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'{{Infobox monument |monument_name = Obelisk of Axum Tigrinya የአክሱም ሐወልት |image = Rome Stele.jpg |caption = The Obelisk of Axum in [[Ethiopia]]'s [[Tigray Region]] (2009) |location = |designer = |type = |material = |length = |width = |height = {{convert|24|m|feet|abbr=on}}<ref name="bbc2">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1448531.stm |title=Italy to keep Ethiopian monument |publisher=BBC News |date=2001-07-20 |accessdate=2013-07-07}}</ref> |begin = |complete = |open = |dedicated_to = |map_image = |map_caption = |map_width = |coordinates = {{coord|14|7|56|N|38|43|11|E|type:landmark_region:ET|display=inline,title}} |extra = }} The '''Obelisk of Axum''' ({{lang-am|የአክሱም ሐውልት}}) is a 4th-century AD, 24-metre-tall (79-feet) [[Phonolite series in North Ethiopia|phonolite]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miruts Hagos |last2=Koeberl |first2=C. |last3=Jourdan |first3=F. |title=Geochemistry and Geochronology of Phonolitic and Trachytic Source Rocks of the Axum Obelisks and Other Stone Artifacts, Axum, Ethiopia |journal=Geoheritage |date=2017 |volume=9 |pages=479-494 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12371-016-0199-7}}</ref> [[stele]]/[[obelisk]], weighing 160&nbsp;[[tonne]]s, in the city of [[Axum]] in [[Ethiopia]]. It is ornamented with two false [[door]]s at the base and features decorations resembling [[window]]s on all sides. The obelisk ends in a semi-circular top part, which used to be enclosed by metal frames. ==History== ===Overview=== The obelisk—properly termed a "[[stele]]" or, in the local [[Afro-Asiatic languages]], ''hawelt/hawelti'' (as it is not topped by a pyramid)—is found along with many other stelae in the city of [[Axum]] in modern-day [[Ethiopia]]. The stelae were probably carved and erected during the 4th century AD by subjects of the [[Kingdom of Aksum]], an ancient Ethiopian civilization. Erection of stelae in Axum was a very old practice (today it is still possible to see primitive roughly carved stelae near more elaborated "obelisks"), probably borrowed from the Kushitic kingdom of [[Meroe]]. Their function is supposed to be that of "markers" for underground burial chambers. The largest of the grave markers were for royal burial chambers and were decorated with multi-story false windows and false doors, while lesser nobility would have smaller, less decorated ones. While there are only a few large ones standing, there are hundreds of smaller ones in various "stelae fields". The last stele erected in Axum was probably the so-called [[King Ezana's Stele]], in the 4th century AD. [[File:2 giugno 2002-Axum.JPG|thumb|left|220px|The Obelisk of Axum in [[Rome]] in 2002, before its repatriation.]] King [[Ezana]] (c. 321&nbsp;– c. 360), influenced by his childhood tutor [[Saint Frumentius|Frumentius]], introduced [[Christianity]] to Axum, precluding the [[Paganism|pagan]] practice of erecting burial stelae (it seems that at the feet of each obelisk, together with the grave, there was also a sacrificial altar). Over the course of time, many of these stelae fell to the ground<ref>Poissonnier B. (2012) [https://www.academia.edu/3439296/_2014 The giant stelae of Aksum in the light of the 1999 excavations], in Fauvelle-Aymar, F.-X. (ed.), ''Palethnology of Africa'', '''4''', 49–86.</ref> due to: structural collapse (as, probably, in the case of the Great Stele, measuring 33 m), possibly immediately after their erection; earthquakes (Axum is in a [[seismic zone]]); or the military incursions of the Imam [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi|Ahmad Gragn]] during the [[Ethiopian-Adal War]] from 1529 to 1543. In the 19th century, of the three major "royal" stelae, only [[King Ezana's Stele]] remained erect, shown in the print "The Obelis of Axum" of [[Henry Salt (Egyptologist)|Henry Salt]] (1780–1827).<ref name="Friis">{{cite web |last1=Friis |first1=Ib |title=Travelling Among Fellow Christians (1768–1833): James Bruce, Henry Salt and Eduard Rüppell in Abyssinia. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260070049_Travelling_Among_Fellow_Christians_1768-1833_James_Bruce_Henry_Salt_and_Eduard_Ruppell_in_Abyssinia/figures?lo=1 |website=Researchgate |publisher=Scientia Danica |accessdate=18 May 2019}}</ref> Salt travelled back to England with [[Thomas Fremantle (Royal Navy officer)|Captain Thomas Fremantle]], and the design of the Obelisk of Axum influenced that of [[the Nelson Monument, Portsdown Hill]], for which Fremantle raised the funds.<ref name="AES">{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=Keith |title=The Nelson Monument |url=https://anglo-ethiopian.org/publications/articles.php?type=A&reference=publications/articles/2012summer/nelson.php |website=anglo-ethiopian.org |publisher=[[Anglo-Ethiopian Society]] |accessdate=18 May 2019}}</ref> At the end of 1935, following the Italian occupation, Italian soldiers found the Obelisk of Axum was collapsed and broken. It had fallen in the 4th century and had broken into five pieces.<ref>{{ cite web |url= http://www.unesco.org/culture/laws/pdf/abstract_scovazzi.pdf |format= pdf |publisher= UNESCO |first= Tullio |last= Scovazzi |date= April 2008 |title= The return of the Axum Obelisk |quote= Abstract with pictorial }}</ref> In 1937, it was taken as [[Looting|war booty]] and moved to Italy by the Fascist regime, which wanted to commemorate the occupation of Ethiopia and the birth of the ephemeral "new Roman Empire" (see [[Italian Empire]]). The stele was transported by truck along the tortuous route between Axum and the port of [[Massawa]], taking five trips over a period of two months. It arrived via ship in [[Naples]] (on a ship called ''[[Battle of Adowa|Adwa]]''), on March 27, 1937. It was then transported to Rome, where it was reassembled and erected on [[Porta Capena]] square in front of the Ministry for Italian Africa (later the headquarters of the [[United Nations]]'s [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]) and the [[Circus Maximus]]. It was officially unveiled on October 28, 1937 to commemorate the fifteenth anniversary of the [[March on Rome]].<ref name="bbc" /> The operation was coordinated by Ugo Monneret de Villard.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} A bronze statue of the [[Lion of Judah]], symbol of the Ethiopian monarchy, was taken along with the obelisk and displayed in front of [[Roma Termini railway station|Termini railway station]].{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} ===Repatriation=== [[File:Aksum-107547.jpg|alt=Workers during Aksum Obelisk re-installation|thumb|Workers during Aksum Obelisk re-installation]] In a 1947 UN agreement, Italy agreed to return the stele to Ethiopia,<ref name="bbc">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1402354.stm |title=No return for Ethiopian treasure |publisher=BBC News |date=2001-06-22 |accessdate=2013-07-07}}</ref> along with the other looted piece, the Lion of Judah. While the latter was returned in 1967 following the 1961 visit of emperor [[Haile Selassie]] to Italy, little action was taken to return the stele for more than 50 years, partly as a consequence of the considerable technical difficulties related to its transportation. One source<ref>For example, prince Amedeo di Savoia</ref> also suggests that emperor Haile Sellassie, after hearing of these technical difficulties (and of the enormous costs necessary to overcome them), decided to grant the stele to the city of Rome, as a gift for the "renewed friendship" between Italy and Ethiopia. This assertion, however, remains very controversial and was not recognized by successive authorities. Colonel [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] who overthrew the emperor in 1974, asked the Italian government to return the stele to Ethiopia. Another controversial arrangement, according to some sources, seems to be that Italy could keep the stele in exchange for the construction of a hospital in Addis Ababa (Saint Paul's Hospital) and for the cancellation of debts owed by Ethiopia. In any case, after the fall of the Mengistu regime, the new Ethiopian government asked for the return of the stele, finding a positive answer from the then president of the Italian republic [[Oscar Luigi Scalfaro]], in April 1997.<ref name="bbc" /> [[File:Axum northern stelea park.jpg|thumb|The Northern Stelae Park in [[Axum]], with the [[King Ezana's Stele]] at the centre and the Great Stele lying broken.]] The first steps in dismantling the structure were taken in November 2003, under the supervision of Giorgio Croci, Professor of Structural Problems of Monuments and Historical Buildings at [[Sapienza University of Rome]].<ref name="spectator-2003">{{Cite news | last=Johnson | first=Paul | authorlink=Paul Johnson (writer) | title=Trundling Musso’s stolen obelisk back to its African home | url=http://www.spectator.co.uk/2005/03/trundling-mussos-stolen-obelisk-back-to-its-african-home/ | newspaper=The Spectator | date=12 March 2005 }}</ref> The intent was to ship the stele back to Ethiopia in March 2004, but the repatriation project encountered a series of obstacles: The runway at [[Axum Airport]] was considered too short for a cargo plane carrying even one of the thirds into which the stele had been cut; the roads and bridges between Addis Ababa and Axum were thought to be not up to the task of road transport; and access through the nearby [[Eritrea]]n port of Massawa—which was how the stele originally left Africa—was impossible due to the [[Foreign relations of Ethiopia#Eritrea|strained state of relations between Eritrea and Ethiopia]].{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} [[File:Aksum-107569.jpg|alt=Inauguration Ceremony for the reinstallation of the Aksum Obelisk|thumb|Inauguration Ceremony for the reinstallation of the Aksum Obelisk]] The runway at Axum airport was then upgraded specially to facilitate the return of the stele.<ref name="return">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4458105.stm |title=Obelisk arrives back in Ethiopia |publisher=BBC News |date=2005-04-19 |accessdate=2013-07-07}}</ref> The dismantled stele remained sitting in a warehouse near Rome's [[Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport]], until 19 April 2005 when the middle piece was repatriated by use of an [[Antonov An-124]], amidst much local celebration.<ref name="return" /> It was the largest and heaviest piece of air freight ever carried.<ref name="return" /> The second piece was returned on 22 April 2005, with the final piece returned on 25 April 2005. The operation cost Italy $7.7 million.<ref name="return" /> The stele remained in storage while Ethiopia decided how to reconstruct it without disturbing other ancient treasures still in the area (especially King Ezana's Stele). By March 2007 the foundation had been poured for the re-erection of the stele near King Ezana's Stele, structurally consolidated in this occasion. Reassembly began in June 2008, with a team chosen by [[UNESCO]] and led by Giorgio Croci, and the monument was re-erected in its original home and unveiled on 4 September 2008.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7597589.stm |title=Ethiopia unveils ancient obelisk |publisher=BBC News |date=2008-09-04 |accessdate=2013-07-07}}</ref> When it was reassembled in Rome in 1937 three [[steel]] bars were inserted per section. When the obelisk was hit by [[lightning]] during a violent [[thunderstorm]] over Rome on 27 May 2002 this caused "considerable" damage.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2012770.stm |title=Rome obelisk struck by lightning |publisher=BBC News |date=2002-05-28 |accessdate=2013-07-07}}</ref> In the new reconstruction the three sections are fixed together<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corriere.it/cronache/08_maggio_26/l_obelisco_conteso_rinasce_ad_axum_6f8d4c02-2aec-11dd-9793-00144f02aabc.shtml |title='&#39;Corriere della sera (in Italian)'&#39;; L’obelisco conteso rinasce ad Axum |publisher=Corriere.it |date= |accessdate=2013-07-07}}</ref> by a total of eight [[aramid]] fiber ([[Kevlar]]) bars: four between the first and second and four between the second and third sections. This arrangement guarantees structural resistance during earthquakes and avoids the use of steel, so as not to again make the stele a magnet for lightning and to avoid [[rust]].{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Several other similar stelae/obelisks exist in Ethiopia and Eritrea, such as the [[Hawulti (monument)|Hawulti]] in [[Metera]]. Like the Obelisk of Axum, the other stelae have a [[rectangular]] base with a false door carved on one side.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} == 3D Documentation with Laser-Scanning == The [[Zamani Project|Zamani Projec]]<nowiki/>t, document cultural heritage sites in 3D to create a record for future generations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rüther|first=Heinz|last2=Rajan|first2=Rahim S.|date=2007|title=Documenting African Sites: The Aluka Project|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/jsah.2007.66.4.437|journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians|volume=66|issue=4|pages=437–443|doi=10.1525/jsah.2007.66.4.437|issn=0037-9808}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.isprs.org/proceedings/xxxiv/6-w6/papers/ruther.pdf|title=AN AFRICAN HERITAGE DATABASE THE VIRTUAL PRESERVATION OF AFRICA’S PAST|last=Ruther|first=Heinz|date=|website=isprs.org|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/01/05/africa/preserving-heritage-african-sites-3-d/index.html|title=Meet the scientists immortalizing African heritage in virtual reality|last=CNN|first=Chris Giles|website=CNN|access-date=2019-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/africa/1499880/africas-heritage-sites-brought-to-life-in-3d/|title=Africa’s great heritage sites are being mapped out with point precision lasers|last=Wild|first=Sarah|website=Quartz Africa|language=en|access-date=2019-10-17}}</ref> The documentation is based on terrestrial laser-scanning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rüther|first=Heinz|last2=Held|first2=Christof|last3=Bhurtha|first3=Roshan|last4=Schroeder|first4=Ralph|last5=Wessels|first5=Stephen|date=2012-01-13|title=From Point Cloud to Textured Model, the Zamani Laser Scanning Pipeline in Heritage Documentation|url=http://www.sajg.org.za/index.php/sajg/article/view/20|journal=South African Journal of Geomatics|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=44–59–59|issn=2225-8531}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zamaniproject.org/transfer/Challenges_in_Heritage_Documentation_with_Terrestrial_Laser_Scanning_2011.pdf|title=Challenges in Heritage Documentation with Terrestrial Laser Scanning|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> The 3D documentation of parts of the Axum Stelae Field was carried out in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zamaniproject.org/site-ethiopia-aksum-stelae-field.html|title=Site - Aksum Obelisk|website=zamaniproject.org|access-date=2019-10-18}}</ref> 3D models, plans and images can be view [https://zamaniproject.org/site-ethiopia-aksum-stelae-field.html#header5-jo here] ==Gallery== <gallery> File:Salt and Havell (1809) The Obelisk at Axum.png|The Obelisk at Axum in 1805 File:Obelisk of Aksum Remains.jpg|Obelisk of Aksum Remains File:Obelisk of Aksum Remains2.jpg|Obelisk of Aksum Remains File:Obelisk of Aksum Remains4.jpg|Obelisk of Aksum Remains File:Obelisk of Aksum Remains5.jpg|Obelisk of Aksum Remains File:Obelisk of Aksum Remains6.jpg|Obelisk of Aksum Remains </gallery> ==Notes and references== {{Reflist|33em}} ==External links== {{Commons category}} *[http://www.13suns.com/obelisks.htm Obelisks of Axum–North Ethiopia] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4458105.stm Obelisk arrives back in Ethiopia] (BBC News) *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7435314.stm Ethiopia starts restoring obelisk] (BBC News] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20040624124322/http://www.ethioembassy.org.uk/fact%20file/a-z/Looted%20Treasure/The%20Axum%20Obelisk.htm The Axum Obelisk] (Ethiopian Embassy in the UK) *[http://english.people.com.cn/200510/30/eng20051030_217733.html UNESCO says Axum obelisk to be put up before start of Ethiopian rainy season], [[People's Daily]], 30 October 2005 *[http://ethiopianamericanforum.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=257:aksum-obelisk-revisited Aksum Obelisk Revisited] <!---Formerly in Rome, so this is an important part of its history.---> {{DEFAULTSORT:Obelisk Of Axum}} [[Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 4th century]] [[Category:Axumite obelisks]] [[Category:Obelisks in Ethiopia|Axum]] [[Category:Art and cultural repatriation]] [[Category:Relocated buildings and structures]] [[Category:Axum (city)]]'