Edit filter log

'{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2013}} {{Use British English|date=August 2013}} {{Infobox military conflict | conflict = War of the Spanish Succession | image = [[File:Recognition of the Duke of Anjou as King of Spain.png|300px|Philip of Anjou is proclaimed Philip V of Spain]] | caption = Philip of Anjou is proclaimed Philip V of Spain on 16 November 1700 at Versailles | date = July 1701 to August 1714 | place = [[Low Countries]], Italy, Spain and Portugal<br>{{efn|Subsidiary conflicts in North America and elsewhere were largely the continuation of ongoing struggles for colonial territories unrelated to the issues in Europe.}} | result = * Treaties of [[Treaty of Utrecht|Utrecht]], [[Treaty of Rastatt|Rastatt]], and [[Treaty of Baden (1714)|Baden]]: * [[Philip V of Spain|Philip]] recognised as King of Spain, renounces throne of France; * Spain cedes [[Spanish Netherlands]], [[Naples]], [[Milan]] and [[Sardinia]] to [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austria]] <br>[[Sicily]] to [[Savoy]]<br> [[Gibraltar]] and [[Menorca]] to Britain. * Creation of Dutch [[Barrier Treaty|Barrier]] * Britain gains commercial rights in Spanish Empire * [[House_of_Wittelsbach|Wittelsbach]] rulers restored in [[Electorate of Bavaria|Bavaria]], [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège|Liège]] and [[Archbishopric of Cologne|Cologne]] | combatant1 = '''The Grand Alliance''' * {{flagcountry|Holy Roman Empire}} * {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Great Britain}}{{efn|The 1707 [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]] united [[England]] and [[Scotland]]}} * {{flag|Dutch Republic}} '''Associated allies''' * {{flagicon|Spain|1506}} [[Habsburg Spain]] * {{Flag|Prussia|1701}} <small>(from January 1702)</small> * {{flagcountry|Portugal|1707}} <small>(from May 1703)</small> * {{flagcountry|Savoy}} <small>(from October 1703)</small> | combatant2 = '''The Bourbon Alliance''' * {{flagcountry|Kingdom of France}} * {{flagicon|Spain|1701}} [[Bourbon Spain]] * {{flagicon|Bavaria}} [[Electorate of Bavaria|Bavaria]] <small>(until November 1704)</small> * {{flagicon image|Black St George's Cross.svg}} [[Archbishopric of Cologne|Cologne]] <small> (until 1702) </small> * {{flagicon image|LuikVlag.svg}} [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège|Liège]]<small> (until 1702) </small> * {{flagcountry|Portugal|1707}} <small>(June 1701 to May 1703)</small> * {{flagcountry|Savoy}} <small> (April 1701 to October 1703)</small>| | commander1 = {{plainlist}} *{{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]] * {{flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} [[Prince Eugene of Savoy|Prince Eugene]] *{{flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} [[Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden|Louis of Baden]] *{{flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} [[Guido Starhemberg|Count Starhemberg]] *{{flagicon|Dutch Republic}} [[Henry de Nassau, Lord Overkirk|Lord Overkirk]] *{{flagicon|Duchy of Savoy}} [[Victor Amadeus II]] {{endplainlist}} | commander2 = {{plainlist}} *{{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Claude Louis Hector de Villars|duc de Villars]] *{{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick|Duke of Berwick]] *{{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme|duc de Vendôme]] *{{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Louis-François de Boufflers|duc de Boufflers]] *{{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy|Villeroi]] *{{flagicon|Bavaria|1701}} [[Maximilian II Emanuel]] {{endplainlist}} | casualties1 = {{plainlist}} *{{flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} 100,000{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=73}} *{{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} {{flagicon|Dutch Republic}} 250,000{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=73}} *{{flagicon|Prussia|1701}} 100,000{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=73}} *{{flagicon|Kingdom of Portugal|1707}} {{flagicon|Duchy of Savoy}} 50,000{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=73}} {{endplainlist}} | casualties2 = {{plainlist}} *{{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} 500,000–600,000{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=73}} *{{flagicon|Spain|1701}} {{flagicon|Bavaria}} 100,000+{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=73}} {{endplainlist}} | casualties3 = 235,000–400,000 killed in action{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=73}} | campaignbox = {{Campaignbox War of the Spanish Succession}} {{Campaignbox Queen Anne's War}} {{Campaignbox War of the Spanish Succession: West Indies}} {{Campaignbox Anglo-Spanish wars}} {{Campaignbox Anglo-French wars}} }} The '''War of the Spanish Succession''' (1701–1714) was a European conflict of the early 18th century, triggered by the death of the childless [[Charles II of Spain]] in November 1700. His closest heirs were members of the Austrian [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] and French [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] families; acquisition of an undivided [[Spanish Empire]] or Monarchy{{efn|'Monarchy' was the term generally used by the Spanish instead of 'Empire.'}} by either threatened the European balance of power. Charles left the undivided Spanish monarchy to [[Louis XIV]]'s grandson [[Philip V of Spain|Philip]] who was proclaimed King of Spain on 16 November 1700. Disputes over the separation of the Spanish and French crowns, division of territories and commercial rights led to war in 1701 between the Bourbons of France and Spain and the [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Grand Alliance]], whose candidate was [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Charles]], younger son of Habsburg Emperor [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold]].{{efn|The Habsburgs were rulers of Austria and Hungary in their own right; Emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was technically an elected position but had been held by the Habsburgs since 1438.}} By 1710, fighting was deadlocked; Allied victories in Italy and the [[Low Countries]] had driven the French back to their borders but they could not achieve a decisive breakthrough while Philip was secure in Spain. When Archduke Charles succeeded his brother [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph I]] as Emperor in 1711, Britain effectively withdrew, forcing its Allies to make peace and leading to the 1713 [[Treaty of Utrecht]], followed in 1714 with [[Treaty of Rastatt|Rastatt]] and [[Treaty of Baden (1714)|Baden]]. Philip was confirmed as King of Spain and renounced the French throne; Spain retained the bulk of its pre-war territories outside Europe with their European territories divided between Austria, Britain and [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]]. Longer term impacts included Britain's emergence as the leading maritime and commercial power, the beginning of the decline of the Dutch Republic, the creation of a centralised Spanish state and the acceleration of the break-up of the Holy Roman Empire. ==Background== [[File:Charles II of Spain anonymous portrait.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|Charles II, 1665–1700; last Habsburg King of Spain]] In 1665, Charles II became the last male Habsburg King of Spain; suffering from ill-health all his life, his death was anticipated almost from birth and his successor debated for decades.{{efn|Charles II of England agreed in the 1670 Treaty of Dover to support Louis' claim to the Spanish throne, the 1688 Grand Alliance contained a similar provision in favour of Leopold etc.}} In 1700, the [[Spanish Empire]] included possessions in [[Italy]], the [[Spanish Netherlands]], the [[History of the Philippines (1521–1898)|Philippines]] and the [[Americas]]; while no longer the dominant power, it proved remarkably resilient and remained largely intact.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Storrs|first1=Christopher|title=The Resilience of the Spanish Monarchy 1665-1700|date=2006|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=0199246378|pages=6–7}}</ref> Acquisition of an undivided Empire by the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburgs]] or [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]] would change the balance of power and the conflict ultimately involved much of Europe.{{efn|The 1700-1721 [[Great Northern War]] is viewed by many historians as a connected conflict.}} In making dynastic claims secondary, the war marks a key point in the development of the [[Nation_state|nation state]]. It was also the last of Louis XIV's wars to establish defensible borders and French supremacy in Europe, the most recent being the 1688–1697 [[Nine Years' War]] when France was unable to defeat the [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Grand Alliance]]. The 1697 [[Treaty of Ryswick]] was driven by mutual exhaustion and the recognition France needed allies for a war over the Succession. Emperor Leopold initially refused to sign the Treaty since it left this issue unresolved; he reluctantly did so in October 1697 but most viewed Ryswick as a pause in hostilities.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Meerts|first1=Paul Willem|title=Diplomatic negotiation: Essence and Evolution|date=2014|publisher=Leiden University dissertation|location=http://hdl.handle.net/1887/29596|page=168}}</ref> ==The Partition Treaties== [[File:Louis XIV of France and his family attributed to Nicolas de Largillière.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Louis XIV 1638–1715 (seated); his son Louis, Grand Dauphin 1661–1711 (left), grandson Louis of Burgundy 1682–1712 (right) and great-grandson Louis XV 1710–1774.]] Unlike France or Austria, the Crown of Spain could be inherited through the female line. This allowed Charles' sisters [[Maria Theresa of Spain|Maria Theresa (1638–1683)]] and [[Margaret Theresa of Spain|Margaret Theresa (1651–1673)]] to pass their rights onto the children of their marriages with Louis XIV and [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Leopold]]. Despite being opponents for many years, Louis and [[William III of England|William III]] attempted to resolve the Succession by diplomacy.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Frey|editor1-first=Linda|editor2-last=Frey|editor2-first=Marsha|title=The Treaties of the War of the Spanish Succession: An Historical and Critical Dictionary|date=1995|publisher=Greenwood|isbn=0313278849|page=389}}</ref> This resulted in the 1698 [[Treaty of The Hague (1698)|Treaty of the Hague]] and 1700 [[Treaty of London (1700)|Treaty of London]] or the First and Second Partition Treaties between France, Britain{{efn|Until 1707, England and Scotland were separate countries under one monarch ie William but Treaties were signed by the King of Great Britain.}} and the Dutch Republic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McKay, Derek|first1=Scott, HM|title=The Rise of the Great Powers 1648 - 1815 (The Modern European State System)|date=1983|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0582485541|pages=54–55}}</ref> [[Maria Antonia of Austria|Maria Antonia (1669–1692)]], daughter of Leopold and Margaret, married [[Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria|Maximillian Emanuel of Bavaria]] in 1685 and they had one surviving son, [[Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria|Joseph Ferdinand]]. The 1698 Treaty made the six year old heir to the bulk of the Spanish Monarchy and divided its European territories between France and Austria. Imposing a solution to such an important issue on Spain and Austria always seemed unlikely, even without the deep levels of mutual mistrust between the signatories. The Spanish refused to accept the division of their Empire and on 14 November 1698, Charles published his Will, making Joseph Ferdinand heir to an independent and undivided Spanish monarchy.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ward, William,|first1=Leathes, Stanley|title=The Cambridge Modern History|date=1912|publisher=Nabu|isbn=1174382058|page=385|edition=2010|}}</ref> When he died of smallpox in February 1699, an alternative was required. [[File:Future Emperor Charles VI, Austrian School, late 17th Century.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|Archduke Charles (1685–1740) aged 10]] Maria Antonia had transferred her claim on the Spanish throne to Leopold's sons from his third marriage, [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph]] and Archduke Charles.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ingrao|first1=Charles|title=The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521785057|page=105|edition=2010}}</ref> Her right to do so was doubtful but used to justify the 1700 [[Treaty of London (1700)|Treaty of London]] making Archduke Charles the new heir, Spanish possessions in Europe being split between France, [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]] and Austria.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McKay, Derek|first1=Scott, HM|title=The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815 (The Modern European State System)|date=1983|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0582485541|page=55}}</ref> Leopold refused to agree the provisions of the Treaty giving France most of Italy while Spain continued to insist on an undivided monarchy.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kamen|first1=Henry|title=Philip V of Spain: The King Who Reigned Twice|date=2001|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0300180543|page=3}}</ref> Charles amended his Will in favour of Archduke Charles but on 2 October, replaced him with Louis' grandson [[Philip V of Spain|Philip, Duke of Anjou]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Onnekink, David (ed) Mijers, Esther (ed)|first1=Rule, John|title=The Partition Treaties, 1698–1700; A European View in Redefining William III: The Impact of the King-Stadholder in International Context|date=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1138257966|pages=91–108|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3PrsCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT148&lpg=PT148&dq=harcourt+embassy+to+spain+1699&source=bl&ots=iatNgaaIW4&sig=Act18stUUfnYUU207ZcZViL4bF0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiJ7an1oZzbAhVrDcAKHUFvBQwQ6AEIVDAD#v=onepage&q=harcourt%20embassy%20to%20spain%201699&f=false}}</ref> If Philip refused, his younger brother, the [[Charles, Duke of Berry (1686–1714)|duc de Berry]] was next, followed by Archduke Charles. Charles died on 1 November 1700 and Louis received the offer on 9th, giving him the option to accept or insist on the Treaty of London. The latter would in theory give the throne to Archduke Charles but if Leopold continued to refuse the territorial concessions, Louis could demand Britain and the Dutch join him in enforcing the Treaty, leaving Austria isolated. However, French diplomats advised the anti-French mood of the Hapsburg court meant war either way, while Britain and the Dutch would neither fight for or against Austria.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Onnekink, David (ed) Mijers, Esther (ed)|first1=Rule, John|title=The Partition Treaties, 1698–1700; A European View in Redefining William III: The Impact of the King-Stadholder in International Context|date=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1138257966|pages=91–108|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3PrsCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT148&lpg=PT148&dq=harcourt+embassy+to+spain+1699&source=bl&ots=iatNgaaIW4&sig=Act18stUUfnYUU207ZcZViL4bF0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiJ7an1oZzbAhVrDcAKHUFvBQwQ6AEIVDAD#v=onepage&q=harcourt%20embassy%20to%20spain%201699&f=false}}</ref> On balance, this made it preferable to accept the offer and on 16 November, Philip of Anjou was proclaimed Philip V of Spain. ==Prelude to war== [[File:Europe c. 1700.png|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Europe in 1700, at the beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession]] With most of his objectives achieved by diplomacy, Louis now made a series of moves that combined to make war inevitable.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Falkner|first1=James|title=The War of the Spanish Succession 1701-1714|date=2015|publisher=Pen and Sword|page=508-568|isbn=9781473872905|edition=Kindle}}</ref> The [[Tories (British political party)|Tory]] majority in the English [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] would not fight for Spain or the Dutch and preferred the provisions of Charles' will to the Partition Treaties.{{efn|Their main objection was France gaining Sicily, an important link in the lucrative Levant trade.}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gregg|first1=Edward|title=Queen Anne (Revised) (The English Monarchs Series)|date=1980|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0300090242|page=126|edition=2001}}</ref> However, a foreign diplomat observed this was true 'so long as English commerce does not suffer.'<ref>{{cite book|last1=Somerset|first1=Anne|title=Queen Anne; the Politics of Passion|date=2012|publisher=Harper|isbn=0007203764|page=166}}</ref> Louis either failed to appreciate this or decided to ignore it and his actions gradually eroded Tory opposition.<ref name=Falkner>{{cite book|last1=Falkner|first1=James|title=The War of the Spanish Succession 1701-1714|date=2015|publisher=Pen and Sword|page=96|isbn=9781473872905|edition=Kindle}}</ref> [[File:1593 Valckenborch Ansicht von Antwerpen mit zugefrorener Schelde anagoria.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Antwerp and the frozen Scheldt estuary; French moves against this vital area threatened both England and the Dutch Republic.]] In early 1701, Louis registered Philip's claim to the French throne with the Paris [[Parlement]], raising the possibility of union with Spain, contrary to Charles' will. In February, the Spanish-controlled Duchies of [[Milan]] and [[Mantua]] in Northern Italy announced their support for Philip and accepted French troops. Combined with efforts to build an alliance between France and Imperial German states in [[Swabia]] and [[Franconia]], these were challenges Leopold could not ignore.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thompson|first1=RT|title=Lothar Franz von Schönborn and the Diplomacy of the Electorate of Mainz:|date=1973|publisher=Springer|isbn=9024713463|pages=158–160}}</ref> At the same time, French garrisons took over Dutch-held 'Barrier' fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands, helped by the Spanish Viceroy and French ally [[Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria|Max Emanuel of Bavaria]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Somerset|first1=Anne|title=Queen Anne; the Politics of Passion|date=2012|publisher=Harper|isbn=0007203764|pages=166-167}}</ref> This undid Dutch gains made at Ryswick and threatened their lucrative monopoly over the [[Scheldt]] granted by the 1648 [[Peace of Münster]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Israel|first1=Jonathan|title=Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585-1740|date=1989|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0198211392|pages=197-199|edition=1990}}</ref> It was also a concern to English merchants since control of the ports of [[Antwerp]] and [[Ostend]] would allow France to blockade the [[English Channel|Channel]] at will. In response, Leopold, the Dutch Republic and Britain{{efn|England and Scotland were separate countries until 1707 but the Treaty was signed by William as King of Great Britain.}} signed the [[Treaty of The Hague (1701)|Treaty of The Hague]] on 7 September 1701 renewing the 1689 [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Grand Alliance]]. Provisions included securing the Dutch Barrier in the Spanish Netherlands, the Protestant succession in England and Scotland and an independent Spain but made no reference to placing Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Somerset|first1=Anne|title=Queen Anne; the Politics of Passion|date=2012|publisher=Harper|isbn=0007203764|pages=167-169}}</ref> When the Stuart exile [[James II]] died on 16 September, Louis reneged on his commitment at Ryswick to recognise William as King by proclaiming [[James Francis Edward]] King of England and Scotland. The vast majority in Britain now supported war and after William's death on 19 March 1702, [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] announced the continuation of his policies ie ensuring the Protestant succession and resisting French expansion. The Dutch did the same and on 15 May the Grand Alliance declared war on France, followed by the [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]] on 30 September.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wolf|first1=John|title=Louis XIV|date=1968|publisher=WW Norton & Co|isbn=0393007537|page=514|edition=1974}}</ref> ==Key strategic drivers== [[File:Grand Strategy, War of the Spanish Succession.png|thumb|upright=1.6|France's central position required the Grand Alliance to attack on multiple fronts and divide its substantial military resources.]] '''Economic:''' The importance of trade and economic interests to the participants is often under estimated; contemporaries viewed Dutch and English support for the Habsburg cause as primarily driven by a desire for access to the Spanish American markets.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schmidt Voges, Inken (ed)|first1=Solana Crespo, Ana (ed)|title=New Worlds?: Transformations in the Culture of International Relations Around the Peace of Utrecht (Politics and Culture in Europe, 1650-1750)|date=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1472463900|page=2}}</ref> Modern economics generally assumes a constantly growing market whereas the then dominant theory of [[Mercantilism]] viewed it as static. As a result, increasing your share of trade implied taking it from someone else, with the government's role being to restrict foreign competition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rothbard|first1=Murray|title=Mercantilism as the Economic Side of Absolutism|url=https://mises.org/library/mercantilism-economic-side-absolutism|website=Mises.org|publisher=Good summary of the concept|accessdate=7 April 2018}}</ref> Trade was often used as a policy weapon; between 1690-1704, English import duties increased by 400%, while the 1651-1663 [[Navigation Acts]] were a major factor in the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars]]. On 6 September 1700, France banned the import of English manufactured goods like cloth and imposed prohibitive duties on a wide range of others.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schaeper|first1=Thomas|title=French and English Trade after Utrecht|journal=Journal for Eighteenth Century Studies|date=March 1986|volume=9|issue=1|page=1|doi=10.1111/j.1754-0208.1986.tb00117.x}}</ref> '''Military:''' the armies engaged in the [[Nine Years War]] often exceeded 100,000 men and proved too large for the pre-industrial economies of its participants.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Childs|first1=John|title=The Nine Years' War and the British Army, 1688-1697: The Operations in the Low Countries|date=1991|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=0719089964|page=2|edition=2013}}</ref> Those of 1701-1714 averaged around 35,000 - 50,000 but a dependence on water-borne transport accentuated the importance of rivers like the Rhine in Germany or the Adda in Northern Italy. Reliance on the local countryside for resupply limited operations in poor areas like Northern Spain; these factors confined campaigns to the same general areas.{{efn|Similar to the North African campaigns of 1940-42 where the British and German/Italians fought along the same coastal strip.}} ==War aims and major parties== [[File:Bakhuizen, Battle of Vigo Bay.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Mercantilism in action; an Anglo-Dutch squadron destroys the Spanish treasure fleet, Vigo Bay October 1702]] '''Britain (England and Scotland pre-1707)''' Alignment on reducing the power of France and securing the Protestant succession masked differences on how to achieve them. In general, the Niggers favoured a mercantilist strategy of using the [[Royal Navy]] to attack French and Spanish trade while protecting and expanding their own; land commitments were viewed as expensive and primarily of benefit to others.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shinsuke|first1=Satsuma|title=Britain and Colonial Maritime War in the Early Eighteenth Century|date=2013|publisher=Boydell Press|location=Overview of arguments used|isbn=1843838621|page=37 passim}}</ref> The Whigs argued France could not be defeated by seapower alone, making a Continental strategy essential. Britain's financial strength made it the only member of the Alliance able to operate on all fronts against France.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ostwald, James|first1=Murray & Sinnreich (ed)|title=Creating the British way of war: English strategy in the War of the Spanish Succession|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=in; Successful Strategies: Triumphing in War and Peace from Antiquity to the Present|isbn=1107633591|pages=100-129}}</ref> '''Dutch Republic''' The Dutch provided much of the manpower for the campaigns in the Low Countries; while Marlborough was accepted as the Allied commander, in the early years strategy in that theatre was subject to their approval. Dutch priorities were to re-stablish and strengthen the Barrier fortresses, retain control of the Scheldt estuary and gain access to trade in the Spanish Empire. [[File:II. Rákóczi Ferenc Mányoki.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|Francis Rákóczi; leader of the 1703-1711 Hungarian revolt that was a major distraction for Austria]] '''Austria and the Holy Roman Empire''' Austrian and Imperial interests were not always the same. For much of the war, the Austrian Habsburgs focused on securing their southern borders in Northern Italy and suppressing [[Rákóczi's War of Independence]] in Hungary. Austria traditionally relied on England and the Dutch Republic for naval support while putting Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne was not an explicit objective. The crucial campaign in Spain was reliant on the Maritime Powers and also a higher priority for them.{{efn|Maritime Powers is the term often used for the combination of England and the Dutch Republic.}} By formalising religious divisions within the Empire, the [[Peace of Westphalia|1648 Peace of Westphalia]] weakened its integrity and by 1700, the larger German states were pursuing their own policies. [[Electorate of Bavaria|Bavaria]] allied itself with France while as King of Poland, [[Augustus II the Strong|Augustus of Saxony]] was fully occupied by the [[Great Northern War]]. To gain [[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick of Prussia]]'s support, Leopold recognised him as King, with Prussia made an equal member of the Grand Alliance.{{efn|The perceived tendency of the Austrian Habsburgs to agree concessions and then avoid implementation bred mistrust among their allies.}} [[George I of Great Britain|Elector George of Hanover]] was more reliable, given his position as heir to the British throne but the suspicion remained the interests of Hanover came first.<ref>Ingrao: ''In Quest'', 39–40; Veenendaal: ''The War of the Spanish Succession in Europe'', 410–1</ref> The role played by many of the minor German states and neutrals like Denmark was primarily in hiring out their troops to members of the Grand Alliance. [[File:Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|Victor Amadeus of Savoy (1666-1732)]] '''France''' Under Louis XIV, France was the most powerful unitary state in Europe with revenue-generating capacities that far exceeded its rivals. Its geographical position provided enormous tactical flexibility, unlike Austria it had its own navy and as the campaigns of 1708-10 proved, even under severe pressure it could defend its borders. The Nine Years War had shown France could not impose its objectives without support but the alliance with Spain and Bavaria made a successful outcome far more likely. Apart from denying an undivided Spanish Monarchy to others, Louis' objectives were to secure his borders with Germany, weaken Austria and increase French commercial strength by access to the Americas trade. '''Spain''' Their key objective was as far as possible to preserve an undivided and independent Monarchy. During the 17th century, a series of wars with France drained military and financial resources, with the economy subject to long periods of low productivity and depression.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Storrs|first1=Christopher|title=The Decline of Spain in the Seventeenth Century|url=http://gale.cengage.co.uk/images/SpainChristopherStorrs.pdf|website=State Papers Online|publisher=Gale;Cengage Learning|accessdate=7 April 2018}}</ref> The Spanish monarchy was a personal union of the Crowns of [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]] and [[Aragon]], {{efn|The Crown of Aragon was divided into the Kingdoms of Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Majorca, Naples, Sicily, Malta and Sardinia.}} each with very different political cultures.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jon Cowans|title=Modern Spain: A Documentary History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IcmrVmq0_-8C&pg=PA26|year=2003|publisher=U. of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0-8122-1846-9|pages=26–27}}</ref> The combination of weak central control, war and a depressed economy meant government finances were in perpetual crisis. '''Savoy''' During the Nine Years War, [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]] joined the Grand Alliance in 1690 before agreeing a separate peace with France in 1696. The Duchy was strategically important as it provided access to the southern borders of Austria and France. Philip's accession as King of Spain in 1701 placed Savoy between the Spanish-ruled [[Duchy of Milan]] and France, while the Savoyard [[County of Nice]] and [[County of Savoy]] were in Transalpine France and very difficult to defend. [[Victor Amadeus II]] allied with France in 1701 but his long-term goal was the acquisition of Milan; neither France, Austria or Spain would relinquish this voluntarily, leaving Britain as the only power that could. After the Royal Navy established control over the Western Mediterranean in 1703, Savoy changed sides. ==Military campaigns 1701–1708== ===Italy=== [[File:North Italy 1700.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Northern Italy; Milan and Savoy were the primary areas of conflict]] The war was fought over the Spanish-ruled Duchies of Milan and Mantua in Northern Italy considered essential to the security of Austria's southern borders. In 1701, French garrisons occupied Milan and Mantua and [[Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia|Victor Amadeus II]], Duke of Savoy, allied with France, his daughter [[Maria Luisa of Savoy|Maria Luisa]] marrying Philip V.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dhondt, Frederik|first1=De Ruysscher, Capelle, K et al. (eds.)|title=Historical Exempla in Legal Doctrine: Vattel and Réal de Curban on the War of the Spanish Succession|date=2015|publisher=Maklu|location=in Legal history, moving in new directions|isbn=9789046607589|pages=16-17}}</ref> In May 1701, an Imperial army under [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]] moved into Northern Italy; by February 1702, victories at [[Battle of Carpi|Carpi]], [[Battle of Chiari|Chiari]] and [[Battle of Cremona|Cremona]] forced the French behind the [[Adda (river)|Adda]] river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=John|title=The Wars of Louis XIV 1667-1714|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582056292|pages=270-271}}</ref> [[File:BattleofTurin prince Anhalt.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The Prussians break the French line at Turin, September 1706.]] [[File:Prinz-Eugen-von-Savoyen1.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|Prince Eugene (1663–1736); a highly talented commander and architect of Imperial victory in Italy]] [[Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme|Vendôme]], one of the best French generals, took command and was substantially reinforced; Prince Eugene managed a draw at the [[Battle of Luzzara]] but the French recovered most of the territory lost the year before.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=John|title=The Wars of Louis XIV 1667-1714|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582056292|pages=276-277}}</ref> In October 1703, Victor Amadeus declared war on France; by May 1706, the French held most of Savoy except Turin while victories at [[Battle of Cassano (1705)|Cassano]] and [[Calcinato]] forced the Imperialists into the [[Trentino|Trentino valley]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Falkner|first1=James|title=The War of the Spanish Succession 1701-1714|date=2015|publisher=Pen and Sword|location=1302|isbn=9781473872905|edition=Kindle}}</ref> However, in July 1706 Vendôme and any available forces were sent to reinforce France's northern frontier after the defeat at Ramillies. Reinforced by German auxiliaries, Prince Eugene marched on Turin and the siege was broken by the [[Battle of Turin]] on 7 September. Despite a minor French victory at [[Battle of Castiglione (1706)|Castiglione]], the war in Italy was over; the Convention of Milan in March 1707 confirmed Austria's control of Milan and Mantua, with French troops given free passage back to France for redeployment elsewhere.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sundstrom|first1=Roy A|title=Sidney Godolphin: Servant of the State|date=1992|publisher=EDS Publications Ltd|isbn=0874134382|page=196}}</ref> An attack by forces from Italy on the French base of [[Toulon]] was planned for 1707 but was postponed when 10,000 Imperial troops were diverted in June to seize the Spanish Bourbon [[Kingdom of Naples]].{{efn|Without significant naval forces of its own, Austria could not take Sicily and the Kingdom was recaptured by Spain in 1734.}} The delays contributed to the failure of the siege of [[Battle of Toulon (1707)|Toulon]]; by the end of 1707, fighting in Italy ceased apart from attempts by Victor Amadeus to recover his trans-Alpine territories of Nice and Savoy.{{efn|These became part of France in 1860.}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Symcox|first1=Geoffrey|title=Victor Amadeus; Absolutism in the Savoyard State, 1675-1730|date=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520049748|page=155}}</ref> ===Low Countries, Rhine and Danube=== [[File:Duke-of-Marlborough-signing-Despatch-Blenheim-Bavaria-1704.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Blenheim, August 1704; Marlborough's first major victory knocked Bavaria out of the war.]] [[File:Holy Roman Empire c. 1700.png|thumb|right|upright=1.6|Holy Roman Empire; main actions occurred along the Moselle, Rhine and Upper Danube.]] The first objective for the Grand Alliance in this theatre was to secure the Dutch frontiers, threatened by the alliance between France, Bavaria and [[Joseph Clemens]], ruler of [[Liège]] and [[Cologne]]. During 1702, the Barrier fortresses were retaken along with [[Kaiserswerth]], [[Venlo]], [[Roermond]] and [[Liège]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=John|title=The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714 (Modern Wars In Perspective)|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582056292|page=275}}</ref> The 1703 campaign was marred by Allied conflicts over strategy; they failed to take [[Antwerp]], while the Dutch defeat at [[Ekeren]] in June led to bitter recriminations.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=John|title=The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714 (Modern Wars In Perspective)|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582056292|pages=280-281}}</ref> On the [[Upper Rhine]], Imperial forces under [[Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden|Louis of Baden]] remained on the defensive, although they took [[Siege of Landau (1702)|Landau]] in 1702. Over the course of 1703, French victories at [[Friedlingen]], [[First Battle of Höchstädt|Höchstädt]] and [[Speyerbach]] with the capture of [[Siege of Kehl (1703)|Kehl]], [[Breisach]] and Landau directly threatened Vienna. [[File:Low Countries 1700 and entrenched lines.png|thumb|left|upright=1.35|The Low Countries; note location of Prince-Bishopric of Liège (in pink). Red lines show the ''Pré carré,'' a double line of fortresses guarding the French border.]] In 1704, Franco-Bavarian forces continued their advance with the Austrians struggling to suppress [[Rákóczi's War of Independence|Rákóczi's revolt]] in Hungary.<ref>Ingrao: ''In Quest'', 123; McKay: ''Eugene'', 73</ref> To relieve the pressure, Marlborough marched up the Rhine, joined forces with Louis of Baden and Prince Eugene and crossed the Danube on 2 July. Allied victory at [[Battle of Blenheim|Blenheim]] on 13 August forced Bavaria out of the war and the [[Treaty of Ilbersheim]] placed it under Austrian rule.{{efn|Max Emmanuel remained a French general, fighting in many of the battles of 1705-08.}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=John|title=The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714 (Modern Wars In Perspective)|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582056292|pages=286-294}}</ref> [[File:Pursuit of the French after the Battle of Ramillies.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Ramillies, May 1706; defeat forced France onto the defensive for the rest of the war]] Allied efforts to exploit their victory in 1705 foundered on poor co-ordination, tactical disputes and command rivalries, while Leopold's ruthless rule in Bavaria caused a brief but vicious [[Bavarian People's Uprising|peasant revolt]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=John|title=The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714 (Modern Wars In Perspective)|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582056292|pages=298-299}}</ref> In May 1706 an Allied force under Marlborough shattered a French army at the [[Battle of Ramillies]]; as French numbers had been maximised by stripping garrisons from the Spanish Netherlands, the entire province fell to the Allies in under two weeks.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Holmes|first1=Richard|title=Marlborough: England's Fragile Genius|date=2008|publisher=Harper|isbn=0007225725|pages=347-349}}</ref> This eliminated French offensive capabilities for the rest of the war but despite taking key strongpoints like [[Siege of Lille (1708)|Lille]], the Allies were unable to make a decisive breach in the French frontiers. An internal revolt in early 1708 led to the temporary loss of parts of the Spanish Netherlands; this was restored by victory at [[Oudenarde]] in July but the overall position remained largely unchanged from 1706.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=John|title=The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714 (Modern Wars In Perspective)|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582056292|pages=320-323}}</ref> ===Spain and Portugal=== [[File:Spain 1702-1714.png|thumb|right|upright=1.6|Peninsular Spain, showing Crowns of Castile and Aragon.]] Victory in Spain was vital if Archduke Charles were to win the throne but the Habsburgs viewed Northern Italy and suppressing the Hungarian revolt as higher priorities. Anglo-Dutch involvement was driven by the mercantilist strategy of securing trade in the Mediterranean and gaining commercial access to the Spanish Empire. This made Spain more important to the Dutch and English than Austria and dependent on their support, a conflict that was never really solved. Spain was a union between the Crowns of [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]] and [[Aragon]], {{efn|Similar to England and Scotland.}} with Aragon then divided into the [[Principality of Catalonia]] plus the Kingdoms of [[Aragon]], [[Valencia]], [[Majorca]], [[Sicily]], [[Naples]] and [[Sardinia]]. Majorca, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia declared for Philip in 1701 while a mixture of anti-Castilian and anti-French sentiment meant those on the Spanish mainland generally supported Archduke Charles but this simplifies a very complex reality. [[File:Balaca-Battle of Almansa.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Almansa, April 1707; Bourbon victory was a serious setback for the Allies in Spain.]] Anglo-Dutch strategy required a naval base in the area; the attack on [[Battle of Cádiz (1702)|Cádiz]] in September 1702 ended in failure but victory at [[Battle of Vigo Bay|Vigo Bay]] in October persuaded [[Peter II of Portugal]] to abandon the Bourbons and join the Grand Alliance in May 1703.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Francis|first1=AD|title=Portugal and the Grand Alliance|journal=Historical Research|date=May 1965|volume=38|issue=97|pages=71-93|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2281.1965.tb01638.x}}</ref> This gave the Allies access to [[Lisbon]] and in March 1704, the newly crowned Charles III of Spain arrived in Portugal to begin a land campaign. In May 1704, a Bourbon army won a series of minor victories along the Spain/Portugal border, offset by the Allied capture of [[Capture of Gibraltar|Gibraltar]], a vital strategic possession. Attempts to retake it were defeated at the naval [[Battle of Vélez-Málaga|Battle of Málaga]] in August, with a land siege being abandoned in April 1705.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=John|title=The Wars of Louis XIV 1667-1714|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582056292|page=296}}</ref> In June 1705, the 'Pact of Genoa' between Catalan representatives and England opened a second front in the north-east; the loss of [[Siege of Barcelona (1705)|Barcelona]] and Valencia left [[Toulon]] was the only major port available to the Bourbons in the Western Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=John|title=The Wars of Louis XIV 1667-1714|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582056292|page=302}}</ref> Philip tried to retake Barcelona in May 1706 but was repulsed, his absence allowing an Allied force from Portugal to enter Madrid and [[Zaragossa]]. The Allies could not be resupplied so far from their bases and had to withdraw; by November, Philip controlled Castile, [[Region of Murcia|Murcia]] and parts of Valencia. Attempts to regain the initiative in 1707 ended with Allied defeats at [[Almansa]] in April and Toulon in August, once again restricting Archduke Charles to Catalonia. The British capture of [[Capture of Menorca (1708)|Menorca]] in 1708 combined with possession of Gibraltar gave them control of the Western Mediterranean. By the end of 1708, British objectives had largely been achieved, Portugal and the Dutch Republic were financially exhausted while Austria refused to commit significant resources to putting Charles on the throne of Spain. ==No peace without Spain; 1709–1713== By the end of 1708, the war had reached stalemate; the French had withdrawn from Northern Italy, with Austria gaining the Spanish possessions of Milan and Naples. In the Low Countries, Ramillies and Oudenarde gave the Maritime Powers control of the Spanish Netherlands and secured the borders of the Dutch Republic; in the Mediterranean, Britain's Royal Navy had achieved naval supremacy and permanent bases in Gibraltar and Menorca. However, France's frontiers remained largely intact while the Grand Alliance had been unable to make any lasting progress in Spain, where Philip proved to be far more popular with the Spanish than the Austrian candidate Archduke Charles. Many of the objectives originally set out by the Grand Alliance in 1701 had been achieved but the victories of 1706 made them overconfident, resulting in the continuation of a war most participants wanted to end but could not. ===Diplomacy=== [[File:The Battle of Malplaquet, 1709.png|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Malplaquet 1709: ostensibly an Allied victory, the losses shocked Europe and increased the desire for peace.]] France opened informal discussions with the Dutch in 1705, viewing them as the most likely to favour a quick end to the war. Defeat at Ramillies increased this possibility by removing a direct military threat to the Dutch Republic and highlighting differences within the Alliance on the future of the Spanish Netherlands.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bromley|first1=JS|title=The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 6, The Rise of Great Britain and Russia|date=1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521293960|page=446|edition=1979}}</ref> Ultimately, these made little progress since the Allies had agreed to negotiate jointly, not separately and they were unable to reach internal agreement on the terms. [[File:Vendome-and-PhilipV.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Villaviciosa, December 1710 confirmed Bourbon supremacy in Spain]] The winter of 1708 in Europe was one of the coldest on record, with widespread crop failures and famine exacerbated in France and Spain by a British naval blockade of grain imports. The French re-opened talks and in May 1709, the Allies presented the terms known as the Preliminaries of Hague; they included the demand Philip cede his throne to Archduke Charles without compensation and France assist in his removal by force if this was not done within two months.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ward, William,|first1=Leathes, Stanley|title=The Cambridge Modern History|date=1912|publisher=Nabu|isbn=1174382058|pages=422-423|edition=2010|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Sqw8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA423&lpg=PA423&dq=the+preliminaries+of+hague+1709&source=bl&ots=4jv53TqXYu&sig=3YaY7i3ivDFtsc0mLx7YceKAJFY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwim-ND9q4XbAhWTWsAKHX4lDSkQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=the%20preliminaries%20of%20hague%201709&f=false|accessdate=14 May 2018}}</ref> This assumed Philip would abdicate on request and the Spanish accept Archduke Charles while seriously under-estimating France's ability to resist.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kamen|first1=Henry|title=Philip V of Spain: The King Who Reigned Twice|date=2001|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0300180543|pages=70-72}}</ref> Louis was willing to abandon Spain but not make war on his own grandson; when it became public, the demand was considered so offensive that it strengthened French resolve to fight on.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ward, William,|first1=Leathes, Stanley|title=he Cambridge Modern History|date=1912|publisher=Nabu|isbn=1174382058|page=424|edition=2010|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Sqw8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA423&lpg=PA423&dq=the+preliminaries+of+hague+1709&source=bl&ots=4jv53TqXYu&sig=3YaY7i3ivDFtsc0mLx7YceKAJFY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwim-ND9q4XbAhWTWsAKHX4lDSkQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=the%20preliminaries%20of%20hague%201709&f=false|accessdate=14 May 2018}}</ref> Marlborough now launched an offensive in Northern France which led to the [[Battle of Malplaquet]] on 11 September 1709 between an Allied army of 86,000 and a French of 75,000. Victory cost the Allies over 20,000 casualties, demonstrated the fighting ability of the French army remained intact and increased war-weariness both in Britain and the Dutch Republic, who suffered heavy losses.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gregg|first1=Edward|title=Queen Anne (Revised) (The English Monarchs Series)|date=1980|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0300090242|page=289|edition=2001}}</ref> This was compounded by the Bourbon recapture of [[Alicante]] in April and the defeat of an Anglo-Portuguese force at [[Battle of La Gudina|La Gudina]] in May. Lack of progress accentuated the reality that the Allies no longer shared clear objectives, highlighted by Dutch exclusion from an agreement between Britain and Archduke Charles for trading rights in Spanish America. The British government compensated with the 1709 [[Barrier Treaty|First Barrier Treaty]]; this gave the Dutch effective control of the Spanish Netherlands but was seen as detrimental to British commerce and increased domestic opposition.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gregg|first1=Edward|title=Queen Anne (Revised) (The English Monarchs Series)|date=1980|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0300090242|page=289|edition=2001}}</ref> The Whigs had won the [[British general election, 1708|1708 British general election]] by arguing military victory was the quickest road to peace but failure in France was followed by the same in Spain. In 1710, victories at [[Almenar]] and [[Saragossa]] enabled Archduke Charles to re-enter Madrid but he was again forced to retreat; by December, the Allies controlled only Catalonia after defeats at [[Battle of Brihuega|Brihuega]] and [[Battle of Villaviciosa|Villaviciosa]]. Whig policy had clearly failed and aided by the [[Sacheverell riots]], the pro-peace Tories won a landslide victory in the [[British general election, 1710|1710 election]].{{efn|By this stage, British financial power was essential for the Allies to continue the war, hence the importance of British domestic politics.}} ===Negotiations=== [[File:Queen Anne by John Closterman.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|Queen Anne (1665–1714); her declining health increasingly dominated British domestic politics and attitudes to the war]] [[File:Jonathan Swift by Charles Jervas detail.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.9|Jonathan Swift; Tory satirist and creator of the first sustained campaign in moulding British public opinion.]] Negotiations resumed in March 1710 at [[Geertruidenberg]] but broke down due to the continued insistence France expel Philip by force if he refused to abdicate. The new British government confirmed its commitment to the war to prevent a credit crisis and reassure its Allies; despite the capture of [[Siege of Bouchain|Bouchain]] in September, decisive victory in Northern France continued to elude the Allies while an expedition against [[Quebec Expedition|Quebec]] in French North America ended in disaster.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Simms|first1=Brendan|title=Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783|date=2008|publisher=Penguin|isbn=0140289844|pages=60-64}}</ref> The British political situation was simplified when Emperor Joseph died in April 1711 and Archduke Charles elected Emperor in October. The purpose of continuing the war was unclear, since union of Spain with Austria was as unwelcome as one with France and as the Tory propagandist [[Jonathan Swift]] pointed out, the 1701 Treaty made no reference to removing Philip.{{efn|The most famous being his pamphlet titled [[The Conduct of the Allies]].}} Even the Whigs had grown frustrated by the Habsburg tendency to put their interests first eg the 1707 Convention of Milan or the diversion of resources to capturing Naples in 1707. The British secretly negotiated peace terms directly with France leading to the signing of the Preliminary Articles of London on 8 October 1711.{{efn|Also known as the Mesnager Convention.}} These included French acceptance of the Act of Settlement and a guarantee the French and Spanish crowns would remain separate, while France undertook to ensure Spain ceded Gibraltar and Menorca and award the [[Asiento]] to Britain for 30 years.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bromley|first1=JS|title=The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 6, The Rise of Great Britain and Russia|date=1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521293960|pages=459-460|edition=1979}}</ref> Together with a commitment to the Dutch Barrier, these would form the basis of the Treaty of Utrecht. Despite their annoyance at being excluded from the Anglo-French negotiations, the Dutch were financially exhausted by the enormous cost of the war and could not continue without British support. Charles VI rejected the idea of a peace conference; once the Dutch agreed to support it, he reluctantly agreed rather than be isolated but Habsburg opposition to the Treaty continued.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dadson, Trevor (ed)|first1=Thompson, Andrew|title=The Utrecht Settlement and its Aftermath in Britain, Spain and the Treaty of Utrecht 1713-2013|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1909662224|page=63}}</ref> ===The Peace of Utrecht=== [[File:Villars a Denain1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Denain, July 1712; defeat ended Austrian and Dutch hopes of a breakthrough in Northern France]] Within weeks of the conference opening, events threatened the basis of the peace agreed between Britain and France. First, the French presented proposals awarding the Spanish Netherlands to Max Emmanuel of Bavaria and a minimal Barrier, leaving the Dutch with little to show for their huge investment of money and men. Second, a series of deaths left Louis XIV's two year old great-grandson, the future [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] as heir, making Philip next in line and his immediate renunciation imperative.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Somerset|first1=Anne|title=Queen Anne: The Politics of Passion|date=2012|publisher=Harper Press|isbn=0007203764|page=470}}</ref> The Dutch and Austrians fought on, hoping to improve their negotiating position but the British government issued 'Restraining Orders' to Marlborough's replacement, the [[James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde|Duke of Ormonde]], instructing him not to participate in offensive operations against the French.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gregg|first1=Edward|title=Queen Anne (Revised) (The English Monarchs Series)|date=1980|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0300090242|page=354|edition=2001}}</ref> These caused fury then and later with prominent Whigs urging the Hanoverian envoy in London to support military intervention by the future George I.{{efn|George I regarded those involved with deep suspicion and hostility; Ormonde, [[Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke|Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke]], alleged architect of the Orders and others were effectively driven into exile and became prominent Jacobites.}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Somerset|first1=Anne|title=Queen Anne: The Politics of Passion|date=2012|publisher=Harper Press|isbn=0007203764|page=477}}</ref> Prince Eugene captured [[Le Quesnoy]] in June and besieged [[Landrecies]] but was defeated at [[Battle of Denain|Denain]] on 24 July; the French went on to recapture Le Quesnoy and many towns lost in previous years, including Marchines, Douai and Bouchain.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Holmes|first1=Richard|title=Marlborough: England's Fragile Genius|date=2008|publisher=Harper|isbn=0007225725|page=462}}</ref> The Dutch finally reached the end of their willingness and ability to continue the war. [[File:Treaty of Utrecht 1713.png|thumb|right|upright=1.15| The Treaty of Utrecht; [[Abraham Allard]], 18th century]] On 6 June, Philip had announced his renunciation of the French throne; the British Tory government now offered the Dutch a revised [[Barrier Treaty]], replacing that of 1709 which they rejected as overly generous. It was a significant improvement on the 1697 Barrier but ultimately subject to Austrian approval and the final terms were less beneficial.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Myers|title=Violation of Treaties: Bad Faith, Nonexecution and Disregard|journal=The American Journal of International Law|date=1917|volume=11|issue=4|pages=799-829 passim}}</ref> Charles withdrew from the Conference when France insisted on a guarantee that Austria would not seek to acquire Mantua or [[Mirandola]]; he was supported by George, Elector of Hanover, who wanted France to withdraw their support for the Stuart heir [[James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis]]. This meant neither Austria or the Empire signed the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] of 11 April 1713 between France and the other Allies; Spain made peace with the Dutch in June, then Savoy and Britain on 13 July 1713. ===The treaties of Rastatt and Baden=== Fighting continued on the Rhine but Austria was financially exhausted and after the loss of Landau and Freiburg in November 1713, Charles came to terms. The [[Treaty of Rastatt]] on 7 March 1714 confirmed Austrian gains in Italy, returned Breisach, [[Kehl]] and Freiburg, ended French support for the Hungarian revolt and agreed terms for the Dutch Barrier fortresses. Charles abandoned his claim to Strasbourg and Alsace and agreed to the restoration of the Wittelsbach Electors of Bavaria and Cologne, Max Emmanuel and Joseph Clemens. Article XIX of the treaty transfered sovereignty over the Spanish Netherlands to Austria. <ref>Klaus Malettke, ''Les relations entre la France et le Saint-Empire au XVIIe siècle'', Honoré Champion, Paris, 2001, p. 645–647.</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Frey|editor1-first=Linda|editor2-last=Frey|editor2-first=Marsha|title=The Treaties of the War of the Spanish Succession: An Historical and Critical Dictionary|date=1995|publisher=Greenwood|isbn=0313278849|pages=374-375}}</ref> On 7 September, the Holy Roman Empire joined the agreement by the [[Treaty of Baden (1714)|Treaty of Baden]]; although Catalonia and Majorca were not finally subdued by the Bourbons until June 1715, the war was over. ==Aftermath== [[File:The Battle of Cape Passaro.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|British naval power; the Royal Navy destroys a Spanish fleet off Sicily, Cape Passaro, August 1718.]] The Peace of Utrecht established the principle that to preserve the balance of power, the thrones of Spain and France would remain separate, regardless of dynastic rules of inheritance. According to [[Randall Lesaffer]], it was a significant milestone in the development of the concept of collective security.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lesaffer|first1=Randall|title=The peace of Utrecht and the balance of power|url=https://blog.oup.com/2014/11/utrecht-peace-treaty-balance-power-europe/|website=OUP Blog|accessdate=5 May 2018}}</ref> Britain is often portrayed as the main beneficiary of the war, with Utrecht marking the beginning of its rise to commercial domination of Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pincus|first1=Steven|title=Rethinking Mercantilism: Political Economy, The British Empire and the Atlantic World in the 17th and 18th Centuries|journal=Warwick University|pages=7-8|url=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/ren/projects/archive/newberry/collaborativeprogramme/ren-earlymod-communities/britishandamericanhistories/25march/session3reading/rethinkingmercantilism.pdf|accessdate=10 May 2018}}</ref> It ended the war as the largest naval power in the world while the Netherlands, France and Spain were economically exhausted and their fleets severely reduced. France accepted the Protestant succession, ensuring a smooth inheritance by George I in August 1714 and ended support for the Stuarts by the terms of [[Anglo-French Alliance (1716–1731)|1716 Anglo-French Treaty]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Szechi|first1=Daniel|title=The Jacobites: Britain and Europe, 1688-1788|date=1994|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=0719037743|pages=93–95|edition=First}}</ref> Possession of Gibraltar and Menorca gave British control of the Western Mediterranean and it gained commercial access to Spanish America; resentment over this would lead to the [[War of Jenkins' Ear|1739 Anglo-Spanish War]]. Spain retained its independence, the majority of its Empire and Philip was confirmed as King; in return, they ceded the Spanish Netherlands and most of their Italian possessions to Austria, Sicily to Savoy and Gibraltar and Menorca to Britain. Under the Bourbons, it became far more centralised, the ''Nueva Planta'' decrees of 1707 abolishing regional political structures and transferring their powers to Madrid.{{efn|Aragon and Valencia were brought into the system in 1712, Catalonia and Majorca following in 1767.}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vives Vi|first1=Jaime|title=An Economic History of Spain|date=1969|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691051658|page=591|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i1DWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA591&lpg=PA591&dq=deputation+of+the+aragon&source=bl&ots=921A-fEhCO&sig=-RKDutJGirXFEUBB9HzpK_N_2wo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjgspWPnKraAhVIZFAKHX4uBscQ6AEIUTAJ#v=onepage&q=deputation%20of%20the%20aragon&f=false|accessdate=8 April 2018}}</ref> Reforms strengthened state finances and Spain recovered remarkably quickly; while British naval power prevented the capture of Naples and Sicily in 1718, it successfully did so in 1734 with Menorca regained in 1782. {{Location map many|Belgium|caption = The Barrier fortresses as agreed in 1715|border = black| width = 250| float = left |label = Veurne|pos=top |lat_deg=51|lat_min =4|lon_deg = 2|lon_min = 39 |label2 =Knokke|pos2=right|lat2_deg=50|lat2_min = 59|lon2_deg = 2|lon2_min = 48 |label3 =Ypres |pos3= left|lat3_deg=50|lat3_min = 51|lon3_deg = 2|lon3_min = 53 |label4 =Menen |pos4=right|lat4_deg=50|lat4_min = 48|lon4_deg = 3|lon4_min = 7 |label5=Tournai|pos5=right|lat5_deg=50|lat5_min = 36|lon5_deg = 3|lon5_min = 23 |label6 =Mons |pos6=right|lat6_deg=50|lat6_min = 27|lon6_deg = 3|lon6_min = 57 |label7=Dendermonde|pos7 = right|lat7_deg = 51 | lat7_min = 2 | lon7_deg = 4 | lon7_min = 6 |label8 = Namur|pos8 = right|lat8_deg = 50 | lat8_min = 28 | lon8_deg = 4 | lon8_min = 52 }} Despite failure in Spain, Austria secured what it felt was its position in Italy and Hungary and acquired the bulk of the Spanish Netherlands, on humiliating terms however since the Dutch frontier fortifications were to be garrisoned at Austria's expense and the Scheld river had to be closed to ocean trade. Furthermore, the acquisition of scattered, non-contiguous domains in the Netherlands and in Italy were to prove difficult and expensive to defend throughout the 18th century. According to Robert A. Kann, the negative consequences of the war for Austria must be laid largely at the door of Charles VI's personal failings, in particular his excessive dynastic pride that overode all other considerations.<ref>Robert A. Kann, ''A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918'', University of California Press, 1980 (1974), p. 88–89.</ref> Victory in the [[Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18]] continued the trend of shifting Habsburg focus away from Germany and into South-East Europe. Their hold over the Empire continued to weaken, while Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia and Saxony pursued their own policies; in 1742, [[Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles of Bavaria]] became the first non-Habsburg Emperor in over 300 years. Finances were an enduring weakness of the devolved Habsburg state while the maritime possessions of Spanish Netherlands and the Kingdom of Naples increased potential for conflict in an area where Austria traditionally relied on others for support. Due to Dutch exhaustion, after 1714 this effectively meant Britain; only the Royal Navy prevented Spain recapturing Sicily in 1718 and the Kingdom of Naples was lost for good in 1734. The most damaging impact was Charles' obsession with ensuring his daughter's succession via the [[Pragmatic Sanction of 1713|Pragmatic Sanction]] of 1713.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=MS|title=The War of Austrian Succession 1740-1748|date=1995|publisher=Routledge|isbn=058205950X|pages=7-11}}</ref> This consumed energy and money while leading to involvement in peripheral conflicts such as the 1733-1735 [[War of the Polish Succession]], where most of the fighting actually took place on Austrian territory. The huge effort made by the Dutch Republic meant it ended the war in 1713 effectively bankrupt, while the protection of the 1715 Barrier Treaty that had cost so much proved largely illusory.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kubben|first1=Raymond|title=Regeneration and Hegemony; Franco-Batavian Relations in the Revolutionary Era 1795-1803|date=2011|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff|isbn=9004185585|page=148}}</ref> In 1740, the fortresses were quickly overrun and Britain's promise of military support against any aggressor proved far more effective than the Barrier itself.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ward|first1=Adolphus William|title=The Cambridge History of British Foreign Policy, Volume 2|date=1922|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=1108040136|page=57|edition=2011}}</ref> The debts incurred and the damage suffered by the Dutch merchant navy permanently affected their commercial and political strength and the Netherlands was superseded by Britain{{Clarify|date=July 2018|superseded by Britain as what?}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dadson, Trevor (ed)|first1=Elliott, John|title=The Road to Utrecht in Britain, Spain and the Treaty of Utrecht 1713-2013|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1909662224|page=8}}</ref> Louis XIV died on 1 September 1715, with his five-year-old great-grandson reigning as Louis XV until 1774; on his deathbed, he is alleged to have admitted 'I have loved war too well.'<ref>{{cite book|last1=Colville|first1=Alfred|title=Studies in Anglo-French History During the Eighteenth, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries|date=1935|publisher=Forgotten Books|isbn=1528022394|page=149|edition=2018}}</ref> True or not, while the final settlement was far more favourable than the Allied offer of 1709, it is hard to see what Louis gained that had not already been achieved through diplomacy by February 1701. France remained strong but could not maintain its former dominance, particularly in relation to Britain; concern over this relative decline in military and economic terms was an underlying cause of the [[War of the Austrian Succession]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lynn|first1=John|title=The Wars of Louis XIV 1667-1714|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582056292|pages=361-362}}</ref> Wider implications include the beginning of the rise of Prussia and Savoy while many of the participants were involved in the 1700-1721 [[the Great Northern War]], with Russia becoming a European power for the first time as a result. Finally, while colonial conflicts were relatively minor and largely confined to the North American theatre or the so-called [[Queen Anne's War]], they were to become a key element in future wars. ==See also== {{Commons category}} * [[John Arbuthnot]]'s [[John Arbuthnot#As a Scribleran|John Bull]] * [[Sacheverell riots]] * [[Golden Age of Piracy]] ==Footnotes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{Div col}} * {{cite book |last=Clodfelter |first=M. |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015 |publisher=McFarland |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |year=2017 |edition=4th |isbn=978-0786474707 |ref=harv }} * Bromley, J. S (ed.). ''The New Cambridge Modern History VI: The Rise of Great Britain and Russia 1688–1725''. Cambridge University Press, 1971. {{ISBN|0521075246}} * Burton, Ivor F. ''The Captain-General: The Career of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, from 1702 to 1711''. Constable & Co Ltd., 1968. {{ISBN|0094561001}} * [[David G. Chandler|Chandler, David G]]. ''Marlborough as Military Commander.'' Spellmount Ltd, 2003. {{ISBN|186227195X}} * [[George Norman Clark|Clark, George]]. ''From the Nine Years' War to the War of the Spanish Succession'' in J. S. Bromley (ed.) ''The New Cambridge Modern History'', VI, 381–409. * Falkner, James. ''The War of the Spanish Succession 1701 – 1714'' (2015). * Francis, David. ''The First Peninsular War 1702–1713.'' Ernest Benn Limited, 1975. {{ISBN|0510002056}} * Frey, Linda and Marsha Frey, ''The Treaties of the War of the Spanish Succession: An Historical and Critical Dictionary'' (1995) [https://www.questia.com/library/2041555/the-treaties-of-the-war-of-the-spanish-succession online]; covers diplomatic, economic, & military roles and battles * Godinho, Vitorino Magalhães. ''Portugal and Her Empire, 1680–1720'' in J. S. Bromley (ed.) ''The New Cambridge Modern History'', VI, 509–40. * Gregg, Edward. ''Queen Anne''. Yale University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0300090242}} * [[John Hattendorf|Hattendorf, John, B]]. ''Alliance, Encirclement, and Attrition: British Grand Strategy in the War of the Spanish Succession, 1702–1713'', in Paul Kennedy (ed.) ''Grand Strategies in War and Peace'', 11–29. Yale University Press, 1991. {{ISBN|0300049447}} * [[John Hattendorf|Hattendorf, John, B]]. ''England in the War of the Spanish Succession: A Study of the English View & Conduct of Grand Strategy, 1702–1712'' (1987) * ——— ''England in the War of the Spanish Succession: A Study in the English View and Conduct of Grand Strategy, 1701–1713.'' (Ph.D.), 1979. [[University of Oxford]] * [[Ragnhild Hatton|Hatton, Ragnhild]]. ''George I''. Yale University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0300088833}} * Hill, Brian W. ''Robert Harley: Speaker, Secretary of State and Premier Minister''. Yale University Press, 1988. {{ISBN|0300042841}} * Holmes, Geoffrey (ed.). ''Britain after the Glorious Revolution 1689–1714''. The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1969. {{ISBN|0333106024}} * Hugill, J. A. C. ''No Peace Without Spain''. The Kensal Press, 1991. {{ISBN|094604158X}} * Hussey, R. D and Bromley, J. S. ''The Spanish Empire under Foreign Pressures, 1688–1715'' in J. S. Bromley (ed.) ''The New Cambridge Modern History'', VI, 343–80 * Ingrao, Charles. ''In Quest and Crisis: Emperor Joseph I and the Habsburg Monarchy''. Purdue University Press, 1979. {{ISBN|0911198539}} * ——— ''The Habsburg Monarchy: 1618–1815''. Cambridge University Press, 1994. {{ISBN|0521389003}} * [[Jonathan I. Israel|Israel, Jonathan I.]]. ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall.'' Clarendon Press, 1998. {{ISBN|0198207344}} * ____ "Commerce, Religion, and World Politics: Sephardi Jewry and the Struggle for the Spanish Succession (1700–1714)" in ''Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World of Maritime Empires (1540–1740)''. Leiden: Brill 2002, pp.&nbsp;533–566. {{ISBN|90-04-12765-8}}. * Jones, J. R. ''Marlborough''. Cambridge University Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0521375932}} * [[Henry Kamen|Kamen, Henry]]. ''Philip V of Spain: The King who Reigned Twice.'' Yale University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0300087187}} * ——— ''The War of Succession in Spain 1700–15.'' Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969. {{ISBN|029717777X}} * Lenman, Bruce. ''Britain's Colonial Wars 1688–1783.'' Longman, 2001. {{ISBN|0582424011}} * Lynn, John A. ''The Wars of Louis XIV 1667–1714.'' Longman, 1999. {{ISBN|0582056292}} * MacLachlan, A. D. ''The Road to Peace 1710–13'', in G. Holmes (ed.) ''Britain after the Glorious Revolution 1689–1714'', 197–215 * McKay, Derek. ''Prince Eugene of Savoy.'' Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1977. {{ISBN|0500870071}} * McKay, Derek and Scott, H. M. ''The Rise of the Great Powers: 1648–1815.'' Longman, 1984. {{ISBN|0582485541}} * Ostwald, Jamel M. ''Creating the British Way of War: English Strategy in the War of the Spanish Succession'', in Williamson Murray (ed.), Richard Hart Sinnreich (ed.) ''Successful Strategies: Triumphing in War and Peace from Antiquity to the Present'', 100–29. Cambridge University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|9781107633599}} * ——— ''The 'Decisive' Battle of Ramillies, 1706: Prerequisites for Decisiveness in Early Modern Warfare''. [[Society for Military History|The Journal of Military History]] 62 (July 2000): 649–78 * Pitt, H. G. ''The Pacification of Utrecht'' in J. S. Bromley (ed.) ''The New Cambridge Modern History'', VI, 446–79 * Rodger, N.A.M. ''The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815.'' Penguin Group, 2006. {{ISBN|0141026901}} * Scouller, R. E. ''The Armies of Queen Anne.'' Oxford University Press, 1966. {{ISBN|0198213433}} * [[Brendan Simms|Simms, Brendan]]. ''Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire.'' Penguin, 2008. {{ISBN|9780140289848}} * Spielman, John. ''Leopold I of Austria.'' Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1977. {{ISBN|0500870055}} * Storrs, Christopher. ''The Resilience of the Spanish Monarchy 1665–1700.'' Oxford University Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0199246378}} * ——— ''War, Diplomacy and the Rise of Savoy, 1690–1720.'' Cambridge University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0521551463}} * Stoye, J. W. ''The Austrian Habsburgs'', in J. S. Bromley (ed.) ''The New Cambridge Modern History'', VI, 572–607 * Symcox, Geoffrey. ''Victor Amadeus II: Absolutism in the Savoyard State 1675–1730.'' Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1983. {{ISBN|0500870101}} * [[G. M. Trevelyan|Trevelyan, G. M]]. ''England under Queen Anne.'' 3 volumes. London, 1930–34 * Veenendaal, A. J. ''The Opening Phase of Marlborough's Campaign of 1708 in the Netherlands''. History, 35 (Feb–June 1950): 34–48 * ——— ''The War of the Spanish Succession in Europe'', in J. S. Bromley (ed.) ''The New Cambridge Modern History'', VI, 410–45 * Whaley, Joachim. ''Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, Volume II: The Peace of Westphalia to the Dissolution of the Reich, 1648–1806''. Oxford University Press, 2012. * [[John Baptist Wolf|Wolf, John B]]. ''The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715.'' Harper & Row, 1962. {{ISBN|978-0-06-139750-9}} * ——— ''Louis XIV.'' W. W. Norton & Company, 1968. {{ISBN|0575000880}} {{Div col end}} {{Spanish Empire}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Spanish Succession}} [[Category:War of the Spanish Succession| ]] [[Category:18th-century conflicts]] [[Category:18th century in Europe]] [[Category:Global conflicts]] [[Category:Wars of succession]] [[Category:Anglo-French wars]] [[Category:Dukes of Bolton]] [[Category:Early Modern Italy]] [[Category:History of the Royal Marines]] [[Category:Pretenders to the Spanish throne]] [[Category:18th century in Austria]] [[Category:18th century in France]] [[Category:18th century in Italy]] [[Category:18th century in Spain]] [[Category:18th century in the Caribbean]]'