Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{pp-move-indef |small = yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = 大元<br />{{MongolUnicode|ᠶᠡᠬᠡ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠤᠯᠤᠰ}}
|conventional_long_name = Great Yuan
|common_name = Yüan dynasty
|continent = Asia
|region = Eastern Asia
|era = [[Postclassical Era]]
|status = [[Khagan]]-ruled [[division of the Mongol Empire|division]] of the [[Mongol Empire]]<br />[[Conquest dynasty]] in [[China]]
|status_text =
|empire = Mongol Empire
|government_type = Monarchy
|year_start = 1271
|year_end = 1368
|event_start = Formal proclamation of the Yuan dynasty<ref name="Proclamation" />
|date_start = 5 November
|event_end = Fall of [[Khanbaliq]]
|date_end = 14 September
|event_pre = [[Genghis Khan]] founds [[Mongol Empire]]
|date_pre = Spring, 1206
|event1 = [[Battle of Xiangyang]]
|date_event1 = 1268–1273
|event2 = [[Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty|Conquest of Southern Song]]
|date_event2 = 4 February 1276
|event3 = [[Battle of Yamen]]
|date_event3 = 19 March 1279
|event4 = [[Red Turban Rebellion]]
|date_event4 = 1351–1368
|event_post = Formation of [[Northern Yuan dynasty]]
|date_post = 1368–1388
|p1 = Mongol Empire
|p2 = Song dynasty
|s1 = Northern Yuan dynasty
|s2 = Ming dynasty
|image_map = Yuan ch.png
|image_map_caption = Yuan dynasty circa 1294<br /><small>The situation of [[Goryeo]] was disputed{{efn|The situation of [[Goryeo]] during Yuan dynasty was disputed. Some scholars (such as [[Tan Qixiang]]) regarded it as a country;<ref>{{cite book |title = [[The Historical Atlas of China]] |publisher = [[SinoMaps Press]] |chapter = vol. 7 |author = [[Tan Qixiang]] |ISBN = 9787503118449}}</ref> others regarded it as a part of Yuan.}}</small>
|image_map2 = Yuan Provinces.png
|image_map2_caption = Provinces of Yuan in 1330
|capital = [[Khanbaliq]] ([[Beijing]])
|common_languages = [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]<br />[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
|religion = [[Buddhism]] ([[Tibetan Buddhism]] as ''de facto'' [[state religion]]), [[Heaven worship]], [[Shamanism]], [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Chinese folk religion]], [[Church of the East in China|Chinese Nestorian Christianity]], [[Catholic Church in China|Roman Catholic Christianity]], [[History of the Jews in China|Judaism]], [[Chinese Manichaeism]], [[Islam]], [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]]
|currency = Predominantly [[Banknote|Paper Currency]] ([[Chao (currency)|Chao]]), with a small amount of [[Cash (Chinese coin)|Chinese cash]] in use
|leader1 = Kublai Khan
|leader2 = Toghon Temür
|year_leader1 = 1260–1294
|year_leader2 = 1333–1368
|title_leader = [[List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty|Emperor]]
|stat_year1 = 1290
|stat_area1 =
|stat_pop1 = 77000000
|title_deputy = [[Chancellor of China|Chancellor]]
|stat_year2 = 1293
|stat_area2 =
|stat_pop2 = 79816000
|stat_year3 = 1310<ref>{{cite journal|date=September 1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|page=499|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|author=Rein Taagepera|authorlink=Rein Taagepera|jstor=2600793}}</ref>
|stat_area3 = 11000000
|stat_pop3 =
|stat_year4 = 1330
|stat_area4 =
|stat_pop4 = 83873000
|stat_year5 = 1350
|stat_area5 =
|stat_pop5 = 87147000
}}
The '''Yuan dynasty''' ({{zh |c = {{linktext|元|朝}} |p = Yuán Cháo}}), officially the '''Great Yuan'''<ref name="CivilSociety" /> ({{zh |c = {{linktext|大|元}} |p = Dà Yuán}}; {{lang|mn|''Yehe Yuan Ulus''}}{{efn|Or ''{{transl|mn|Ikh Yuan Üls/Yekhe Yuan Ulus}}''; {{lang|mn|Их Юань улс}} in [[Mongolian Cyrillic]].}}), was the [[empire]] or ruling [[dynasty]] of China established by [[Kublai Khan]], leader of the [[Mongols|Mongolian]] [[Borjigin]] clan. It followed the [[Song dynasty]] and was succeeded by the [[Ming dynasty]]. Although the Mongols had ruled territories including modern-day [[North China]] for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Chinese style,{{sfn|Mote|1994|p=624}} and the conquest was not complete until 1279. His realm was, by this point, isolated from the other [[khanate]]s and controlled most of present-day [[China]] and its surrounding areas, including modern [[Mongolia]].<ref>Christopher P. Atwood – ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire''</ref> It was the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China and lasted until 1368, after which the rebuked Genghisid rulers retreated to their Mongolian homeland and continued to rule the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]].<ref name="The History of China">{{cite book |title = The History of China |url = {{Google books |plainurl = yes |id = 69EbKf6JrxYC |page = 427 }} |accessdate = 4 March 2015}}</ref> Some of the Mongolian Emperors of the Yuan mastered the Chinese language, while others only used their native language (i.e. Mongolian) and the [['Phags-pa script]].<ref>Herbert Franke-Could the Mongol emperors read and write Chinese?</ref>
The Yuan dynasty was the khanate ruled by the successors of [[Möngke Khan]] after the [[division of the Mongol Empire]]. In [[Chinese historiography|official Chinese histories]], the Yuan dynasty bore the [[Mandate of Heaven]]. The dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather [[Genghis Khan]] on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as [[List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty|Taizu]].{{efn|Before [[Kublai Khan]] announced the dynastic name "Great Yuan" in 1271, [[Khagan]]s (Great Khans) of the [[Mongol Empire]] (''Ikh Mongol Uls'') already started to use the Chinese title of [[Emperor of China|Emperor]] (皇帝) practically in the [[Chinese language]] since [[Genghis Khan]].}} In the Proclamation of the Dynastic Name,<ref name="Proclamation" /> Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors]] to the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref name="Proclamation" />
In addition to [[Emperor of China]], Kublai Khan also claimed the title of [[Khagan|Great Khan]], supreme over the other successor khanates: the [[Chagatai Khanate|Chagatai]], the [[Golden Horde]], and the [[Ilkhanate]]. As such, the Yuan was also sometimes referred to as the '''Empire of the Great Khan'''. However, while the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was at times recognized by the western khans, their subservience was nominal and each continued its own separate development.<ref>J. J. Saunders – The history of Mongol conquests</ref><ref>Rene Grousset – The Empire of Steppes</ref>
== Name ==
{{See also|Names of China|Mongol Empire|I Ching|Mandate of Heaven}}
{{Division of the Mongol Empire}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|pic = Yuan dynasty (Chinese and Mongolian).svg
|piccap = "Yuan dynasty" in Chinese (top) and Mongolian (bottom) script
|picsize = 145px
|c = 元朝
|l = "Yuan dynasty"
|p = Yuán cháo
|w = Yüan<sup>2</sup> ch'ao<sup>2</sup>
|mi = {{IPAc-cmn|yuan|2|-|ch|ao|2}}
|suz = Nyœ́ záu
|y=Yùhn chìuh
|ci={{IPAc-yue|j|yun|4|-|c|iu|4}}
|j = Jyun4 ciu4
|tl = Guân tiâo
|c2 = 大元
|l2 = Great Yuan
|p2 = Dà Yuán
|y2=Daai<sup>6</sup> Yun<sup>4</sup>
|ci2={{IPAc-yue|d|aai|6|-|j|yun|4}}
|mon =
|mong = [[File:Их Юань улс.PNG|80px]]
|monr = Yehe Yüan Ulus
|l3 = Great Mongol State
}}
{{special characters}}
In 1271, [[Kublai Khan]] imposed the name '''Great Yuan''' ({{zh |c = 大元 |p = Dà Yuán |w = Ta-Yüan}}), establishing the Yuan dynasty.<ref name="CivilSociety">"Civil Society in China: The Legal Framework from Ancient Times to the 'New Reform Era'", p39, note 69.</ref> "Dà Yuán" ({{lang|zh|大元}}) is from the clause "{{lang|zh|大哉乾元}}" (dà zai Qián Yuán / "Great is Qián, the Primal") in the ''[[Ten Wings|Commentaries]] on the [[I Ching|Classic of Changes]] (I Ching)'' section<ref>{{cite book |title = [[Ten Wings|Commentaries]] on the [[I Ching|Classic of Changes]] (《易傳》) |chapter = 《易·乾·彖傳》 |quote = 《彖》曰：大哉乾元，萬物資始，乃統天。}}</ref> regarding [[Qian (hexagram)|Qián]] ({{lang|zh|乾}}).<ref name="Proclamation">{{citation |author = [[Kublai Khan]] |date = December 18, 1271 |title = 《[[s:zh:建國號詔|建國號詔]]》}} (collected in the ''Statutes of the Yuan'' (《元典章》))</ref> The counterpart in Mongolian language was ''Dai Ön Ulus'', also rendered as ''Ikh Yuan Üls'' or ''Yekhe Yuan Ulus''. In Mongolian, ''Dai Ön'' (Great Yuan) is often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus" (lit. "Great Mongol State"), resulting in ''Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus''<ref name="mname">"The Early Mongols: Language, Culture and History" by Volker Rybatzki & Igor de Rachewiltz, p116</ref> ([[Mongolian script]]: [[File:Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus.PNG|80px]]), meaning "Great Mongol State".<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/kublai-khan-4344.php |title = Kublai Khan Biography - Childhood, Life Achievements & Timeline |website = Thefamouspeople.com |date = |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref> The Yuan dynasty is also known by westerners as the "Mongol dynasty"<ref>Asian Nationalism, by Michael Leifer, Professor of International Relations Michael Leifer, p23</ref> or "Mongol Dynasty of China",<ref>A Military History of Japan: From the Age of the Samurai to the 21st Century: From the Age of the Samurai to the 21st Century, John T. Kuehn Ph.D., p61</ref> similar to the names "Manchu dynasty"<ref>Voyages in World History, by Valerie Hansen, Ken Curtis, p53</ref> or "Manchu Dynasty of China"<ref>The Military Engineer, Volume 40, p580</ref> which were used by westerners for the [[Qing dynasty]]. Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan" or "Khanate of the Great Khan",<ref>Focus On World History: The Era Of Expanding Global Connections - 1000-1500 C.e.:grades 7-9, by Kathy Sammis, p. 46.</ref> which particularly appeared on some Yuan maps, since Yuan emperors held the nominal title of [[Great Khan]]. Nevertheless, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271.
== History ==
{{Main article|History of the Yuan dynasty}}
{{see also|Timeline of the Yuan dynasty}}
{{History of the Mongols}}
{{History of China}}
=== Background ===
{{Main article|Toluid Civil War}}
[[Genghis Khan]] united the Mongol tribes of the steppes and became [[Great Khan]] in 1206.{{sfn|Ebrey|2010|p=169}} He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son, [[Ögedei Khan]], the Mongols [[Siege of Caizhou|destroyed]] the weakened [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] in 1234, conquering most of [[North China|northern China]].{{sfn|Ebrey|2010|pp=169–170}} Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in [[Xingzhou (in modern Hebei)|Xingzhou]], [[Hebei]]. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother [[Sorghaghtani Beki|Sorghaghtani]]. He sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=415}} [[Möngke Khan]] succeeded Ögedei's son, [[Güyük Khan|Güyük]], as Great Khan in 1251.{{sfn|Allsen|1994|p=392}} He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China.{{sfn|Allsen|1994|p=394}} Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued [[paper money]], revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=418}} He adopted as his capital city [[Kaiping]] in [[Inner Mongolia]], later renamed [[Shangdu]].{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=65}}
[[File:MongolMap.jpg|thumb|left|Mongol successor khanates]]
Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, [[Shi Tianze]], [[Liu Heima]] ({{lang|zh|[[w:zh:劉黑馬|劉黑馬]]}}, Liu Ni),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=oj8sVYfZEYb4yASM8oCADQ&id=1yMnAQAAIAAJ&dq=liu+heima+mongols&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=liu+heima+ |title=Revue bibliographique de sinologie, n° 19/2001 - Collectif |website=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://big5.xjass.com/ls/content/2013-02/27/content_267592.htm |title="萬戶路"、"千戶州" ——蒙古千戶百戶制度與華北路府州郡體制 - 新疆哲學社會科學 |website=Big5.xjass.com |date=2013-02-27 |accessdate=2016-05-27 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080427/http://big5.xjass.com/ls/content/2013-02/27/content_267592.htm |archivedate=4 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.wenxue100.com/book_LiShi/138_190.thtml |title=白话元史-刘伯林传(附刘黑马传) |publisher=Wenxue100.com |date= |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=7794 |title="万户路"、"千户州"——蒙古千户百户制度与华北路府州郡体制 - 中国人民大学清史研究所 |publisher=Iqh.net.cn |date=2013-04-30 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref> and the Khitan [[Xiao Zhala]] ({{lang|zh|[[w:zh:蕭札剌|蕭札剌]]}}) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NfzOAAAAMAAJ&q=Ogodei+divided+them+into+three+tiimens+%28Chinese:+wan-hu%29+and+thirty-six+minqat+commanded+by+the+Khitan+Hsiao+Cha-la+and+Hans+Liu+Ni+%28Heima%29+and+Shi-+T%27ien-tse.+By+1234,+three+and+perhaps+more+lumen-it+noyad+were+posted.+The+three+...&dq=Ogodei+divided+them+into+three+tiimens+%28Chinese:+wan-hu%29+and+thirty-six+minqat+commanded+by+the+Khitan+Hsiao+Cha-la+and+Hans+Liu+Ni+%28Heima%29+and+Shi-+T%27ien-tse.+By+1234,+three+and+perhaps+more+lumen-it+noyad+were+posted.+The+three+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_z8sVYkri6rJBIT1gMgH&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA |title=The Mechanics of Conquest and Governance: The Rise and Expansion of the ... |author=Timothy Michael May |website = Books.google.com |date = 2009-01-14 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://123.125.114.20/view/ca3dae260722192e4536f629.html?re=view |title = 您的访问出错了。 |website = 123.125.114.20 |accessdate = 2016-05-27 }}{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url =http://121.199.12.114:99/main/wz_xs.tom?c_name=%CF%F4%D7%D3%CF%D4&d_id=wzadd20120314102439zw&searh_text= |title=¹ú¼ÊÈåѧÈËÎïÐÅϢƽ̨ |publisher=121.199.12.114:99 |date=2012-03-14 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.docin.org/p-716638698.html |title = 【doc】-兼论金元之际的汉地七万户 - 豆丁网 |language = zh |publisher = Docin.org |date = 2013-10-26 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref> Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F00qAQAAMAAJ&q=%28Brief+history+of+the+Black+Tartars%29+which+lists+the+men+who+held+posts+under+Og%C3%B6dei,+or+more+precisely,+from+the+last+two+families,+Shi+Tianze+and+Liu+Heima+%23%23%23%23%23,+see+Meng-ta+peilu+und+Hei-ta+shih+liieh,+translated+by+E.+Haenisch+and+Yao+Ts%27ung-wu,+edited+by+P.+Olbricht+and+E.+Pinks,+%E2%80%9CAsiatische+Forschungen%E2%80%9D,+Bd.+56+%28Wiesbaden:+Otto+Harrassowitz,+1980%29,+pp.+202-206.+and+professional&dq=%28Brief+history+of+the+Black+Tartars%29+which+lists+the+men+who+held+posts+under+Og%C3%B6dei,+or+more+precisely,+from+the+last+two+families,+Shi+Tianze+and+Liu+Heima+%23%23%23%23%23,+see+Meng-ta+peilu+und+Hei-ta+shih+liieh,+translated+by+E.+Haenisch+and+Yao+Ts%27ung-wu,+edited+by+P.+Olbricht+and+E.+Pinks,+%E2%80%9CAsiatische+Forschungen%E2%80%9D,+Bd.+56+%28Wiesbaden:+Otto+Harrassowitz,+1980%29,+pp.+202-206.+and+professional&hl=en&sa=X&ei=f0AsVd_hPM-KyASpzoHADg&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA |title = Foundations and Limits of State Power in China |website = Books.google.com |date = 1987-01-01 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref> Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MztuAAAAMAAJ&q=liu+heima+mongols&dq=liu+heima+mongols&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oj8sVYfZEYb4yASM8oCADQ&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg |title = Rulers from the steppe: state formation on the Eurasian periphery |website = Books.google.com |date = 2008-09-02 |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref> There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier ({{lang|zh|石抹孛迭兒}}), Tabuyir ({{lang|zh|塔不已兒}}) and Xiaozhacizhizizhongxi ({{lang|zh|蕭札刺之子重喜}}) commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ogödei Khan.<ref>{{cite web |author = 胡小鹏 |url = http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/periodical/xbsdxb-shkxb200106008 |title = 窝阔台汗己丑年汉军万户萧札剌考辨-兼论金元之际的汉地七万户 |trans-title = A Study of XIAO Zha-la the Han Army Commander of 10,000 Families in the Year of 1229 during the Period of Khan (O)gedei |website = D.wanfangdata.com.cn |date = |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.nssd.org/articles/article_detail.aspx?id=5638208 |title = 国家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库 |publisher = Nssd.org |date= |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref><ref>[https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/新元史/卷146] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112114820/https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/ |date=January 12, 2016 }}</ref>
Shi Tianze was a Han Chinese who lived in the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]. Interethnic marriage between Han and Jurchen became common at this time. His father was Shi Bingzhi ({{lang|zh|史秉直}}, Shih Ping-chih). Shi Bingzhi was married to a Jurchen woman (surname Na-ho) and a Han Chinese woman (surname Chang); it is unknown which of them was Shi Tianze's mother.<ref name="ed. de Rachewiltz 1993">{{cite web |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA41 |title = In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan ... |page = 41 |website = Books.google.com |date = |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref> Shi Tianze was married to two Jurchen women, a Han Chinese woman, and a Korean woman, and his son Shi Gang was born to one of his Jurchen wives.<ref name="Kinoshita 2013">{{cite web |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FPzcTT-pBp4C&pg=PA47 |title=Cosmopolitanism and the Middle Ages |page = 47 |website = Books.google.com |date = 2013-03-20 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref> The surnames of his Jurchen wives were Mo-nien and Na-ho; the surname of his Korean wife was Li; and the surname of his Han Chinese wife was Shi.<ref name="ed. de Rachewiltz 1993" /> Shi Tianze defected to Mongol forces upon their [[Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty|invasion of the Jin dynasty]]. His son Shi Gang married a Kerait woman; the Kerait were Mongolified Turkic people and were considered part of the "Mongol nation".<ref name="Kinoshita 2013" /><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nCIPD1V39QkC&pg=PA14 Watt 2010], p. 14.</ref> Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien-tse), [[Zhang Rou]] (Chang Jou, {{lang|zh|[[w:zh:張柔|張柔]]}}), and [[Yan Shi]] (Yen Shih, {{lang|zh|[[w:zh:嚴實|嚴實]]}}) and other high ranking Chinese who served in the Jin dynasty and defected to the Mongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new state.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Chan, Hok-Lam|date=1997|title= A Recipe to Qubilai Qa'an on Governance: The Case of Chang Te-hui and Li Chih|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]]|volume=7 (2)|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=257–83|jstor=25183352}}</ref> [[Chagaan]] (Tsagaan) and Zhang Rou jointly launched an attack on the Song dynasty ordered by [[Töregene Khatun]].
Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese [[Song dynasty]] in southern China.{{sfn|Allsen|1994|p=410}} The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=606298 |title=Review: Nomads on Ponies vs. Slaves on Horses Reviewed Work: Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260-1281 by Reuven Amitai-Preiss|author=John Masson Smith, Jr.|journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]]|volume=118| issue = 1 |date=1998|pages=54–62}}</ref> He died in 1259 without a successor.{{sfn|Allsen|1994|p=411}} Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, [[Ariq Böke]], was challenging his claim to the throne.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=422}} Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=51}} A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=53}} Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on the bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=423–424}} Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264.{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=104}} All of the three western khanates ([[Golden Horde]], [[Chagatai Khanate]] and [[Ilkhanate]]) became functionally autonomous, although only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=62}}{{sfn|Allsen|1994|p=413}} Civil strife had [[Division of the Mongol Empire|permanently divided the Mongol Empire]].{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=24}}
=== Rule of Kublai Khan ===
==== Early years ====
Instability troubled the early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandson [[Kaidu]] refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=77}}{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=105}} The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=77}} Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince [[Wonjong of Goryeo|Wonjong]] as the ruler of Korea, making it a Mongol tributary state.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|pp=436–437}}{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=77}} Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=426}} He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to the Song.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=66}}
Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=427}} He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the [[Salt in Chinese History#Ancient China and the early empire|traditional monopolies on salt]] and [[History of metallurgy in China#Iron|iron]].{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|pp=70–71}} He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left the local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=70}} However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian [[imperial examination]]s and divided Yuan society into three, later four, classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in the government, but their official rank was nebulous.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|pp=70–71}}
==== Founding the dynasty ====
[[File:YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kublai Khan]], founder of the Yuan dynasty]]
Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from [[Karakorum]] in Mongolia to [[Khanbaliq]] in 1264,{{sfn|Ebrey|2010|p = 172}} constructing a new city near the former [[Jurchens|Jurchen]] capital [[Zhongdu]], now modern [[Beijing]], in 1266.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p = 132}} In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the [[Mandate of Heaven]] and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan ({{zh|c=大元|links=no}}) in the style of a traditional Chinese dynasty.{{sfn|Mote|1994|p = 616}} The name of the dynasty originated from the ''[[I Ching]]'' and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force".{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p = 136}} Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the "Great Capital" or Daidu (Dadu, {{zh|c=大都|links=no}} in Chinese) of the dynasty.{{sfn|Mote|1999|p = 460}} The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history.{{sfn|Mote|1999|p = 458}} The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating the government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession.{{sfn|Mote|1999|p = 616}} Khublai evoked his public image as a [[Emperor of China|sage emperor]] by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration,{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p = 458}} while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes.{{sfn|Mote|1999|p = 616}}
Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the [[Silk Road]] trade network by protecting the [[Yam (route)|Mongol postal system]], constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper banknotes ({{lang|zh|鈔}}, [[Chao (currency)|Chao]]). [[Pax Mongolica]], Mongol peace, enabled the spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=72}} Kublai expanded the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] from southern China to Daidu in the north.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=74}} Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=62}} He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant [[Marco Polo]], who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=463}} Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like [[Christopher Columbus]] to chart a passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=61}}
During the [[Southern Song dynasty]] the descendant of [[Confucius]] at [[Qufu]], the [[Duke Yansheng]] Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to [[Quzhou]], while the newly established [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)]] in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, one in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.npm.gov.tw/hotnews/9910seminar/download/all/B10.pdf |format = PDF |title = Descendants and Portraits of Confucius in the Early Southern Song |website = Npm.gov.tw |accessdate = 2016-05-27 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053840/http://www.npm.gov.tw/hotnews/9910seminar/download/all/B10.pdf |archivedate = 4 March 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248653434_The_Ritual_Formation_of_Confucian_Orthodoxy_and_the_Descendants_of_the_Sage |title=The Ritual Formation of Confucian Orthodoxy and the Descendants of the Sage (PDF Download Available) |website=Researchgate.net |date=2014-01-21 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.npm.gov.tw/hotnews/9910seminar/download/en/B10.pdf |format=PDF |title=Descendants and Portraits of Confucius in the Early Southern Song |author=Julia K. Murray |website=Npm.gov.tw |accessdate=2016-05-27 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913134503/http://www.npm.gov.tw/hotnews/9910seminar/download/en/B10.pdf |archivedate=13 September 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=B. Paul Banning |url=http://aas2.asian-studies.org/absts/1995abst/china/csess45.htm |title=AAS Abstracts: China Session 45 |publisher=Aas2.asian-studies.org |date= |accessdate=2016-05-27 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006175402/http://aas2.asian-studies.org/absts/1995abst/china/csess45.htm |archivedate=6 October 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="JansenKlein2014">{{cite book |author1=Thomas Jansen |author2=Thoralf Klein |author3=Christian Meyer |title = Globalization and the Making of Religious Modernity in China: Transnational Religions, Local Agents, and the Study of Religion, 1800-Present |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GNlXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188#v=onepage&q&f=false |date = 21 March 2014 |publisher=BRILL |ISBN = 978-90-04-27151-7 |pages=187–188}}</ref> The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.<ref>{{cite news |title = Nation observes Confucius anniversary |url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-09/29/content_699183.htm |newspaper = China Daily |date = 2006-09-29 <!-- 07:31 --> }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title = Confucius Anniversary Celebrated |url = http://www.china.org.cn/english/2006/Sep/182656.htm |newspaper = China Daily |date = September 29, 2006}}</ref> During the Yuan dynasty, one of [[Confucius]]' descendants, who was one of the [[Duke Yansheng]] Kong Huan's ({{lang|zh|[[w:zh:孔浣|孔浣]]}}) sons, named Kong Shao ({{lang|zh|孔紹}}), moved from China to [[Goryeo]] dynasty Korea and established a branch of the family there after wedding a Korean woman (Jo Jin-gyeong's {{lang|zh|曹晉慶}} daughter) during [[Toghon Temür]]'s rule. This branch of the family received [[Korean nobility|aristocratic rank]]in [[Joseon]] era Korea.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.qz.gov.cn/English/Recent/201405/t20140519_278510.htm |title = Descendants of Confucius in South Korea Seek Roots in Quzhou |date = 2014-05-19 |website = QUZHOU.CHINA |accessdate = February 4, 2015 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://archive.is/20150204113943/http://www.qz.gov.cn/English/Recent/201405/t20140519_278510.htm |archivedate = 4 February 2015 |df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>http://archive {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712160429/http://archive/ |date=12 July 2013 }}. is/Y9cKG</ref><ref>{{cite web |author = english@peopledaily.com.cn |url = http://en.people.cn/90001/90777/90851/6355971.html |title=South Korea home to 80,000 descendants of Confucius - People's Daily Online |publisher = En.people.cn |date=2008-02-18 |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.china.org.cn/china/features/content_16696029_4.htm |title= New Confucius Genealogy out next year |publisher=china.org.cn |date=2008-10-31 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author = |url = http://www.china.org.cn/china/Off_the_Wire/2016-03/11/content_37999541.htm |title = China Exclusive: Korean Confucius descendants trace back to ancestor of family tree |publisher = China.org.cn |date = 2016-03-11 |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-03/11/c_135179011.htm |title = China Exclusive: Korean Confucius descendants trace back to ancestor of family tree - Xinhua | English.news.cn |publisher = News.xinhuanet.com |date = 2016-03-11 |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref> ({{lang|zh|[[w:zh:曲阜孔氏 (朝鲜半岛)|曲阜孔氏 (朝鲜半岛)]]}} {{lang|ko|[[w:ko:곡부 공씨|곡부 공씨]]}}.)
==== Military conquests and campaigns ====
After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=429}} Kublai besieged [[Xiangyang District, Xiangfan|Xiangyang]] between 1268 and 1273,{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=77}} the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangzi River basin.{{sfn|Ebrey|2010|p=172}} An unsuccessful naval expedition was undertaken against Japan in 1274.{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=107}} Kublai captured the Song capital of [[Hangzhou]] in 1276,{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=106}} the wealthiest city of China.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=430}} Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as [[Emperor Bing of Song]]. The Mongols defeated the loyalists at the [[battle of Yamen]] in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|pp=77–78}} The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years.{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=113}}
The Yuan dynasty created a "Han Army" ({{lang|zh|漢軍}}) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" ({{lang|zh|新附軍}}).<ref>{{cite web |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8hOgAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=han+tumen+khitan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ij8sVefWHaXIsATnqID4AQ&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=han%20tumen%20khitan&f=false |title = ä¸ĺ ˝ĺ ¤äťŁĺŽ ĺ čž ĺ ¸ |author = Charles O. Hucker |page = 66 |website = Books.google.com |date = |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref>
Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained the Mongol treasury.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=473}} Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=111}} Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=473}} Kublai's second invasion of Japan in 1281 failed because of an [[Kamikaze (typhoon)|inauspicious typhoon]].{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=107}} Kublai botched his campaigns against [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam|Annam, Champa]], and [[Mongol invasion of Java|Java]],{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=113}} but won a [[Pyrrhic victory]] against [[Mongol invasion of Burma|Burma]].{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=218}} The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and a tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=113}}{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=107}} The [[Trần dynasty]] which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)]]. Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|pp=218–219}}
Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and the northeast.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|pp=487–488}} His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=488}}
=== Successors after Kublai ===
{{Refimprove section|date = December 2013}}
==== Temür Khan ====
Following the conquest of [[Kingdom of Dali|Dali]] in 1253, the former ruling Duan dynasty were appointed as [[Maharajah]]. Local chieftains were appointed as [[Tusi]], recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, [[Ming dynasty|Ming]], and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]]-era governments, principally in the province of [[Yunnan]]. Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, [[Zhenjin]], as the [[Crown Prince]], but he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister [[Bayan of the Baarin|Bayan]], succeeded the throne and ruled as [[Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan|Temür Khan]], or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam, which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during the reign of Temür Khan.
==== Külüg Khan ====
[[File:YuanJunk(14thcentury).jpg|thumb|Painting of a 14th-century Yuan dynasty [[Junk (ship)|junk]]]]
Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent.
==== Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan ====
The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream [[Culture of China|Chinese culture]] after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by [[Li Meng (Yuan dynasty)|Li Meng]], a [[Confucian]] academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the Department of State Affairs ({{zh|尚書省}}), which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials. Starting in 1313 the traditional [[imperial examination]]s were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works.
==== Gegeen Khan and Yesün Temür ====
Emperor Gegeen Khan, Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform the government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand [[Chancellor of China|chancellor]] Baiju. During his reign, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 大元通制, "the comprehensive institutions of the Great Yuan"), a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a [[coup]] involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed Yesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to [[regicide]].
Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items.{{sfn|Hsiao|1994|p=551}}
==== Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür ====
[[File:BailinTemple2.jpg|thumb|The [[Pagoda of Bailin Temple|Bailin Temple Pagoda]] of Zhaoxian County, [[Hebei]] Province, built in 1330 during the Yuan dynasty.]]
When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was recalled to Khanbaliq by the [[Qipchaq]] commander [[El Temür]]. He was installed as the emperor (Emperor Wenzong) in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son [[Ragibagh]] succeeded to the throne in Shangdu with the support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the [[War of the Two Capitals]]. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brother [[Khutughtu Khan Kusala|Kusala]], who was backed by Chagatai Khan [[Eljigidey]], and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as [[Golden Horde]] and [[Ilkhanate]] to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world.{{sfn|Hsiao|1994|p=550}} However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.
Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring [[Confucianism]] and promoting [[Culture of China|Chinese cultural values]]. His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature ({{zh|奎章閣學士院}}), first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment". The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional [[compendium]] named Jingshi Dadian ({{zh|經世大典}}). Tugh Temür supported [[Zhu Xi]]'s [[Neo-Confucianism]] and also devoted himself in [[Buddhism]].
==== Toghon Temür ====
After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of [[Rinchinbal Khan|Rinchinbal]] (Emperor Ningzong) the same year, the 13-year-old Toghun Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from [[Guangxi]] and succeeded to the throne. After El Temür's death, [[Bayan of the Merkid|Bayan]] became as powerful an official as El Temür had been in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghun Temür grew, he came to disapprove of Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan's nephew [[Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty)|Toqto'a]], who was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled official histories of the [[Liao dynasty|Liao]], [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]], and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with the approval of Toghun Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349.
=== Decline of the empire ===
[[File:Belt plaque with dragon design.jpg|thumb|A Yuan dynasty [[jade]] belt plaque featuring carved designs of a [[Chinese dragon|dragon]].]]
[[File:Yuan Dynasty, porcelain dish, mid 14th century.jpg|thumb|A Yuan dynasty blue-and-white [[porcelain]] dish with fish and flowing water design, mid-14th century, [[Freer Gallery of Art]]]]
The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. [[Outlaw]]s ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.
From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the [[Red Turban Rebellion]] started and grew into a nationwide uprising. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghun Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghun Temür's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to [[Shangdu]] from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the [[Míng dynasty]] (1368–1644), founded by [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] in the south. He had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed; he died in [[Yingchang]] (located in present-day [[Inner Mongolia]]) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still lived in [[Henan]] today.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://news.xinmin.cn/domestic/zonghe/2007/02/06/149732.html |title = 成吉思汗直系后裔现身河南 巨幅家谱为证(组图)_新民网 |website = News.xinmin.cn |date = 2007-02-06 |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref>
The [[Prince of Liang]], [[Basalawarmi]] established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in [[Yunnan]] and [[Guizhou]], but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in [[Manchuria]] under [[Naghachu]] had also [[Ming campaign against Naghachu|surrendered to the Ming dynasty]]. The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan (大元) was formally carried on, and is known as the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]].<ref name="The History of China"/>
== Impact ==
[[File:BLW Wall-tile with Dragon.jpg|thumb|[[Ilkhanate]] [[Rub el Hizb|wall-tile]] containing the [[Azure dragon]].]]
A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of [[drama]] and the [[novel]] and the increased use of the [[Vernacular Chinese|written vernacular]]. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the [[Mongol World Empire]] also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across [[Asia]] until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in [[Persia]], the [[Ilkhanate]], encouraged this development.{{sfn|Guzman|1988|pp=568-570}}{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=211}} Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite [[Tantric Buddhism]] had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan dynasty introduced [[Middle Eastern]] [[cartography]], [[astronomy]], medicine, clothing, and diet in East Asia. Eastern crops such as [[carrot]]s, [[turnip]]s, new varieties of [[lemon]]s, [[eggplant]]s, and [[melon]]s, high-quality granulated [[sugar]], and [[cotton]] were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty.<ref name="Mongol Empire p.611">C.P. Atwood - Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.611</ref>
Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to [[Islam]], by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. [[Nestorianism]] and [[Roman Catholicism]] also enjoyed a period of toleration. [[Buddhism]] (especially [[Tibetan Buddhism]]) flourished, although [[Taoism]] endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government. [[Confucian]] governmental practices and examinations based on the [[Chinese classic texts|Classics]], which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, [[cartography]], [[geography]], and scientific education.
[[File:Plate; Yuan Dynasty; Lacquer, wood, and fabric.jpg|thumb|left|A plate made of [[lacquerware|lacquer]], wood, and paper from the Yuan dynasty. The Chinese were able to perfect a method of making lacquer. Decorating this plate are parrots and peonies. The parrot was a symbol of fidelity; because of its ability to mimic human speech, it was believed to be a suitable companion to a woman whose husband was away from home. The bird would be able to inform each person of the other's activities. The peony was a symbol of female virtue. When shown in full bloom, it is a token of love, affection, and feminine beauty.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Birmingham Museum of Art | title = Birmingham Museum of Art: A Guide to the Collection | publisher = Giles | year = 2010 | location = London | page = 28 | url = http://www.birminghammuseumstore.org/bmapu.html | accessdate = 2011-07-01 | isbn = 978-1-904832-77-5 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110910171150/http://www.birminghammuseumstore.org/bmapu.html | archivedate = 10 September 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> [[Birmingham Museum of Art]].]]
Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]], printing techniques, [[porcelain]], [[playing cards]], and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin [[glass]] and [[cloisonné]] became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system.<ref name="Mongol Empire p.611" />
Aside from the [[Sino-Roman relations|ancient Roman embassies]], the [[Europeans in Medieval China|first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time]]. The most famous traveler of the period was the [[Venice|Venetian]] [[Marco Polo]], whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, ''Il milione'' (or, ''The Million'', known in English as the ''Travels of Marco Polo''), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, tea houses, which would have been a prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture, as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo's account are largely accurate and unique.<ref name="vogel">{{cite book |author=Hans Ulrich Vogel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydo_9TEmuVQC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1 |title=Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues|publisher= BRILL |date=21 November 2012|isbn= 978-9004231931}}</ref><ref name=polo>{{citation |first=Stephen G. |last=Haw |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2006|isbn=0-415-34850-1 |title=Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the realm of Khubilai Khan |series=Volume 3 of Routledge studies in the early history of Asia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA54#v=onepage&q&f=false |pages=52–57}}</ref>
The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan's top engineers and scientists was the astronomer [[Guo Shoujing]], who was tasked with many public works projects and helped the Yuan reform the [[lunisolar calendar]] to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year,<ref>{{cite web|author=Marilyn Shea |url=http://hua.umf.maine.edu/China/astronomy/tianpage/0018Guo_Shoujing6603w.html |title=Guo Shoujing - 郭守敬 - Chinese Astronomy - 中国天文学 |publisher=Hua.umf.maine.edu |date= |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref> which was only 26 seconds off the modern [[Gregorian calendar]]'s measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, [[granary|granaries]] were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the [[Grand Canal of China]], which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout [[Asia]] and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop, [[sorghum]], along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.
The Yuan dynasty was the first time that non-native Chinese people ruled all of China. In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious."<ref>Ganbold et al., op. cit., 2006, p.20–21.</ref> In traditional [[historiography of China]], on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between the [[Song dynasty]] and the [[Ming dynasty]]. Note, however, Yuan dynasty is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire before [[Kublai Khan]]'s formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai had his grandfather [[Genghis Khan]] placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu ({{zh|太祖}}). Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew the Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people{{who|date=March 2014}} who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Hans were treated as [[second-class citizen]]s,{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} and that China stagnated economically and scientifically.
The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the [[Ilkhanid]]s, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.<ref>{{cite book|title=Central Asiatic Journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/3725455/An_Initial_Study_for_Mongolian_Factors_inside_the_Rasulid_Hexaglot|year=2008|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|page=46}}</ref>
== Government ==
{{see also|List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty|Mongolian nobility#Mongol Empire (1206–1368) and Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)}}
[[File:Yuan coinage.jpg|thumb|[[Yuan dynasty coinage]]]]
[[File:Evolution map of the Northwest territory of the Yuan Dynasty in Haiguotuzhi.jpg|thumb|Map of the Northwest territory.]]
The structure of the Yuan government took shape during the reign of [[Kublai Khan]] (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368.
The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the [[Han Chinese|Hans]], [[Khitan people|Khitans]], [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]], [[Mongol]]s, and [[Tibetan Buddhist]]s. While the official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], [[Song dynasty|Song]], as well as Khitan [[Liao dynasty|Liao]] and Jurchen [[Jin dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin]] dynasties. Chinese advisers such as [[Liu Bingzhong]] and [[Yao Shu]] gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and the central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite division of authority among [[civil affairs|civil]], [[military]], and [[Censorate|censorial]] offices, including the [[Zhongshu Sheng|Central Secretariat]] (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the Privy Council ({{zh|樞密院|links=no}}) to manage military affairs, and the [[Censorate]] to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed a major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style [[Three Departments and Six Ministries|Six Ministries]]), was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the [[Department of State Affairs]] (Shangshu Sheng) that mainly dealt with [[finance]] was established (such as during the reign of [[Külüg Khan]] or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards.
While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the [[Ministry of Justice]], did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and [[Semuren]], who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by a mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the [[Ministry of War]] compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council.
== Society ==
{{See also|Society of the Mongol Empire}}
=== Imperial lifestyle ===
[[File:Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG|thumb|Painting of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280]]
Since its invention in 1269, the [['Phags-pa script]], a unified script for spelling [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]], and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] languages, was preserved in the court until the end of the dynasty. Most of the Emperors could not master [[written Chinese]], but they could generally converse well in the language. The Mongol custom of long standing quda/marriage alliance with Mongol clans, the [[Onggirat]], and the Ikeres, kept the imperial blood purely Mongol until the reign of [[Tugh Temur]], whose mother was a [[Tangut people|Tangut]] concubine. The Mongol Emperors had built large palaces and pavilions, but some still continued to live as nomads at times. Nevertheless, a few other Yuan emperors actively sponsored cultural activities; an example is Tugh Temur (Emperor Wenzong), who wrote [[poetry]], [[painting|painted]], read [[Chinese classics|Chinese classical texts]], and ordered the compilation of books.{{sfn|Mote|1999|p=471}}
The average Mongol garrison family of the Yuan dynasty seems to have lived a life of decaying rural leisure, with income from the harvests of their Chinese tenants eaten up by costs of equipping and dispatching men for their tours of duty. The Mongols practiced debt slavery, and by 1290 in all parts of the Mongol Empire commoners were selling their children into slavery. Seeing this as damaging to the Mongol nation, Kublai in 1291 forbade the sale abroad of Mongols. Kublai wished to persuade the Chinese that he was becoming increasingly [[sinicized]] while maintaining his Mongolian credentials with his own people. He set up a civilian administration to rule, built a capital within China, supported Chinese religions and culture, and devised suitable economic and political institutions for the court. But at the same time he never abandoned his Mongolian heritage.<ref>The Cambridge History of China (Volume 6), by Denis C. Twitchett, Herbert Franke, John King Fairbank, p. 488-489</ref>
=== Imperial Harem ===
{{see also|Korea under Yuan rule}}
Massive numbers of Korean boy eunuchs, Korean girl concubines, falcons, ginseng, grain, cloth, silver, and gold were sent as tribute to the Mongol Yuan dynasty.<ref name="Moon1997">{{cite book|author=Katharine Hyung-Sun Moon|title=Sex Among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.-Korea Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trvxvL3_yywC&pg=PA40#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=January 1997|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-10642-9|pages=40–}}</ref><ref name="WalravenBreuker2007">{{cite book|author1=Boudewijn Walraven|author2=Remco E. Breuker|title=Korea in the Middle: Korean Studies and Area Studies : Essays in Honour of Boudewijn Walraven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCDZtFu_1UIC&pg=PA57#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2007|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-5789-153-3|pages=57–}}</ref><ref name="CampbellMiers2009">{{cite book|author1=Gwyn Campbell|author2=Suzanne Miers|author3=Joseph C. Miller|title=Children in Slavery through the Ages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S3Y2PTI_vYYC&pg=PA136#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=8 September 2009|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-4339-2|pages=136–}}</ref> such as the Korean eunuch Bak Bulhwa and Korean Empress Gi. Goryeo incurred negative consequences as a result of the eunuch Bak Bulhwa's actions.<ref name="Lee2013">{{cite book|author=Peter H. Lee|title=Sourcebook of Korean Civilization: Volume One: From Early Times to the 16th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZU1uLvWyRJYC&pg=PA681#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=13 August 2013|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-51529-0|pages=681–}}</ref> The tribute payment brought much harm to Korea.<ref name="WalravenBreuker2007" /> It was considered prestigious to marry Korean women.<ref>Lorge, Peter. China Review International 17, no. 3 (2010): 377-79. {{JSTOR|23733178}}.</ref>
The entry of Korean women into the palace had an impact on relations between Korea and the Yuan.<ref>{{cite journal |last=兰 |first=阳 |last2= |first2= |date=2007年 |title=论元丽联姻及其对高丽的政治影响 |url=http://cdmd.cnki.com.cn.dincheng.cn/Article/CDMD-10184-2007183911.htm |journal= |publisher=延边大学 |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |access-date= }}</ref> If anything negative happened to their families, Korea itself was blackmailed by the Yuan Mongol's Korean concubines.<ref>{{cite journal |last=崔 CUI |first=鲜香 Xian-xiang |last2= |first2= |date=2010年1期 |title=高丽女性在高丽与蒙元关系中的作用 |url=http://edu.wanfangdata.com.cn/Periodical/Detail/nmgdxxb-rwshkxb201001004 |journal= PKU CSSCI |publisher=天津师范大学性别与社会发展研究中心,天津,300387 |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |access-date= }}</ref> Great power was attained by some of the Korean women who entered the Mongol court.<ref>{{cite journal |last=李 |first=鹏 |last2= |first2= |date=2006年 |title=元代入华高丽女子探析 |url=http://cdmd.cnki.com.cn.dincheng.cn/Article/CDMD-10602-2007046424.htm |journal= |publisher=广西师范大学 |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |access-date= }}</ref>
=== Culture ===
{{See also|Yuan poetry|Zaju}}
[[File:Wine Jar with Fish and Aquatic Plants, 52.87.1.jpg|thumb|left|Wine jar with fish and aquatic plants, 14th century. Porcelain with underglaze cobalt blue decoration. [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
In the China of the Yuan, or Mongol era, various important developments in the arts occurred or continued in their development, including the areas of painting, mathematics, calligraphy, poetry, and theater, with many great artists and writers being famous today. Due to the coming together of painting, poetry, and calligraphy at this time many of the artists practicing these different pursuits were the same individuals, though perhaps more famed for one area of their achievements than others. Often in terms of the further development of [[Shan shui|landscape painting]] as well as the classical joining together of the arts of painting, poetry, and calligraphy, the [[Song dynasty]] and the Yuan dynasty are linked together.
In [[Chinese painting]] during the Yuan dynasty there were [[:Category:Yuan dynasty painters|many famous painters]]. In the area of [[Chinese calligraphy|calligraphy]] many of the great calligraphers were from the Yuan dynasty era. In [[Yuan poetry]], the main development was the ''[[Qu (poetry)|qu]]'', which was used among other poetic forms by most of the [[:Category:Yuan dynasty poets|famous Yuan poets]]. Many of the poets were also involved in the major developments in the [[Chinese opera|theater]] during this time, and the other way around, with people important in the theater becoming famous through the development of the ''[[Chinese Sanqu poetry|sanqu]]'' type of ''qu''. One of the key factors in the mix of the ''[[Zaju|zaju variety show]]'' was the incorporation of poetry both classical and of the newer ''qu'' form. One of the important cultural developments during the Yuan era was the consolidation of poetry, painting, and calligraphy into a unified piece of the type that tends to come to mind when people think of classical Chinese art. Another important aspect of Yuan times is the increasing incorporation of the then current, vernacular Chinese into both the ''qu'' form of poetry and the ''zaju'' variety show. Another important consideration regarding Yuan dynasty arts and culture is that so much of it has survived in China, relatively to works from the [[Tang dynasty]] and Song dynasty, which have often been better preserved in places such as the [[Shōsōin]], in Japan.
====Ceramics====
[[File:BW Jar FFD RBG.jpg|180px|thumb|right|Blue-and-white Covered Jar with Fretwork Floral Design in Red and Blue Glaze, excavated in Baoding.]]
In [[Chinese ceramics]] the period was one of expansion, with the great innovation the development in [[Jingdezhen ware]] of [[underglaze]] painted [[blue and white pottery]]. This seems to have begun in the early decades of the 14th century, and by the end of the dynasty was mature and well-established. Other major types of wares continued without a sharp break in their development, but there was a general trend to some larger size pieces, and more decoration. This is often seen as a decline from Song refinement. Exports expanded considerably, especially to the Islamic world.
=== Religion ===
{{See also|Islam during the Yuan dynasty|Religion in the Mongol Empire}}
There were many religions practiced during the Yuan dynasty, such as [[Buddhism]], [[Islam]], and [[Christianity]]. The establishment of the Yuan dynasty had dramatically increased the number of [[Muslim]]s in China. However, unlike the western khanates, the Yuan dynasty never converted to Islam. Instead, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, favored Buddhism, especially the Tibetan variants. As a result, [[Tibetan Buddhism]] was established as the ''de facto'' [[state religion]]. The top-level department and government agency known as the [[Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs]] (Xuanzheng Yuan) was set up in [[Khanbaliq]] (modern [[Beijing]]) to supervise [[Buddhist monk]]s throughout the empire. Since Kublai Khan only esteemed the [[Sakya]] sect of Tibetan Buddhism, other religions became less important. He and his successors kept a Sakya [[Imperial Preceptor]] (Dishi) at court. Before the end of the Yuan dynasty, 14 leaders of the Sakya sect had held the post of Imperial Preceptor, thereby enjoying special power.<ref>''History of civilizations of Central Asia: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century''. Part two: The achievements, p. 59</ref> Furthermore, Mongol patronage of Buddhism resulted in a number of monuments of Buddhist art. Mongolian Buddhist translations, almost all from Tibetan originals, began on a large scale after 1300. Many Mongols of the upper class such as the [[Jalayir]] and the Oronar nobles as well as the emperors also patronized [[Confucian]] scholars and institutions. A considerable number of Confucian and Chinese historical works were translated into the [[Mongolian language]].
[[File:Yuan porcelain buddha.JPG|thumb|A Yuan [[Qingbai]] porcelain statue of [[Guanyin]], a [[bodhisattva]] of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism]]
At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor = 41930343|journal=Journal of Asian History |title=Sino-Khitan Administration in Mongol Bukhara |last=Buell |first=Paul D. |volume= 13 |number=No. 2 |date=1979 |pages=137–8 |publisher = Harrassowitz Verlag}}</ref>
Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&pg=PA24 |title=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects |author=Michael Dillon |year=1999 |publisher=Curzon Press |location=Richmond |page = 24 |ISBN = 0-7007-1026-4 |accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref> Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves" and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. [[Circumcision]] was also forbidden. Jews were also affected and forbidden by the Mongols to eat [[Kosher]].<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA230 |title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road |author = Johan Elverskog |year=2010 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |edition = illustrated |location= |page=228 |ISBN = 0-8122-4237-8 |accessdate = 2010-06-28}}</ref>
<blockquote>
Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say “we do not eat Mongol food”. [Cinggis Qa’an replied:] “By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?” He thereupon made them eat. “If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime.” He issued a regulation to that effect ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: “if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat”. Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |title = The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims |author = Donald Daniel Leslie |year = 1998 |page = 12 |publisher = The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology |accessdate = 30 November 2010 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |archivedate = 17 December 2010 |df = dmy-all }}</ref>
</blockquote>
The Muslims in the semu class revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the [[Ispah Rebellion]], but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese meaning "barracks" and also meaning "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Hans for assisting them.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/?id=kkJwAAAAMAAJ&dq=Thus%2C+Changying+means+either+%22many+thanks%22+to+the+Hui+who+helped+drive+out+the+Mongols%2C+or+the+%22many+barracks%22+of+the+Hui+militia+eventually+established+there.+This+reflects+the+popular+belief+among+the+Hui+that+they+played+an+important&q=popular+belief+mongols |title=Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic |author = Dru C. Gladney |year=1991 |publisher = Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |location= |page=234 |edition = 2, illustrated, reprint |ISBN = 0-674-59495-9 |accessdate = 2010-06-28}}</ref>
During the [[Ming conquest of Yunnan]], Muslim generals [[Mu Ying]] and [[Lan Yu (general)|Lan Yu]] led Muslim troops loyal to the Ming dynasty against Mongol and Muslim troops loyal to the Yuan dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/?id=vIUmU2ytmIIC&pg=PA170&dq=zhu+yuanzhang+mosques#v=onepage&q=zhu%20yuanzhang%20mosques&f=false |title = Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia |author=Tan Ta Sen, Dasheng Chen |year=2009 |publisher = Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |location= |ISBN = 981-230-837-7 |page = 170 |accessdate = 2010-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&pg=PA34&dq=lan+yu+yunnan+muslim#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects |author=Michael Dillon |year=1999 |publisher=Curzon Press |location=Richmond |page=34 |ISBN = 0-7007-1026-4 |accessdate = 2010-06-28}}</ref>
[[Hindu]] statues were found in [[Quanzhou]] dating to the Yuan period.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Chung-wah Chow 7 September 2012 |url=http://travel.cnn.com/quanzhou-chinas-forgotten-historic-port-258149/ |title=What to do in Quanzhou: China's forgotten historic port | CNN Travel |publisher=Travel.cnn.com |date=2012-09-07 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref>
=== Mathematics ===
[[File:Yanghui triangle.gif|thumb|right|A diagram of [[Pascal's triangle]] in [[Zhu Shijie]]'s ''[[Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns]]'', written in 1303]]
Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during the Yuan era. The mathematician [[Zhu Shijie]] (1249–1314) solved [[simultaneous equations]] with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modern [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices]].{{sfn|Joseph|2011|p=196}}{{sfn|Dauben|2007|p=344}} Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown.{{sfn|Dauben|2007|p=346}} His method is described in the ''[[Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns]]'', written in 1303. The opening pages contain a diagram of [[Pascal's triangle]]. The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book.{{sfn|Ho|1985|p=101}}
[[Guo Shoujing]] applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry.{{sfn|Ho|1985|p=105}} Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|p=247}} His calendar, the Shoushi Li ({{lang|zh|授時暦}}) or ''Calendar for Fixing the Seasons'', was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=172}} The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work of [[Song dynasty]] astronomer [[Shen Kuo]] or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers.{{sfn|Ho|1985|p=105}} There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=172}} Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers brought [[Arabic numerals]] to China in the 13th century.{{sfn|Ho|1985|p=105}}
=== Medicine ===
The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=142}} Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called ''otachi'' and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized ''otachi'' doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=142}} Physicians received official support from the Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=125}} Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=157}}{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=125}}
The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools" that the Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=157}} Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such as [[acupuncture]], [[moxibustion]], [[pulse diagnosis]], and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to the Middle East and the rest of the empire.{{sfn|Lane|2006|pp=138–139}} Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physician [[Wei Yilin]] (1277–1347) invented a suspension method for [[Reduction (orthopedic surgery)|reducing]] dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics.{{sfn|Lane|2006|p=140}} The Mongol physician [[Hu Sihui]] described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.{{sfn|Lane|2006|p=140}}
Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of the Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as ''huihui'' or Muslim medicine.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=151}} The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=155}} Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=125}} Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its [[Humorism|humoral system]] contradicted the [[yin and yang|yin-yang]] and [[Wu Xing|wuxing]] philosophy underlying traditional Chinese medicine.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=157}} No Chinese translation of Western medical works is known, but it is possible that the Chinese had access to [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=151}}
=== Printing and publishing ===
[[File:Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing plate 1287.jpg|thumb|Yuan dynasty [[banknote]] with its printing plate, 1287]]
[[File:Chinese movable type 1313-ce.png|thumb|right|A revolving typecase with individual [[movable type]] characters from [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]]'s ''Nong Shu'', published in 1313]]
The Mongol rulers patronized the Yuan printing industry.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}}{{sfn|Wu|1950|p=460}} Chinese printing technology was transferred to the Mongols through [[Kingdom of Qocho]] and Tibetan intermediaries.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}} Some Yuan documents such as [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]]'s ''Nong Shu'' were printed with earthenware [[movable type]], a technology invented in the 12th century. However, most published works were still produced through traditional [[block printing]] techniques.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|pp=176–177}} The publication of a Taoist text inscribed with the name of [[Töregene Khatun]], Ögedei's wife, is one of the first printed works sponsored by the Mongols. In 1273, the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, a government-sponsored printing office.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}} The Yuan government established centers for printing throughout China.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}} Local schools and government agencies were funded to support the publishing of books.{{sfn|Wu|1950|p=463}}
Private printing businesses also flourished under the Yuan. They published a diverse range of works, and printed educational, literary, medical, religious, and historical texts. The volume of printed materials was vast.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=181}} In 1312, 1,000 copies of a Buddhist text commented by Cosgi Odsir were printed just within Beijing.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=183}} By 1328, annual sales of printed calendars and almanacs reached over three million in the Yuan dynasty.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=184}}
One of the more notable applications of printing technology was the ''[[Chao (currency)|chao]]'', the paper money of the Yuan. Chao were made from the bark of mulberry trees.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=183}} The Yuan government used woodblocks to print paper money, but switched to bronze plates in 1275.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=179}} The Mongols experimented with establishing the Chinese-style paper monetary system in Mongol-controlled territories outside of China. The Yuan minister [[Bolad]] was sent to Iran, where he explained Yuan paper money to the Il-khanate court of [[Gaykhatu]].{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=177}} The Il-khanate government issued paper money in 1294, but public distrust of the exotic new currency doomed the experiment.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=178}}
Foreign observers took note of Yuan printing technology. Marco Polo documented the Yuan printing of paper money and almanac pamphlets called ''tacuini''.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=183}} The vizier [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani|Rashid-al-Din]] recognized that printing was a valuable technological breakthrough, and expressed regret that the Mongol experiment with printing paper money had failed in the Muslim world. Rashid-al-Din's view was not shared by other chroniclers in the Middle East, who were critical of the experiment's disruptive impact on the Il-khanate.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=184}}
=== Social classes ===
Politically, the system of government created by Kublai Khan was the product of a compromise between Mongolian patrimonial [[feudalism]] and the traditional Chinese [[autocratic]]-[[bureaucratic]] system. Nevertheless, socially the educated Chinese [[elite]] were in general not given the degree of esteem that they had been accorded previously under native Chinese dynasties. Although the traditional Chinese elite were not given their share of power, the Mongols and the [[Semu]]ren (various allied groups from [[Central Asia]] and the western end of the empire) largely remained strangers to the mainstream [[Chinese culture]], and this dichotomy gave the Yuan regime a somewhat strong "[[Colonialism|colonial]]" coloration.{{sfn|Hsiao|1994|pp=491-492}} The unequal treatment is possibly due to the fear of transferring power to the ethnic Chinese under their rule. The Mongols and Semuren were given certain advantages in the dynasty, and this would last even after the restoration of the [[imperial examination]] in the early 14th century. In general there were very few North Chinese or Southerners reaching the highest-post in the government compared with the possibility that Persians did so in the [[Ilkhanate]].{{sfn|Morgan|1982|p=135}} Later the [[Yongle Emperor]] of the [[Ming dynasty]] also mentioned the discrimination that existed during the Yuan dynasty. In response to an objection against the use of "barbarians" in his government, the Yongle Emperor answered: "... Discrimination was used by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty, who employed only "Mongols and Tartars" and discarded northern and southern Chinese and this was precisely the cause that brought disaster upon them".{{sfn|Morgan|1982|pp=124-136}}
[[File:Brown-glazed Jar with Design of Three Fish. Yuan Dynasty. Excavated from Hancheng City.jpg|thumb|Brown-glazed Jar with Design of Three Fish. Yuan dynasty. Excavated from [[Hancheng]] City]]
The Mongols had employed foreigners long before the reign of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. But during Kublai's reign a hierarchy of reliability was introduced in China. The population was divided into the following classes:
# [[Mongols]]
# [[Semu]], consisting of non-Mongol foreigners from the west and [[Central Asia]], like [[Kingdom of Qocho|Buddhist Uyghurs from Turfan]], [[History of the Jews in China|Jews]], Nestorian Christians, and Muslims from Central Asia
# "[[Han Chinese|Han]]", or all subjects of the former Jin dynasty, including [[Han Chinese|Hans]], [[Khitans]], [[Jurchens]] in [[Northern and southern China|northern China]], and other peoples like [[Koreans]],<ref name="Mote2003">{{cite book|author=Frederick W. Mote|title=Imperial China 900-1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC&pg=PA490 |year=2003|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01212-7|pages=490–}}</ref><ref name="Tanner2010">{{cite book|author=Harold Miles Tanner|title=China: A History: Volume 1: From Neolithic cultures through the Great Qing Empire 10,000 BCE–1799 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ePBeFRJnE_gC&pg=PA257 |date=12 March 2010|publisher=Hackett Publishing Company|isbn=978-1-60384-564-9|pages=257–}}</ref><ref name="Tanner2009">{{cite book|author=Harold Miles Tanner|title=China: A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA257 |date=13 March 2009|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=0-87220-915-6|pages=257–}}</ref><ref name="Kupfer2008">{{cite book|author=Peter Kupfer|title=Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCJNQPszu5sC&pg=PA189 |year=2008|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-631-57533-8|pages=189–}}</ref><ref name="Oh2013">{{cite book|author=Young Kyun Oh|title=Engraving Virtue: The Printing History of a Premodern Korean Moral Primer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QZ-FNbV-NUC&pg=PA50 |date=24 May 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-25196-0|pages=50–}}</ref><ref name="Zhao2008">{{cite book|author=George Qingzhi Zhao|title=Marriage as Political Strategy and Cultural Expression: Mongolian Royal Marriages from World Empire to Yuan Dynasty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XnIIbzweN7IC&pg=PA24 |year=2008|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-1-4331-0275-2|pages=24–}}</ref><ref name="Rossabi1983">{{cite book|author=Morris Rossabi|title=China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&pg=PA247#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04562-0|pages=247–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/7542628/The_Semu_ren_in_the_Yuan_Empire_-_who_were_they |title=The Semu ren in the Yuan Empire - who were they? | Stephen G. Haw |website=Academia.edu |date=1970-01-01 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref>
# Southerners, or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty, including Hans and minority native ethnic groups in [[Northern and southern China|southern China]], sometimes called "Manzi" during the Yuan
Partner merchants and non-Mongol overseers were usually either immigrants or local ethnic groups. Thus, in China they were [[Kingdom of Qocho|Uighur Buddhists]], [[Turkestani]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] Muslims, and [[Christian]]s. Foreigners from outside the Mongol Empire entirely, such as the [[Marco Polo|Polo family]], were everywhere welcomed.
At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in [[Bukhara]] in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.<ref>{{cite web |jstor = 41930343|journal = Journal of Asian History |title=Sino-Khitan administration in Mongol Bukhara |last = Buell |first = Paul D. |volume = Vol. 13 |number = No. 2 |year = 1979 |pages = 137–8 |publisher = Harrassowitz Verlag}}</ref> Hans were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, [[Olmaliq|Almaliq]], and [[Samarqand]] by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B934LaVBaz8C&pg=PA96#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the ... |author=Michal Biran |page=96 |website=Books.google.com |date=2005-09-15 |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref> [[Alans]] were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called [[Asud|"Right Alan Guard"]] which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former [[Kingdom of Qocho]] and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih).<ref name="Rossabi 1983">{{cite book |author = Morris Rossabi |title =China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&pg=PA255&dq=alan+guard+mongols&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwivmrKkwuHKAhWHuhoKHfEPCLYQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=alan%20guard%20mongols&f=false |year = 1983 |publisher = University of California Press |ISBN = 978-0-520-04562-0 |pages = 255–}}</ref> After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-management with Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) of gardens and fields in Samarqand was put upon the Muslims as a requirement since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them.<ref>{{cite book |title = E.J.W. Gibb memorial series |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ&q=After+the+Mongol+massacre+the+number+of+the+inhabitants+had+fallen+to+one+quarter+;+Muslims+were+allowed+to+manage+fields+and+gardens+only+conjointly+with+Chinese,+Qara-Khitays,+and+others,+and+the+chiefs+also+were+appointed+from+different+nations.&dq=After+the+Mongol+massacre+the+number+of+the+inhabitants+had+fallen+to+one+quarter+;+Muslims+were+allowed+to+manage+fields+and+gardens+only+conjointly+with+Chinese,+Qara-Khitays,+and+others,+and+the+chiefs+also+were+appointed+from+different+nations.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAGoVChMIscL54szZxwIVglQ-Ch2cnQpg |year=1928 |page=451}}</ref> The Mongol appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Qara-Khitay (Khitan), held the title Taishi, familiar with Chinese culture his name was Ahai.<ref>{{cite book |title = E.J.W. Gibb memorial series |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ&q=Ahai,+the+governor+of+the+town,+belonged+to+the+Qara-Khitays,+and+bore+the+title+of+taishi+;+he+was+acquainted+with+Chinese+culture,+since+he+served+as+interpreter+during+the+conversation+between+Ch%27ang-Ch%27un+and+Chingiz-Khan.+Ahai+lived+at+...&dq=Ahai,+the+governor+of+the+town,+belonged+to+the+Qara-Khitays,+and+bore+the+title+of+taishi+;+he+was+acquainted+with+Chinese+culture,+since+he+served+as+interpreter+during+the+conversation+between+Ch%27ang-Ch%27un+and+Chingiz-Khan.+Ahai+lived+at+...&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAGoVChMIrq7Ots3ZxwIViD4-Ch2EgQTM|year=1928|page=451}}</ref>
Han officials and colonists were [[History of Siberia#Mongol conquest|sent by the Mongol Yuan dynasty]] to areas of [[Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty|Lingbei province]] ({{lang|zh|[[w:zh:和宁路|和宁路]] [[w:zh:益蘭州|益蘭州]] [[w:zh:謙州|謙州]]}}).<ref>[[History of Yuan]] 《 {{lang|zh|元史}} 》，</ref>
[[File:The South Mosque of Jinan 2009-03.JPG|thumb|left|200px|[[Jinan Great Southern Mosque]] was completed during the reign of [[Temür Khan]] (Emperor Chengzong).]]
Despite the high position given to Muslims, some policies of the Yuan Emperors severely discriminated against them, restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like circumcision, as well as [[Kosher]] butchering for Jews, forcing them to eat food the Mongol way.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |title = The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims |author = Donald Daniel Leslie |year = 1998 |page = 12 |publisher = The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology |accessdate = 30 November 2010 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |archivedate = 17 December 2010 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined [[Han Chinese|Hans]] in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] had Muslim generals like [[Lan Yu (general)|Lan Yu]] who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had a Chinese surname which meant "barracks" and could also mean "thanks". Many Hui Muslims claim this is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was given in thanks by the Hans for assisting them.<ref>{{cite book |url = {{Google books |plainurl=yes |id = kkJwAAAAMAAJ }} |title = Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic |author=Dru C. Gladney |year=1991 |publisher=Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |location= |page=234 |edition = 2, illustrated, reprint |ISBN = 0-674-59495-9 |pages= |accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref> During the war fighting the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/scholarship.php?searchterm=005_dachang.inc&issue=005 |title=China's Islamic Communities Generate Local Histories |publisher=China Heritage Quarterly |date=2015-10-19 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref> The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the [[Ispah Rebellion]] but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.
The historian Frederick W. Mote wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four-class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally, so a person's standing within the classes was not a guarantee of their standing, since there were rich and well socially standing Chinese while there were less rich Mongol and Semu than there were Mongol and Semu who lived in poverty and were ill-treated.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=SQWW7QgUH4gC |page=492 }} Mote 2003], p. 492.</ref>
The reason for the order of the classes and the reason why people were placed in a certain class was the date they surrendered to the Mongols, and had nothing to do with their ethnicity. The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, the more the held out, the lower they were ranked. The Northern Chinese were ranked higher and Southern Chinese were ranked lower because southern China withstood and fought to the last before caving in.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=sTPPAsiFDS4C |page=265 }} ed. Zhao 2007], p. 265.</ref><ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=iWH0AAAAMAAJ }} Bakhit 2000], p. 426.</ref> Major commerce during this era gave rise to favorable conditions for private southern Chinese manufacturers and merchants.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=RXOrZUlF_OoC |page=29 }} Ford 1991], p. 29.</ref>
When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of the [[Kingdom of Qocho]] over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the Uighur King of Qocho was ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=sNpD5UKmkswC |page=247 }} ed. Rossabi 1983], p. 247.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/7542628/The_Semu_ren_in_the_Yuan_Empire_-_who_were_they |title=The Semu ren in the Yuan Empire - who were they? | Stephen G. Haw |publisher=Academia.edu |date=1970-01-01 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref>
Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/2439642/The_Image_of_the_Semu_People_Mongols_Chinese_and_Various_Other_Peoples_under_the_Mongol_Empire |title=The Image of the Semu People: Mongols, Chinese, and Various Other Peoples under the Mongol Empire | Funada Yoshiyuki |website=Academia.edu |date=1970-01-01 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref>
==Administrative divisions==
{{Main article|Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty}}
{{See also|Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia}}
[[File:Yuan Dynasty Administrative division.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty.]]
The territory of the Yuan dynasty was divided into the Central Region ({{lang|zh|腹裏}}) governed by the [[Zhongshu Sheng|Central Secretariat]] and places under control of various provinces ({{lang|zh|行省}}) or Branch Secretariats ({{lang|zh|行中書省}}), as well as the region under the [[Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs]].
The Central Region, consisting of present-day [[Hebei]], [[Shandong]], [[Shanxi]], the south-eastern part of present-day [[Inner Mongolia]] and the [[Henan]] areas to the north of the [[Yellow River]], was considered the most important region of the dynasty and directly governed by the Central Secretariat (or Zhongshu Sheng) at [[Khanbaliq]] (modern [[Beijing]]); similarly, another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (or Xuanzheng Yuan) [[Tibet under Yuan rule|held administrative rule]] over the whole of modern-day [[Tibet]] and a part of [[Sichuan]], [[Qinghai]] and [[Kashmir]].
Branch Secretariats or simply [[province]]s, were provincial-level administrative organizations or institutions, though they were not exactly provinces in modern sense. There were 11 "regular" provinces in Yuan dynasty,<ref>Duosang Mongol History, Vol. 1; Zhong-gou Tong-shi; History of Zhong-gou Border Nationalities; The New Yuan-shih</ref> and their administrations were subordinated to the Central Secretariat.
Below the level of provinces, the largest political division was the [[Circuit (administrative division)|circuit]] ({{lang|zh|道}}), followed by [[prefecture]] ({{lang|zh|府}}) operating under a prefect and [[Zhou (country subdivision)|subprefecture]] ({{lang|zh|州}}) under a subprefect. The lowest political division was the [[county]] ({{lang|zh|縣}}) overseen by a magistrate. This government structure at the provincial level was later copied by the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties.
== Gallery ==
<gallery mode=packed heights=160px>
File:Yuan dynasty iron magic square.jpg|[[Magic square]] in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)
File:Yuan Dynasty - waterwheels and smelting.png|[[smelting]] machines (Yuan dynasty)
File:水轮.jpg|Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)
File:水锤.jpg|Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)
File:纺织机.jpg|Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)
File:水磨齿轮.jpg|water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)
File:农书织布机.jpg|loom (Yuan dynasty)
File:Zhao Mengfu1.jpg|Yuan painting ([[Zhao Mengfu]])
File:Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg|Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)<ref name="bm">{{cite web |url = http://www.grandhistorian.com/chinesesiegewarfare/index-english12122007.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=November 11, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20091202081843/http://www.grandhistorian.com/chinesesiegewarfare/index-english12122007.html |archivedate=December 2, 2009 }}</ref>
File:Skanda detail heart sutra zhao mengfu.jpeg|Military costume.
File:Immortal Riding a Dragon.jpg|Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a [[dragon]].
File:Horse and Groom, after Li Gonglin by Zhao Yong.jpg|Yuan [[cavalry]]
File:Jiang Ge.JPG|Yuan Mongol soldier
File:Qubilai Setsen Khaan.JPG|[[Genghis Khan]]'s grandson, [[Kublai Khan]] during his youth
File:Mongol warrior of Genghis Khan.jpg|Mongol warrior on horseback, preparing a mounted archery shot.
File:Yuan stone Nestorian inscription (rep).JPG|Chinese stone inscription of a [[Nestorian]] [[Nestorian Cross|Christian Cross]] from a monastery of [[Fangshan District]] in [[Beijing]] (then called Dadu, or [[Khanbaliq]]), dated to the Yuan Dynasty
</gallery>
== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty]]
** [[Chinese emperors family tree (late)#Yuan Dynasty and Northern Yuan Dynasty|Emperor's family tree]]
* [[Mongol Empire]]
** [[List of Mongol rulers]]
** [[Mongol invasions and conquests]]
* [[History of Mongolia]]
* [[History of China]]
** [[Dynasties in Chinese history]]
*** [[Jurchens|Jurchen]] [[Jurchen dynasty|Jin dynasty]]
*** [[Song dynasty]]
*** [[Ming dynasty]]
*** [[Western Xia]]
*** [[Dali Kingdom]]
* [[Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty]]
** [[Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia]]
** [[Tibet under Yuan rule]]
** [[Mongolia under Yuan rule]]
** [[Manchuria under Yuan rule]]
* [[Yuan dynasty coinage]]
* [[Islam during the Yuan dynasty]]
* [[Europeans in Medieval China]]
* [[Hua-Yi distinction]]
* [[Jun ware]]
{{div col end}}
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}
=== Sources ===
* {{cite book |first = Thomas |last = Allsen |editor1 = Denis C. Twitchett |editor2 = Herbert Franke |editor3 = John King Fairbank |chapter = The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China |title= The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year=1994 |pages = 321–413 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |ref = harv |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite book |first=Thomas |last=Allsen |title = Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia |year = 2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |ISBN = 978-0-521-80335-9 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal |jstor = 4528536 |title= "Ta Chin" (Great Golden): The Origin and Changing Interpretations of the Jurchen State Name |last1 = Chan 陳 |first1 = Hok-Lam 學霖 |journal = T'oung Pao |series = Second Series |volume= 77 |number = Livr. 4/5 |year = 1991 |pages=253–299 |publisher = BRILL }}
* {{cite book |first=Joseph |last=Dauben |chapter = Chinese Mathematics |editor=Victor Katz |title = The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook |year=2007 |publisher=Princeton University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 0-691-11485-4}}
* {{cite book |first = Patricia Buckley |last = Ebrey |title = The Cambridge Illustrated History of China |year=2010 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |ISBN = 978-0-521-12433-1 |edition = 2nd |origyear = 1996 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal |first = Gregory G. |last = Guzman |title = Were the Barbarians a Negative or Positive Factor in Ancient and Medieval History? |journal = The Historian |year = 1988 |pages = 558–571 |volume = 50 |issue = 4 |ref = harv |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |doi = 10.1111/j.1540-6563.1988.tb00759.x}}
* {{cite book |first=Peng Yoke |last=Ho |title = Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China |year=1985 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |ISBN = 978-0-486-41445-4 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |first=Ch'i-Ch'ing |last=Hsiao |editor=Denis C. Twitchett |editor2=Herbert Franke |editor3 = John King Fairbank |chapter=Mid-Yuan Politics |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year=1994 |pages=490–560 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite book |first=George Gheverghese |last=Joseph |title = The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics |year=2011 |ref=harv |publisher=Princeton University Press |ISBN = 0-691-13526-6}}
* {{cite book |first=George |last=Lane |title=Daily Life in the Mongol Empire |year=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |ISBN = 978-0-313-33226-5 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |first=David |last=Morgan |title=Who Ran the Mongol Empire? |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |year=1982 |pages=124–136 |issue=1 |ref=harv |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00159179}}
* {{cite book |first=David |last=Morgan |title=The Mongols |year=2007 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-1-4051-3539-9}}
* {{cite book |first=Morris|last=Rossabi |title=Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times |year=1988 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Los Angeles |ref = harv |ISBN = 978-0-520-06740-0}}
* {{cite book |first=Morris |last=Rossabi |editor=Denis C. Twitchett |editor2=Herbert Franke |editor3=John King Fairbank |chapter=The reign of Khubilai Khan |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year=1994 |pages=414–489|publisher=Cambridge University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite book |first=Morris |last=Rossabi |title=The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction |year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-0-19-984089-2}}
* {{cite book |first=Frederick W. |last=Mote |title=Imperial China: 900–1800 |year=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-0-674-01212-7}}
* {{cite book |first=Frederick W. |last=Mote |editor=Denis C. Twitchett |editor2=Herbert Franke |editor3=John King Fairbank |chapter = Chinese society under Mongol rule, 1215-1368 |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year=1994 |pages=616–664 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Smith, Jr. |first=John Masson |date=Jan–Mar 1998 |title = Review: Nomads on Ponies vs. Slaves on Horses |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |publisher=American Oriental Society |volume=118 |number=1 |pages=54–62 |doi = 10.2307/606298 |jstor = 606298}}
* {{cite journal |first=K. T.|last=Wu |title=Chinese Printing under Four Alien Dynasties: (916-1368 A. D.) |journal = Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=13 |issue=3/4 |year=1950 |pages = 447–523 |ISSN = 0073-0548 |doi = 10.2307/2718064 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal |jstor = 20062627 |doi = 10.1177/0097700405282349 |url = http://mcx.sagepub.com/content/32/1/3.abstract |archivedate = 25 March 2014 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf |title = Reinventing China: Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century |last1 = Zhao|first1 = Gang |last2= |first2= |volume= 32 |number = Number 1 |date = January 2006 |website= |publisher= Sage Publications |deadurl=no |accessdate = 23 May 2014}}
== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |last = Birge |first=Bettine |year = 1995 |title = Levirate marriage and the revival of widow chastity in Yüan China |journal = Asia Major |series = 3rd series |volume = 8 |issue = 2 |pages = 107–146 |jstor = 41645519 }}
* {{cite book |editor-first = Hok-lam |editor-last = Chan |editor-first2 = W.T. |editor-last2=de Bary |title = Yuan Thought: Chinese Thought and Religion Under the Mongols |year = 1982 |publisher = Columbia University Press |location = New York, NY |ISBN = 978-0-231-05324-2}}
* {{cite book |first = Arthur |last = Cotterell |title = The Imperial Capitals of China - An Inside View of the Celestial Empire |location=London, England |publisher = Pimlico |year=2007 |ISBN = 9781845950095 }}
* {{cite book |first = John |last = Dardess |editor1 = Denis C. Twitchett |editor2 = Herbert Franke |editor3 = John King Fairbank |chapter = Shun-ti and the end of Yuan rule in China |title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year = 1994 |pages = 561–586 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite book |last1 = Ebrey |first1 = Patricia Buckley |title = Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook |edition = 2nd |publisher = Simon and Schuster |isbn = 978-1-4391-8839-2 }}
* {{cite journal |last = Endicott-West |first = Elizabeth |year = 1986 |title = Imperial governance in Yüan times |journal = Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume = 46 |issue = 2 |pages = 523–549 |doi = 10.2307/2719142 |jstor = 2719142 }}
* {{cite book |first = Elizabeth |last = Endicott-West |editor1 = Denis C. Twitchett |editor2 = Herbert Franke |editor3 = John King Fairbank |chapter = The Yuan government and society |title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year = 1994 |pages = 587–615 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite book |first = John D. |last = Langlois |title = China Under Mongol Rules |year = 1981 |publisher = Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |ISBN = 978-0-691-10110-1}}
* {{cite journal |last = Langlois |first=John D. |year = 1977 |title = Report on the research conference: The Impact of Mongol Domination on Chinese Civilization |journal = [[Journal of Song-Yuan Studies|Sung Studies Newsletter]] |volume = 13 |pages = 82–90 |jstor = 23497251 }}
* {{cite book |first = Ann |last=Paludan |title = Chronicle of the China Emperors |location = London, England |publisher = Thames & Hudson |year = 1998 |ISBN = 0-500-05090-2 }}
* {{cite book |first = John Joseph |last = Saunders |title = The History of the Mongol Conquests |origyear = 1971 |year = 2001 |publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press |ISBN = 978-0-812-21766-7}}
* Owen, Stephen, "The Yuan and Ming Dynasties," in Stephen Owen, ed. ''An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911''. New York: [[W. W. Norton]], 1997. [http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenSanqu.pdf p. 723-743] ([https://www.webcitation.org/6PoDJKDwo?url=http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenSanqu.pdf Archive]).<!-- Revealed on two pages: http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/Schedule.html https://www.webcitation.org/6PmyPFX5I, and http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/ https://www.webcitation.org/6PmyNNugV?url=http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/ -->
* Ho, Kai-Lung (何凱龍). (2006). “The Political Power and the Mongolian Translation of the Chinese Calendar During the Yuan Dynasty”. Central Asiatic Journal 50 (1). Harrassowitz Verlag: 57–69. {{JSTOR|41928409}}.
* “Directory of Scholars Working in Sung, Liao, Chin and Yüan”. 1987. “Directory of Scholars Working in Sung, Liao, Chin and Yüan”. Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies, no. 19. Society for Song, Yuan, and Conquest Dynasty Studies: 224–54. {{JSTOR|23497542}}.
== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Yuan Dynasty}}
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{{Succession box
|title = [[Dynasties in Chinese history]]<br />[[History of Mongolia]] / [[History of Tibet|Tibet]] / [[History of Korea|Korea]]
|before = [[Song dynasty]]<br />[[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]<br />[[Western Liao]]<br />[[Western Xia]]<br />[[Dali Kingdom]]<br />[[Mongol Empire]]<br />[[Era of Fragmentation|Remnants]] of the [[Tibetan Empire|Tibet]]<br />[[Goryeo]]
|after = [[Ming dynasty]]<br />[[Northern Yuan dynasty]]<br/>[[Phagmodrupa Dynasty]]<br />[[Goryeo]]
|years = 1271–1368
}}
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[[Category:Kublai Khan]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | 'LEt's get it. 2 plus 2 is 5. 3 times 4 is 34. HAHAHAHAHAHAHA
Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of the Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as ''huihui'' or Muslim medicine.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=151}} The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=155}} Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=125}} Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its [[Humorism|humoral system]] contradicted the [[yin and yang|yin-yang]] and [[Wu Xing|wuxing]] philosophy underlying traditional Chinese medicine.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=157}} No Chinese translation of Western medical works is known, but it is possible that the Chinese had access to [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=151}}
=== Printing and publishing ===
[[File:Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing plate 1287.jpg|thumb|Yuan dynasty [[banknote]] with its printing plate, 1287]]
[[File:Chinese movable type 1313-ce.png|thumb|right|A revolving typecase with individual [[movable type]] characters from [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]]'s ''Nong Shu'', published in 1313]]
The Mongol rulers patronized the Yuan printing industry.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}}{{sfn|Wu|1950|p=460}} Chinese printing technology was transferred to the Mongols through [[Kingdom of Qocho]] and Tibetan intermediaries.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}} Some Yuan documents such as [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]]'s ''Nong Shu'' were printed with earthenware [[movable type]], a technology invented in the 12th century. However, most published works were still produced through traditional [[block printing]] techniques.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|pp=176–177}} The publication of a Taoist text inscribed with the name of [[Töregene Khatun]], Ögedei's wife, is one of the first printed works sponsored by the Mongols. In 1273, the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, a government-sponsored printing office.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}} The Yuan government established centers for printing throughout China.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}} Local schools and government agencies were funded to support the publishing of books.{{sfn|Wu|1950|p=463}}
Private printing businesses also flourished under the Yuan. They published a diverse range of works, and printed educational, literary, medical, religious, and historical texts. The volume of printed materials was vast.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=181}} In 1312, 1,000 copies of a Buddhist text commented by Cosgi Odsir were printed just within Beijing.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=183}} By 1328, annual sales of printed calendars and almanacs reached over three million in the Yuan dynasty.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=184}}
One of the more notable applications of printing technology was the ''[[Chao (currency)|chao]]'', the paper money of the Yuan. Chao were made from the bark of mulberry trees.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=183}} The Yuan government used woodblocks to print paper money, but switched to bronze plates in 1275.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=179}} The Mongols experimented with establishing the Chinese-style paper monetary system in Mongol-controlled territories outside of China. The Yuan minister [[Bolad]] was sent to Iran, where he explained Yuan paper money to the Il-khanate court of [[Gaykhatu]].{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=177}} The Il-khanate government issued paper money in 1294, but public distrust of the exotic new currency doomed the experiment.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=178}}
Foreign observers took note of Yuan printing technology. Marco Polo documented the Yuan printing of paper money and almanac pamphlets called ''tacuini''.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=183}} The vizier [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani|Rashid-al-Din]] recognized that printing was a valuable technological breakthrough, and expressed regret that the Mongol experiment with printing paper money had failed in the Muslim world. Rashid-al-Din's view was not shared by other chroniclers in the Middle East, who were critical of the experiment's disruptive impact on the Il-khanate.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=184}}
=== Social classes ===
Politically, the system of government created by Kublai Khan was the product of a compromise between Mongolian patrimonial [[feudalism]] and the traditional Chinese [[autocratic]]-[[bureaucratic]] system. Nevertheless, socially the educated Chinese [[elite]] were in general not given the degree of esteem that they had been accorded previously under native Chinese dynasties. Although the traditional Chinese elite were not given their share of power, the Mongols and the [[Semu]]ren (various allied groups from [[Central Asia]] and the western end of the empire) largely remained strangers to the mainstream [[Chinese culture]], and this dichotomy gave the Yuan regime a somewhat strong "[[Colonialism|colonial]]" coloration.{{sfn|Hsiao|1994|pp=491-492}} The unequal treatment is possibly due to the fear of transferring power to the ethnic Chinese under their rule. The Mongols and Semuren were given certain advantages in the dynasty, and this would last even after the restoration of the [[imperial examination]] in the early 14th century. In general there were very few North Chinese or Southerners reaching the highest-post in the government compared with the possibility that Persians did so in the [[Ilkhanate]].{{sfn|Morgan|1982|p=135}} Later the [[Yongle Emperor]] of the [[Ming dynasty]] also mentioned the discrimination that existed during the Yuan dynasty. In response to an objection against the use of "barbarians" in his government, the Yongle Emperor answered: "... Discrimination was used by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty, who employed only "Mongols and Tartars" and discarded northern and southern Chinese and this was precisely the cause that brought disaster upon them".{{sfn|Morgan|1982|pp=124-136}}
[[File:Brown-glazed Jar with Design of Three Fish. Yuan Dynasty. Excavated from Hancheng City.jpg|thumb|Brown-glazed Jar with Design of Three Fish. Yuan dynasty. Excavated from [[Hancheng]] City]]
The Mongols had employed foreigners long before the reign of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. But during Kublai's reign a hierarchy of reliability was introduced in China. The population was divided into the following classes:
# [[Mongols]]
# [[Semu]], consisting of non-Mongol foreigners from the west and [[Central Asia]], like [[Kingdom of Qocho|Buddhist Uyghurs from Turfan]], [[History of the Jews in China|Jews]], Nestorian Christians, and Muslims from Central Asia
# "[[Han Chinese|Han]]", or all subjects of the former Jin dynasty, including [[Han Chinese|Hans]], [[Khitans]], [[Jurchens]] in [[Northern and southern China|northern China]], and other peoples like [[Koreans]],<ref name="Mote2003">{{cite book|author=Frederick W. Mote|title=Imperial China 900-1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC&pg=PA490 |year=2003|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01212-7|pages=490–}}</ref><ref name="Tanner2010">{{cite book|author=Harold Miles Tanner|title=China: A History: Volume 1: From Neolithic cultures through the Great Qing Empire 10,000 BCE–1799 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ePBeFRJnE_gC&pg=PA257 |date=12 March 2010|publisher=Hackett Publishing Company|isbn=978-1-60384-564-9|pages=257–}}</ref><ref name="Tanner2009">{{cite book|author=Harold Miles Tanner|title=China: A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA257 |date=13 March 2009|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=0-87220-915-6|pages=257–}}</ref><ref name="Kupfer2008">{{cite book|author=Peter Kupfer|title=Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCJNQPszu5sC&pg=PA189 |year=2008|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-631-57533-8|pages=189–}}</ref><ref name="Oh2013">{{cite book|author=Young Kyun Oh|title=Engraving Virtue: The Printing History of a Premodern Korean Moral Primer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QZ-FNbV-NUC&pg=PA50 |date=24 May 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-25196-0|pages=50–}}</ref><ref name="Zhao2008">{{cite book|author=George Qingzhi Zhao|title=Marriage as Political Strategy and Cultural Expression: Mongolian Royal Marriages from World Empire to Yuan Dynasty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XnIIbzweN7IC&pg=PA24 |year=2008|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-1-4331-0275-2|pages=24–}}</ref><ref name="Rossabi1983">{{cite book|author=Morris Rossabi|title=China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&pg=PA247#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04562-0|pages=247–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/7542628/The_Semu_ren_in_the_Yuan_Empire_-_who_were_they |title=The Semu ren in the Yuan Empire - who were they? | Stephen G. Haw |website=Academia.edu |date=1970-01-01 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref>
# Southerners, or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty, including Hans and minority native ethnic groups in [[Northern and southern China|southern China]], sometimes called "Manzi" during the Yuan
Partner merchants and non-Mongol overseers were usually either immigrants or local ethnic groups. Thus, in China they were [[Kingdom of Qocho|Uighur Buddhists]], [[Turkestani]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] Muslims, and [[Christian]]s. Foreigners from outside the Mongol Empire entirely, such as the [[Marco Polo|Polo family]], were everywhere welcomed.
At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in [[Bukhara]] in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.<ref>{{cite web |jstor = 41930343|journal = Journal of Asian History |title=Sino-Khitan administration in Mongol Bukhara |last = Buell |first = Paul D. |volume = Vol. 13 |number = No. 2 |year = 1979 |pages = 137–8 |publisher = Harrassowitz Verlag}}</ref> Hans were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, [[Olmaliq|Almaliq]], and [[Samarqand]] by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B934LaVBaz8C&pg=PA96#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the ... |author=Michal Biran |page=96 |website=Books.google.com |date=2005-09-15 |accessdate = 2016-05-27}}</ref> [[Alans]] were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called [[Asud|"Right Alan Guard"]] which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former [[Kingdom of Qocho]] and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih).<ref name="Rossabi 1983">{{cite book |author = Morris Rossabi |title =China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&pg=PA255&dq=alan+guard+mongols&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwivmrKkwuHKAhWHuhoKHfEPCLYQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=alan%20guard%20mongols&f=false |year = 1983 |publisher = University of California Press |ISBN = 978-0-520-04562-0 |pages = 255–}}</ref> After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-management with Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) of gardens and fields in Samarqand was put upon the Muslims as a requirement since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them.<ref>{{cite book |title = E.J.W. Gibb memorial series |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ&q=After+the+Mongol+massacre+the+number+of+the+inhabitants+had+fallen+to+one+quarter+;+Muslims+were+allowed+to+manage+fields+and+gardens+only+conjointly+with+Chinese,+Qara-Khitays,+and+others,+and+the+chiefs+also+were+appointed+from+different+nations.&dq=After+the+Mongol+massacre+the+number+of+the+inhabitants+had+fallen+to+one+quarter+;+Muslims+were+allowed+to+manage+fields+and+gardens+only+conjointly+with+Chinese,+Qara-Khitays,+and+others,+and+the+chiefs+also+were+appointed+from+different+nations.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAGoVChMIscL54szZxwIVglQ-Ch2cnQpg |year=1928 |page=451}}</ref> The Mongol appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Qara-Khitay (Khitan), held the title Taishi, familiar with Chinese culture his name was Ahai.<ref>{{cite book |title = E.J.W. Gibb memorial series |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ&q=Ahai,+the+governor+of+the+town,+belonged+to+the+Qara-Khitays,+and+bore+the+title+of+taishi+;+he+was+acquainted+with+Chinese+culture,+since+he+served+as+interpreter+during+the+conversation+between+Ch%27ang-Ch%27un+and+Chingiz-Khan.+Ahai+lived+at+...&dq=Ahai,+the+governor+of+the+town,+belonged+to+the+Qara-Khitays,+and+bore+the+title+of+taishi+;+he+was+acquainted+with+Chinese+culture,+since+he+served+as+interpreter+during+the+conversation+between+Ch%27ang-Ch%27un+and+Chingiz-Khan.+Ahai+lived+at+...&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAGoVChMIrq7Ots3ZxwIViD4-Ch2EgQTM|year=1928|page=451}}</ref>
Han officials and colonists were [[History of Siberia#Mongol conquest|sent by the Mongol Yuan dynasty]] to areas of [[Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty|Lingbei province]] ({{lang|zh|[[w:zh:和宁路|和宁路]] [[w:zh:益蘭州|益蘭州]] [[w:zh:謙州|謙州]]}}).<ref>[[History of Yuan]] 《 {{lang|zh|元史}} 》，</ref>
[[File:The South Mosque of Jinan 2009-03.JPG|thumb|left|200px|[[Jinan Great Southern Mosque]] was completed during the reign of [[Temür Khan]] (Emperor Chengzong).]]
Despite the high position given to Muslims, some policies of the Yuan Emperors severely discriminated against them, restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like circumcision, as well as [[Kosher]] butchering for Jews, forcing them to eat food the Mongol way.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |title = The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims |author = Donald Daniel Leslie |year = 1998 |page = 12 |publisher = The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology |accessdate = 30 November 2010 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |archivedate = 17 December 2010 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined [[Han Chinese|Hans]] in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] had Muslim generals like [[Lan Yu (general)|Lan Yu]] who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had a Chinese surname which meant "barracks" and could also mean "thanks". Many Hui Muslims claim this is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was given in thanks by the Hans for assisting them.<ref>{{cite book |url = {{Google books |plainurl=yes |id = kkJwAAAAMAAJ }} |title = Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic |author=Dru C. Gladney |year=1991 |publisher=Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |location= |page=234 |edition = 2, illustrated, reprint |ISBN = 0-674-59495-9 |pages= |accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref> During the war fighting the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/scholarship.php?searchterm=005_dachang.inc&issue=005 |title=China's Islamic Communities Generate Local Histories |publisher=China Heritage Quarterly |date=2015-10-19 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref> The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the [[Ispah Rebellion]] but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.
The historian Frederick W. Mote wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four-class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally, so a person's standing within the classes was not a guarantee of their standing, since there were rich and well socially standing Chinese while there were less rich Mongol and Semu than there were Mongol and Semu who lived in poverty and were ill-treated.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=SQWW7QgUH4gC |page=492 }} Mote 2003], p. 492.</ref>
The reason for the order of the classes and the reason why people were placed in a certain class was the date they surrendered to the Mongols, and had nothing to do with their ethnicity. The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, the more the held out, the lower they were ranked. The Northern Chinese were ranked higher and Southern Chinese were ranked lower because southern China withstood and fought to the last before caving in.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=sTPPAsiFDS4C |page=265 }} ed. Zhao 2007], p. 265.</ref><ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=iWH0AAAAMAAJ }} Bakhit 2000], p. 426.</ref> Major commerce during this era gave rise to favorable conditions for private southern Chinese manufacturers and merchants.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=RXOrZUlF_OoC |page=29 }} Ford 1991], p. 29.</ref>
When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of the [[Kingdom of Qocho]] over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the Uighur King of Qocho was ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=sNpD5UKmkswC |page=247 }} ed. Rossabi 1983], p. 247.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/7542628/The_Semu_ren_in_the_Yuan_Empire_-_who_were_they |title=The Semu ren in the Yuan Empire - who were they? | Stephen G. Haw |publisher=Academia.edu |date=1970-01-01 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref>
Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/2439642/The_Image_of_the_Semu_People_Mongols_Chinese_and_Various_Other_Peoples_under_the_Mongol_Empire |title=The Image of the Semu People: Mongols, Chinese, and Various Other Peoples under the Mongol Empire | Funada Yoshiyuki |website=Academia.edu |date=1970-01-01 |accessdate=2016-05-27}}</ref>
==Administrative divisions==
{{Main article|Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty}}
{{See also|Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia}}
[[File:Yuan Dynasty Administrative division.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty.]]
The territory of the Yuan dynasty was divided into the Central Region ({{lang|zh|腹裏}}) governed by the [[Zhongshu Sheng|Central Secretariat]] and places under control of various provinces ({{lang|zh|行省}}) or Branch Secretariats ({{lang|zh|行中書省}}), as well as the region under the [[Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs]].
The Central Region, consisting of present-day [[Hebei]], [[Shandong]], [[Shanxi]], the south-eastern part of present-day [[Inner Mongolia]] and the [[Henan]] areas to the north of the [[Yellow River]], was considered the most important region of the dynasty and directly governed by the Central Secretariat (or Zhongshu Sheng) at [[Khanbaliq]] (modern [[Beijing]]); similarly, another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (or Xuanzheng Yuan) [[Tibet under Yuan rule|held administrative rule]] over the whole of modern-day [[Tibet]] and a part of [[Sichuan]], [[Qinghai]] and [[Kashmir]].
Branch Secretariats or simply [[province]]s, were provincial-level administrative organizations or institutions, though they were not exactly provinces in modern sense. There were 11 "regular" provinces in Yuan dynasty,<ref>Duosang Mongol History, Vol. 1; Zhong-gou Tong-shi; History of Zhong-gou Border Nationalities; The New Yuan-shih</ref> and their administrations were subordinated to the Central Secretariat.
Below the level of provinces, the largest political division was the [[Circuit (administrative division)|circuit]] ({{lang|zh|道}}), followed by [[prefecture]] ({{lang|zh|府}}) operating under a prefect and [[Zhou (country subdivision)|subprefecture]] ({{lang|zh|州}}) under a subprefect. The lowest political division was the [[county]] ({{lang|zh|縣}}) overseen by a magistrate. This government structure at the provincial level was later copied by the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties.
== Gallery ==
<gallery mode=packed heights=160px>
File:Yuan dynasty iron magic square.jpg|[[Magic square]] in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)
File:Yuan Dynasty - waterwheels and smelting.png|[[smelting]] machines (Yuan dynasty)
File:水轮.jpg|Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)
File:水锤.jpg|Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)
File:纺织机.jpg|Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)
File:水磨齿轮.jpg|water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)
File:农书织布机.jpg|loom (Yuan dynasty)
File:Zhao Mengfu1.jpg|Yuan painting ([[Zhao Mengfu]])
File:Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg|Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)<ref name="bm">{{cite web |url = http://www.grandhistorian.com/chinesesiegewarfare/index-english12122007.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=November 11, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20091202081843/http://www.grandhistorian.com/chinesesiegewarfare/index-english12122007.html |archivedate=December 2, 2009 }}</ref>
File:Skanda detail heart sutra zhao mengfu.jpeg|Military costume.
File:Immortal Riding a Dragon.jpg|Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a [[dragon]].
File:Horse and Groom, after Li Gonglin by Zhao Yong.jpg|Yuan [[cavalry]]
File:Jiang Ge.JPG|Yuan Mongol soldier
File:Qubilai Setsen Khaan.JPG|[[Genghis Khan]]'s grandson, [[Kublai Khan]] during his youth
File:Mongol warrior of Genghis Khan.jpg|Mongol warrior on horseback, preparing a mounted archery shot.
File:Yuan stone Nestorian inscription (rep).JPG|Chinese stone inscription of a [[Nestorian]] [[Nestorian Cross|Christian Cross]] from a monastery of [[Fangshan District]] in [[Beijing]] (then called Dadu, or [[Khanbaliq]]), dated to the Yuan Dynasty
</gallery>
== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty]]
** [[Chinese emperors family tree (late)#Yuan Dynasty and Northern Yuan Dynasty|Emperor's family tree]]
* [[Mongol Empire]]
** [[List of Mongol rulers]]
** [[Mongol invasions and conquests]]
* [[History of Mongolia]]
* [[History of China]]
** [[Dynasties in Chinese history]]
*** [[Jurchens|Jurchen]] [[Jurchen dynasty|Jin dynasty]]
*** [[Song dynasty]]
*** [[Ming dynasty]]
*** [[Western Xia]]
*** [[Dali Kingdom]]
* [[Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty]]
** [[Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia]]
** [[Tibet under Yuan rule]]
** [[Mongolia under Yuan rule]]
** [[Manchuria under Yuan rule]]
* [[Yuan dynasty coinage]]
* [[Islam during the Yuan dynasty]]
* [[Europeans in Medieval China]]
* [[Hua-Yi distinction]]
* [[Jun ware]]
{{div col end}}
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}
=== Sources ===
* {{cite book |first = Thomas |last = Allsen |editor1 = Denis C. Twitchett |editor2 = Herbert Franke |editor3 = John King Fairbank |chapter = The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China |title= The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year=1994 |pages = 321–413 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |ref = harv |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite book |first=Thomas |last=Allsen |title = Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia |year = 2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |ISBN = 978-0-521-80335-9 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal |jstor = 4528536 |title= "Ta Chin" (Great Golden): The Origin and Changing Interpretations of the Jurchen State Name |last1 = Chan 陳 |first1 = Hok-Lam 學霖 |journal = T'oung Pao |series = Second Series |volume= 77 |number = Livr. 4/5 |year = 1991 |pages=253–299 |publisher = BRILL }}
* {{cite book |first=Joseph |last=Dauben |chapter = Chinese Mathematics |editor=Victor Katz |title = The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook |year=2007 |publisher=Princeton University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 0-691-11485-4}}
* {{cite book |first = Patricia Buckley |last = Ebrey |title = The Cambridge Illustrated History of China |year=2010 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |ISBN = 978-0-521-12433-1 |edition = 2nd |origyear = 1996 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal |first = Gregory G. |last = Guzman |title = Were the Barbarians a Negative or Positive Factor in Ancient and Medieval History? |journal = The Historian |year = 1988 |pages = 558–571 |volume = 50 |issue = 4 |ref = harv |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |doi = 10.1111/j.1540-6563.1988.tb00759.x}}
* {{cite book |first=Peng Yoke |last=Ho |title = Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China |year=1985 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |ISBN = 978-0-486-41445-4 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |first=Ch'i-Ch'ing |last=Hsiao |editor=Denis C. Twitchett |editor2=Herbert Franke |editor3 = John King Fairbank |chapter=Mid-Yuan Politics |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year=1994 |pages=490–560 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite book |first=George Gheverghese |last=Joseph |title = The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics |year=2011 |ref=harv |publisher=Princeton University Press |ISBN = 0-691-13526-6}}
* {{cite book |first=George |last=Lane |title=Daily Life in the Mongol Empire |year=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |ISBN = 978-0-313-33226-5 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |first=David |last=Morgan |title=Who Ran the Mongol Empire? |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |year=1982 |pages=124–136 |issue=1 |ref=harv |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00159179}}
* {{cite book |first=David |last=Morgan |title=The Mongols |year=2007 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-1-4051-3539-9}}
* {{cite book |first=Morris|last=Rossabi |title=Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times |year=1988 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Los Angeles |ref = harv |ISBN = 978-0-520-06740-0}}
* {{cite book |first=Morris |last=Rossabi |editor=Denis C. Twitchett |editor2=Herbert Franke |editor3=John King Fairbank |chapter=The reign of Khubilai Khan |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year=1994 |pages=414–489|publisher=Cambridge University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite book |first=Morris |last=Rossabi |title=The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction |year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-0-19-984089-2}}
* {{cite book |first=Frederick W. |last=Mote |title=Imperial China: 900–1800 |year=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-0-674-01212-7}}
* {{cite book |first=Frederick W. |last=Mote |editor=Denis C. Twitchett |editor2=Herbert Franke |editor3=John King Fairbank |chapter = Chinese society under Mongol rule, 1215-1368 |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year=1994 |pages=616–664 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |ref=harv |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Smith, Jr. |first=John Masson |date=Jan–Mar 1998 |title = Review: Nomads on Ponies vs. Slaves on Horses |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |publisher=American Oriental Society |volume=118 |number=1 |pages=54–62 |doi = 10.2307/606298 |jstor = 606298}}
* {{cite journal |first=K. T.|last=Wu |title=Chinese Printing under Four Alien Dynasties: (916-1368 A. D.) |journal = Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=13 |issue=3/4 |year=1950 |pages = 447–523 |ISSN = 0073-0548 |doi = 10.2307/2718064 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal |jstor = 20062627 |doi = 10.1177/0097700405282349 |url = http://mcx.sagepub.com/content/32/1/3.abstract |archivedate = 25 March 2014 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf |title = Reinventing China: Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century |last1 = Zhao|first1 = Gang |last2= |first2= |volume= 32 |number = Number 1 |date = January 2006 |website= |publisher= Sage Publications |deadurl=no |accessdate = 23 May 2014}}
== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |last = Birge |first=Bettine |year = 1995 |title = Levirate marriage and the revival of widow chastity in Yüan China |journal = Asia Major |series = 3rd series |volume = 8 |issue = 2 |pages = 107–146 |jstor = 41645519 }}
* {{cite book |editor-first = Hok-lam |editor-last = Chan |editor-first2 = W.T. |editor-last2=de Bary |title = Yuan Thought: Chinese Thought and Religion Under the Mongols |year = 1982 |publisher = Columbia University Press |location = New York, NY |ISBN = 978-0-231-05324-2}}
* {{cite book |first = Arthur |last = Cotterell |title = The Imperial Capitals of China - An Inside View of the Celestial Empire |location=London, England |publisher = Pimlico |year=2007 |ISBN = 9781845950095 }}
* {{cite book |first = John |last = Dardess |editor1 = Denis C. Twitchett |editor2 = Herbert Franke |editor3 = John King Fairbank |chapter = Shun-ti and the end of Yuan rule in China |title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year = 1994 |pages = 561–586 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite book |last1 = Ebrey |first1 = Patricia Buckley |title = Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook |edition = 2nd |publisher = Simon and Schuster |isbn = 978-1-4391-8839-2 }}
* {{cite journal |last = Endicott-West |first = Elizabeth |year = 1986 |title = Imperial governance in Yüan times |journal = Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume = 46 |issue = 2 |pages = 523–549 |doi = 10.2307/2719142 |jstor = 2719142 }}
* {{cite book |first = Elizabeth |last = Endicott-West |editor1 = Denis C. Twitchett |editor2 = Herbert Franke |editor3 = John King Fairbank |chapter = The Yuan government and society |title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year = 1994 |pages = 587–615 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |ISBN = 978-0-521-24331-5}}
* {{cite book |first = John D. |last = Langlois |title = China Under Mongol Rules |year = 1981 |publisher = Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |ISBN = 978-0-691-10110-1}}
* {{cite journal |last = Langlois |first=John D. |year = 1977 |title = Report on the research conference: The Impact of Mongol Domination on Chinese Civilization |journal = [[Journal of Song-Yuan Studies|Sung Studies Newsletter]] |volume = 13 |pages = 82–90 |jstor = 23497251 }}
* {{cite book |first = Ann |last=Paludan |title = Chronicle of the China Emperors |location = London, England |publisher = Thames & Hudson |year = 1998 |ISBN = 0-500-05090-2 }}
* {{cite book |first = John Joseph |last = Saunders |title = The History of the Mongol Conquests |origyear = 1971 |year = 2001 |publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press |ISBN = 978-0-812-21766-7}}
* Owen, Stephen, "The Yuan and Ming Dynasties," in Stephen Owen, ed. ''An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911''. New York: [[W. W. Norton]], 1997. [http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenSanqu.pdf p. 723-743] ([https://www.webcitation.org/6PoDJKDwo?url=http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenSanqu.pdf Archive]).<!-- Revealed on two pages: http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/Schedule.html https://www.webcitation.org/6PmyPFX5I, and http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/ https://www.webcitation.org/6PmyNNugV?url=http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/ -->
* Ho, Kai-Lung (何凱龍). (2006). “The Political Power and the Mongolian Translation of the Chinese Calendar During the Yuan Dynasty”. Central Asiatic Journal 50 (1). Harrassowitz Verlag: 57–69. {{JSTOR|41928409}}.
* “Directory of Scholars Working in Sung, Liao, Chin and Yüan”. 1987. “Directory of Scholars Working in Sung, Liao, Chin and Yüan”. Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies, no. 19. Society for Song, Yuan, and Conquest Dynasty Studies: 224–54. {{JSTOR|23497542}}.
== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Yuan Dynasty}}
{{-}}
{{S-start}}
{{Succession box
|title = [[Dynasties in Chinese history]]<br />[[History of Mongolia]] / [[History of Tibet|Tibet]] / [[History of Korea|Korea]]
|before = [[Song dynasty]]<br />[[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]<br />[[Western Liao]]<br />[[Western Xia]]<br />[[Dali Kingdom]]<br />[[Mongol Empire]]<br />[[Era of Fragmentation|Remnants]] of the [[Tibetan Empire|Tibet]]<br />[[Goryeo]]
|after = [[Ming dynasty]]<br />[[Northern Yuan dynasty]]<br/>[[Phagmodrupa Dynasty]]<br />[[Goryeo]]
|years = 1271–1368
}}
{{S-end}}
{{Yuan dynasty topics}}
{{Mongol Empire}}
{{Empires}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|History of Imperial China|Mongolia}}
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[[Category:Mongol Empire]]
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[[Category:States and territories established in 1368]]
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[[Category:Kublai Khan]]' |
