use of facts so as not to reveal too much information, as in "speaking carefully". ===Exaggeration=== {{main|Exaggeration}} An exaggeration occurs when the most fundamental aspects of a statement are true, but only to a certain degree. It is also seen as "stretching the truth" or making something appear more powerful, meaningful, or real than it actually is. Saying that someone devoured most of something when they only ate half would be considered an exaggeration. An exaggeration might be easily found to be a [[hyperbole]] where a person's statement (i.e. in informal speech, such as "He did this like one million times already!") meant not to be understood literally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hyperbole?s=t|title=''Hyperbole'' Definition|publisher=[[Dictionary.com]]|accessdate=10 June 2015}}</ref> ===Fabrication=== {{see also|Fabrication (science)}} A fabrication is a lie told when someone submits a statement as truth, without knowing for certain whether or not it actually ''is'' true.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} Although the statement may be possible or plausible, it is not based on fact. Rather, it is something made up, or it is a misrepresentation of the truth. Examples of fabrication: A person giving directions to a tourist when the person doesn't actually know the directions. Often [[propaganda]] is fabrication. ===Fib=== A fib is a lie that is considered easy to forgive due to revolving around trivial matters, e.g. a child fibbing that the family [[dog]] broke a vase, when in actuality the child accidentally broke it. ===Fraud=== {{main|Fraud}} Fraud refers to the act of inducing another person or people to believe a lie in order to secure material or financial gain for the liar. Depending on the context, fraud may subject the liar to civil or criminal penalties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Druzin|first=Bryan|title=The Criminalization of Lying: Under what Circumstances, if any, should Lies be made Criminal?|url=https://works.bepress.com/bryan_druzin/6/|journal=Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology|volume=101|pages=548-550}}</ref> ===Half-truth=== {{main|Half-truth}} A half-truth is a [[deception|deceptive statement]] that includes some element of [[truth]]. The statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true but only part of the whole truth, or it may employ some deceptive element, such as improper [[punctuation]], or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, [[Evasion (ethics)|evade]], [[blame]] or misrepresent the truth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/Half-truth |title=Merriam Webster Definition of Half-truth, August 1, 2007 |publisher=M-w.com |date=2012-08-31 |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> ===Honest lie=== {{main|Honest lie}} An honest lie (or confabulation) can be identified by verbal statements or actions that inaccurately describe history, background, and present situations. There is generally no intent to [[misinformation|misinform]] and the individual is unaware that their information is false. Because of this, it is not technically a lie at all since by definition, there must be an intent to deceive for the statement to be considered a lie.<ref name="Freitas-Magalhães, A. 2013">Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2013). The Face of Lies. Porto: FEELab Science Books. ISBN 978-989-98524-0-2.</ref> ===Jocose lie=== Jocose (cf. [[jocular]]) lies are lies meant in jest, intended to be understood as such by all present parties. Teasing and [[irony]] are examples. A more elaborate instance is seen in some [[storytelling]] traditions, where the storyteller's insistence that the story is the absolute truth, despite all evidence to the contrary (i.e., [[tall tale]]), is considered humorous. There is debate about whether these are "real" lies, and different philosophers hold different views. The [[Crick Crack Club]] in London arrange a yearly "Grand Lying Contest" with the winner being awarded the coveted "Hodja Cup" (named for the Mulla [[Nasreddin]]: ''"The truth is something I have never spoken."''). The winner in 2010 was [[Hugh Lupton]]. In the USA, the [[Burlington Liars' Club]] awards an annual title to the "World Champion Liar". ===Lie-to-children=== {{main|Lie-to-children}} Lie-to-children is a phrase that describes a simplified explanation of technical or complex subjects as a teaching method for children and [[Layperson|laypeople]]. The phrase has been incorporated by academics within the fields of [[biology]], [[evolution]], [[bioinformatics]] and the [[social sciences]]. Media use has extended to publications including ''[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]'' and ''[[Forbes]]''. ===Lying by omission{{Anchor|LBO}}=== Also known as a continuing misrepresentation, a lie by omission occurs when an important fact is left out in order to foster a misconception. Lying by omission includes failures to correct pre-existing misconceptions. For example, when the seller of a car declares it has been serviced regularly but does not tell that a fault was reported at the last service, the seller lies by omission. It can be compared to [[dissimulation]]. An omission is when a person tells most of the truth, but leaves out a few key facts that therefore completely change the story.<ref name="Patterns for College Writing"/> ===Lying in trade=== The seller of a product or service may advertise untrue facts about the product or service in order to gain sales, especially by competitive advantage. Many countries and states have enacted [[consumer protection]] laws intended to combat such fraud. An example is the [http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/ilcs3.asp?ActID=2356&ChapAct=815%26nbsp%3BILCS%26nbsp%3B505%2F&ChapterID=67&ChapterName=BUSINESS+TRANSACTIONS&ActName=Consumer+Fraud+and+Deceptive+Business+Practices+Act. Illinois Consumer Fraud and Deceptive Business Practices Act] that holds a seller liable for omission of any material fact that the buyer relies upon. ===Memory hole=== A [[memory hole]] is a mechanism for the alteration or disappearance of inconvenient or embarrassing documents, photographs, transcripts, or other records, such as from a [[website]] or other archive, particularly as part of an attempt to give the impression that something never happened.<ref name="Murphy">[http://firedoglake.com/2010/05/31/memorial-day-memory-hole-after-israel-forgets-exodus-white-house-forgets-shores-of-tripoli-will-obama-remember-nato/ Murphy, Kirk, ''Memorial Day Memory Hole: After Israel Forgets “Exodus”, White House Forgets “Shores of Tripoli”. Will Obama Remember NATO?'' 31 May 2010 [[Firedoglake]].com]</ref><ref name="mother">[http://motherjones.com/mojo/2010/06/nevada-tea-partier-memory-hole-website-sharron-angle-harry-reid-senate Weinstein, Adam, ''Nevada Tea Partier's Memory Hole'', 9 June 2010]. [[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]].</ref> ===Minimisation=== {{anchor|Minimisation}} {{main|Minimisation (psychology)}} Minimization is the opposite of exaggeration. It is a type of [[deception]]<ref name="Guerrero, Andersen, & Afifi, 2007">Guerrero, L., Anderson, P., Afifi, W. (2007). Close Encounters: Communication in Relationships (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.</ref> involving [[denial]] coupled with [[Rationalization (psychology)|rationalization]] in situations where complete denial is implausible. ===Misleading and dissembling=== {{main|Misleading}} A misleading statement is one where there is no outright lie, but still retains the purpose of getting someone to believe in an untruth. ===Noble lie=== {{main|Noble lie}} A noble lie is one that would normally cause discord if uncovered, but offers some benefit to the liar and assists in an orderly society, therefore, potentially beneficial to others. It is often told to maintain law, order and safety. ===Pathological lie=== {{main|Pathological lying}} In [[psychiatry]], pathological lying (also called compulsive lying, pseudologia fantastica and mythomania) is a behavior of habitual or compulsive lying.<ref name=jaapl>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dike CC, Baranoski M, Griffith EE |title=Pathological lying revisited |journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=342–9 |year=2005 |pmid=16186198 |url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16186198}}</ref><ref name=Dike>{{cite journal |first=Charles C. |last=Dike |date=June 1, 2008 |title=Pathological Lying: Symptom or Disease? |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1162950 |volume=25 |issue=7}}</ref> It was first described in the medical literature in 1891 by Anton Delbrueck.<ref name=Dike/> Although it is a controversial topic,<ref name=Dike/> pathological lying has been defined as "falsification entirely disproportionate to any discernible end in view, may be extensive and very complicated, and may manifest over a period of years or even a lifetime".<ref name=jaapl/> The individual may be aware they are lying, or may believe they are telling the truth, being unaware that they are relating fantasies. ===Perjury=== {{main|Perjury}} Perjury is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a material matter under oath or affirmation in a [[court of law]], or in any of various sworn statements in writing. Perjury is a [[crime]], because the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the credibility of the court to remain intact, witness testimony must be relied on as truthful. ===Polite lie and butler lie=== A polite lie is a lie that a [[politeness]] standard requires, and which is usually known to be untrue by both parties. Whether such lies are acceptable is heavily dependent on culture. A common polite lie in international etiquette is to decline invitations because of "scheduling difficulties". The butler lie is a term that describes small/innate lies which are usually sent electronically, and are used to terminate conversations or to [[save face]]. For example, sending an SMS to someone reading "I have to go, the waiter is here", when you are not at a restaurant is an example of a butler lie. A closely related concept is the "polite lie" (described above).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Dec10/WhiteLiesTech.html |title=Butler Lie term coined at Cornell University |publisher=News.cornell.edu |date=2010-12-20 |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> ===Puffery=== {{main|Puffery}} Puffery is an exaggerated claim typically found in advertising and publicity announcements, such as "the highest quality at the lowest price", or "always votes in the best interest of all the people". Such statements are unlikely to be true&nbsp;– but cannot be proven false and so do not violate trade laws, especially as the consumer is expected to be able to tell that it is not the absolute truth. ===Speaking with forked tongue=== The phrase "speaking with a [[forked tongue]]" means to deliberately say one thing and mean another or, to be hypocritical, or act in a duplicitous manner. In the longstanding tradition of many [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes, "speaking with a forked tongue" has meant lying, and a person was no longer considered worthy of trust, once he had been shown to "speak with a forked tongue". This phrase was also adopted by Americans around the time of the Revolution, and may be found in abundant references from the early 19th century&nbsp;– often reporting on American officers who sought to convince the tribal leaders with whom they negotiated that they "spoke with a straight and not with a forked tongue" (as for example, President [[Andrew Jackson]] told the Creek Nation in 1829<ref>''Niles' Register'', June 13, 1829</ref>). According to one 1859 account, the native proverb that the "white man spoke with a forked tongue" originated as a result of the French tactic of the 1690s, in their war with the [[Iroquois]], of inviting their enemies to attend a Peace Conference, only to be slaughtered or captured.<ref>''Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society'', Vol 19, 1859, p. 230.</ref> ===Weasel word=== {{main|Weasel word}} A weasel word is an [[informal language|informal term]]<ref>[[Microsoft Encarta]], "[http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861711798 weasel words]"</ref> for words and phrases aimed at creating an impression that a specific and/or meaningful statement has been made, when in fact only a vague or ambiguous claim has been communicated, enabling the specific meaning to be denied if the statement is challenged. A more formal term is [[equivocating|equivocation]]. ===White lie=== {{Redirect|White lie||White Lies (disambiguation)}} White lies are minor lies which could be considered harmless, or even beneficial, in the long term. White lies are also considered to be used for greater good. White lies are often used to shield someone from a hurtful or emotionally damaging truth, especially when not knowing the truth is completely harmless. ==Consequences== Once a lie has been told, there can be two alternative consequences: it may be discovered or remain undiscovered. Under some circumstances, discovery of a lie may discredit other statements by the same speaker and can lead to social or legal sanctions against the speaker, such as ostracizing or conviction for perjury. When a lie is discovered, the state of mind and behavior of the lie teller (liar) is no longer predictable. The discoverer of a lie may also be convinced or [[coerce]]d to collaborate with the liar, becoming part of a [[Conspiracy (civil)|conspiracy]]. They may actively propagate the lie to other parties, actively prevent the lie's discovery by other parties, or simply omit publicizing the lie (a secondary lie of omission). ==Detection== {{Main|Lie detection}} Some people may be better "lie detectors" than others,{{Citation needed|date=October 2013}} better able to distinguish a lie by facial expression, cadence of speech, certain movements, consistency, and other methods. According to David J. Lieberman, PhD, in ''Never Be Lied to Again: How to Get the Truth in Five Minutes or Less in Any Conversation or Situation'', these methods can be learned. Some methods of questioning may be more likely to elicit the truth, for instance: "When was the last time you smoked marijuana?" (a [[leading question]]) is more likely to get a truthful answer than "Do you smoke pot?" Asking the question most likely to get the information you want is a skill and can be learned. Avoiding vague questioning will help avoid lies of omission or vagueness.{{Citation needed|date=October 2013}} The question of whether lies can reliably be detected through [[nonverbal communication|nonverbal]] means is a subject of some controversy. * Polygraph "[[lie detector]]" machines measure the physiological [[stress (medicine)|stress]] a subject endures in a number of measures while he/she gives statements or answers questions. Spikes in stress are purported to indicate lying. The accuracy of this method is widely disputed, and in several well-known cases it was proven to have been deceived. Nonetheless, it remains in use in many areas, primarily as a method for eliciting confessions or employment screening. Polygraph results are not admissible as court evidence and are generally perceived to be [[pseudoscience]]. * Various [[truth drug]]s have been proposed and used anecdotally, though none are considered very reliable. The [[CIA]] attempted to find a universal "truth serum" in the [[MK-ULTRA]] project, but it was an overall failure.{{Citation needed|date=February 2008}} * A recent study found that lying takes longer than telling the truth, and thus the time to answer a question may be used as a method of lie detection.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0060713}}</ref> However, it has also been shown that instant-answers can be proof of a prepared lie. The only compromise is to try to surprise the victim and find a midway answer, not too quick, nor too long.<ref name=Time/> Dr. [[Paul Ekman]] and Dr. Maureen O'Sullivan spent several decades studying people's ability to spot deception in a study called the [[Wizards Project]]. They studied police officers, psychologists, judges, lawyers, the CIA, FBI and the Secret Service. After studying nearly 20,000 people, they identified just over 50 people who can spot deception with great accuracy.{{Citation needed|date=October 2013}} Dr. [[Freitas-Magalhaes]] developed the ForensicPsy and the Psy7Faces to read lies by facial expressions. ==Ethics== [[Aristotle]] believed no general rule on lying was possible, because anybody who advocated lying could never be believed, he said.<ref>''How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time'', (2008), Iain King, p. 147.</ref> The [[philosopher]]s [[St. Augustine]], as well as [[St. Thomas Aquinas]] and [[Immanuel Kant]], condemned all lying.<ref name="sundayobserver.lk">http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2012/02/05/imp06.asp | Sri Lanka's Sunday Observer article on lying, Feb 2012</ref> However, Thomas Aquinas also had an argument for lying. According to all three, there are no circumstances in which one may ethically lie. Even if the ''only'' way to protect oneself is to lie, it is never ethically permissible to lie even in the face of murder, torture, or any other hardship. Each of these philosophers gave several arguments against lying, all compatible with each other. Among the more important arguments are: # Lying is a [[perversion]] of the natural faculty of speech, the natural end of which is to communicate the thoughts of the speaker. # When one lies, one undermines [[trust (sociology)|trust]] in [[society]]. Meanwhile, [[Utilitarian]] philosophers have supported lies which achieve good outcomes&nbsp;– white lies.<ref name="sundayobserver.lk"/> In his 2008 book ''[[How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time]]'', [[Iain King]] suggested a credible rule on lying was possible, and defined it as: "Deceive only if you can change behaviour in a way worth more than the trust you would lose, were the deception discovered (whether the deception actually is exposed or not)."<ref>''[[How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time]]'', (2008), Iain King, p. 148.</ref> In ''[[Human, All Too Human]]'', philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] suggested that those who refrain from lying may do so only because of the difficulty involved in maintaining the lie. This is consistent with his general philosophy that divides (or ranks) people according to strength and ability; thus, some people tell the truth only out of weakness. ==In other species== The capacity to lie has also been claimed to be possessed by non-humans in language studies with [[Hominidae|great apes]]. In one instance, gorilla [[Koko (gorilla)|Koko]], when asked who tore a sink from the wall, pointed to one of her handlers and then laughed.<ref name=Hanley2004>{{cite journal |last1=Hanley |first1=Elizabeth |title=Listening to Koko |journal=Commonweal Magazine |date=4 July 2004 |page=16 |url=http://www.elizabethhanly.com/clips/prfiles/10.%20Commonweal%20Magazine%20--Interview%20with%20Dr.%20Penny%20Patterson,who%20taught%20Koko%20the%20gorilla%20to%20use%20sign%20languag.pdf |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> Deceptive body language, such as feints that mislead as to the intended direction of attack or flight, is observed in many species including [[Gray wolf|wolves]]. A mother bird deceives when it pretends to have a broken wing to divert the attention of a perceived predator&nbsp;– including unwitting humans&nbsp;– from the eggs in its nest to itself, most notably the [[killdeer]].<ref name="Ohio DNR">[http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/Home/species_a_to_z/SpeciesGuideIndex/killdeer/tabid/6879/Default.aspx "Killdeer"]. Ohio Department of Natural Resources. Retrieved 2011-3-1.</ref> ==In culture== [[File:PinocchioProfil.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Close-up of the bronze statue depicting a walking Pinocchio, named ''Walking to Borås'' by [[Jim Dine]]]] ===Cultural references=== * [[Carlo Collodi]]'s [[Pinocchio]] was a wooden puppet often led into trouble by his propensity to lie. His nose grew with every lie; hence, long noses have become a [[caricature]] of liars. * A famous anecdote by [[Parson Weems]] claims that [[George Washington]] once cut a cherry tree over when he was a small child. His father asked him who cut the cherry tree and Washington confessed his crime with the words: "I'm sorry, father, I cannot tell a lie." * ''[[The Boy Who Cried Wolf]]'', a [[fable]] attributed to [[Aesop]] about a boy who continually lies a [[wolf]] is coming. When a wolf does appear, nobody believes him anymore. * ''[[To Tell the Truth]]'' was the originator of a genre of game shows with 3 contestants claiming to be a person only one of them is. * [[Glenn Kessler (journalist)|Glenn Kessler]], a journalist at [[The Washington Post]], awards one to four [[Pinocchio]]s to politicians in his [[Glenn Kessler (journalist)#Washington Post Fact Checker blog|Washington Post Fact Checker blog]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/fact-checker/2011/01/welcome_to_the_new_fact_checke.html |title=Guide to Washington Post Fact Checker Rating Scale |publisher=Voices.washingtonpost.com |date=December 29, 2011 |accessdate=January 3, 2012}}</ref> The cliché "All is fair in love and war"<ref>1620 T. Shelton tr. Cervantes' Don Quixote ii. xxi. ''Love and warre are all one. It is lawfull to use sleights and stratagems to attaine the wished end''.</ref><ref>1578 Lyly Euphues I. 236 ''Anye impietie may lawfully be committed in loue, which is lawlesse.''</ref> finds justification for lies used to gain advantage in these situations. [[Sun Tzu]] declared that "All warfare is based on deception." [[Machiavelli]] advised in ''[[The Prince]]'' "never to attempt to win by force what can be won by deception", and [[Thomas Hobbes]] wrote in ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]'': "In war, force and fraud are the two cardinal virtues." ===Fiction=== * The concept of a [[memory hole]] was first popularized by [[George Orwell]]'s [[utopian and dystopian fiction|dystopian novel]] ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', where [[the Party (Nineteen Eighty-Four)|the Party]]'s [[Ministry of Truth]] systematically re-created all potential historical documents, in effect re-writing all of history to match the often-changing state propaganda. These changes were complete and undetectable. * In the film ''[[Big Fat Liar]]'', the story producer Marty Wolf (a notorious and proud liar himself) steals a story from student Jason Shepard, telling of a character whose lies become out of control to the point where each lie he tells causes him to grow in size. * In the film ''[[Liar Liar]]'', the lawyer Fletcher Reede ([[Jim Carrey]]) cannot lie for 24 hours, due to a wish of his son that magically came true. * In the 1985 film ''[[Max Headroom: 20 Minutes into the Future|Max Headroom]]'', the title character comments that one can always tell when a politician lies because "their lips move". The joke has been widely repeated and rephrased. * ''[[Larry-Boy! And the Fib from Outer Space!]]'' was a story of a crime-fighting super-hero with super-suction ears, having to stop an alien calling himself "Fib" from destroying the town of Bumblyburg due to the lies which caused Fib to grow. Telling the truth is the moral to this story. * ''[[Lie to Me]]'', a TV series based on behavior analysts who read lies through facial expressions and body language. The protagonists, Dr. Cal Lightman and Dr. Gillian Foster are based on the above-mentioned Dr. Paul Ekman and Dr. Maureen O'Sullivan. * ''[[The Invention of Lying]]'' is a 2009 movie depicting the fictitious invention of the first lie, starring [[Ricky Gervais]], [[Jennifer Garner]], [[Rob Lowe]], and [[Tina Fey]]. * ''[[The Adventures of Baron Munchausen]]'' tell the story about an 18th-century baron who tells outrageous, unbelievable stories, which he claims are all true. * In the games ''[[Grand Theft Auto IV]]'' and ''[[Grand Theft Auto V]]'', there's an agency named FIB, a parody of the ''[[FBI]]'',Which is known to cover up stories, cooperate with criminals, and extract information with the use of lying. ===Literature=== Sir [[Walter Scott]]'s [[Marmion (poem)|famous]] couplet "Oh, what a tangled web we weave / When first we practise to deceive!" describes the often difficult procedure of covering up a lie so that it is not detected in the future. ==Paradoxes== In any scenario where statements are assumed to be either true or false, a person whom we know is consistently lying would paradoxically be a source of truth, by taking the opposite of whatever they say. There are many such [[paradox]]es, the most famous being known as the [[liar paradox]], commonly expressed as "This sentence is a lie", or "This sentence is false." The so-called [[Epimenides paradox]] ("All Cretans are liars", as stated by [[Epimenides|Epimenides the Cretan]]) is a forerunner of this, though its status as a paradox is disputed. A class of related logic puzzles are known as [[knights and knaves]], in which the goal is to determine who, in a group of people, is lying and who is telling the truth. ==Psychology== The capacity to lie is noted early and nearly universally in human development. [[Social psychology]] and [[developmental psychology]] are concerned with the [[theory of mind]], which people employ to simulate another's reaction to their story and determine if a lie will be believable. The most commonly cited milestone, what is known as [[Machiavellian intelligence]], is at the age of about four and a half years, when children begin to be able to lie convincingly. Before this, they seem simply unable to comprehend why others do not see the same view of events that they do&nbsp;– and seem to assume that there is only one [[perspective (cognitive)|point of view]], which is their own.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} The evolutionary theory proposed by Darwin states that only the fittest will survive and by lying, we aim to improve other’s perception of our social image and status, capability, and desirability in general.<ref>{{Cite web|title = What is Darwin's Theory of Evolution?|url = http://www.livescience.com/474-controversy-evolution-works.html|website = LiveScience.com|accessdate = 2015-10-12}}</ref> Studies have shown that humans begin lying at a mere age of 6 months, through crying and laughing, to gain attention.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Why Do We Lie?|url = https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-dolphin-divide/201309/why-do-we-lie|website = Psychology Today|accessdate = 2015-10-12}}</ref> Scientific studies have also shown the presence of gender differences in lying. Although men and women lie at equal frequencies, men are more likely to lie in order to please themselves while women are more likely to lie to please others.<ref name="Smith">{{Cite news|url = http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/command/detail?vid=8&sid=4dd695cd-dc13-473a-97ad-ba17c6daa97a%40sessionmgr4004&hid=4114&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=17092526&db=f5h|title = Natural-Born Liars|last = Smith|first = David Livingstone|date = |work = |access-date = |via = }}</ref> We are individuals living in a world of competition and strict social norms, where we are able to use lies and deception to enhance our chances of survival and reproduction. Stereotypically speaking, men like to exaggerate about their sexual expertise but shy away from topics that degrade them while women understate their sexual expertise to make themselves more respectable and loyal in the eyes of men and avoid being labelled as a ‘scarlet woman’.<ref name="Smith"/> Young children learn from experience that stating an untruth can avoid punishment for misdeeds, before they develop the theory of mind necessary to understand why it works. In this stage of development, children will sometimes tell outrageous and unbelievable lies, because they lack the conceptual framework to judge whether a statement is believable, or even to understand the concept of believability.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} When children first learn how lying works, they lack the [[moral]] understanding of when to refrain from doing it. This takes years of watching people tell lies, and the results of these lies, to develop a proper understanding. Propensity to lie varies greatly between children, some doing so habitually and others being habitually honest. Habits in this regard are likely to change in early adulthood.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} Those with [[Parkinson's disease]] show difficulties in deceiving others, difficulties that link to [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] hypometabolism. This suggests a link between the capacity for dishonesty and integrity of prefrontal functioning.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Abe | first1 = N. | last2 = Fujii | first2 = T. | last3 = Hirayama | first3 = K. | last4 = Takeda | first4 = A. | last5 = Hosokai | first5 = Y. | last6 = Ishioka | first6 = T. | last7 = Nishio | first7 = Y. | last8 = Suzuki | first8 = K. | last9 = Itoyama | first9 = Y. | last10 = Takahashi | doi = 10.1093/brain/awp052 | first10 = S. | last11 = Fukuda | first11 = H. | last12 = Mori | first12 = E. | title = Do parkinsonian patients have trouble telling lies? The neurobiological basis of deceptive behaviour | journal = Brain | volume = 132 | issue = 5 | pages = 1386–1395 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19339257 | pmc =2677797 }}</ref> [[Pathological lying|Pseudologia fantastica]] is a term applied by [[psychiatrist]]s to the behavior of habitual or compulsive lying. [[Pathological lying|Mythomania]] is the condition where there is an excessive or abnormal propensity for lying and exaggerating.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mythomania |title=Merriam–Webster.com |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=2012-08-31 |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> A recent study found that lying takes longer than telling the truth.<ref name=Time>Roy Britt, "Lies Take Longer Than Truths," LiveScience.com, January 26, 2009, found at [http://www.livescience.com/7654-lies-longer-truths.html]. Accessed November 27, 2011.</ref> Or, as [[Chief Joseph]] succinctly put it, "It does not require many words to speak the truth."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://people.tribe.net/dancepanther/blog/93a51179-7ff3-4089-9818-8a2a47f81b45 |title=People.tribe.net |publisher=People.tribe.net |date=2007-08-19 |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> Some people believe that they are convincing liars, however in many cases, they are not.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Grieve | first = Rachel | last2 = Hayes | first2 = Jordana | date = 2013-01-01 | title = Does perceived ability to deceive = ability to deceive? Predictive validity of the perceived ability to deceive (PATD) scale | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886912004473 | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 54 | issue = 2 | pages = 311–314 | doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2012.09.001 }}</ref> ==Religious perspectives== It is alleged<ref>"Lying For a Good Purpose: Book of Mormon Apologetics Over the Years" by Clyde R. Forsberg, Jr., paper at The 2008 International Conference Twenty Years and More: Research into Minority Religions, New Religious Movements and "the New Spirituality" at [[London School of Economics]], 16–20 April 2008</ref> that some [[ideology|belief systems]] may find lying to be justified. [[Leo Tolstoy]] is cited<ref>Gordon K. Thomas, "The Book of Mormon in the English Literary Context of 1837," Brigham Young University Studies, Vol. XXCII, No. 1 (Winter 1987), 21</ref> as describing religious institutions as "the product of deception [and] lies for a good purpose". ===Augustine's taxonomy=== [[Augustine of Hippo]] wrote two books about lying: ''On Lying'' (''De Mendacio'') and ''Against Lying'' (''Contra Mendacio'').<ref name=Deferrari>{{cite book |last=Saint Augustine |first=translated by Mary Sarah Muldowney [et al.] |editor-last=Deferrari |editor-first=Roy J. |title=Treatises on various subjects |year=2002 |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8132-1320-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IlBj6Kyadd0C |edition=1st pbk. reprint.}}</ref><ref name="Philip Schaff">{{cite book |last=Schaff |first=Philip |title=A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church: St. Augustin: On the Holy Trinity. Doctrinal treatises. Moral treatises |year=1887 |publisher=The Christian Literature Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vwoNAAAAIAAJ&q=lying%20retractations&f=false}}</ref> He describes each book in his later work, ''Retractions''. Based on the location of ''De Mendacio'' in ''Retractions'', it appears to have been written about 395&nbsp;AD. The first work, ''On Lying'', begins: ''"Magna quæstio est de Mendacio"'' ("There is a great question about Lying"). From his text, it can be derived that St. Augustine divided lies into eight categories, listed in order of descending severity: * Lies in religious teaching * Lies that harm others and help no one * Lies that harm others and help someone * Lies told for the pleasure of lying * Lies told to "please others in smooth discourse" * Lies that harm no one and that help someone materially * Lies that harm no one and that help someone spiritually * Lies that harm no one and that protect someone from "bodily defilement" Despite distinguishing between lies according to their external severity, Augustine maintains in both treatises that all lies, defined precisely as the external communication of what one does not hold to be internally true, are categorically sinful and therefore ethically impermissible.<ref>http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1312.htm</ref> Augustine wrote that lies told in jest, or by someone who believes or opines the lie to be true are not, in fact, lies.<ref name="Robert Imre">{{cite book |last=Imre |first=Robert |title=Responding to terrorism : political, philosophical and legal perspectives |year=2008 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Aldershot, Hampshire, England |isbn=978-0-7546-7277-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WpOVPCNd2VwC&pg=PA75 |edition=[Online-Ausg.] |author2=Mooney, T. Brian|author3=Clarke, Benjamin}}</ref> ===In the Bible=== The [[Old Testament]] and [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible]] both contain statements that God cannot lie and that lying is immoral ([[Book of Numbers|Num.]] 23:19,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Numbers+23%3A19-20&version=KJV |title=Num. 23:19 |publisher=Biblegateway.com |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> [[Book of Habakkuk|Hab.]] 2:3,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bible.cc/habakkuk/2-3.htm |title=Hab. 2:3 |publisher=Bible.cc |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> [[Book of Hebrews|Heb.]] 6:13–18).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soundofgrace.com/piper96/11-10-96.htm |title=Heb 6:13–18 |publisher=Soundofgrace.com |date=1996-11-10 |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> Nevertheless, there are examples of God deliberately causing enemies to become disorientated and confused, in order to provide victory ([[2 Thessalonians|2 Thess.]] 2:11;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2+Thessalonians+2%3A11&version=NIV |title=2 Thess. 2:11 |publisher=Biblegateway.com |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:11&version=MSG |title=2 Thess. 2:11 |publisher=Biblegateway.com |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> [[1 Kings]] 22:23;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bible.cc/1_kings/22-23.htm |title=1 Kings 22:23 |publisher=Bible.cc |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezek.]] 14:9);<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bible.cc/ezekiel/14-9.htm |title=Ezek. 14:9 |publisher=Bible.cc |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> * "And for this reason God will send them strong delusion, that they should believe the lie" (2 Thess. 2:11 NKJV)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=2Th&c=2&v=11&t=NKJV#11 |title=2 Thessalonians 2 NKJV |publisher=Blue Letter Bible |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> Various passages of the Bible feature exchanges that assert lying is immoral and wrong ([[Book of Proverbs|Prov.]] 6:16–19; [[Psalms|Ps.]] 5:6), ([[Leviticus|Lev.]] 19:11; Prov. 14:5; Prov. 30:6; [[Book of Zephaniah|Zeph.]] 3:13), ([[Book of Isaiah|Isa.]] 28:15; [[Book of Daniel|Dan.]] 11:27), most famously, in the [[Ten Commandments]]: "Thou shalt not bear false witness" ([[Book of Exodus|Ex.]] {{bibleverse-nb|Exodus||20:2–17|HE}}; [[Deuteronomy|Deut.]] {{bibleverse-nb|Deuteronomy||5:6–21|HE}}); Ex. 23:1; [[Book of Matthew|Matt.]] 19:18; [[Book of Mark|Mark]] 10:19; [[Book of Luke|Luke]] 18:20 a specific reference to perjury. Other passages feature descriptive (not prescriptive) exchanges where lying was committed in extreme circumstances involving life and death. However, most Christian philosophers would argue that lying is never acceptable, but that even those who are righteous in God's eyes sin sometimes. Old Testament accounts of lying include:<ref>See also: O'Neill, Barry. (2003). [http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/boneill/bibjer5.pdf "A Formal System for Understanding Lies and Deceit."] Revision of a talk for the Jerusalem Conference on Biblical Economics, June 2000.</ref> * The midwives lied about their inability to kill the Israelite children. ([[Book of Exodus|Ex.]] 1:15–21). * Rahab lied to the king of Jericho about hiding the Hebrew spies ([[Book of Joshua|Josh.]] 2:4–5) and was not killed with those who were disobedient because of her faith (Heb. 11:31). * Abraham instructed his wife, Sarah, to mislead the Egyptians and say that she is his sister ([[Book of Genesis|Gen.]] 12:10). Abraham's story was strictly true&nbsp;– Sarah was his half sister&nbsp;– but intentionally misleading because it was designed to lead the Egyptians to believe that Sarah was not Abraham's wife for Abraham feared that they would kill him in order to take her, for she was very beautiful.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esvbible.org/search/genesis+12%3A11/ |title=Genesis 12:11 - ESVBible.org - When he was about to enter Egypt, he said to Sarai his wife, "I know that you are a woman |publisher=ESVBible.org |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> In the New Testament, Jesus refers to the [[Devil]] as the father of lies ([[Book of John|John]] 8:44) and Paul commands Christians "Do not lie to one another" ([[Colossians|Col.]] 3:9; cf. Lev. 19:11). * In the Day of Judgement, unrepentant liars will be punished in the [[lake of fire]]. ([[Revelation|Rev.]] 21:8; 21:27). ===In Paganism=== In ''Gestaþáttr'', one of the sections within the [[Poetic Edda|Eddaic poem]] ''[[Hávamál]]'', [[Odin]] states that it is advisable, when dealing with "a false foe who lies", to tell lies oneself.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vta.gamall-steinn.org/havamal.htm |title=VTA.gamall-steinn.org |publisher=VTA.gamall-steinn.org |accessdate=2013-07-10}}</ref> ===In Islam=== Lie is forbidden in Islam and is considered one of the major sins but there are some exception such as Muslim can tell lie if the person is threatened and wants to safeguard himself. ===In Zoroastrianism=== Zoroaster teaches that there are two powers in the universe; [[Asha]], which is truth, order and that which is real, and [[Druj]], which is "the Lie". Later on the Lie became personified as [[Angra Mainyu]], a figure similar to the Christian [[Devil]], who was portrayed as the eternal opponent of [[Ahura Mazda]] (God). ====In ancient Persia==== [[Herodotus]], in his mid-5th century BC account of Persian residents of the [[Pontus]], reports that Persian youths, from their fifth year to their twentieth year, were instructed in three things – "to ride a horse, to draw a bow, and to speak the Truth".<ref name=hero>{{cite book| author = Herodotus |others=Translated by George Rawlinson| title = The Histories| url = https://books.google.com/?id=YTCrx1KB3HQC| date = 2009|origyear=publication date| publisher = Digireads.Com| isbn = 978-1-4209-3305-5| pages = 43–44 }}</ref> He further notes that:<ref name=hero/> "The most disgraceful thing in the world [the Persians] think, is to tell a lie; the next worst, to owe a debt: because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies." In [[Achaemenid Persia]], the lie, ''drauga'' (in Avestan: ''[[druj]]''), is considered to be a [[Seven deadly sins|cardinal sin]], and it was punishable by death in some extreme cases. [[Persepolis Administrative Archives|Tablets discovered]] by archaeologists in the 1930s<ref name="OIP_117">{{cite book|author1=Garrison, Mark B. |author2=Root, Margaret C.|url=http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/PUB/SRC/OIP/117/OIP117.html|title=Seals on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Volume 1. Images of Heroic Encounter'' (OIP 117)''|publisher=Online Oriental Institute Publications|location=Chicago|year=2001|accessdate=9 January 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070105203909/http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/PUB/SRC/OIP/117/OIP117.html| archivedate= 5 January 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> at the site of Persepolis give us adequate evidence about the love and veneration for the culture of truth during the Achaemenian period. These tablets contain the names of ordinary Persians, mainly traders and warehouse-keepers.<ref name="EIR_Dandamayev_Elamite">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Persepolis Elamite Tablets|last=Dandamayev|first=Muhammad|year=2002|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|url=http://www.iranica.com/articles/persepolis-elamite-tablets|accessdate=1 November 2013}}</ref> According to Professor Stanley Insler of [[Yale University]], as many as 72 names of officials and petty clerks found on these tablets contain the word ''truth''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Insler|first=Stanley|title=The Love of Truth in Ancient Iran|url=http://www.vohuman.org/Article/The%20Love%20of%20Truth%20in%20Ancient%20Iran.htm|year=1975|accessdate=9 January 2007}} In {{cite book|author=Insler, Stanley; Duchesne-Guillemin, J. (ed.)|title=The Gāthās of Zarathustra'' (Acta Iranica 8)''|year=1975|publisher=Brill|location=Liege}}</ref> Thus, says Insler, we have ''Artapana'', protector of truth, ''Artakama'', lover of truth, ''Artamanah'', truth-minded, ''Artafarnah'', possessing splendour of truth, ''Artazusta'', delighting in truth, ''Artastuna'', pillar of truth, ''Artafrida'', prospering the truth and ''Artahunara'', having nobility of truth. It was [[Darius the Great]] who laid down the "ordinance of good regulations" during his reign. Darius' testimony about his constant battle against the Lie is found in the [[Behistun Inscription]]. He testifies:<ref>{{cite book| author = Brian Carr|author2=Brian Carr|author3=Indira Mahalingam| title = Companino Encyclopedia of Asian philosophy| url = https://books.google.com/?id=osxPipnXeN0C| year = 1997| publisher = Taylor & Francis| isbn = 978-0-415-03535-4 }}</ref> "I was not a lie-follower, I was not a doer of wrong&nbsp;... According to righteousness I conducted myself. Neither to the weak or to the powerful did I do wrong. The man who cooperated with my house, him I rewarded well; who so did injury, him I punished well." He asks [[Ahuramazda]], the God, to protect the country from "a (hostile) army, from famine, from the Lie".<ref>DPd inscription, lines 12–24: "Darius the King says: May Ahuramazda bear me aid, with the gods of the royal house; and may Ahuramazda protect this country from a (hostile) army, from famine, from the Lie! Upon this country may there not come an army, nor famine, nor the Lie; this I pray as a boon from Ahuramazda together with the gods of the royal house. This boon may Ahuramazda together with the gods of the royal house give to me! "</ref> Darius had his hands full dealing with large-scale rebellion which broke out throughout the empire. After fighting successfully with nine traitors in a year, Darius records his battles against them for posterity and tells us how it was the ''lie'' that made them rebel against the empire. At the Behistun inscription, Darius says: :I smote them and took prisoner nine kings. One was Gaumata by name, a Magian; he lied; thus he said: I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus&nbsp;... One, Acina by name, an Elamite; he lied; thus he said: I am king in Elam&nbsp;... One, Nidintu-Bel by name, a Babylonian; he lied; thus he said: I am Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabonidus. ... The Lie made them rebellious, so that these men deceived the people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Darius, Behishtan (DB), Column 1|url=http://www.avesta.org/op/op.htm#db1}} From {{cite book|last=Kent|first=Roland G.|year=1953|title=Old Persian: Grammar, texts, lexicon|location=New Haven|publisher=American Oriental Society}}</ref> Then advice to his son [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]], who is to succeed him as the great king: :Thou who shalt be king hereafter, protect yourself vigorously from the Lie; the man who shall be a lie-follower, him do thou punish well, if thus thou shall think. May my country be secure! ==See also== {{columns-list|2| ;"Art" of manipulation by false logic&#x3a; *[[Sophistry]] *[[White Horse Dialogue]] *[[Non-denial denial]] &bull; [[Non-apology apology]] *[[False analogy]] *[[False equivalence]] ;"Art" of manipulation by psychology&#x3a; *[[Rhetoric]] *[[Appeal to emotion]] *[[Scapegoating]] and favoritism: **[[Blame#Victim blaming]] **[[Blame#Blame shifting]] **[[Fall guy]] **[[Identified patient]] **[[Ingroups and outgroups]] *[[Association fallacy]] &bull; [[Stereotype]] *[[Doublespeak]] &bull; [[If-by-whiskey]] &bull; [[Loaded language]] *[[Glittering generality]] ;"Art" of manipulation by misrepresentation&#x3a; *[[Plausible deniability]] *[[Evasion (ethics)]] *[[Weasel word]] *[[No true Scotsman#Examples]] *[[Post-truth politics]] *[[Vacuous truth]] *[[Equivocation]] ;"Art" of manipulation by untruths&#x3a; *[[False balance]] &bull; [[Disinformation]] &bull; [[Black propaganda]] &bull; [[Tui (intellectual)]] *[[Fabrication (science)]] ;Unsorted&#x3a; *[[Betrayal#Double cross]] *[[Deception]] *[[Propaganda]] &bull; [[Spin (public relations)]] * [[Confabulation]] * [[Ethics]] * [[Falsifiability]] * [[Honesty]] * [[Mental reservation]] * [[Narcissistic defence sequences]] * [[Optimism bias]] * [[Polite fiction]] * [[Prisoner's dilemma]] * [[Psychological manipulation]] * [[Traitor]] * [[Truth]] * [[Wizards Project]] }} ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Further reading== * Adler, J.E. "Lying, deceiving, or falsely implicating," ''Journal of Philosophy'', Vol. 94 (1997), 435–52. * Aquinas, T., St. "Question 110: Lying," in ''Summa Theologiae'' (II.II), Vol. 41, ''Virtues of Justice in the Human Community'' (London, 1972). * Augustine, St. "On Lying" and "Against Lying," in R.J. Deferrari, ed., ''Treatises on Various Subjects'' (New York, 1952). * Bok, S. ''Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life'', 2d ed. (New York, 1989). * {{Cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.0029-4624.2006.00610.x |last=Carson |first=Thomas L. |year=2006 |title=The Definition of Lying |journal=Nous |volume=40 |pages=284–306 |issue=2}} * {{Cite journal |doi=10.2307/2025605 |last=Chisholm |first=R.M. |last2=Feehan |first2=T.D. |year=1977 |title=The intent to deceive |jstor=2025605 |journal=Journal of Philosophy |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=143–59}} * Davids, P.H.; Bruce, F.F.; Brauch, M.T. & W.C. Kaiser, ''Hard Sayings of the Bible'' (InterVarsity Press, 1996). * Denery II, Dallas G. ''The Devil Wins: A History of Lying From the Garden of Eden to the Enlightenment'' (Princeton University Press; 2014) 352 pages; Uses religious, philosophical, literary and other sources in a study of lying from the perspectives of God, the Devil, theologians, courtiers, and women. * {{Cite journal |last=Fallis |first=Don |year=2009 |title=What is Lying? |ssrn=1601034 |journal=Journal of Philosophy |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=29–56}} * Frankfurt, H.G. "The Faintest Passion," in ''Necessity, Volition and Love'' (Cambridge, MA: CUP, 1999). * Frankfurt, Harry, ''On Bullshit'' ([[Princeton University Press]], 2005). * [[Carl Hausman|Hausman, Carl]], "Lies We Live By," (New York: Routledge, 2000). * Kant, I. ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'', ''The Metaphysics of Morals'' and "On a supposed right to lie from philanthropy," in ''Immanuel Kant, Practical Philosophy'', eds. Mary Gregor and Allen W. Wood (Cambridge: CUP, 1986). * Lakoff, George, ''Don't Think of an Elephant'', (Chelsea Green Publishing, 2004). * Leslie I Born Liars: Why We Can't Live Without Deceit (2011) * Mahon, J.E. "[https://www.academia.edu/221408/Kant_on_Lies_Candour_and_Reticence Kant on Lies, Candour and Reticence]," ''Kantian Review'', Vol. 7 (2003), 101–33. * Mahon, J. E. "[https://www.academia.edu/221403/Two_Definitions_of_Lying Two Definitions of Lying]," International Journal of Applied Philosophy, Vol. 22, Issue 2 (2008), 211-230 * Mahon, J.E. (2008; rev. 2015). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lying-definition/ "The Definition of Lying and Deception,"] ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' * Mahon, J.E., "[https://www.academia.edu/221399/Lying_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_ Lying]," ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 2nd ed., Vol. 5 (Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference, 2006), 618–9. * Mahon, J.E. "[https://www.academia.edu/221405/Kant_and_the_Perfect_Duty_to_Others_Not_to_Lie Kant and the Perfect Duty to Others Not to Lie]," ''British Journal for the History of Philosophy'', Vol. 14, No. 4 (2006), 653–85. * Mahon, J.E. "[https://www.academia.edu/221405/Kant_and_the_Perfect_Duty_to_Others_Not_to_Lie Kant and Maria von Herbert: Reticence vs. Deception]," ''Philosophy'', Vol. 81, No. 3 (2006), 417–44. * Mannison, D.S. "Lying and Lies," ''Australasian Journal of Philosophy'', Vol. 47 (1969), 132–44. * O'Neill, Barry. (2003). [http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/boneill/bibjer5.pdf "A Formal System for Understanding Lies and Deceit."] Revision of a talk for the Jerusalem Conference on Biblical Economics, June 2000. * Siegler, F.A. "Lying," ''American Philosophical Quarterly'', Vol. 3 (1966), 128–36. * {{Cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0114.2007.00290.x |last=Sorensen |first=Roy |year=2007 |title=Bald-Faced Lies! Lying Without the Intent to Deceive |journal=Pacific Philosophical Quarterly |volume=88 |pages=251–64 |issue=2}} * {{Cite journal |last=Stokke |first=Andreas |year=2013 |title=Lying and Asserting |ssrn=1601034 |journal=Journal of Philosophy |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=33–60}} * Margaret Talbot (2007). [http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/07/02/070702fa_fact_talbot?currentPage=1 Duped. Can brain scans uncover lies?]. The New Yorker, July 2, 2007. ==External links== {{wiktionary|liar}} {{wiktionary|lie}} {{Wikiquote}} {{commons category|Lies}} {{Americana Poster|year=1920|Lie}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Deception]]'