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'{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}} {{Use Australian English|date=September 2014}} {{Infobox Australian place | type = protected | name = Barmah National Park | state = vic | iucn_category = II | image = Murray River redgums at Echuca.jpg | caption = [[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|River Red Gums]] along the [[Murray River]], adjacent to the national park | image_alt = | coordinates = {{coord|35|52|00|S|145|07|05|E|display=inline,title}} | force_national_map = | relief = yes | pushpin_map_caption = | pushpin_label_position = | map_alt = | nearest_town_or_city = [[Barmah, Victoria|Barmah]] | area = 285.21 | area_footnotes = <ref name="PV Visitor Guide">{{cite journal |last1=Parks Victoria |title=Barmah National Park Visitor Guide |date=2014 |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/315732/Barmah-National-Park-Visitor-Guide.pdf |accessdate=2 May 2019}}</ref> | established = 2010 | established_footnotes = | visitation_num = | visitation_year = | visitation_footnotes = | managing_authorities = [[Parks Victoria]] | url = http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/barmah-national-park }} The '''Barmah National Park''' is a [[national park]] located in the [[Hume (region)|Hume]] region of the [[Australia]]n [[States and territories of Australia|state]] of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]].<ref name=pv>{{cite web |title=Barmah National Park |url=http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/barmah-national-park |work=[[Parks Victoria]] |publisher=Government of Victoria |accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> The {{convert|28500|ha|acre|adj=on}} park is located adjacent to the [[Murray River]] near the town of [[Barmah]], approximately {{convert|220|km}} north of [[Melbourne]]. The park consists of [[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|River Red Gum]] floodplain forest (''[[Eucalyptus camaldulensis]]'') forest and interspersed with treeless freshwater marshes.<ref name="PV SAP Draft 2019">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Strategic Action Plan: Protection of Floodplain Marshes in Barmah National Park and Barmah Forest Ramsar Site: Draft| date = 2019| url = https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.vic-engage.files/2815/5432/8413/Barmah_FloodplainMarshes_ActionPlan_Draft_April_2019.pdf}}</ref> The area is subject to seasonal flooding from natural and irrigation water flows. The Barmah National Park is an internationally recognised wetland, listed under the [[Ramsar Convention]],<ref name="AWD1982">{{Cite web| last = Australian Wetlands Database| title = Australian Wetlands Database - Barmah Forest| date = 1982| url = https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/wetlands/ramsardetails.pl?refcode=14}}</ref><ref name=King>{{cite journal|last=King|first=A. J. |author2=Ward K. A |author3=O’Connor P |author4=Green D |author5=Tonkin Z |author6=Mahoney J. |title=Adaptive management of an environmental watering event to enhance native fish spawning and recruitment|journal=Freshwater Biology |year=2010 |volume=55 |pages=17–31|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02178.x}}</ref> and a number of bird species that utilise the Barmah National Park are part of the [[Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement]] (JAMBA) and the [[China-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement]] (CAMBA).<ref name="Chong" /><ref name="Leslie" /> The Barmah National Park is a camping, fishing, bird watching and recreation destination.<ref name="PV Visitor Guide">{{cite journal |last1=Parks Victoria |title=Barmah National Park Visitor Guide |date=2014 |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/315732/Barmah-National-Park-Visitor-Guide.pdf |accessdate=2 May 2019}}</ref> == History == The Barmah Forest was originally utilised by [[Indigenous Australians]], including the [[Yorta Yorta]] people, to find food, shelter and materials. Following the settlement of Europeans into the area, Barmah Forest became an important fishing and logging area, with surrounding land cleared for agriculture and grazing. Rabbits, foxes, sheep, cattle and horses were introduced into the area.<ref name="Di Stefano">{{cite journal|last=Di Stefano|first=Julian|title=River red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis): a review of ecosystem processes, seedling regeneration and silvicultural practice|journal=Australian Forestry |year=2002 |volume=65|issue=1 |pages=14–22 |doi=10.1080/00049158.2002.10674848}}</ref><ref name="Kenyon">{{cite journal |last=Kenyon |first=C |author2=Rutherford |title=Preliminary evidence for pollen as an indicator of recent floodplain accumulation rates and vegetation changes: the Barmah-Millewa Forest, SE Australia|journal=Environmental Management |year=1999|volume=55|pages=359–367 |doi=10.1007/s002679900239}}</ref> Hardwood timber was harvested from the Barmah region from around 1870,<ref name="Kenyon" /> and logging of [[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|River Red Gum]] and seasonal cattle grazing were important local industries until recently, ceasing when the national park was created.<ref name="RG Bill">{{Cite| last = Government of Victoria| title = Parks and Crown Land Legislation Amendment (River Red Gums) Act 2009| url = http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubStatbook.nsf/f932b66241ecf1b7ca256e92000e23be/9586056C19D433F9CA2576860014C9A6/$FILE/09-082a.pdf}}</ref><ref name="PV CoP 2014">{{Cite| publisher = Parks Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Creation of Parks 1882-2014| date = 2014| url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/639857/Creation-of-Parks.pdf}}</ref> The Barmah muster yards, located in the southern end of the park, and used for management of cattle grazed in the surrounding River Red Gum forests, were heritage listed in 2009.<ref name="VHD 2009">{{Cite web| last = Heritage Council of Victoria| title = Barmah Muster Yards| date = 2009| url = https://vhd.heritagecouncil.vic.gov.au/places/54887}}</ref> Cattle grazing was banned in all River Red Gum national parks in 2015.<ref name="Premier of Victoria">{{Cite web| last = Premier of Victoria| title = Cattle banned from the Alpine National Park| work = Premier of Victoria| date = 2015-03-17| url = https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/cattle-banned-from-the-alpine-national-park/}}</ref> The park contains a large population of [[Feral horse|feral horses]].<ref name="PV SAP Draft 2019">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Strategic Action Plan: Protection of Floodplain Marshes in Barmah National Park and Barmah Forest Ramsar Site: Draft| date = 2019| url = https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.vic-engage.files/2815/5432/8413/Barmah_FloodplainMarshes_ActionPlan_Draft_April_2019.pdf}}</ref> Research published in 2014 found that "the majority of the current population of wild horses within the National Park may be traced to the those left in the forest by the trotting breeder and trainer H. Adams who was not able to round up all of his horses after the last muster took place in 1952."<ref name="Context 2014">{{Cite| publisher = Parks Victoria| last = Context Pty Ltd| title = History of wild horses in the Barmah National Park| date = 2014| url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/734687/Wild-Horses-in-the-Barmah-NP-History-Report_.pdf}}</ref> and that "No documentary evidence was found in the course of this historical research for a continuing and significant 'wild' population in the Barmah National Park that can be traced back to colonial or war times."<ref name="Context 2014">{{Cite| publisher = Parks Victoria| last = Context Pty Ltd| title = History of wild horses in the Barmah National Park| date = 2014| url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/734687/Wild-Horses-in-the-Barmah-NP-History-Report_.pdf}}</ref> Barmah State Park was established in 1987,<ref name="PV CoP 2014">{{Cite| publisher = Parks Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Creation of Parks 1882-2014| date = 2014| url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/639857/Creation-of-Parks.pdf}}</ref> and was legislated as Barmah National Park in 2010.<ref name="PV CoP 2014">{{Cite| publisher = Parks Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Creation of Parks 1882-2014| date = 2014| url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/639857/Creation-of-Parks.pdf}}</ref> The park is one of four River Red Gum national parks <ref name="Premier of Victoria">{{Cite web| last = Premier of Victoria| title = Cattle banned from the Alpine National Park| work = Premier of Victoria| date = 2015-03-17| url = https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/cattle-banned-from-the-alpine-national-park/}}</ref> established by the [[Government of Victoria (Australia)|Victorian Government]] in 2010 <ref name="PV CoP 2014">{{Cite| publisher = Parks Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Creation of Parks 1882-2014| date = 2014| url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/639857/Creation-of-Parks.pdf}}</ref> to protect remnant River Red Gum forest.<ref name="RG Bill">{{Cite| last = Government of Victoria| title = Parks and Crown Land Legislation Amendment (River Red Gums) Act 2009| url = http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubStatbook.nsf/f932b66241ecf1b7ca256e92000e23be/9586056C19D433F9CA2576860014C9A6/$FILE/09-082a.pdf}}</ref> The other River Red Gum national parks are the [[Gunbower National Park]] (created 2009), [[Hattah-Kulkyne National Park]] (1978), [[Lower Goulburn National Park]] (2009), [[Murray-Sunset National Park]] (1991) and the [[Warby-Ovens National Park]] (2009).<ref name="PV CoP 2014">{{Cite| publisher = Parks Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Creation of Parks 1882-2014| date = 2014| url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/639857/Creation-of-Parks.pdf}}</ref> In July 2010, the [[Government of New South Wales]] declared the Millewa Forest, on the northern banks of the Murray River, as a national park. The {{convert|41601|ha|acre|adj=on}} forest was renamed as the [[Murray Valley National Park]], making the combined reserves a {{convert|70000|ha|acre|adj=on}} cross{{endash}}border national park, managed by both governments and the Traditional Owners.<ref>{{cite web|title=River Red Gum forests and wetlands |url=http://environmentvictoria.org.au/index.php?q=content/river-red-gum-forests-and-wetlands|work=Environment Victoria|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="PV Visitor Guide">{{cite journal |last1=Parks Victoria |title=Barmah National Park Visitor Guide |date=2014 |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/315732/Barmah-National-Park-Visitor-Guide.pdf |accessdate=2 May 2019}}</ref> The combined parks are the largest continuous red gum forest in the world.<ref name=Bren>{{cite journal|last=Bren|first=L. J.|title=Effects of river regulation on flooding of a riparian red gum forest on the River Murray, Australia |journal=Regulated Rivers: Research & Management|year=1988|volume=2|pages=65–77|doi=10.1002/rrr.3450020202}}</ref><ref name=Chong>{{cite journal |last=Chong |first=J |author2=Ladson |title=Analysis and management of unseasonal flooding in the Barmah-Millewa Forest, Australia|journal=River Research and Applications |year=2003 |volume=19|pages=161–180|doi=10.1002/rra.705}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/murray-valley-national-park |title=Murray Valley National Park |work=[[National Parks and Wildlife Service (New South Wales) |NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service]] |publisher=Government of New South Wales |accessdate=9 August 2014}}</ref> == Climate == The Barmah National Park is known as a temperate semi-arid region, with low rainfall and high evaporation.<ref name=Leslie>{{cite journal |last=Leslie |first=D. J. |title=Effect of river management on colonially-nesting waterbirds in the Barmah-Millewa Forest, south-eastern Australia |journal=Regulated Rivers: Research & Management|year=2001|volume=17|pages=17–31|doi=10.1002/1099-1646(200101/02)17:1<21::aid-rrr589>3.0.co;2-v}}</ref> Average temperature maximums for the year are around {{convert|30|C|F}} in January and February, with average minimum temperatures down to {{convert|4|C|F}} in July. Average rainfall for the year is {{convert|400|mm}}, with the most rain falling in winter with an average monthly rainfall of {{convert|40|mm}}.<ref name=BOM>{{cite web |title=Echuca aerodrome|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_080015.shtml|work=Bureau of Meteorology|accessdate=21 April 2013}}</ref> == Changes to flooding == Since clearing for agriculture and the subsequent dam construction took place, the [[Murray River]] has undergone extensive flow regulation.<ref name="Thoms 1995">{{Cite journal| volume = 230| pages = 121–130| last = Thoms| first = M C| title = The impact of catchment development on a semiarid wetland complex: the Barmah Forest, Australia| journal = IAHS Publications-Series of Proceedings and Reports-Intern Assoc Hydrological Sciences| date = 1995| url = http://hydrologie.org/redbooks/a230/iahs_230_0121.pdf}}</ref><ref name=McGinness>{{cite journal|last=McGinness|first=H. A.|author2=Arthur A. D|author3= Reid, J. R. W|title=Woodland bird declines in the Murray-Darling Basin: are there links with floodplain change?|journal=The Rangeland Journal|year=2010|volume=32 |pages=315–327}}</ref> The construction of dams upstream from the Barmah National Park, from the 1920's onwards, has had a vast impact on the water flowing in the Murray River and instances of flooding.<ref name="Thoms 1995">{{Cite journal| volume = 230| pages = 121–130| last = Thoms| first = M C| title = The impact of catchment development on a semiarid wetland complex: the Barmah Forest, Australia| journal = IAHS Publications-Series of Proceedings and Reports-Intern Assoc Hydrological Sciences| date = 1995| url = http://hydrologie.org/redbooks/a230/iahs_230_0121.pdf}}</ref> The [[Hume Dam]] was operational from 1936, the [[Yarrawonga Weir Power Station|Yarrawonga Weir]] in 1939, and the [[Dartmouth Dam]] from 1979.<ref name="Di Stefano" /><ref name="Bren" /><ref name="Leslie" /><ref name="Thoms 1995">{{Cite journal| volume = 230| pages = 121–130| last = Thoms| first = M C| title = The impact of catchment development on a semiarid wetland complex: the Barmah Forest, Australia| journal = IAHS Publications-Series of Proceedings and Reports-Intern Assoc Hydrological Sciences| date = 1995| url = http://hydrologie.org/redbooks/a230/iahs_230_0121.pdf}}</ref> The Barmah Choke, a section of the [[Murray River]] where flow is naturally restricted by a geological fault, causes the overflow of water into the Barmah Forest when the river flow is high {{cn|date=May 2019}} Historically, the Barmah National Park and surrounding River Red Gum forests would flood naturally in winter and spring in most years,<ref name="Chong" /> and river flows were very low in late-summer and autumn.<ref name="Bren" /> However, due to flow regulation, the winter and spring floods are reduced, and of shorter duration than previously, and more low level flooding occurs in summer and autumn.<ref name="Bren" /><ref name="Chong" /><ref name="Glazebrook 1999">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1046/j.1442-9993.1999.00992.x| volume = 24| issue = 6| pages = 625–635| last1 = Glazebrook| first1 = Helen S.| last2 = Robertson| first2 = Alistar I.| title = The effect of flooding and flood timing on leaf litter breakdown rates and nutrient dynamics in a river red gum (''Eucalyptus camaldulensis'') forest| journal = Austral Ecology| date = 1999}}</ref> The increased incidences of smaller summer and autumn floods, which affect low-lying areas of Barmah National Park, are sometimes caused by heavy rains.<ref name="Bren" /> More often, they occur because there is sufficient rainfall for irrigated farmland between the [[Hume Dam]] and the Barmah Forest, consequently these river diverters do not choose to take allocated water, and [[Lake Mulwala]] ([[Yarrawonga Weir Power Station|Yarrawonga Weir]]) has inadequate storage.<ref name="Bren" /><ref name="Chong" /> These flows are referred to as "rainfall rejections".<ref name="Bren" /> More recently, "environmental water" has been being released to offset some of the detrimental effects of river regulation on the ecosystems along the lower reaches of the [[Murray River]] {{cn|date=May 2019}} == Ecology == The Barmah National Park is a River Red Gum forest, consisting of an upper storey of red gums, no shrub layer or middle storey, and a ground storey of native grasses, sedges and rushes.<ref name="Di Stefano" /><ref name="Kenyon" /><ref name="Bren" /> The edges of the forest merge into a eucalypt-box woodland. The park is a large flood plain and wetland area, with flooding of the Murray River occurring sporadically, both naturally and due to flow regulation of the river.<ref name=Argent>{{cite journal|last=Argent|first=R. M.|author2=McMahon T. A|author3= Bowler J. M|author4= Finlayson B. L.|title=The dendroecological Potential of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnhardt (River Red Gum) from the Barmah Forest, Victoria, Australia |journal=Australian Geographical Studies |year=2004 |volume=42 |issue=1|pages=89–102|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8470.2004.00245.x}}</ref> The main fauna type found within the park are waterbirds. The area is a rich breeding, nesting and foraging area for over 200 bird species. It is also one of the largest breeding grounds of water birds in Victoria.<ref name="PV Visitor Guide">{{cite journal |last1=Parks Victoria |title=Barmah National Park Visitor Guide |date=2014 |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/315732/Barmah-National-Park-Visitor-Guide.pdf |accessdate=2 May 2019}}</ref> Reptiles and amphibians are also found within the river red gum forest, as well as many native fish species in the river, including the [[Murray Cod]]. The main native mammals found include the [[grey kangaroo]], [[koala]], [[emu]] and [[Phalangeriformes|possum]] species.<ref name="PV Visitor Guide">{{cite journal |last1=Parks Victoria |title=Barmah National Park Visitor Guide |date=2014 |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/315732/Barmah-National-Park-Visitor-Guide.pdf |accessdate=2 May 2019}}</ref> Introduced animals such as rabbits, foxes and horses can also be seen throughout the park. == Environmental threats == Following European settlement of the area, land was extensively cleared to allow for farming and agriculture. Sheep and cattle grazing was a common sight around the Barmah region from the mid to late 1800s.<ref name="Kenyon" /><ref name="Bren" /><ref name=Bennett>{{cite journal |last=Bennett |first=J |title=Defining and managing environmental flows: inputs from society|journal=Economic Papers|year=2008|volume=27|issue=2|pages=167–183 |doi=10.1111/j.1759-3441.2008.tb01035.x}}</ref> The periodic burning previously undertaken by Indigenous Australians was also halted.<ref name="Di Stefano" /><ref name="Bren" /> Logging of the River Red Gum forests was an important part of the late 1800s and early 1900s.<ref name="Kenyon" /><ref name="Bren" /> A significant decrease in breeding and occurrence of waterbirds, particular woodland bird species and species of migratory birds has been reported in the Barmah National Park.<ref name="McGinness" /> This decrease has been attributed to the changes to the flood regimes occurring in the area.<ref name="McGinness" /> A number of marsupial species are also no longer found within the park, including the rufous bettong, bridled nailtail wallaby, western barred bandicoot and lesser stick-nest rat.<ref name="Di Stefano" /> Their absence has been attributed to the introduction of rabbits and foxes.<ref name="Di Stefano" /> Though the future impact of climate change on River Red Gum forests is unknown, there has already been a significant dieback of trees in the area due to ongoing [[evapotranspiration]] deficits.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Eucalypts face increasing climate stress |first1 = Nathalie |last1 = Butt |first2 = Laura J. |last2 = Pollock |first3 = Clive A. |last3 = McAlpine |journal = Ecology and Evolution |date = December 2013 |volume = 3 |issue = 15 |pages = 5011–5022 |doi=10.1002/ece3.873 |pmc=3892364 |pmid=24455132}}</ref> In the [[Murray–Darling basin|Murray-Darling Basin]], prior to regulation of the [[Murray River]], extensive [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] (''[[Pseudoraphis spinescens]]'') dominated floodplain marshes existed in areas that were typically seasonally flooded for 5-9 months duration in most years, to a minimum water depth of 0.5 m, and completely dry during late summer and autumn.<ref name="MDBC 2006">{{Cite| last = Murray-Darling Basin Commission| title = The Barmah-Millewa Forest Icon Site Envronmental Management Plan 2006-2007| date = 2006| url = https://www.mdba.gov.au/sites/default/files/archived/mdbc-tlm-reports/2083_Env_Man_Plan_Barmah_Millewa_2006-07.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Bren 1986">{{Cite journal| volume = 16| pages = 357–370| last1 = Bren| first1 = L. J.| last2 = Gibbs| first2 = N. L.| title = Relationships between flood frequency, vegetation and topography in a river red gum forest| journal = Australian Forest Research| date = 1986}}</ref> Floodplain areas previously dominated by aquatic species such as Moira grass (''Pseudoraphis spinescens''), [[Phragmites australis|Common Reed]] (''[[Phragmites australis]]'') and [[Typha|cumbungi]] ([[Typha|''Typha'' spp.]]) are now covered with species adapted to lower levels of flooding, mainly [[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|River Red Gums]] (''[[Eucalyptus camaldulensis]]'') and [[Juncus ingens|Giant Rush]] (''[[Juncus ingens]]'').<ref name="Dexter 1978">{{cite journal |last1=Dexter |first1=B.D. |title=Silviculture of the river red gum forests of the central Murray floodplain |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria |date=1978 |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=175-192}}</ref><ref name="Chesterfield 1986">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1080/00049158.1986.10674458| volume = 49| issue = 1| pages = 4–15| last = Chesterfield| first = E. A.| title = Changes in the vegetation of the river red gum forest at Barmah, Victoria| journal = Australian Forestry| date = 1986-01-01}}</ref><ref name="Bren 1992">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1111/j.1442-9993.1992.tb00822.x| volume = 17| issue = 4| pages = 395–408| last = Bren| first = L. J.| title = Tree invasion of an intermittent wetland in relation to changes in the flooding frequency of the River Murray, Australia| journal = Austral Ecology| date = 1992}}</ref> The extent of the [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains, dominated by [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] (''[[Pseudoraphis spinescens]]'') has declined by 96 per cent over the last 80 years in the Barmah Forest, and the [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains are predicted to be extinct in the Barmah Forest by 2026 without management intervention.<ref name="Colloff et al. 2014">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1002/aqc.2390| volume = 24| issue = 2| pages = 238–255| last1 = Colloff| first1 = Matthew J.| last2 = Ward| first2 = Keith A.| last3 = Roberts| first3 = Jane| title = Ecology and conservation of grassy wetlands dominated by spiny mud grass ''Pseudoraphis spinescens'' in the southern Murray-Darling Basin, Australia| journal = Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems| date = 2014}}</ref> Reductions in duration and depth of natural flooding due to regulation of the [[Murray River]], grazing and trampling pressure by introduced animals, particularly by [[Feral horse|feral horses]] (and previously cattle), and invasive plant species are the main causes of this decline.<ref name="PV SAP Draft 2019">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Strategic Action Plan: Protection of Floodplain Marshes in Barmah National Park and Barmah Forest Ramsar Site: Draft| date = 2019| url = https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.vic-engage.files/2815/5432/8413/Barmah_FloodplainMarshes_ActionPlan_Draft_April_2019.pdf}}</ref> == Management == The Barmah Forest was declared as a national park by the Victorian Government in 2010 <ref name="PV CoP 2014">{{Cite| publisher = Parks Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Creation of Parks 1882-2014| date = 2014| url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/639857/Creation-of-Parks.pdf}}</ref> under the National Parks Act 1975.<ref name="NP Act 1975">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parliament of Victoria| title = National Parks Act 1975| date = 1975| url = http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/npa1975159/}}</ref> The park is managed as part of a collaboration between [[Parks Victoria]] and the Traditional Owners of the area, including the [[Yorta Yorta people]].<ref name="PV Visitor Guide">{{cite journal |last1=Parks Victoria |title=Barmah National Park Visitor Guide |date=2014 |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/315732/Barmah-National-Park-Visitor-Guide.pdf |accessdate=2 May 2019}}</ref> Flow regulation of the Murray River to benefit the surrounding agricultural land, has been undertaken for many years. However, more recently the importance of environmental flows is becoming increasingly acknowledged.<ref name="Bennett" /> Scientific study has shown that [[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|River Red Gums]] rely on specific levels and durations of floods in order to survive and regenerate, similarly waterbird species also have very specific flood-related conditions in order to successfully breed and fledge chicks.<ref name="Leslie" /><ref name=Briggs>{{cite journal |last=Briggs|first=S. V.|author2=Thornton S. A|author3= Lawler W. G|title=Relationships between hydrological control of [[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|River Red Gum]] wetlands and waterbird breeding |journal=Emu|year=1997|volume=97|pages=31–42|doi=10.1071/mu97003}}</ref> Flow regimes are also very important for native fish species populations.<ref name="King" /> Therefore, the alterations to the management of River Red Gum forests and regulation of water flows within the Murray River will be a very important area of study into the future.<ref name="Bennett" /> The timing and frequency of ecological burns will also need to be carefully monitored for future management of the park, as the increase in fire frequency predicted under climate change models may adversely impact bird habitat and may favour invasive plant and animal species.<ref>{{cite book |title = Assessment of Australia’s Terrestrial Biodiversity 2008 |chapter = Chapter 5: Threats to Australian biodiversity |page = 158 |year = 2007 |url = https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/e9f0d376-78eb-45cc-9359-797c6b0f72ff/files/chapter5.pdf |publisher = Commonwealth of Australia: Department of Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts}}</ref>. [[Parks Victoria]]'s plan to reverse environmental degradation and definitively improve management of Barmah National Park prioritises timing of seasonal flooding to promote the growth of floodplain vegetation and provides habitat for breeding waterbirds, control of invasive plants, and the eradication of introduced grazing animals including [[Feral horse|horses]], deer, pigs and goats. The aims of management plans are to protect the floodplain marshes, including increasing the extent of [[Pseudoraphis spinescens|Moira grass]] plains, and to improve the quality of habitat for native flora and fauna in the Barmah National Park.<ref name="PV horses">{{cite web |title = Feral horse management planning: Barmah |url = https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/barmah-national-park/plans-and-projects/feral-horse-management-planning-barmah |publisher = Parks Victoria |access-date = 13 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="PV SAP Draft 2019">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Strategic Action Plan: Protection of Floodplain Marshes in Barmah National Park and Barmah Forest Ramsar Site: Draft| date = 2019| url = https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.vic-engage.files/2815/5432/8413/Barmah_FloodplainMarshes_ActionPlan_Draft_April_2019.pdf}}</ref> == In the news == In late 2018 and early 2019, during a nationwide drought, news reports began circulating about starving [[Feral horse|feral horses]] across Australia,<ref name="Becker 2018-10-08">{{Cite news| last = Becker| first = Joshua| title = Brumbies die of starvation in Snowy River as drought affects food, water supply| work = ABC Rural| date = 2018-10-08| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2018-10-08/dead-brumbies-in-snowy-river-spark-debate/10351254}}</ref><ref name="Cox 2018-10-26">{{Cite news| issn = 0261-3077| last = Cox| first = Lisa| title = Images of dead and starving brumbies prompt fresh calls for NSW cull| work = The Guardian| date = 2018-10-26| url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/26/images-of-dead-and-starving-brumbies-prompt-fresh-calls-for-nsw-cull}}</ref><ref name="Caines 2018-11-14">{{Cite news| last = Caines| first = Kimberley| title = 'It looks like a horse cemetery': Starving brumbies shot dead by authorities in Victoria's Barmah National Park| work = Nine News| date = 2018-11-14| url = https://www.9news.com.au/national/horses-left-to-starve-animal-cruelty-euthanased-brumbies-barmah-national-park/49b32f88-5da0-47e0-ba05-885917ad2bfe}}</ref><ref name="Martin 2018-11-14">{{Cite news| last1 = Martin| first1 = Melissa| last2 = Poole| first2 = Fiona| title = Dozens of brumbies found dead in national park| work = ABC News| date = 2018-11-14| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-14/brumbies-at-the-mercy-of-drought-and-mismanagement/10495374}}</ref><ref name="Dobson 2018-11-19">{{Cite news| last = Dobson| first = Mahalia| title = Preservation group claims brumbies have been left to starve in Barmah National Park| work = ABC Goulburn Murray| date = 2018-11-19| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-19/barmah-brumbies-dying-prompts-call-for-action/10493746}}</ref><ref name="Garrick 2019-01-23">{{Cite news| last = Garrick| first = Matt| title = Dozens of feral horses found dead in dry Central Australian waterhole| work = ABC News| date = 2019-01-23| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-23/mass-brumby-death-discovered-in-remote-central-australia/10739178}}</ref><ref name="Sanda 2019-05-02">{{Cite news| last = Sanda| first = Dominica| title = Starving brumbies 'carving away' NSW park| work = The Canberra Times| date = 2019-05-02| url = https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6101547/starving-brumbies-carving-away-nsw-park/}}</ref> including in [[Kosciuszko National Park]],<ref name="Becker 2018-10-08">{{Cite news| last = Becker| first = Joshua| title = Brumbies die of starvation in Snowy River as drought affects food, water supply| work = ABC Rural| date = 2018-10-08| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2018-10-08/dead-brumbies-in-snowy-river-spark-debate/10351254}}</ref><ref name="Cox 2018-10-26">{{Cite news| issn = 0261-3077| last = Cox| first = Lisa| title = Images of dead and starving brumbies prompt fresh calls for NSW cull| work = The Guardian| date = 2018-10-26| url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/26/images-of-dead-and-starving-brumbies-prompt-fresh-calls-for-nsw-cull}}</ref><ref name="Sanda 2019-05-02">{{Cite news| last = Sanda| first = Dominica| title = Starving brumbies 'carving away' NSW park| work = The Canberra Times| date = 2019-05-02| url = https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6101547/starving-brumbies-carving-away-nsw-park/}}</ref> [[Guy Fawkes River National Park]],<ref name="Martin 2018-11-14">{{Cite news| last1 = Martin| first1 = Melissa| last2 = Poole| first2 = Fiona| title = Dozens of brumbies found dead in national park| work = ABC News| date = 2018-11-14| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-14/brumbies-at-the-mercy-of-drought-and-mismanagement/10495374}}</ref> and Barmah National Park.<ref name="Caines 2018-11-14">{{Cite news| last = Caines| first = Kimberley| title = 'It looks like a horse cemetery': Starving brumbies shot dead by authorities in Victoria's Barmah National Park| work = Nine News| date = 2018-11-14| url = https://www.9news.com.au/national/horses-left-to-starve-animal-cruelty-euthanased-brumbies-barmah-national-park/49b32f88-5da0-47e0-ba05-885917ad2bfe}}</ref><ref name="Dobson 2018-11-19">{{Cite news| last = Dobson| first = Mahalia| title = Preservation group claims brumbies have been left to starve in Barmah National Park| work = ABC Goulburn Murray| date = 2018-11-19| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-19/barmah-brumbies-dying-prompts-call-for-action/10493746}}</ref> At [[Barmah]], which at the time was flooded with environmental water, local activists the Barmah Brumby Preservation Group began feeding feral horses on properties adjacent to the national park.<ref name="Caines 2018-11-14">{{Cite news| last = Caines| first = Kimberley| title = 'It looks like a horse cemetery': Starving brumbies shot dead by authorities in Victoria's Barmah National Park| work = Nine News| date = 2018-11-14| url = https://www.9news.com.au/national/horses-left-to-starve-animal-cruelty-euthanased-brumbies-barmah-national-park/49b32f88-5da0-47e0-ba05-885917ad2bfe}}</ref><ref name="Dobson 2018-11-19">{{Cite news| last = Dobson| first = Mahalia| title = Preservation group claims brumbies have been left to starve in Barmah National Park| work = ABC Goulburn Murray| date = 2018-11-19| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-19/barmah-brumbies-dying-prompts-call-for-action/10493746}}</ref> Within Barmah National Park, [[Parks Victoria]] began euthanising feral horses in very poor condition, under strict protocols, by shooting.<ref name="Caines 2018-11-14">{{Cite news| last = Caines| first = Kimberley| title = 'It looks like a horse cemetery': Starving brumbies shot dead by authorities in Victoria's Barmah National Park| work = Nine News| date = 2018-11-14| url = https://www.9news.com.au/national/horses-left-to-starve-animal-cruelty-euthanased-brumbies-barmah-national-park/49b32f88-5da0-47e0-ba05-885917ad2bfe}}</ref> In April 2019, [[Parks Victoria]] announced a four year plan to cull an estimated more than 500 feral horses within the national park, along with controlling and eradicating other introduced plants and animals.<ref name="PV SAP Draft 2019">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Strategic Action Plan: Protection of Floodplain Marshes in Barmah National Park and Barmah Forest Ramsar Site: Draft| date = 2019| url = https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.vic-engage.files/2815/5432/8413/Barmah_FloodplainMarshes_ActionPlan_Draft_April_2019.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Mannix 2019-04-05">{{Cite news| last1 = Mannix| first1 = Liam| last2 = Preiss| first2 = Benjamin| title = Parks Victoria plans to cull up to 600 wild horses in Barmah Forest| work = The Age| date = 2019-04-05| url = https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/parks-victoria-plans-to-cull-up-to-600-wild-horses-in-barmah-forest-20190405-p51b9r.html}}</ref><ref name="Dobson 2019-04-08">{{Cite news| last = Dobson| first = Mahalia| title = Barmah brumby numbers to be cut by Parks Victoria in four-year plan| work = ABC Goulburn Murray| date = 2019-04-08| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-08/barmah-forest-brumby-cull-plan-released/10980790}}</ref> Removal of 100-250 feral horses per year from the national park is proposed, with passive trapping and rehoming of some feral horses if homes can be pre-arranged, and the remainder to be shot by contracted professional shooters.<ref name="PV SAP Draft 2019">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Strategic Action Plan: Protection of Floodplain Marshes in Barmah National Park and Barmah Forest Ramsar Site: Draft| date = 2019| url = https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.vic-engage.files/2815/5432/8413/Barmah_FloodplainMarshes_ActionPlan_Draft_April_2019.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Dobson 2019-04-08">{{Cite news| last = Dobson| first = Mahalia| title = Barmah brumby numbers to be cut by Parks Victoria in four-year plan| work = ABC Goulburn Murray| date = 2019-04-08| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-08/barmah-forest-brumby-cull-plan-released/10980790}}</ref> After the fourth year, the plan will be reassessed, with the ultimate aim of removal of all feral horses from the national park.<ref name="PV SAP Draft 2019">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parks Victoria| title = Strategic Action Plan: Protection of Floodplain Marshes in Barmah National Park and Barmah Forest Ramsar Site: Draft| date = 2019| url = https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/hdp.au.prod.app.vic-engage.files/2815/5432/8413/Barmah_FloodplainMarshes_ActionPlan_Draft_April_2019.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Dobson 2019-04-08">{{Cite news| last = Dobson| first = Mahalia| title = Barmah brumby numbers to be cut by Parks Victoria in four-year plan| work = ABC Goulburn Murray| date = 2019-04-08| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-08/barmah-forest-brumby-cull-plan-released/10980790}}</ref> Parks Victoria stated that:<blockquote>"the Victorian National Parks Act 1975 <ref name="NP Act 1975">{{Cite| publisher = State Government of Victoria| last = Parliament of Victoria| title = National Parks Act 1975| date = 1975| url = http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/npa1975159/}}</ref> and other associated legislation does not allow for the ongoing presence of horses within the national park" <ref name="Dobson 2019-04-08">{{Cite news| last = Dobson| first = Mahalia| title = Barmah brumby numbers to be cut by Parks Victoria in four-year plan| work = ABC Goulburn Murray| date = 2019-04-08| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-08/barmah-forest-brumby-cull-plan-released/10980790}}</ref>..."Failure to control and remove feral horses and other threats would fail to meet threatened species protection obligations under the Commonwealth Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999 <ref name="EPBC Act 2018">{{Cite web| last = Australian Government| title = Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999| work = Federal Register of Legislation| date = 2018| url = https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2018C00440}}</ref> and the state Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 <ref name="FFG Act 1988">{{Cite| last = Government of Victoria| title = Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988| date = 2017| url = http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/LTObject_Store/ltobjst10.nsf/DDE300B846EED9C7CA257616000A3571/C5C10F405ADE6386CA25811200834DCC/$FILE/88-47aa043%20authorised.pdf}}</ref>." <ref name="Dobson 2019-04-08">{{Cite news| last = Dobson| first = Mahalia| title = Barmah brumby numbers to be cut by Parks Victoria in four-year plan| work = ABC Goulburn Murray| date = 2019-04-08| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-08/barmah-forest-brumby-cull-plan-released/10980790}}</ref> and "Difficult choices need to be made to reduce the severe degradation to the significant environmental values of Barmah National Park, and to address the animal welfare risks created by a burgeoning feral horse population that the park cannot sustain." <ref name="Dobson 2019-04-08">{{Cite news| last = Dobson| first = Mahalia| title = Barmah brumby numbers to be cut by Parks Victoria in four-year plan| work = ABC Goulburn Murray| date = 2019-04-08| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-08/barmah-forest-brumby-cull-plan-released/10980790}}</ref></blockquote> The local activists have disputed [[Parks Victoria|Parks Victoria's]] estimations of large numbers of feral horses within the national park,<ref name="Johnson 2019-04-15">{{Cite news| last = Johnson| first = Blake| title = Brumbies cull: Battle over plan to kill hundreds of wild horses in Victoria| work = Seven News| date = 2019-04-15| url = https://7news.com.au/news/vic/battle-brewing-over-plans-to-cull-hundreds-of-wild-horses-c-61684}}</ref> and opposed the rehoming or culling of any horses, stating that environmental flooding rather than overpopulation was responsible for the problems with the feral horses in the national park.<ref name="Mannix 2019-04-05">{{Cite news| last1 = Mannix| first1 = Liam| last2 = Preiss| first2 = Benjamin| title = Parks Victoria plans to cull up to 600 wild horses in Barmah Forest| work = The Age| date = 2019-04-05| url = https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/parks-victoria-plans-to-cull-up-to-600-wild-horses-in-barmah-forest-20190405-p51b9r.html}}</ref><ref name="Johnson 2019-04-15">{{Cite news| last = Johnson| first = Blake| title = Brumbies cull: Battle over plan to kill hundreds of wild horses in Victoria| work = Seven News| date = 2019-04-15| url = https://7news.com.au/news/vic/battle-brewing-over-plans-to-cull-hundreds-of-wild-horses-c-61684}}</ref> ==See also== {{stack|{{portal|Victoria|environment}}}} * [[Protected areas of Victoria]] == References == {{Reflist}} ==External links== * [https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/barmah-national-park/ Parks Victoria: Barmah National Park] * [https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/wetlands/ramsardetails.pl?refcode=14/ Australian Wetlands Database: Ramsar wetlands: Barmah Forest] {{National Parks of Victoria}} {{Ramsar sites in Australia}} [[Category:National parks of Victoria (Australia)]] [[Category:Protected areas established in 2010]] [[Category:Ramsar sites]] [[Category:Murray River]] [[Category:2010 establishments in Australia]] [[Category:Hume (region)]]'