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'{{for|video game design|Video game design}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}} {{more footnotes|date=December 2014}} [[File:Diamond_Trust_of_London_-_Paper_Prototype_zoom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A paper prototype made as part of the design process of the video game ''[[Diamond Trust of London]]'']] '''Game design''' is the art of applying [[design]] and aesthetics to create a [[game]] for entertainment or for educational, exercise, or experimental purposes. Increasingly, elements and principles of game design are also applied to other interactions, in the form of [[gamification]]. Game design creates goals, rules and challenges to define a [[board game]], [[card game]], [[dice game]], [[casino game]], [[role-playing game]], [[sport]], [[video game]], [[Wargame (video games)|war game]] or [[simulation]] that produces desirable interactions among its participants and, possibly, spectators. Academically, game design is part of [[game studies]], while [[game theory]] studies strategic decision making (primarily in non-game situations). Games have historically inspired seminal research in the fields of [[probability]], [[artificial intelligence]], economics, and [[optimization theory]]. Applying game design to itself is a current research topic in [[metadesign]]. ==History== {{unreferenced section|date=December 2014}} Sports (see [[history of sports]]), [[gambling]], and [[board games]] are known, respectively, to have existed for at least nine thousand,<ref>[http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20110317/PC20/303179904 Hartsell, Jeff., Wrestling 'in our blood,' says Bulldogs' Luvsandorj, 17 March 2011]</ref> six thousand,<ref>{{cite book|last=Bose|first=M. L.|title=Social And Cultural History Of Ancient India (revised & Enlarged Edition)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_PpdZosif4C&pg=PA179|year=1998|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-598-0|page=179}}</ref> and four thousand years.<ref name="Soubeyrand">{{cite web |last=Soubeyrand |first=Catherine |url=http://www.gamecabinet.com/history/Senet.html |title=The Game of Senet |accessdate=2014-10-25}}</ref> ===Folk process=== Tabletop games played today whose descent can be traced from ancient times include [[chess]], [[go (game)|go]], [[pachisi]], [[backgammon]], [[mahjong]], [[mancala]], and [[pick-up sticks]]. The rules of these games were not codified until early modern times and their features gradually evolved and changed over time, through the [[folk process]]. Given this, these games are not considered to have had a designer or been the result of a [[design| design process]] in the modern sense. After the rise of commercial game publishing in the late 19th century, many games which had formerly evolved via folk processes became commercial properties, often with custom scoring pads or preprepared material. For example, the similar public domain games [[Generala]], [[Yacht (dice game)|Yacht]], and [[Yatzy]] led to the commercial game [[Yahtzee]] in the mid-1950s. Today, many commercial games, such as [[Taboo (game)|Taboo]], [[Balderdash]], [[Pictionary]], or [[Time's Up! (game)|Time's Up!]], are descended from traditional [[parlour games]]. Adapting traditional games to become commercial properties is an example of game design. Similarly, many sports, such as [[soccer]] and [[baseball]], are the result of folk processes, while others were designed, such as [[basketball]], invented in 1891 by [[James Naismith]]. '''THETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETHETH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==Theory== {{main|Game studies}} {{off topic|date=May 2017}} Game studies or gaming theory is a discipline that deals with the critical study of games, game design, players, and their role in society and culture. Prior to the late-twentieth century, the academic study of games was rare and limited to fields such as history and [[anthropology]]. As the video game revolution took off in the early 1980s, so did academic interest in games, resulting in a field that draws on diverse methodologies and schools of thought. These influences may be characterized broadly in three ways: the social science approach, the humanities approach, and the industry and engineering approach.<ref>Konzack, Lars (2007). "Rhetorics of Computer and Video Game Research" in Williams & Smith (ed.) The Players' Realm: Studies on the Culture of Video Games and gaming. McFarland.</ref> Broadly speaking, the social scientific approach has concerned itself with the question of "What do games do to people?" Using tools and methods such as surveys, controlled laboratory experiments, and ethnography researchers have investigated both the positive and negative impacts that playing games could have on people. More sociologically informed research has sought to move away from simplistic ideas of gaming as either 'negative' or 'positive', but rather seeking to understand its role and location in the complexities of everyday life.<ref name="Crawford 2012">{{cite book| last = Crawford| first=G. |author-link=Garry Crawford | year = 2012| title = Video Gamers| publisher = Routledge |location = London}}</ref> In general terms, the humanities approach has concerned itself with the question of "What meanings are made through games?" Using tools and methods such as interviews, ethnographies and participant observation, researchers have investigated the various roles that videogames play in people's lives and activities together with the meaning they assign to their experiences.<ref>Consalvo, 2007{{full citation needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> From an industry perspective, a lot of game studies research can be seen as the academic response to the videogame industry's questions regarding the products it creates and sells. The main question this approach deals with can be summarized as "How can we create better games?" with the accompanying "What makes a game good?" "Good" can be taken to mean many different things, including providing an entertaining and an engaging experience, being easy to learn and play, and being innovative and having novel experiences. Different approaches to studying this problem have included looking at describing how to design games<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Griffiths |first1=M. |year=1999 |title=Violent video games and aggression: A review of the literature |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=203–212 |url=http://ocw.metu.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/2352/mod_resource/content/1/Griffiths_LitReview.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126121553/http://ocw.metu.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/2352/mod_resource/content/1/Griffiths_LitReview.pdf |archivedate=26 November 2013 |deadurl=no|doi=10.1016/S1359-1789(97)00055-4 }}</ref><ref>Rollings and Morris, 2000;{{full citation needed|date=December 2014}} Rouse III, 2001{{full citation needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> and extracting guidelines and rules of thumb for making better games<ref>Fabricatore et al., 2002;{{full citation needed|date=December 2014}} Falstein, 2004{{full citation needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> ===Strategic decision making=== {{main|Game theory}} Game theory is a study of strategic [[decision making]]. Specifically, it is "the study of [[mathematical model]]s of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers".<ref>[[Roger B. Myerson]] (1991). ''Game Theory: Analysis of Conflict,'' Harvard University Press, p.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?id=E8WQFRCsNr0C&printsec=find&pg=PA1 1]. Chapter-preview links, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=E8WQFRCsNr0C&printsec=find&pg=PR7 vii–xi].</ref> An alternative term suggested "as a more descriptive name for the discipline" is ''interactive [[decision theory]]''.<ref>[[Robert Aumann|R. J. Aumann]] ([[The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics|[1987] ]] 2008). "game theory," Introduction, ''[[The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics]]'', 2nd Edition. [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_G000007&q=game%20theory&topicid=&result_number=3 Abstract.]</ref> The subject first addressed [[zero-sum game]]s, such that one person's gains exactly equal net losses of the other participant or participants.<ref>{{citation |last=Leonard |first=Robert |title=Von Neumann, Morgenstern, and the Creation of Game Theory |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780521562669 }}</ref> Today, however, game theory applies to a wide range of behavioral relations, and has developed into an [[umbrella term]] for the logical side of decision science. The games studied in game theory are well-defined mathematical objects. To be fully defined, a game must specify the following elements: the [[Player (game)|''players'' of the game]], the ''information'' and ''actions'' available to each player at each decision point, and the [[Utility|''payoffs'']] for each outcome. (Rasmusen refers to these four "essential elements" by the acronym "PAPI".)<ref name="r7">• Eric Rasmusen (2007). ''Games and Information'', 4th ed. [http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-EHEP001009.html Description] and [https://books.google.com/books?id=5XEMuJwnBmUC&printsec=fnd&pg=PR5 chapter-preview.]<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; • [[David M. Kreps]] (1990). ''Game Theory and Economic Modelling''. [http://econpapers.repec.org/bookchap/oxpobooks/9780198283812.htm Description.]<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; • R. Aumann and S. Hart, ed. (1992, 2002). ''Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications'' v. 1, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/handbooks/15740005/1 ch. 3–6] and v. 3, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574000502030060 ch. 43].</ref> A game theorist typically uses these elements, along with a [[solution concept]] of their choosing, to deduce a set of equilibrium [[Strategy (game theory)|strategies]] for each player such that, when these strategies are employed, no player can profit by unilaterally deviating from their strategy. These equilibrium strategies determine an [[Economic equilibrium|equilibrium]] to the game—a stable state in which either one outcome occurs or a set of outcomes occur with known probability. ==Design elements== Games can be characterized by "what the player does"<ref name="craw"> {{cite book |title=Chris Crawford on Game Design |isbn=978-0-88134-117-1 |last=Crawford |first=Chris |authorlink=Chris Crawford (game designer) |year=2003 |publisher=New Riders |title-link=Chris Crawford on Game Design }}</ref> and what the player experiences. This is often referred to as [[gameplay]]. Major key elements identified in this context are tools and rules that define the overall context of game. ===Tools of play=== Games are often classified by the components required to play them (e.g. [[miniatures game|miniatures]], a [[ball game|ball]], [[card game|card]]s, [[board game|a board and pieces]], or a [[computer game|computer]]). In places where the use of leather is well established, the ball has been a popular game piece throughout recorded history, resulting in a worldwide popularity of ball games such as [[rugby football|rugby]], [[basketball]], [[association football|football]], [[cricket]], [[tennis]], and [[volleyball]]. Other tools are more idiosyncratic to a certain region. Many countries in Europe, for instance, have unique standard decks of [[playing card]]s. Other games such as [[chess]] may be traced primarily through the development and evolution of its game pieces. Many game tools are tokens, meant to represent other things. A token may be a pawn on a board, [[play money]], or an intangible item such as a point scored. Games such as [[hide-and-seek]] or [[tag (game)|tag]] do not utilise any obvious tool; rather, their interactivity is defined by the environment. Games with the same or similar rules may have different gameplay if the environment is altered. For example, hide-and-seek in a school building differs from the same game in a park; an [[auto race]] can be radically different depending on the [[race track|track]] or [[street racing|street]] course, even with the same cars. ===Rule development=== {{see also|Game mechanics|gameplay|balance (game design)}} Whereas games are often characterized by their tools, they are often defined by their rules. While rules are [[house rules|subject to variations and changes]], enough change in the rules usually results in a "new" game. There are exceptions to this in that some games deliberately involve the changing of their own rules, but even then there are often immutable [[meta]]-rules. Rules generally determine turn order, the rights and responsibilities of the players, each player's goals, and how game components interact with each other to produce changes in a game's state. Player rights may include when they may spend resources or move tokens. ====Victory conditions==== Common win conditions are being first to amass a certain quota of points or tokens (as in [[Settlers of Catan]]), having the greatest number of tokens at the end of the game (as in [[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]]), some relationship of one's game tokens to those of one's opponent (as in chess's [[checkmate]]), or reaching a certain point in a storyline (as in most roleplay-games). ===Single or multiplayer=== Most games require multiple players. Single-player games are unique in respect to the type of challenges a player faces. Unlike a game with multiple players competing with or against each other to reach the game's goal, a single-player game is against an element of the environment, against one's own skills, against time, or against chance. This is also true of [[cooperative games]], in which multiple players share a common goal and win or lose together. Many games described as "single-player" or "cooperative" could alternatively be described as puzzles or recreations, in that they do not involve strategic behavior (as defined by game theory), in which the expected reaction of an opponent to a possible move becomes a factor in choosing which move to make. Games against opponents simulated with [[artificial intelligence]] differ from other single-player games in that the algorithms used usually do incorporate strategic behavior. ===Storyline and plot=== Stories told in games may focus on narrative elements that can be communicated through the use of mechanics and player choice. Narrative plots in games generally have a clearly defined and simplistic structure. Mechanical choices on the part of the designer(s) often drastically effect narrative elements in the game. However, due to a lack of unified and standardized teaching and understanding of narrative elements in games, individual interpretations, methods, and terminology vary wildly. Because of this, most narrative elements in games are created unconsciously and intuitively. However, as a general rule, game narratives increase in complexity and scale as player choice or game mechanics increase in complexity and scale. One example of this is removing a players ability to directly affect the plot for a limited time. This lack of player choice necessitates an increase in mechanical complexity, and could be used as a metaphor to symbolize depression that is felt by a character in the narrative. ===Luck and strategy=== A game's tools and rules will result in its requiring skill, strategy, [[luck]], or a combination thereof, and are classified accordingly. [[Games of skill]] include games of physical skill, such as [[wrestling]], [[tug of war]], [[hopscotch]], [[shooting sport|target shooting]], and [[horseshoes]], and games of mental skill such as [[checkers]] and [[chess]]. [[Games of strategy]] include checkers, chess, [[go (board game)|go]], [[arimaa]], and [[tic-tac-toe]], and often require special equipment to play them. [[Games of chance]] include gambling games ([[blackjack]], [[mah-jongg]], [[roulette]], etc.), as well as [[snakes and ladders]] and [[rock, paper, scissors]]; most require equipment such as cards or [[dice]]. Most games contain two or all three of these elements. For example, [[American football]] and baseball involve both physical skill and strategy while [[tiddlywinks]], [[poker]], and [[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]] combine strategy and chance. Many card and board games combine all three; most [[trick-taking game]]s involve mental skill, strategy, and an element of chance, as do many strategic board games such as [[Risk (game)|Risk]], [[Settlers of Catan]], and [[Carcassonne (board game)|Carcassonne]]. ===Use as educational tool=== {{Further|Learning through play}} By learning through play{{efn|a term used in education and [[psychology]] to describe how a child can learn to make sense of the world around them}} children can develop social and [[Cognition|cognitive]] skills, mature emotionally, and gain the [[self-confidence]] required to engage in new experiences and environments.<ref>Human growth and the development of personality, Jack Kahn, Susan Elinor Wright, [[Pergamon Press]], {{ISBN|978-1-59486-068-3}}</ref> Key ways that young children learn include playing, being with other people, being active, exploring and new experiences, talking to themselves, communication with others, meeting physical and mental challenges, being shown how to do new things, practicing and repeating skills and having fun.<ref>Learning, playing and interacting. Good practice in early years foundation stage. Page 9{{full citation needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> Play develops children's content knowledge and provides children the opportunity to develop social skills, competences and disposition to learn.<ref>Wood, E. and J. Attfield. (2005). Play, learning and the early childhood curriculum. 2nd ed. London: Paul Chapman</ref> Play-based learning is based on a Vygotskian model of [[scaffolding]] where the teacher pays attention on specific elements of the play activity and provides encouragement and feedback on children's learning.<ref name="text2">Martlew, J., Stephen, C. & Ellis, J. (2011). Play in the primary school classroom? The experience of teachers supporting children's learning through a new pedagogy. Early Years, 31(1), 71–83.</ref> When children engage in real-life and imaginary activities, play can be challenging in children's thinking.<ref>Whitebread, D., Coltman, P., Jameson, H. & Lander, R. (2009). Play, cognition and self regulation: What exactly are children learning when they learn through play? Educational & Child Psychology, 26(2), 40–52.</ref> To extend the learning process, sensitive intervention can be provided with adult support when necessary during play-based learning.<ref name="text2" /> ==Development process== Game design is part of a game's development from concept to its final form. Typically, the development process is an [[iterative]] process, with repeated phases of testing and revision. During revision, additional design or re-design may be needed. ===Development team=== {{anchor|Game designer}} ====Game designer==== A game designer (or inventor) is the person who invents a game's concept, its central mechanisms, and its rules. Often, the game designer also invents the game's title and, if the game isn't abstract, its theme. Sometimes these activities are done by the game publisher, not the designer, or may be dictated by a licensed property (such as when designing a game based on a film). ====Game developer==== A game developer is the person who fleshes out the details of a game's design, oversees its testing, and revises the game in response to player feedback. Often the game designer is also its developer, although some publishers do extensive development of games to suit their particular target audience after licensing a game from a designer. For larger games, such as [[collectible card games]] and most video games, a team is used and the designer and developer roles are usually split among multiple people. ====Game artist==== {{main|Game artist}} A game artist is an artist who creates art for one or more types of games. Many graphic elements of games are created by the designer when producing a prototype of the game, revised by the developer based on testing, and then further refined by the artist and combined with artwork as a game is prepared for publication or release. For video games, game artists are responsible for all of the aspects of [[game development]] that call for [[visual art]].<ref name="gamespot">[http://uk.gamespot.com/features/so-you-want-to-be-an-artist-6144426/ Gamespot UK – So You Want To Be An: Artist] – Accessed 17 November 2012.</ref> Game artists are often vital to and credited in [[role-playing game]]s, [[collectible card game]]s and video games.<ref name="artofvideogames">[http://americanart.si.edu/exhibitions/archive/2012/games/ Exhibitions: The Art of Video Games] – Accessed 17 November 2012.</ref> ===Concept=== A game concept is an idea for a game, briefly describing its core play mechanisms, who the players represent, and how they win or lose. A game concept may be "pitched" to a game publisher in a similar manner as film ideas are [[Pitch (filmmaking)|pitched]] to potential film producers. Alternatively, game publishers holding a game [[license]] to [[intellectual property]] in other media may solicit game concepts from several designers before picking one to design a game, typically paying the designer in advance against future [[royalties]]. ===Design=== During design, a game concept is fleshed out. Mechanisms are specified in terms of components (boards, cards, on-screen entities, etc.) and rules. The play sequence and possible player actions are defined, as well as how the game starts, ends, and what is its winning condition. In video games, [[storyboards]] and screen mockups may be created. ===Prototype=== A game prototype is a draft version of a game used for testing. Typically, creating a prototype marks the shift from game design to game development and testing. Although prototyping in regards to human-computer interaction and interaction design are both studied, the use of prototyping in game design has remained relatively unexplored. It's known that game design has clear benefits from prototyping, such as exploring new game design possibilities and technologies, the field of game design has different characteristics than other types of software industries that considers prototyping in game design in a different category and need a new perspective<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265974873|title=(PDF) Prototyping in Game Design: Externalization and Internalization of Game Ideas|journal=Proceedings of Hci 2011 - 25Th Bcs Conference on Human Computer Interaction|language=en|access-date=2018-10-02|date=January 2011|last1=Manker|first1=Jon|last2=Arvola|first2=Mattias}}</ref> ===Testing=== Game testing is a major part of game development. During testing, players play the game and provide feedback on its gameplay, the usability of its components or screen elements, the clarity of its goals and rules, ease of learning, and enjoyment to the game developer. The developer then revises the design, its components, presentation, and rules before testing it again. Later testing may take place with [[focus groups]] to test consumer reactions before publication. During testing, various [[balance (game design)|balance]] issues may be identified, requiring changes to the game's design. [[Game testing|Video game testing]] is a [[software testing]] process for [[quality control]] of video games.<ref>[[#Bates|Bates 2004]], pp. 176–180</ref><ref name="Novak95">[[#MoNov|Moore, Novak 2010]], p. 95</ref><ref name="Oxland3012">[[#Oxland|Oxland 2004]], p. 301-302</ref> The primary function of game testing is the discovery and documentation of [[Software bug|software defect]]s (aka bugs). Interactive entertainment software testing is a highly technical field requiring [[computing]] expertise, analytic competence, critical evaluation skills, and endurance.<ref>[[#Bates|Bates 2004]], pp. 178, 180</ref><ref name="Oxland301">[[#Oxland|Oxland 2004]], p. 301</ref> ==Issues== Different types of games pose different game design issues. ===Board games=== [[File:DarrowPage1.png|thumb|235px|[[Charles Darrow]]'s 1935 patent for ''[[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]]'' includes specific design elements developed during the prototype phase. Prototypes are very common in the later stages of board game design, and "prototype circles" in many cities today provide an opportunity for designers to play and critique each other's games.<ref name=neyfakh/><ref name=wadley/>]] [[Board game]] design is the development of rules and presentational aspects of a board game. When a player takes part in a game, it is the player's self-subjection to the rules that creates a sense of purpose for the duration of the game.<ref name=neyfakh>Neyfakh, Leon. "Quest for fun; Sometimes the most addictive new technology comes in a simple cardboard box". ''[[Boston Globe]]''. 11 March 2012</ref> Maintaining the players' interest throughout the gameplay experience is the goal of board game design.<ref name=wadley>Wadley, Carma. "Rules of the game: Do you have what it takes to invent the next 'Monopoly'?" ''[[Deseret News]]''. 18 November 2008.</ref> To achieve this, board game designers emphasize different aspects such as social interaction, strategy, and competition, and target players of differing needs by providing for short versus long-play, and luck versus skill.<ref name=wadley/> Beyond this, board game design reflects the culture in which the board game is produced. The most ancient board games known today are over 5000 years old. They are frequently [[abstract strategy game|abstract]] in character and their design is primarily focused on a core set of simple rules. Of those that are still played today, games like [[go (game)|go]] (c.400BC), [[mancala]] (c.700AD), and [[chess]] (c.600AD) have gone through many presentational and/or rule variations. In the case of chess, for example, [[chess variants|new variants]] are developed constantly, to focus on certain aspects of the game, or just for variation's sake. Traditional board games date from the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Whereas ancient board game design was primarily focused on rules alone, traditional board games were often influenced by [[Victorian era|Victorian]] mores. Academic (e.g. history and geography) and moral didacticism were important design features for traditional games, and [[Puritan]] associations between dice and the [[Devil]] meant that early American game designers eschewed their use in board games entirely.<ref name=johnson>Johnson, Bruce E. "Board games: affordable and abundant, boxed amusements from the 1930s and '40s recall the cultural climate of an era." ''[[Country Living]]''. 1 December 1997.</ref> Even traditional games that did use dice, like ''[[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]]'' (based on the 1906 ''[[The Landlord's Game]]''), were rooted in educational efforts to explain political concepts to the masses. By the 1930s and 1940s, board game design began to emphasize amusement over education, and characters from comic strips, radio programmes, and (in the 1950s) television shows began to be featured in board game adaptations.<ref name=johnson/> Recent developments in modern board game design can be traced to the 1980s in Germany, and have led to increased popularity of "[[German-style board game]]s" (also known as "Eurogames" or "designer games"). The design emphasis of these board games is to give players meaningful choices.<ref name=neyfakh/> This is manifested by eliminating elements like randomness and luck to be replaced by skill, strategy, and resource competition, by removing the potential for players to fall irreversibly behind in the early stages of a game, and by reducing the number of rules and possible player options to produce what [[Alan R. Moon]] has described as "elegant game design".<ref name=neyfakh/> The concept of elegant game design has been identified by ''[[The Boston Globe]]'''s Leon Neyfakh as related to [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]]'s concept of "[[flow (psychology)|flow]]" from his 1990 book, "Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience".<ref name=neyfakh/> Modern technological advances have had a democratizing effect on board game production, with services like [[Kickstarter]] providing designers with essential startup capital and tools like [[3D Printing|3D printers]] facilitating the production of game pieces and board game prototypes.<ref>Whigfield, Nick. "Video Hasn't Killed Interest in Board Games ; New Technologies Have Contributed to Revival of Tabletop Entertainment". ''[[The Irish Times]]''. 12 May 2014.</ref><ref>Hesse, Monica. "Rolling the dice on a jolly good pastime". ''[[The Washington Post]]''. 29 August 2011.</ref> A modern adaptation of figure games are [[miniature wargame]]s like ''[[Warhammer 40,000]]''. ===Card games=== [[Card game]]s include games with cards that are custom-tailored to the game, as in many modern games, as well as those whose design is constricted by the type of the [[deck of cards]], like [[Tarot]] or the [[Suit (cards)|four-suited]] Latin decks. Card games can be played for fun, such as [[Go Fish]], or as gambling games, such as [[Poker]]. In Asian cultures, special sets of tiles can serve the same function as cards, as in [[mahjong]], a game similar to (and thought to be the distant ancestor of) the Western card game [[rummy]]. Western [[dominoes]] games are believed to have developed from Asian tile games in the 18th century. ''[[Magic: The Gathering]]'' was the first [[collectible card game]] (or "trading card game") in 1993.{{Citation needed|date=December 2014}} The line between card and board games is not clear-cut, as many card games, such as [[solitaire]], involve playing cards to form a "tableau", a spatial layout or board. Many board games, in turn, uses specialized cards to provide random events, such as the Chance cards of [[Monopoly (game)]], or as the central mechanism driving play, as in many [[Board wargame#Card-driven|card-driven wargames]]. As cards are typically shuffled and revealed gradually during play, most card games involve randomness, either initially or during play, and hidden information, such as the cards in a player's hand. This is in contrast to many board games, in which most of the game's current state is visible to all participants, even though players may also have a small amount of private information, such as the letter tiles on each player's rack during [[Scrabble]]. How players play their cards, revealing information and interacting with previous plays as they do so, is central to card game design. In partnership card games, such as [[Contract Bridge|Bridge]], rules limiting communication between players on the same team become an important part of the game design. This idea of limited communication has been extended to cooperative card games, such as [[Hanabi (card game)|Hanabi]]. ===Dice games=== [[File:Pokerwürfel.jpg|thumb|right|A set of [[poker dice]] and a dice cup]] [[Dice game]]s are among the oldest known games and have often been associated with gambling. Non-gambling dice games, such as [[Yatzy]], [[Poker dice]], or [[Yahtzee]] became popular in the mid-20th century. The line between dice and board games is not clear-cut, as dice are often used as randomization devices in board games, such as Monopoly or [[Risk]], while serving as the central drivers of play in games such as [[Backgammon]] or [[Pachisi]]. Dice games differ from card games in that each throw of the dice is an [[independent event]], whereas the odds of a given card being drawn is affected by all the previous cards drawn or revealed from a deck. Dice game design often centers around forming scoring combinations and managing re-rolls, either by limiting their number, as in Yahtzee, or by introducing a press-your-luck element, as in [[Can't Stop (board game)|Can't Stop]]. ===Casino games=== {{See also|House edge}} [[File:Slot machine.jpg|thumb|All casino games are designed to mathematically favor the house. The [[house edge]] for a [[slot machine]] can range widely between 2 and 15 percent.<ref>[[Michael Shackleford|Shackleford, Michael]]. "[http://wizardofodds.com/gambling/house-edge House Edge of casino games compared]". Wizardofodds.com. Retrieved 9 December 2013.</ref>]] [[Casino game]] design can entail the creation of an entirely new casino game, the creation of a variation on an existing casino game, or the creation of a new [[side bet]] on an existing casino game.<ref name=lubin>Lubin, Dan. "Casino Game Design: From Cocktail Napkin Sketch to Casino Floor". Available: [http://gamingmath.com/misc/casino-game-design.pdf]. Retrieved 13 December 2014.</ref> Casino game mathematician, [[Michael Shackleford]] has noted that it is much more common for casino game designers today to make successful variations than entirely new casino games.<ref name=shackleford>[[Michael Shackleford|Shackleford, Michael]]. "[http://wizardofodds.com/gambling/ten-commandments-game-inventors Ten Commandments for Game Inventors]". Wizardofodds.com. Retrieved 13 December 2014.</ref> Gambling columnist [[John Grochowski]] points to the emergence of community-style [[slot machine]]s in the mid-1990s, for example, as a successful variation on an existing casino game type.<ref>[[John Grochowski|Grochowski, John]]. "Gaming Guru: Tracing Back the Roots of Some Popular Gaming Machines at Casinos". ''[[The Press of Atlantic City]]''. 28 August 2013.</ref> Unlike the majority of other games which are designed primarily in the interest of the player, one of the central aims of casino game design is to optimize the [[house advantage]] and maximize revenue from [[gambler]]s. Successful casino game design works to provide entertainment for the player and revenue for the gambling house. To maximise player entertainment, casino games are designed with simple easy-to-learn rules that emphasize winning (i.e. whose rules enumerate many victory conditions and few loss conditions<ref name=shackleford/>), and that provide players with a variety of different gameplay postures (e.g. [[Hand (card games)|card hands]]).<ref name=lubin/> Player entertainment value is also enhanced by providing gamblers with familiar gaming elements (e.g. dice and cards) in new casino games.<ref name=lubin/><ref name=shackleford/> To maximise success for the gambling house, casino games are designed to be easy for [[croupier]]s to operate and for [[pit manager]]s to oversee.<ref name=lubin/><ref name=shackleford/> The two most fundamental rules of casino game design is that the games must be non-fraudable<ref name=lubin/> (including being as nearly as possible immune from [[advantage gambling]]<ref name=shackleford/>), and that they must mathematically favor the house winning. Shackleford suggests that the optimum casino game design should give the house an edge of smaller than 5%.<ref name=shackleford/> ===Role-playing games=== {{Unreferenced section|date=December 2014}} {{see also|List of role-playing game designers}} The design of role-playing games requires the establishment of [[Campaign setting|setting]], [[Character creation|characters]], and basic [[role-playing game system|gameplay rules or mechanics]]. After a role-playing game is produced, additional design elements are often devised by the players themselves. In many instances, for example, [[character creation]] is left to the players. Likewise, the progression of a role-playing game is determined in large part by the [[gamemaster]] whose individual campaign design may be directed by one of several [[role-playing game theory|role-playing game theories]]. There is no central core for [[tabletop role-playing game]] theory because different people want such different things out of the games. Probably the most famous category of RPG theory, [[GNS Theory]] assumes that people want one of three things out of the game – a better, more interestingly challenging game, to create a more interesting [[narrative|story]], or a better simulation – in other words better rules to support [[worldbuilding]]. GNS Theory has been abandoned by its creator, partly because it neglects emotional investment, and partly because it just didn't work properly. There are techniques that people use (such as [[dice pool]]s) to better create the game they want – but with no consistent goal or agreement for what makes for a good game there's no overarching theory generally agreed on.{{Citation needed|date=December 2014}} ===Sports=== {{expand section|date=December 2014}}{{Confusing|section|date=May 2017}} <!--Expand this section and add the content from the following references below. Thank you. Yours sincerely, Qwertyxp2000--> Sports games are made with the same rules as the sport the game portrays.{{clarify|date=December 2014}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/131785/the_designers_notebook_designing_.php|title=The Designer's Notebook: Designing and Developing Sports Games|publisher=Gamasutra}} Retrieved on 15 December 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://stevevincent.info/CAP211_2012GameDesign5.htm|title=Game Design: Sports Games|publisher=stevevincent.info}} Retrieved on 14 December 2014</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com/images/9780133811933/samplepages/013381193X.pdf|title=Fundamentals of Sports Game Design}} Retrieved on 15 December 2014.</ref> ===Video games=== {{main|Video game design}} [[Image:Battle for Mandicor 0.0.5.png|thumb|Video game [[Software prototyping|prototypes]] created during the pre-production design phase are often used as a [[proof of concept]] for the implementation of new rules or gameplay features.]] Video game design is a process that takes place in the [[Game development#Pre-production|pre-production]] phase of video game development. In the video game industry, game design describes the creation of the content and rules of a video game.<ref name=Brathwaite>{{cite book | title=Challenges for Game Designers | last1=Brathwaite | first1=Brenda | authorlink1 = Brenda Brathwaite | last2=Schreiber | first2=Ian | pages=2–5 | year=2009 | publisher=Charles River Media | isbn=978-1584505808}}</ref> The goal of this process for the game designer is to provide players with the opportunity to make meaningful decisions in relation to playing the game.<ref name=Brathwaite/> [[Video game design#Game elements|Elements of video game design]] such as the establishment of fundamental [[gameplay]] rules provide a framework within which players will operate, while the addition of narrative structures provide players with a reason to care about playing the game.<ref>{{cite book | title=Video Game Design Revealed | last=Lecky-Thompson | first=Guy W. | pages=43–45 | year=2008 | publisher=Cengage Learning | isbn=978-1584506072 }}</ref> To establish the rules and narrative, an internally consistent [[game world]] is created, requiring visual, audio, and programming development for world, [[Characterization|character]], and [[level design]]. The amount of work that is required to accomplish this often demands the use of a design team which may be divided into smaller [[Video game design#Disciplines|game design disciplines]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Ultimate Guide to Video Game Writing and Design | last1=Dille | first1=Flint | authorlink1 = Flint Dille |last2=Platten | first2=John Zuur| pages=137–149 | year=2007 | publisher=Lone Eagle | isbn=978-1580650663 }}</ref> In order to maintain internal consistency between the teams, a specialized [[software design document]] known as a "[[game design document]]" (and sometimes an even broader scope "game bible" document) provides overall contextual guidance on ambient mood, appropriate tone, and other less tangible aspects of the game world.<ref>{{cite book | title=Level Up!: The Guide to Great Video Game Design | last1=Rogers | first1=Scott | pages=57–81 | year=2010 | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | isbn=978-0470970928 }}</ref> An important aspect of video game design is [[human-computer interaction]]<ref name="PippinBarr.com">{{cite web | url=http://www.pippinbarr.com/academic/Pippin_Barr_PhD_Thesis.pdf | title=Video Game Values – Play as Human-Computer Interaction | accessdate=9 December 2014 | author=Barr, Pippin }}</ref> and [[game feel]]. ===War games=== {{expand section|date=May 2014}} [[File:HG Wells playing to Little Wars.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[H. G. Wells]] playing ''[[Little Wars]]'']] The first military [[Wargaming|war games]], or [[Kriegsspiel (wargame)|Kriegsspiel]], were designed in [[Prussia]] in the 19th century to train staff officers.<ref name="KRIEG">{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/spielzeug/0,1518,625745,00.html|title=Wie preußische Militärs den Rollenspiel-Ahnen erfanden|last=Lischka|first=Konrad|date=22 June 2009|work=[[Der Spiegel]]|language=German|accessdate=15 February 2010}}</ref> They are also [[Wargaming|played as a hobby for entertainment]]. Modern war games are designed to test [[military doctrine|doctrines]], [[Military strategy|strategies]] and [[Military tactics|tactics]] in full scale exercises with [[opposing force]]s at venues like the [[National Training Center|NTC]], [[Fort Polk#JRTC moves to Polk|JRTC]] and the [[Joint Multinational Readiness Center|JMRC]], involving [[NATO]] countries. ==See also== {{portal|Games|Video games}} * [[Gamification]] * [[Play (activity)]] * [[Video game design]] ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist|30em}}<ref name=":0" /> ==Further reading== * Baur, Wolfgang. ''Complete Kobold Guide to Game Design''. Open Design LLC 2012. {{ISBN|978-1936781065}} * Burgun, Keith. ''Game Design Theory: A New Philosophy for Understanding Games''. Publisher: A K Peters/CRC Press 2012. {{ISBN|978-1466554207}} * Costikyan, Greg. ''Uncertainty in Games''. MIT Press 2013. {{ISBN|978-0262018968}} * Elias, George Skaff. ''Characteristics of Games''. MIT Press 2012. {{ISBN|978-0262017138}} * Hofer, Margaret. ''The Games We Played: The Golden Age of Board & Table Games''. Princeton Architectural Press 2003. {{ISBN|978-1568983974}} * Huizinga, Johan. ''Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture''. Beacon Press 1971. {{ISBN|978-0807046814}} * Kankaanranta, Marja Helena. ''Design and Use of Serious Games (Intelligent Systems, Control and Automation: Science and Engineering)''. Springer 2009. {{ISBN|978-9048181414}}. * Norman, Donald A. ''The Design of Everyday Things''. Basic Books 2002. {{ISBN|978-0465067107}}. * Peek, Steven. ''The Game Inventor's Handbook''. Betterway Books 1993. {{ISBN|978-1558703155}} * Peterson, Jon. ''Playing at the World''. Unreason Press 2012. {{ISBN|978-0615642048}}. * Schell, Jesse. ''The Art of Game Design: A book of lenses''. CRC Press 2008. {{ISBN|978-0123694966}} * Salen Tekinbad, Katie. ''Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals''. The MIT Press 2003. {{ISBN|978-0262240451}}. * Tinsman, Brian. ''The Game Inventor's Guidebook: How to Invent and Sell Board Games, Card Games, Role-Playing Games, & Everything in Between!'' Morgan James Publishing 2008. {{ISBN|978-1600374470}} * Woods, Stewart. ''Eurogames: The Design, Culture and Play of Modern European Board Games''. McFarland 2012. 978-0786467976 * {{Cite book | title=Game Design | last=Bates | first=Bob | year=2004 | edition=2nd | publisher=Thomson Course Technology | isbn=978-1-59200-493-5 | ref=Bates }} * {{Cite book | title=Game Industry Career Guide | last1=Moore | first1=Michael E. | last2=Novak | first2=Jeannie | year=2010 | publisher=Cengage Learning | location=Delmar | isbn=978-1-4283-7647-2 | ref=MoNov }} * {{Cite book | title=Gameplay and design | last=Oxland | first=Kevin | year=2004 | publisher=Addison Wesley | isbn=978-0-321-20467-7 | ref=Oxland }} {{Design}} {{Game design}} {{Types of games}} [[Category:Game theory]] [[Category:Game design| ]] [[Category:Leisure activities]]'