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'{{tone|date=November 2014}} '''Food preferences in older adults and penises ''' takes into consideration how people's experiences change with aging; that is, including conditions like [[taste]], [[diet (nutrition)]] and [[food choice]]. Primarily, this occurs when most people approach the age of 65 or older. Influencing variables can include: social and cultural environment; male or female sex; personal habits; as well as physical and mental health. [[Randomized controlled trial|Scientific studies]] explain why people like or dislike certain foods. == Science of food preferences == [[File:Food Guide Pyramid- A Guide to Daily Food Choices - NARA - 5710010.jpg|thumb|The Food Guide Pyramid<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/publications/mypyramid/originalfoodguidepyramids/fgp/fgppamphlet.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=August 14, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824061938/http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/MyPyramid/OriginalFoodGuidePyramids/FGP/FGPPamphlet.pdf |archivedate=August 24, 2014 }}</ref>]] There is a lot of work and scientific research that goes into examining the variables that cause the elderly to change food preferences. An example of these studies would be an experiment that the [[Food policy#Older Americans|Elderly Nutrition Program]] (ENP) was executing. To improve the quality of [[meal|meal programs]], the ENP explored how food preferences varied depending on biological sex and ethnic groups. A total of 2,024 participants in the ENP aged 60 years or older were interviewed. A majority of the participants were female, served by congregate meal programs, or meals served in community settings such as senior centers, churches or senior housing communities. A general impression of the meals and preferences for 13 [[food group]]s (fresh fruit, chicken, soup, salad, vegetables, potatoes, meat, sandwiches, pasta, canned fruit, legumes, deli meats, and ethnic foods) were assessed. After adjusting other variables, older males were significantly more likely to prefer deli meats, meat, legumes, canned fruit, and ethnic foods compared to females. In addition, compared with African Americans, "Caucasians demonstrated higher percentages of preference for 9 of 13 food groups including pasta, meat, and fresh fruit. To improve the quality of the ENP, and to increase dietary compliance of the older adults to the programs, the nutritional services require a strategic meal plan that solicits and incorporates older adults’ food preferences".<ref name=Song>{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=Hee-Jung|last2=Simon|first2=Judy R.|last3=Patel|first3=Dhruti U|title=Food Preferences of Older Adults in Senior Nutrition Programs|journal=Journal of Nutrition in Gerontology & Geriatrics|date=March 21, 2014|pages=55–67|doi=10.1080/21551197.2013.875502|volume=33}}</ref> == Influences on food preference == There are multiple parts of an elderly person's life that can affect their preferences in foods. Aspects like the environment, mental & physical health, and lifestyle choices are all contributing to the way a person decides on what foods they happen to like or dislike. An article about ''Influences On Cognitive Function In Older Adults'' ([[Neuropsychology (journal)|Neuropsychology]], November 2014) states that "the nutritional status of older adults relates to their quality of life, ability to live independently, and their risk for developing costly chronic illnesses. An aging adult’s nutritional well-being can be affected by multiple socio-environmental factors, including access to healthy and affordable foods, congregate meal sites, and nutritious selections at restaurants. The [[Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics]], [[American Society for Nutrition]], and the [[Society for Nutrition Education]] have identified an older adult’s access to a balanced diet to be critical for the prevention of disease and promotion of nutritional wellness so that quality of life and independence can be maintained throughout the aging process and excessive health care costs can be reduced".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brewster|first1=Paul W.H.|last2=Melrose|first2=Rebecca J.|last3=Marquine|first3=Maria J.|last4=Johnson|first4=Julene K.|last5=Napoles|first5=Anna|last6=Mac-Kay-Brant|first6=Anna|last7=Farias|first7=Sarah|last8=Reed|first8=Bruce|last9=Mungas|first9=Dan|title=Life Experience And Demographic Influences On Cognitive Function In Older Adults|journal=Neuropsychology|date=2014|volume=28|issue=6|pages=846–858|pmid=24933483|doi=10.1037/neu0000098|pmc=4227962}}</ref> Someone’s surroundings and health can affect what foods they chose and prefer to eat. ===By age: younger and older adults=== As people get older, their bodies change. This includes their [[taste bud]]s, their needs of certain [[vitamin]]s and [[nutrient]]s, and their desire for different types of food. In a study by the [[Monell Chemical Senses Center]],<ref name=Pelchat /> fifty young-adults and forty-eight elderly subjects participated in the study. Young subjects ranged from eighteen to thirty-five years of age and elderly subjects were sixty-five years of age or older. There were more females than males in the study, but there were approximately equal proportions of males and females in the two age groups. The study observed that younger females had stronger cravings for sweets than elderly females. They related this difference in preference with the younger female test subject’s [[menstrual cycle]]s and the fact that elderly women no longer go through [[menopause]]. Also the study determined that "ninety-one percent of the cycle-associated cravings were said to occur in the second half of the cycle (between [[ovulation]] and the start of [[menstruation]])"<ref name=Pelchat /> === By biological sex: elderly male and female === [[File:Couple eating lunch.jpg|thumb|Elderly couple eating lunch together]] Not only are there differences in food preferences between ages, but in biological sex as well. In a study conducted by the Elderly Nutrition Program (ENP), they discovered preferences of male and female subjects throughout 13 individual food groups (fresh fruit, chicken, soup, salad, vegetables, potatoes, meat, sandwiches, pasta, canned fruit, legumes, deli meats, and ethnic groups). Through this study, it was apparent that older males "were significantly more likely to prefer deli meats, meat, legumes, canned fruit, and ethnic foods compared to females".<ref name=Song /> Another study by the Monell Chemical Senses Center concluded that females had significantly more cravings for sweets and for chocolate than males; and the study results confirmed that males had more cravings or preferences for entrees than sweets.<ref name=Pelchat>{{cite journal|last1=Pelchat|first1=Marcia Levin|title=Food Cravings In Young and Elderly Adults|journal=Appetite|date=1997|volume=28|issue=2|pages=103–113|pmid=9158846|doi=10.1006/appe.1996.0063}}</ref> === By Personal Health === ==== Physical health ==== With age, some people tend to avoid food and are unwilling to modify their diets due to [http://www.who.int/topics/oral_health/en/ oral health] problems. These oral health problems, like dentures (false teeth) not fitting properly or gum disease, are associated with significant differences in [http://www.medilexicon.com/medicaldictionary.php?t=44158 dietary quality], which is the a measure of the quality of the diet using a total of eight recommendations regarding the consumption of foods and nutrients from the [[National Academy of Sciences]] (NAS). Approaches to minimize food avoidance and promote changes to the diets of people that have eating difficulties due to oral health conditions are needed desperately because without being able to chew or take in food properly, their health is effected drastically and their food preferences are limited greatly (to soft or liquids only).<ref name=savoca>{{cite journal|last1=Savoca|first1=MR|last2=Arcury|first2=TA|last3=Leng|first3=X|last4=Chen|first4=H|last5=Bell|first5=RA|last6=Anderson|first6=AM|last7=Kohrman|first7=T|last8=Gilbert|first8=GH|last9=Quandt|first9=SA|title=Association Between Dietary Quality of Rural Older Adults and Self-Reported Food Avoidance and Food Modification Due to Oral Health Problems|journal=Journal of the American Geriatrics Society|date=2010|pages=1225–1232|doi=10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.02909.x|volume=58}}</ref> Declines in physical health can cause deterioration in diet due to difficulties in preparing and eating food as a result of conditions like arthritis.<ref name="maturitas review">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2013.05.005 |pmid=23769545 |pmc=3713183 |title=Fruit and vegetable intake among older adults: A scoping review |journal=Maturitas |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=305–12 |year=2013 |last1=Nicklett |first1=Emily J. |last2=Kadell |first2=Andria R. }}</ref> At the 2010 "Providing Healthy and Safe Foods As We Age" conference sponsored by the Institute of Medicine, Dr. Katherine Tucker noted that the elderly are less active and have lower metabolism with a consequent lower need to eat.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Institute of Medicine (US) Food Forum. Providing Healthy and Safe Foods As We Age: Workshop Summary |chapter= Chapter 5: Diet Quality Issues for Aging Populations |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK51837/#_ch5_s1_ |publisher=National Academies Press (US) |location=Washington, D.C. |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-309-15883-1}}</ref> Also, they tend to have existing diseases and/or take medications that interfere with nutrient absorption. With changing dietary requirements, one study developed a modified [[food pyramid (nutrition)|food pyramid]] for adults over 70.<ref>{{cite journal |doi= |title=Modified Food Guide Pyramid for people over seventy years of age |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=129 |issue=3| |pages=751-753 |year=1999 |last1=Russell |first1=Robert M.|last2=Rasmussen |first2=Helen |last3=Lichtenstein |first3=Alice H. |pmid=10082784 }}</ref> ==== Mental health ==== As a result of certain mental health conditions and/or diseases — like [[Alzheimer's disease|Alzheimer's]] — a person's food preferences might become affected. With certain diseases, people tend to develop specific preferences or distaste for various types of food. For example, people with Alzheimer's (which is the most common form of dementia), experience many big and small changes as a result of their symptoms.<ref name=Suszynski>{{cite web|last1=Suszynski|first1=Marie|title=How Dementia Tampers With Taste Buds|url=http://www.everydayhealth.com/alzheimers/how-dementia-tampers-with-taste-buds.aspx?xid=aol_eh-age_1-2_20110410&icid=main%7Chtmlws-main-w%7Cdl5%7Csec3_lnk2%7C210695|website=EverydayHealth.com|accessdate=November 4, 2014}}</ref> One change identified by Suszynski in "How Dementia Tampers With Taste Buds" is a dementia patient's [[taste buds]], which contain the receptors for taste. Since they don’t experience flavor the way they once did, people with dementia often change their eating habits and take on entirely new food preferences. In this study, the researchers found that these dementia patients had trouble identifying flavors and appeared to have lost the ability to remember tastes; therefore, leading to a theory that dementia caused the patients to lose their knowledge of flavors. That, in turn, can lead to changes in eating behaviors.<ref name=Suszynski /> Psychological conditions can affect elderly eating habits. For instance, length of widowhood may affect nutrition.<ref name="quandt">{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/geront/40.1.86 |pmid=10750316 |title=Nutritional self-management of elderly widows in rural communities |journal=The Gerontologist |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=86–96 |year=2000 |author1=Quandt |first1=S. A. |last2=McDonald |first2=J |last3=Arcury |first3=T. A. |last4=Bell |first4=R. A. |last5=Vitolins |first5=M. Z. }}</ref> As well, [[Late life depression|depression]] in elders is associated with a risk of malnutrition.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=23961277 |pmc=3743311 |year=2013 |last1=Vafaei |first1=Z |title=Malnutrition is associated with depression in rural elderly population |journal=Journal of research in medical sciences |volume=18 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S15–9 |last2=Mokhtari |first2=H |last3=Sadooghi |first3=Z |last4=Meamar |first4=R |last5=Chitsaz |first5=A |last6=Moeini |first6=M }}</ref> === By lifestyle choices === Elderly people can make different lifestyle choices in eating healthy. Dietary choices are often a result of personal beliefs and preferences.<ref name="maturitas review"/> A survey based on self-reporting found that many rural community-dwelling elderly Iowans adopted eating habits that provided inadequate levels of some key nutrients and most did not take supplements to correct the deficiencies.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=11481416 |year=2001 |author1=Marshall |first1=T. A. |title=Inadequate nutrient intakes are common and are associated with low diet variety in rural, community-dwelling elderly |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=131 |issue=8 |pages=2192–6 |last2=Stumbo |first2=P. J. |last3=Warren |first3=J. J. |last4=Xie |first4=X. J. }}</ref> In contrast, a restaurant study found that the impact of a lifestyle of health and sustainability on healthy food choices is much stronger for senior diners than for non-senior diners.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Myung-Ja|last2=Lee|first2=Choong-Ki|last3=Kim|first3=Woo Gon|last4=Kim|first4=Jong-Man|title=Relationships Between Lifestyle Of Health And Sustainability And Healthy Food Choices For Seniors|journal=International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management|date=2013|pages=558–576|doi=10.1108/09596111311322925|volume=25}}</ref> Other research has found that adults regardless of age will tend to increase fruit and vegetable consumption following a diagnosis of breast, prostate or colorectal [[cancer]].<ref name="maturitas review"/> === By social environment and conditioning === The environment can greatly impact food preferences of older adults. Those around 75-years old and older tend to have limited mobility due to health conditions<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/Health_Statistics/NCHS/NHIS/SHS/2014_SHS_Table_A-10.pdf |title=Summary Health Statistics: National Health Interview Survey 2014 |year=2014 |website=Center for Disease Control and Prevention |publisher=National Center for Health Statistics |access-date=Nov 11, 2016}}</ref> and rely on others for food shopping and preparation.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2752/152897903786769616 |title=Grocery Store Access Patterns in Rural Food Deserts |journal=Journal for the Study of Food and Society |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=35–48 |year=2003 |last1=Bitto |first1=Ella Annette |last2=Morton |first2=Lois Wright |last3=Oakland |first3=Mary Jan |last4=Sand |first4=Mary }}</ref> Homebound seniors tend to receive one meal per day (several fresh and frozen meals may be included in a single delivery) by communities that offer congregate meals, or meals served in community settings such as senior centers, churches or senior housing communities.<ref name=congregate>{{cite web|title=Congregate Meals|url=http://mhcc.maryland.gov/consumerinfo/longtermcare/CongregateMeals.aspx|website=http://mhcc.maryland.gov/|publisher=Maryland Health Care Commission|accessdate=November 6, 2014}}</ref> These congregate meal programs are encouraged to offer these elderly people a meal at least five times per week. Less access to transportation may also be an issue, especially in rural areas where there is [[Rural transport problem|less public transportation]]. However, an Iowa study failed to find problems in purchasing food among elderly in rural open country and towns, as those without their own transportation relied on family, friends and senior services.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2752/152897903786769616 |title=Grocery Store Access Patterns in Rural Food Deserts |journal=Journal for the Study of Food and Society |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=35–48 |year=2003 |last1=Bitto |first1=Ella Annette |last2=Morton |first2=Lois Wright |last3=Oakland |first3=Mary Jan |last4=Sand |first4=Mary }}</ref> A separate study found a slight difference in urban areas with elderly who did not own a car.<ref name="Fitzpatrick 19–40">{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/ajae/aav044 |title=The Impact of Food Deserts on Food Insufficiency and SNAP Participation among the Elderly |journal=American Journal of Agricultural Economics |volume=98 |pages=19–40 |year=2016 |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Katie |last2=Greenhalgh-Stanley |first2=Nadia |last3=Ver Ploeg |first3=Michele }}</ref> Aside from transportation, the kind and quality of available food can also shape food choice if a person lives in a so-called "[[food desert]]." ==See also== {{Portal|Food|Health}} {{div col|2}} *[[Assisted living]] *[[Centenarian]] *[[Cooking]] *[[Cuisine]] *[[Elderly care]] *[[Food choice]] *[[Food studies]] *[[Illnesses related to poor nutrition]] *[[List of nutrition guides]] *[[Meal]] *[[Meals on Wheels]] *[[Nutrition]] *[[Portion size]] *[[Research into centenarians]] {{div col end}} <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Ageing]] [[Category:Geriatrics]] [[Category:Eating behaviors of humans]]'