Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Redirect|Cambyses}}
[[File:Cambyses II.jpg|thumb|250px|Cambyses II from "Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum "]]
'''Cambyses II''' ({{lang-peo|𐎣𐎲𐎢𐎪𐎡𐎹}} <ref>{{cite book|last=Akbarzadeh|first=D.|coauthors=A. Yahyanezhad|title=The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts)|publisher=Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati|year=2006|language=Persian|isbn=964-8499-05-5|page=59}}</ref> ''Kambūjiya''<ref>{{cite book|last=Kent|first=Ronald Grubb|others=translated into Persian by S. Oryan|title=Old Persian: Grammar, Text, Glossary|isbn=964-421-045-X|year=1384 [[Iranian calendar|AP]]|language=Persian|pages=395}}</ref>, [[Persian language|Persian]]: کمبوجیه, d. 522 BC) was the son of [[Cyrus the Great]] (r. 559-530 BC), founder of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]] and [[Achaemenid dynasty|its first dynasty]]. His grandfather was [[Cambyses I]], king of Anshan. Following Cyrus' conquests of the [[Near East]] and [[Central Asia]], Cambyses further expanded the empire into [[Egypt]] during the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]]. His forces invaded the [[Kingdom of Kush]] (located in what is now the [[Republic of Sudan]]) without any breakthrough successes.
==Rise to power==
When [[Cyrus the Great]] conquered [[Babylon]] in 539 BC, he was employed in leading religious ceremonies,<ref>[[Nabonidus Chronicle]]</ref> and in the [[Cyrus Cylinder|cylinder]] which contains Cyrus' proclamation to the Babylonians his name is joined to that of his father in the prayers to [[Marduk]]. On a tablet dated from the first year of Cyrus, Cambyses is called king of Babylon, although his authority seems to have been quite ephemeral; it was only in 530 BC, when Cyrus set out on his last expedition into the East, that he associated Cambyses on the throne, and numerous Babylonian tablets of this time are dated from the accession and the first year of Cambyses, when Cyrus was "king of the countries" (i.e. of the world). After the death of his father in August 530, Cambyses became sole king. The tablets dated from his reign in Babylonia run to the end of his eighth year, i.e. March 522 BC. [[Herodotus]] (3.66), who dates his reign from the death of Cyrus, gives him seven years five months, i.e. from 530 BC to the summer of 523.<ref>For the dates, see Parker & Dubberstein, ''Babylonian Chronology''.</ref>
==The traditions of Cambyses==
The traditions about Cambyses, preserved by the [[ancient Greece|Greek]] authors, come from two different sources. The first, which forms the main part of the account of [[Herodotus]] (3. 2-4; 10-37), is of [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] origin. Here Cambyses is made the legitimate son of Cyrus and a daughter of [[Apries]] named Nitetis (Herod. 3.2, Dinon fr. II, Polyaen. viii. 29), whose death he avenges on the successor of the usurper [[Amasis]]. Nevertheless, (Herod. 3.1 and Ctesias a/i. Athen. Xiii. 560), the Persians corrected this tradition:
Cambyses wants to marry a daughter of Amasis, who sends him a daughter of Apries instead of his own daughter, and by her Cambyses is induced to begin the war. His great crime is the killing of the [[Apis (Egyptian mythology)|Apis bull]], for which he is punished by madness, in which he commits many other crimes, kills his brother and his sister, and at last loses his empire and dies from a wound in the thigh, at the same place where he had wounded the sacred animal. Intermingled are some stories derived from the Greek mercenaries, especially about their leader [[Phanes of Halicarnassus]], who betrayed [[Egypt]] to the Persians. In the Persian tradition the crime of Cambyses is the murder of his brother; he is further accused of drunkenness, in which he commits many crimes, and thus accelerates his ruin.
These traditions are found in different passages of Herodotus, and in a later form, but with some trustworthy detail about his household, in the fragments of [[Ctesias]]. With the exception of Babylonian dated tablets and some Egyptian inscriptions, we possess no contemporary evidence about the reign of Cambyses but the short account of [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]] in the [[Behistun Inscription]]. It is impossible from these sources to form a correct picture of Cambyses' character; but it seems certain that he was a wild despot and that he was led by drunkenness to many atrocious deeds. {{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}
==Darius' account==
===Conquest of Egypt===
{{further|[[Battle of Pelusium (525 BC)]]}}
It was quite natural that, after Cyrus had conquered the Middle East, Cambyses should undertake the conquest of Egypt, the only remaining independent state in that part of the world. The war took place in 525 BC, when [[Amasis II]] had just been succeeded by his son [[Psamtik III]]. Cambyses had prepared for the march through the desert by an alliance with Arabian chieftains, who brought a large supply of water to the stations. King Amasis had hoped that Egypt would be able to withstand the threatened Persian attack by an alliance with the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]].
But this hope failed, as the [[Cyprus|Cypriot]] towns and the tyrant [[Polycrates of Samos]], who possessed a large fleet, now preferred to join the Persians, and the commander of the Greek troops, [[Phanes of Halicarnassus]], went over to them. In the decisive battle at [[Pelusium]] the Egyptian army was defeated, and shortly afterwards [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] was taken. The captive king Psammetichus was executed, having attempted a rebellion. The Egyptian inscriptions show that Cambyses officially adopted the titles and the costume of the Pharaohs.
===Attempts to conquer south and west of Egypt===
From Egypt, Cambyses attempted the conquest of [[Kingdom of Kush|Kush]], located in the modern [[Sudan]]. But his army was not able to cross the deserts and after heavy losses he was forced to return. In an inscription from Napata (in the Berlin museum) the [[Nubia]]n king [[Nastasen]] relates that he had defeated the troops of "Kambasuten" and taken all his ships. This was once thought to refer to Cambyses II (H. Schafer, ''Die Aethiopische Königsinschrift des Berliner Museums'', 1901); however, Nastasen lived far later and was likely referring to [[Khabash]]. Another expedition against the [[Siwa Oasis]] failed likewise, and the plan of attacking [[Carthage]] was frustrated by the refusal of the [[Phoenicia]]ns to operate against their kindred.
===The death of Cambyses===
According to most ancient historians, in Persia the throne was seized by a man posing as his brother [[Bardiya]], who had really been killed by Cambyses a few years earlier. Some modern historians consider that this person really was Bardiya, the story that he was an impostor was created by [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]] after he became monarch.
Whoever this new monarch may have been, Cambyses attempted to march against him, but died shortly after under disputed circumstances. According to Darius, who was Cambyses' lance-bearer at the time, he decided that success was impossible, and died by his own hand in March 522 BCE. Herodotus and Ctesias ascribe his death to an accident. Ctesias writes that Cambyses, despodent from the loss of family members, stabbed himself in the thigh while working with a piece of wood. He died eleven days later from the wound. Herodotus' story is that while mounting his horse, the tip of Cambyses' scabbard broke and his sword pierced his thigh - Herodotus mentions it is the same place where he stabbed a sacred cow in Egypt. He then died of gangrene of the bone and mortification of the wound. Some modern historians suspect that Cambyses may have been assassinated, either by Darius as the first step to usurping the empire for himself, or by supporters of Bardiya.<ref>[http://www.herodotuswebsite.co.uk/darius.htm details missing]{{Dead link|date=January 2010}}{{Clarify|date=January 2010|reason=This is not a proper reference citation. Use [[Template:Cite web]] or a related template, to provide source details.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book
|last=Van De Mieroop
|first=Marc
|title=A History of the Ancient Near East: Ca. 3000-323 BC
|series="Blackwell History of the Ancient World" series
|year=2003
|location=[[Hoboken, NJ]]
|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons|Wiley-Blackwell]]
|isbn=978-0631225522
}}{{Clarify|date=January 2010|reason=Incomplete citation: Page number required, and other details are also missing from main citation such as publisher and publication date.}}</ref> According to Herodotus (3.64) he died in [[Ecbatana]], i.e. Hamath; Josephus (''Antiquites'' xi. 2. 2) names [[Damascus]]; Ctesias, [[Babylon]], which is absolutely impossible.<ref>See A. Lincke, "Kambyses in der Sage, Litteratur und Kunst des Mittelalters", in ''Aegyptiaca: Festschrift für Georg Ebers'' (Leipzig 1897), pp. 41-61; also [[History of Persia]].</ref>
Cambyses was buried in [[Pasargadae]]. The remains of his tomb were identified in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=6865 |title=Discovered Stone Slab Proved to be Gate of Cambyses’ Tomb |publisher=[[Cultural Heritage New Agency]] |author=Maryam Tabeshian |date=13 December 2006 |accessdate=27 December 2009}}</ref>
==The lost army of Cambyses==
[[File:Cambyses II-lost-army.jpg|thumb|right|The lost army of Cambyses II according to an XIX century engraving]]
According to [[Herodotus]] 3.26, Cambyses sent an army to threaten the Oracle of [[Amun]] at the [[Siwa Oasis]]. The army of 50,000 men was halfway across the desert when a massive sandstorm sprang up, burying them all. Although many Egyptologists regard the story as a myth, people have searched for the remains of the soldiers for many years. These have included Count [[László Almásy]] (on whom the novel [[The English Patient]] was based) and modern geologist [[Tom Brown]]. Some believe that in recent petroleum excavations, the remains may have been uncovered.<ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/0009/newsbriefs/cambyses.html Cambyses' Lost Army]{{Clarify|date=January 2010|reason=This is not a proper reference citation. Use [[Template:Cite web]] or a related template, to provide more source details.}}</ref>
In January 1933, [[Orde Wingate]] - later famous for creating the Chindits, allied troops that fought behind enemy lines against the Japanese during World War II - searched unsuccessfully for the Lost Army of Cambyses in the Egypt's Western Desert, then known as the Libyan Desert.
In February 1977 there were reports that archaeologists had found remains of Cambyses' army, but this story proved to be a hoax.
From September 1983 to February 1984, Gary S. Chafetz, an American journalist and author, led an expedition--sponsored by Harvard University, The National Geographic Society, the Egyptian Geological Survey and Mining Authority, and the Ligabue Research Institute--that searched for the Lost Army of Cambyses. The six-month search was conducted along the Egyptian-Libyan border in a remote 100-square-kilometer area of complex dunes south west of the uninhabited Bahrein Oasis, approximately 100 miles south east of [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa (Amon) Oasis]]. The $250,000 expedition had at its disposal 20 Egyptian geologists and laborers, a National Geographic photographer, two Harvard Film Studies documentary filmmakers, three camels, an ultra-light aircraft, and ground-penetrating radar. The expedition discovered approximately 500 tumili (Zoroastrian-style graves) but no artifacts. Several tumili contained bone fragments. Thermoluminence later dated these fragments to 1,500 BCE, approximately 1000 years earlier than the Lost Army. A recumbent winged sphinx carved in oolitic limestone was also discovered in a cave in the uninhabited Sitra Oasis (between Bahrein and Siwa Oases), whose provenance appeared to be Persian. Chafetz was arrested when he returned to Cairo in February 1984 for "smuggling an airplane into Egypt," even though he had the written permission of the Egyptian Geological Survey and Mining Authority to bring the aircraft into the country. He was interrogated for 24 hours. The charges were dropped after he promised to donate the ultra-light to the Egyptian Government. The aircraft now sits in the Egyptian War Museum in Cairo. <ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1347&dat=19831007&id=Sh0VAAAAIBAJ&sjid=rPsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5624,2799052 details missing]{{Clarify|date=January 2010|reason=This is not a proper reference citation. Use [[Template:Cite web]] or a related template, to provide source details.}}</ref><ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1367&dat=19840209&id=GZwWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kBMEAAAAIBAJ&pg=3613,2156479 details missing]{{Clarify|date=January 2010|reason=This is not a proper reference citation. Use [[Template:Cite web]] or a related template, to provide source details.}}</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=qUk0GyDJRCoC&pg=PA678&lpg=PA678&dq=lost+army+of+cambyses+%2B+chafetz&source=bl&ots=ObAXx4CgGs&sig=dlTKeZU3FjsWCos9SXOb6V1BLbo&hl=en&ei=qgb_SqvhCInVlQe4leXeDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCAQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=lost%20army%20of%20cambyses%20%2B%20chafetz&f=false details missing]{{Clarify|date=January 2010|reason=This is not a proper reference citation. Use [[Template:Cite web]] or a related template, to provide source details.}}</ref><ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1347&dat=19831007&id=Sh0VAAAAIBAJ&sjid=rPsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5624,2799052 details missing]{{Clarify|date=January 2010|reason=This is not a proper reference citation. Use [[Template:Cite web]] or a related template, to provide source details.}}</ref>
In the summer of 2000, a Helwan University geological team, prospecting for petroleum in Egypt's Western Desert, came across well-preserved fragments of textiles, bits of metal resembling weapons, and human remains that they believed to be traces of the Lost Army of Cambyses. The Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities announced that it would organize an expedition to investigate the site, but released no further information.<ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/0009/newsbriefs/cambyses.html details missing]{{Clarify|date=January 2010|reason=This is not a proper reference citation. Use [[Template:Cite web]] or a related template, to provide source details.}}</ref>
In November 2009, two Italian archaeologists, Angelo and Alfredo Castiglioni, announced the discovery of human remains, tools and weapons which date to the era of the Persian army. These artifacts were located near [[Siwa Oasis]].<ref name=>{{cite news
|url= http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/33791672/ns/technology_and_science-science
|title=Vanished Persian Army Said Found in Desert
|first=Rossella
|last=Lorenzi
|work=MSNBC.com
|location=[[New York City|New York, NY]]
|publisher=[[NBC Universal]]
|date=November 9, 2009
|accessdate=2009-11-09
}}</ref> According to these two archaeologists this is the first archaeological evidence of the story reported by Herodotus. While working in the area, the researchers noticed a half-buried pot and some human remains. Then the brothers spotted something really intriguing -- what could have been a natural shelter. It was a rock about 35 meters (114.8 feet) long, 1.8 meters (5.9 feet) in height and 3 meters (9.8 feet) deep. Such natural formations occur in the desert, but this large rock was the only one in a large area.<ref name=>{{cite news
|url= http://news.discovery.com/archaeology/the-quest-for-cambyses-lost-army.html
|title=The Quest for Cambyses' Last Army
|first=Rossella
|last=Lorenzi
|work=discovery.com
|date=November 9, 2009
|accessdate=2009-11-22
}}</ref>
However, these "two Italian archaelogists" presented their discoveries in a film rather than a scientific journal. Doubts have been raised because the Castiglioni brothers also happen to be the two filmmakers who produced five controversial African [[Shockumentary|shockumentaries]] in the 1970s—including ''Addio ultimo uomo'', ''Africa ama'', and ''Africa dolce e selvaggia''—films in which audiences saw unedited footage of the severing of a penis, the skinning of a human corpse, the deflowering of a girl with a stone phallus, and a group of hunters tearing apart an elephant’s carcass.<ref>[http://www.pulpinternational.com/pulp/section/Mondo%20Bizarro.html details missing]{{Clarify|date=January 2010|reason=This is not a proper reference citation. Use [[Template:Cite web]] or a related template, to provide source details.}}</ref>
The Secretary General of the Egyptian [[Supreme Council of Antiquities]], [[Zahi Hawass]], has said in a press release that media reports of this "are unfounded and misleading" and that "The Castiglioni brothers have not been granted permission by the SCA to excavate in Egypt, so anything they claim to find is not to be believed."<ref>{{Cite web
|last=Hawass
|first=Zahi
|title=Press Release: Alleged Finds in Western Desert
|url= http://www.drhawass.com/blog/press-release-alleged-finds-western-desert?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed:+Drhawasscom-New+%28DrHawass.com+-+What
}}{{Clarify|date=January 2010|reason=This is not a proper reference citation. Use [[Template:Cite web]] or a related template, to provide source details, including date.}}</ref>
==In fiction==
Cambyses II has appeared as a character in several works of fiction. [[Thomas Preston (writer)|Thomas Preston]]'s play ''King Cambyses, a lamentable Tragedy, mixed full of pleasant mirth'' was probably produced in the 1560s. A tragedy by [[Elkanah Settle]], ''Cambyses, King of Persia'', was produced in 1667. Cambyses and his downfall are also central to Egyptologist [[Georg Ebers]]'s 1864 novel, ''Eine ägyptische Königstochter'' (''An Egyptian Princess''). ''Qambeez'' is 1931 play about him by [[Ahmed Shawqi]] is about him. In 1929, [[Robert E. Howard]] (under the pseudonym "Patrick Howard") published a poem, "[[s:Skulls and Dust|Skulls and Dust]]", about Cambyses' death.
Cambyses' lost army also appears in ''[[Biggles]] Flies South'' (1938), and a 2002 novel by [[Paul Sussman]], ''The Lost Army of Cambyses'' (ISBN 0-593-04876-8) recounts the story of rival archaeological expeditions searching for the remains of his army.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite web
|last=Lendering
|first=Jona
|url= http://www.livius.org/caa-can/cambyses_ii/cambyses_ii.html
|title=Cambyses
|work=Livius.org
|location=
|publisher=
|year=
|accessdate=
}}{{Clarify|date=December 2009|reason=This is not a proper reference citation. Use [[Template:Cite web]] or a related template, to provide source details, including date. And why is this just sitting here by itself instead of being cited inline in the article to source specific facts?}}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
===Literature===
* Ebers, Georg. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5460 ''An Egyptian Princess''] 1864. (English translation of ''Eine ägyptische Königstochter'') at [[Project Gutenberg]].
* Preston, Thomas. [http://www.umm.maine.edu/faculty/necastro/drama/cambises.txt ''Cambises''] 1667. Plaintext ed. Gerard NeCastro (closer to original spelling) in his collection [http://www.umm.maine.edu/faculty/necastro/drama/ Medieval and Renaissance Drama].
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Achaemenid dynasty]]||??||521}}
{{s-bef|rows=1|before=[[Cyrus the Great]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of kings of Persia|Great King (Shah) of Persia]]|years=530–522}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Bardiya]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Psammetichus III]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Pharaoh|Pharaoh of Egypt]]|years=525–522}}
{{end}}
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[[Category:522 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Monarchs of Persia]]
[[Category:Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt]]
[[Category:Achaemenid kings]]
[[Category:6th-century BC rulers]]
[[Category:Characters in Herodotus]]
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[[af:Kambuses]]
[[ar:قمبيز]]
[[be-x-old:Камбіз II]]
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[[ca:Cambises II de Pèrsia]]
[[cs:Kambýsés II.]]
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[[eo:Kambizo la 2-a (Persio)]]
[[fa:کمبوجیه]]
[[fr:Cambyse II]]
[[gl:Cambises II]]
[[ko:캄비세스 2세]]
[[hr:Kambiz II.]]
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[[zh:冈比西斯二世]]' |
