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[[Image:Badshah Khan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] of the [[Khudai Khidmatgars]] and [[Mohandas Gandhi]] of the [[Indian National Congress]].]]
'''Gandhism''' is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and the life work of [[Mohandas Gandhi]]. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the idea of [[nonviolent resistance]], sometimes also called [[civil resistance]]. The two pillars of Gandhism are truth and non-violence.
The term "Gandhism" also encompasses what Gandhi's ideas, words, and actions mean to people around the world and how they used them for guidance in building their own future. Gandhism also permeates into the realm of the individual human being, non-political and non-social. A [[:Category:Gandhians|Gandhian]] can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.<ref>{{cite book | author = Nicholas F. Gier | title = The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi | publisher = SUNY Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-7914-5949-2 | page = 222 }}</ref>
However, Gandhi did not approve of the term 'Gandhism'. As he explained:
{{quote|"There is no such thing as "Gandhism" and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills."<ref>Gwilym Beckerlegge, World religions reader, 2001</ref>}}
In the absence of a "Gandhism" approved by Gandhi himself, there is a school of thought that one has to derive what Gandhism stands for, from his life and works. One such deduction is a philosophy based on "truth" and "non-violence" in the following sense. First, we should acknowledge and accept the truth that people are different at all levels ("truth"). Second, that one should never resort to violence to settle inherent differences between human beings at any level: from between two people to two nations to two races or two religions ("non-violence").
==Antecedents==
Although Gandhi's thought is unique in its own right, it is not without ideological parents. Gandhi has in his own writings specified the inspiration for his saying certain things. It can be said that it is his exposure to the West, during his time in London, that compelled him to look at his position on various religious, social, and political affairs.
Soon after his arrival in London, he came under the influence of [[Henry Stephens Salt]], who was not yet the famous campaigner and social reformer that he would later become. Salt's first work, ''A plea for vegetarianism'' turned Gandhi towards the question of vegetarianism and food habits. It was also around this time that Gandhi joined vegetarian societies in London. Salt eventually became Gandhi's friend too. Talking of the significance of Salt's work, historian Ramachandra Guha said in his work 'Gandhi before India"For our visiting Indian, however, the Vegetarian Society was a shelter that saved him. The young Gandhi had little interest in the two great popular passions of late nineteenth-century London, the theatre and sport. Imperial and socialist politics left him cold. However, in the weekly meetings of the vegetarians of London he found a cause, and his first English friends."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gandhi before India|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|publisher=Allen Lane|year=2013|isbn=978-9-351-18322-8|location=|pages=}}</ref> </blockquote>Salt's work allowed Gandhi for the first time to take part in collective action. Salt later went on to write a biography of [[Henry David Thoreau]], who had a profound impact on Gandhi. Although [[Walden]] could as well have moved Gandhi, it was [[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)]] that was of greater importance. Gandhi was already in the midst of a form of civil disobedience in South Africa when he read Thoreau. Not only did he adopt the name for the kind of struggle that he would become a champion of, but also adopted the means of breaking laws in order to call for their reform. In 1907, Thoreau's name first appeared in the journal that Gandhi was then editing, [[Indian Opinion]] where Gandhi called Thoreau's logic 'incisive' and 'unanswerable'. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gandhi|first=MK|date=26 October 1907|title=|url=|journal=Indian Opinion|volume=|pages=438|via=}}</ref>
Gandhi's residence in South Africa itself sought inspiration from another Western literary figure - [[Leo Tolstoy]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gandhi before India|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|publisher=Allen Lane|year=2012|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Leo Tolstoy's critique of institutional Christianity and faith in the love of the spirit greatly moved him. He would after becoming a popular political activist write the foreword to Tolstoy's essay, ''A letter to a Hindu''. Gandhi exchanged letters with Tolstoy and named his Ashram 'Tolstoy Farm'. In Gandhian thought, Tolstoy's [[The Kingdom of God Is Within You]] sits alongside ''A plea'' and ''Civil Disobedience''.
Tolstoy Farm was Gandhi's experiment of his utopian political economy - later to be called 'Gram Swaraj'. One key source of this concept was [[John Ruskin]]'s [[Unto This Last]] in which Ruskin critiques the 'economic man' (this was written after Ruskin's retreat from Art criticism for which he was well-known). Gandhi tried in all his Ashrams a system of self-sufficiency and decentralised economies. Gandhi was gifted this book by his close associate named Henry Polak in South Africa. The philosophy of Ruskin urged Gandhi to translate this work into Gujarati.
In the Indian Opinion, we find mention of [[Giuseppe Mazzini]], [[Edward Carpenter]], [[Sir Henry Maine]], [[Helena Blavatsky]]. His first exploration of pluralism can be said to have begun with his association with the Jain guru near home, Raychandbhai Mehta.
==''Satyagraha''==
{{Main|Satyagraha}}
Satyagraha is formed by two Sanskrit words Satya (truth) and Agraha. The term was popularised during the [[Indian Independence Movement]], and is used in many [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] including [[Hindi]].
===Satya===
The pivotal and defining element of Gandhism is [[satya]],{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} a [[Sanskrit]] word for truth.<ref name=aam>[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell|A. A. Macdonell]], Sanskrit English Dictionary, Asian Educational Services, {{ISBN|978-8120617797}}, page 330-331</ref><ref>J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen et al (2003), Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Thomson Gale, {{ISBN|0-02-865704-7}}, page 405</ref> It also refers to a virtue in [[Indian religions]], referring to being truthful in one's thought, speech and action. Satya is also called as truth.<ref name=knt>KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816077}}, page 87</ref>
Gandhi said:- "The truth is far more powerful than any weapon of mass destruction."<ref>Nonviolence By Senthil Ram, Ralph Summy, 2007</ref>
==Brahmacharya and ahimsa==
{{see also|Brahmacharya|Ahimsa|Henry David Thoreau|Leo Tolstoy}}
The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) and nonviolent resistance has a long history in Indian religious thought and has had many revivals in Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Jain contexts. Gandhi explains his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography, ''The Story of My Experiments with Truth''. He was quoted as saying:
:"What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans, and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?"<ref>page 388, The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, by Gandhi (Mahatma), India. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Publications Division</ref>
:"It has always been easier to destroy than to create".<ref>Trustworthiness
by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</ref>
:"There are many causes that I am prepared to die for but no causes that I am prepared to kill for".<ref>Trustworthiness, by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</ref>
At the age of 36, Gandhi adopted the vow of [[brahmacharya]], or celibacy. He committed himself to the control of the senses, thoughts and actions. Celibacy was important to Gandhi for not only purifying himself of any [[lust]] and sexual urges, but also to purify his love for his wife as genuine and not an outlet for any turmoil or aggression within his mind.
[[Ahimsa]], or non-violence, was another key tenet of Gandhi's beliefs. He held that total non-violence would rid a person of anger, obsession and destructive impulses. While his vegetarianism was inspired by his rearing in the Hindu-[[Jain]] culture of [[Gujarat]], it was also an extension of ahimsa.
On 6 July 1940, Gandhi published an article in ''[[Harijan]]'' which applied these philosophies to the question of British involvement in [[World War II]]. Homer Jack notes in his reprint of this article, "To Every Briton" (''The Gandhi Reader''<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPR14,M1 ''The Gandhi Reader'']</ref>) that, "to Gandhi, all war was wrong, and suddenly it 'came to him like a flash' to appeal to the British to adopt the method of non-violence."<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPR14,M1The Gandhi Reader]'', p.344</ref> In this article, Gandhi stated,
:I appeal to every Briton, wherever he may be now, to accept the method of non-violence instead of that of war, for the adjustment of relations between nations and other matters [...] I do not want Britain to be defeated, nor do I want her to be victorious in a trial of brute strength [...] I venture to present you with a nobler and braver way worthier of the bravest soldier. I want you to fight Nazism without arms, or, if I am to maintain military terminology, with non-violent arms. I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions. Let them take possession of your beautiful island, with your many beautiful buildings. You will give all these but neither your souls, nor your minds. If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourself, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them [...] my non-violence demands universal love, and you are not a small part of it. It is that love which has prompted my appeal to you.<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPR14,M1The Gandhi Reader]'', pp.345–6</ref>
==Economics==
{{Main|Gandhian economics|Swadeshi}}
Gandhi espoused an economic theory of [[simple living]] and [[self-sufficiency]]/import substitution, rather than generating exports like Japan and South Korea did. He envisioned a more agrarian India upon independence that would focus on meeting the material needs of its citizenry prior to generating wealth and industrialising.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mia Mahmudur Rahim|author2=Sanjaya Kuruppu|editor1-last=Ngwu|editor1-first=Franklin|editor2-last=Onyeka|editor2-first=Osuji|editor3-last=Frank|editor3-first=Stephen|title=Corporate Governance in Developing and Emerging Markets|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|url=http://www.tandfebooks.com/isbn/9781315666020|chapter=Corporate Governance in India: The Potential for Ghandism}}</ref>
===Khadi===
{{wikisource|The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_V/The_Birth_of_Khadi|The Birth of Khadi}}
Gandhi also adopted the clothing style of most Indians in the early 20th century. His adoption of [[khadi]], or homespun cloth, was intended to help eradicate the evils of poverty, social and economic discrimination. It was also aimed as a challenge to the contrast that he saw between most Indians, who were poor and traditional, and the richer classes of educated, liberal-minded Indians who had adopted Western mannerisms, clothing and practices.
The clothing policy was designed to protest against British economic policies in India. Millions of poor Indian workers were unemployed and entrenched in poverty, which Gandhi linked to the industrialisation of cotton processing in Britain. Gandhi promoted khadi as a direct boycott of the [[Lancashire cotton industry]], linking [[British imperialism]] to [[Indian poverty]]. He focused on persuading all members of the [[Indian National Congress]] to spend some time each day hand-spinning on the [[Spinning wheel#Charkha|charkha]] (spinning wheel). In addition to its point as an economic campaign, the drive for hand-spinning was an attempt to connect the privileged Indian [[brahmins]] and lawyers of Congress to connect with the mass of Indian peasantry.
Many prominent figures of the [[Indian independence movement]], including [[Motilal Nehru]], were persuaded by Gandhi to renounce their smart London-made clothes in favour of khadi.
==Fasting==
To Gandhi, [[fasting]] was an important method of exerting mental control over base desires. In his autobiography, Gandhi analyses the need to fast to eradicate his desire for delicious, spicy food. He believed that abstention would diminish his sensual faculties, bringing the body increasingly under the mind's absolute control. Gandhi was opposed to the partaking of meat, alcohol, stimulants, salt and most spices, and also eliminated different types of cooking from the food he ate.
Fasting would also put the body through unusual hardship, which Gandhi believed would cleanse the spirit by stimulating the courage to withstand all impulses and pain. Gandhi undertook a "Fast Unto Death" on three notable occasions:
*when he wanted to stop all revolutionary activities after the [[Chauri Chaura incident]] of 1922;
*when he feared that the 1932 [[Communal Award]] giving separate electorates to [[Dalit (outcaste)|Untouchable]] Hindus would politically divide the [[Hindu]] people;
*and in 1947, when he wanted to stop the bloodshed between Hindus and Muslims in [[Bengal]] and [[Delhi]].
In all three cases, Gandhi was able to abandon his fast before death. There was some controversy over the 1932 fast, which brought him into conflict with the other great leader [[B.R. Ambedkar]]. In the end, Gandhi and Ambedkar both made some concessions to negotiate the [[Poona Pact]], which abandoned the call for separate electorates in turn for voluntary representation and a commitment to abolish untouchability.
Gandhi also used the fasts as a penance, blaming himself for inciting Chauri Chaura and the divisive communal politics of both 1932 and 1947, especially the [[Partition of India]]. Gandhi sought to purify his soul and expiate his sins, in what he saw as his role in allowing terrible tragedies to happen. It took a heavy toll on his physical health and often brought him close to death.
==Religion==
{{Further|Hindu–Muslim unity}}
{{see also|Bhagavad Gita|Dharma|Hinduism|Jainism|Buddhism}}
Gandhi described his religious beliefs as being rooted in Hinduism as well and, in particular, the Bhagavad Gita:
:"Hinduism as I know it satisfies my soul, fills my whole being. When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and when I see not one ray of light on the horizon, I turn to the [[Bhagavad Gita]], and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. My life has been full of tragedies and if they have not left any visible and indelible effect on me, I owe it to the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita".<ref name="ReferenceA">Encyclopaedia of Indian philosophy by Vraj Kumar Pandey – History – 2007</ref>
He professed the philosophy of Hindu Universalism (also see [[Universalism]]), which maintains that all religions contain truth and therefore worthy of toleration and respect. It was articulated by Gandhi:
:"After long study and experience, I have come to the conclusion that all religions are true all religions have some error in them; all religions are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism, in as much as all human beings should be as dear to one as one's own close relatives. My own veneration for other faiths is the same as that for my own faith; therefore no thought of conversion is possible."<ref>M. K. Gandhi, All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words, Paris, UNESCO 1958, p 60.</ref>
Gandhi believed that at the core of every religion was truth (satya), non-violence (ahimsa) and the Golden Rule.
Despite his belief in Hinduism, Gandhi was also critical of many of the social practices of Hindus and sought to reform the religion.
:"Thus if I could not accept Christianity either as a perfect, or the greatest religion, neither was I then convinced of Hinduism being such. Hindu defects were pressingly visible to me. If [[untouchability]] could be a part of Hinduism, it could but be a rotten part or an excrescence. I could not understand the raison d'etre of a multitude of sects and castes. What was the meaning of saying that the [[Vedas]] were the inspired Word of God? If they were inspired, why not also the Bible and the [[Koran]]? As Christian friends were endeavouring to convert me, so were Muslim friends. Abdullah Sheth had kept on inducing me to study Islam, and of course he had always something to say regarding its beauty".<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
He then went on to say:
:"As soon as we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious. There is no such thing as religion over-riding morality. Man, for instance, cannot be untruthful, cruel or incontinent and claim to have God on his side".<ref>Mahatma Gandhi and comparative religion – Page 54 , by K.L. Seshagiri Rao – Biography & Autobiography – 1990</ref>
Gandhi was critical of the hypocrisy in organised religion, rather than the principles on which they were based.
:
Later in his life when he was asked whether he was a Hindu, he replied:
:"Yes I am. I am also a Christian, a Muslim, a [[Buddhist]] and a Jew".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wIiIWWjWargC&pg=PA5 A Man Called Bapu], Subhadra Sen Gupta, Pratham Books, 2008. P.5</ref>
Gandhi's religious views are reflected in the hymns his group often sang:
* [[Vaishnav jan to]] Call them Vishnava, those who understand the sufferings of others...
* [[Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram]] Call him [[Rama]] or God or Allah...
==Nehru's India==
{{See also|Sarvodaya}}
Gandhi was assassinated in 1948, but his teachings and philosophy would play a major role in India's economic and social development and foreign relations for decades to come.
''[[Sarvodaya]]'' is a term meaning 'universal uplift' or 'progress of all'. It was coined by Gandhi in 1908 as a title for his translation of [[John Ruskin]]'s ''Unto This Last''. Later, nonviolence leader [[Vinoba Bhave]] used the term to refer to the struggle of post-independence Gandhians to ensure that self-determination and equality reached the masses and the downtrodden. Sarvodaya workers associated with Vinoba, including [[Jaya Prakash Narayan]] and [[Dada Dharmadhikari]], undertook various projects aimed at encouraging popular self-organisation during the 1950s and 1960s. Many groups descended from these networks continue to function locally in India today.
The [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], was often considered Gandhi's successor, although he was not religious and often disagreed with Gandhi. He was, however, deeply influenced by Gandhi personally as well as politically, and used his premiership to pursue ideological policies based on Gandhi's principles. In fact, on 15 January 1942, in the AICC session Gandhi openly proclaimed Nehru as his successor. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Rajaji, A life|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|publisher=Penguin India|year=1997|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>
Nehru's foreign policy was staunch anti-[[colonialism]] and [[Neutral country|neutrality]] in the [[Cold War]]. Nehru backed the independence movement in Tanzania and other African nations, as well as the [[Civil Rights Movement]] in the United States and the anti-apartheid struggle of [[Nelson Mandela]] and the [[African National Congress]] in South Africa. Nehru refused to align with either the United States or the [[Soviet Union]], and helped found the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].
Nehru also pushed through major legislation that granted legal rights and freedoms to Indian women, and outlawed [[untouchability]] and many different kinds of social discrimination, in the face of strong opposition from orthodox Hindus.
Not all of Nehru's policies were Gandhian. Nehru refused to condemn the [[USSR]]'s 1956–57 invasion of Hungary to put down an anti-communist, popular revolt. Some of his economic policies were criticised for removing the right of property and freedoms from the landowning peasants of [[Gujarat]] for whom Gandhi had fought in the early 1920s. India's economic policies under Nehru were highly different from Gandhi's with Nehru following a socialist model. Nehru also brought Goa and Hyderabad into the Indian union through military invasion.
At this point it is important to note that Gandhi believed in a kind of socialism but one that was very different from Nehru's. In praise of socialism, Gandhi once said, "... socialism is as pure as a crystal. It therefore requires crystal-like means to achieve it."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas|date=13 July 1946|title=The Means|url=|journal=Harijan|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Moreover Gandhi was conscious of the fact that Nehru's ideology differed from his but did not object to that as he was aware that this was a well-thought-out standpoint. He called this a difference in emphasis, his being on 'means' while Nehru's being on ends.
Nehru's biggest failure is often considered to be the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]], though his policy is said to have been inspired by Gandhian [[pacifism]]. In this instance, it led to the defeat of the [[Indian Army]] against a surprise Chinese invasion. Nehru had neglected the defence budget and disallowed the Army to prepare, which caught the soldiers in India's north eastern frontier off-guard with lack of supplies and reinforcements.
==Freedom==
{{see also|Apartheid|Tienanmen Square protests of 1989|Civil Rights Movement}}
Gandhi's deep commitment and disciplined belief in non-violent civil disobedience as a way to oppose forms of oppression or injustice has inspired many subsequent political figures, including [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] of the United States, [[Julius Nyerere]] of Tanzania, [[Nelson Mandela]] and [[Steve Biko]] of South Africa, [[Lech Wałęsa]] of Poland and [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] of Myanmar.
Gandhi's early life work in South Africa between the years 1910 and 1915, for the improved rights of Indian residents living under the white minority South African government inspired the later work of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC). From the 1950s, the ANC organised non-violent civil disobedience akin to the campaign advanced by the [[Indian National Congress]] under the inspiration of Gandhi between the 1920s and 1940s. ANC activists braved the harsh tactics of the police to protest against the oppressive South African government. Many, especially Mandela, languished for decades in jail, while the world outside was divided in its effort to remove [[apartheid]]. [[Steve Biko]], perhaps the most vocal adherent to non-violent civil resistance, was allegedly murdered in 1977 by agents of the government.
When the first universal, free elections were held in South Africa in 1994, the ANC was elected and Mandela became president. Mandela made a special visit to India and publicly honoured Gandhi as the man who inspired the freedom struggle of black South Africans. Statues of Gandhi have been erected in [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]], [[Pretoria]] and [[Johannesburg]].
[[Martin Luther King Jr.]], a young Christian minister and a leader of the [[Civil Rights Movement]] seeking the emancipation of African Americans from racial segregation in the American South, and also from economic and social injustice and political disenfranchisement, traveled to India in 1962 to meet [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]. The two discussed Gandhi's teachings, and the methodology of organising peaceful resistance. The graphic imagery of black protesters being hounded by police, beaten and brutalised, evoked admiration for King and the protesters across America and the world, and precipitated the [[1964 Civil Rights Act]].
The non-violent [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement of [[Lech Wałęsa]] of Poland overthrew a Soviet-backed communist government after two decades of peaceful resistance and strikes in 1989, precipitating the downfall of the Soviet Union.
Myanmar's [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] was put under house arrest, and her [[National League for Democracy]] suppressed in their non-violent quest for democracy and freedom in military-controlled Myanmar. This struggle was inaugurated when the military dismissed the results of the 1991 democratic elections and imposed military rule. She was released in November 2010, when free elections were to be held.
=="Without truth, nothing"==
Mohandas Gandhi's early life was a series of personal struggles to decipher the truth about life's important issues and discover the true way of living. He admitted in his autobiography to hitting his wife when he was young,<ref>Mohatma Gandhi, (1957) An autobiography: The story of my experiments with truth (M. H. Desai Trans.). Beacon Press. pp. 24–25</ref> and indulging in carnal pleasures out of lust, jealousy and possessiveness, not genuine love. He had eaten meat, smoked a cigarette, and almost visited a hustler. It was only after much personal turmoil and repeated failures that Gandhi developed his philosophy.
Gandhi disliked having a cult following, and was averse to being addressed as ''[[Mahatma]]'', claiming that he was not a perfect human being.
In 1942, while he had already condemned [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Benito Mussolini]] and the Japanese militarists, Gandhi took on an offensive in civil resistance, called the [[Quit India Movement]], which was even more dangerous and definitive owing to its direct call for Indian independence. Gandhi did not perceive the British as defenders of freedom due to their rule in India. He did not feel a need to take sides with world powers.
==Gandhians==
There have been Muslim Gandhians, such as [[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], known as the "Frontier Gandhi"{{by whom|date=October 2018}}; under the influence of Gandhi, he organised the Pathans of the Northwest Frontier as early as 1919.<ref>Ronald M. McCarthy and Gene Sharp, ''Nonviolent action: a research guide'' (1997) p. 317</ref> Christian Gandhians include [[Horace Alexander]]<ref>Horace Alexander, ''Consider India: An Essay in Values'' (London: Asia, 1961), p. 73</ref> and [[Martin Luther King]].<ref>Mary Elizabeth King, ''Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr: the power of nonviolent action'' (UNESCO Publishing, 1999), p. 183</ref> Jewish Gandhians include Gandhi's close associate [[Herman Kallenbach]]. Atheist Gandhians include [[Jawaharlal Nehru]].
==Promotion of Gandhian ideas==
Several journals have also been published to promote Gandhian ideas. One of the most well-known is ''Gandhi Marg'',
an English-language journal published since 1957 by the [[Gandhi Peace Foundation]].<ref>[[Ananda M. Pandiri]],
''A Comprehensive, Annotated Bibliography on Mahatma Gandhi:Biographies, Works by Gandhi, and Bibliographical Sources''
Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995
{{ISBN|0313253374}} (p. 349).</ref>
Harold Dwight Lasswell, a political scientist and communications theorist, defined propaganda as the management of eclectic attitudes by manipulation of significant symbols. Based on this definition of Propaganda, Gandhi made use of significant symbols to drive his ideal of a united India free of British rule.<ref>Barlow, David M., and Brett Mills. "Harold D. Lasswell." Reading media theory: thinkers, approaches and contexts. Second Edition ed. Harlow, England: Pearson Longman, 2012. 103. Print.</ref>
His ideas symbolized in propaganda stated that India was a nation capable of economic self-sufficiency without the British, a unity transcending religion would make for a stronger nation, and that the most effective method of protest was through passive resistance, including non-violence and the principle of satyagraha. In the "Quit India" speeches, Gandhi says "the proposal for the withdrawal of British power is to enable India to play its due part at the present critical juncture. It is not a happy position for a big country like India to be merely helping with money and material obtained willy-nilly from her while the United Nations are conducting the war. We cannot evoke the true spirit of sacrifice and velour, so long as we are not free." On his ideas towards a unified India he said: "Thousands of Mussalmans have told me, that if Hindu-Muslim question was to be solved satisfactorily, it must be done in my lifetime. I should feel flattered at this; but how can I agree to proposal which does not appeal to my reason? Hindu-Muslim unity is not a new thing. Millions of Hindus and Mussalmans have sought after it. I consciously strove for its achievement from my boyhood. While at school, I made it a point to cultivate the friendship of Muslims and Parsi co-students. I believed even at that tender age that the Hindus in India, if they wished to live in peace and amity with the other communities, should assiduously cultivate the virtue of neighbourliness. It did not matter, I felt, if I made no special effort to cultivate the friendship with Hindus, but I must make friends with at least a few Mussalmans. In India too I continued my efforts and left no stone unturned to achieve that unity. It was my life-long aspiration for it that made me offer my fullest co-operation to the Mussalmans in the Khilafat movement. Muslims throughout the country accepted me as their true friend." <ref>Bandopadhaya, Sailesh Kumar. "The "Quit India" Resolution." My non-violence. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Pub. House, 1960. 183-205. Print.</ref> Gandhi's belief in the effectiveness of passive, non-violent resistance has been quoted as being the "belief that non-violence alone will lead men to do right under all circumstances."
These ideas were symbolized by Gandhi through the use of significant symbols, an important proponent in the acceptance of propaganda, in his speeches and movements. On 3 November 1930, there was the speech given before the Dandi March which possibly could have been one of Gandhi's last speeches, in which the significant symbol of the march itself demonstrates the exclusively nonviolent struggle to empower a self-sufficient India. Beginning in Ahmedabad and concluding in Dandi, Gujarat, the march saw Gandhi and his supporters directly disobey the Rowlatt Act which imposed heavy taxation and enforced British monopoly on the salt market.<ref>Gandhi, M. K., and Mahadev Desai. "On The Eve Of Historic Dandi March." The selected works of Mahatma Gandhi. Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan Publ. House, 1968. 28-30. Print.</ref>
The Khadi movement, part of the larger swadeshi movement, employed the significant symbol of the burning of British cloth in order to manipulate attitudes towards boycotting British goods and rejecting Western culture and urging the return to ancient, precolonial culture. Gandhi obtained a wheel and engaged his disciples in spinning their own cloth called Khadi; this commitment to hand spinning was an essential element to Gandhi's philosophy and politics.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=2156064 | pmid=18048775 | doi=10.2105/AJPH.2007.120139 | volume=98 | title=Spinning for India's independence | year=2008 | journal=Am J Public Health | pages=39 | last1 = Brown | first1 = TM | last2 = Fee | first2 = E}}</ref>
On 1 December 1948, Gandhi dictated his speech on the eve of the last fast. Using the fast as a form of significant symbolism, he justifies it as "a fast which a votary of non-violence sometimes feels impelled to undertake by way of protest against some wrong done by society, and this he does when as a votary of Ahimsa has no other remedy left. Such an occasion has come my way." This fast was conducted in line with his idea of a nation's communities and religions brought together. Gandhi's fast was only to end when he was satisfied with the reunion of hearts of all the communities brought about without any outside pressure, but from an awakened sense of duty.<ref>"Speech on the Eve of the Last Fast." Famous Speeches by Mahatma Gandhi. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 March 2014. <http://www.mkgandhi.org/speeches/evelast.htm</ref>
==Criticism and controversy==
{{see also|Partition of India|Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi}}
Gandhi's rigid [[ahimsa]] implies [[pacifism]], and is thus a source of criticism from across the political spectrum.
===Concept of partition===
{{Main|Opposition to the partition of India}}
As a rule, Gandhi was [[Opposition to the partition of India|opposed]] to the concept of [[Partition (politics)|partition]] as it contradicted his vision of religious unity.<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'', Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 106–108.</ref> Of the [[Partition of India|partition of India to create Pakistan]], he wrote in ''[[Harijan]]'' on 6 October 1946:
:[The demand for Pakistan] as put forth by the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] is un-Islamic and I have not hesitated to call it sinful. Islam stands for unity and the brotherhood of mankind, not for disrupting the oneness of the human family. Therefore, those who want to divide India into possibly warring groups are enemies alike of India and Islam. They may cut me into pieces but they cannot make me subscribe to something which I consider to be wrong [...] we must not cease to aspire, in spite of [the] wild talk, to befriend all Muslims and hold them fast as prisoners of our love.<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].''Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 308–9.</ref>
However, as Homer Jack notes of Gandhi's long correspondence with [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Jinnah]] on the topic of Pakistan: "Although Gandhi was personally opposed to the partition of India, he proposed an agreement [...] which provided that the Congress and the Muslim League would cooperate to attain independence under a provisional government, after which the question of partition would be decided by a [[plebiscite]] in the districts having a Muslim majority."<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY The Gandhi Reader]'', p. 418.</ref>
These dual positions on the topic of the partition of India opened Gandhi up to criticism from both Hindus and Muslims. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] and his contemporary fellow-travelers condemned Gandhi for undermining Muslim political rights. [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] and his allies condemned Gandhi, accusing him of politically [[appeasement|appeasing]] Muslims while turning a blind eye to their [[persecution of Hindus|atrocities against Hindus]], and for allowing the creation of Pakistan (despite having publicly declared that "before partitioning India, my body will have to be cut into two pieces"<ref>"The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi", on BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/50664.stm], see section "Independence and partition."</ref>).
His refusal to protest against the hanging of [[Bhagat Singh]], [[Sukhdev]], [[Udham Singh]] and [[Rajguru]] by the British occupation authorities was a source of condemnation and intense anger for many Indians.<ref>[http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/onbhagatsingh.htm Mahatma Gandhi on Bhagat Singh].</ref><ref>[http://india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html Gandhi – 'Mahatma' or Flawed Genius?] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20121209000556/india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html |date=9 December 2012 }}.</ref> Economists, such as [[Jagdish Bhagwati]], have [http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-10-25/india/27797749_1_trade-liberalisation-free-trade-structural-adjustment-loans criticized] Gandhi's ideas of [[swadeshi]].
Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, "There was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms when they had no arms [...] but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the [[Religious violence in India|Hindu-Moslem riots]] and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense."<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'', Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) p. 311.</ref>
==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=40em}}
*[[Ambedkarism]]
*[[Marxism]]
*[[Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
*[[Nelson Mandela]]
*[[Civil resistance]]
*[[Gandhigiri]]
*[[Nonviolent resistance]]
*[[Satyagraha]]
*[[Tolstoyan movement]]
*[[Trusteeship (Gandhism)|Trusteeship]]
{{colend}}
==Further reading==
*[[Ram Swarup|Swarup, Ram]] (1955). Gandhism and communism: Principles and technique. New Delhi: J. Prakashan.
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
* ''Gandhi today: a report on Mahatma Gandhi's successors'', by Mark Shepard. Published by Shepard Publications, 1987. {{ISBN|0-938497-04-9}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQyPbvLvK_sC&pg=PA65&lpg=PA65&dq=Chandi+Prasad+Bhatt&source=bl&ots=dQrndg964B&sig=0c1alTiCJTitzsjAaBcwSTH08J8&hl=en&ei=nqjZSYb2Koro6gP-9_H5Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7#PPP1,M1 Excerpts]
==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* Fischer, Louis. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'' Vintage: New York, 2002. (reprint edition) {{ISBN|1-4000-3050-1}}
*{{cite book
| last = Jack
| first = Homer
| title = ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPP1,M1 The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings.]''
| publisher = Grove Press
| year = 1956
| isbn = 0-8021-3161-1
| url = https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand
}}
* Hardiman, David. ''Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas'' (2004) {{ISBN|0-231-13114-3}}
*{{cite book
| last1 = Dwivedi
| first1 = Divya
| last2 = Mohan
| first2 = Shaj
| title = Gandhi and Philosophy: On Theological Anti-politics
| publisher = [[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury Academic, UK]]
| year = 2019
| ISBN = 9781474221726
| url = https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/gandhi-and-philosophy-9781474221719/
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Narayan
| first = Shriman
| title = Relevance of Gandhian economics
| publisher = Navajivan Publishing House
| year = 1970
| id = ASIN B0006CDLA8
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Pani
| first = Narendar
| title = Inclusive Economics: Gandhian Method and Contemporary Policy
| publisher = Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd.
| year = 2002
| isbn = 978-0-7619-9580-7
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Sharma
| first = R.
| title = Gandhian economics
| publisher = Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.
| year = 1997
| isbn = 978-81-7100-986-2
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Weber
| first = Thomas
| title = Gandhi, Gandhism and the Gandhians
| publisher = Roli Books Pvt. Ltd.
| year = 2006
| isbn = 81-7436-468-4
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Mashelkar
| first = Ramesh
| title = Timeless Inspirator-Reliving Gandhi [http://www.timelessinspirator.com]
| publisher = Sakal Papers Ltd.
| year = 2010
| isbn = 978-93-8057-148-5
| url = https://archive.org/details/timelessinspirat0000unse
}}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
{{Refbegin}}
*[http://www.mkgandhi.org/philosophy/gandhiphil.htm Gandhian Philosophy in Short]
*[http://bahai-library.com/gandhimohan_gandhi_bahais_nonviolence#9 Gandhian ideals]
*[http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/library/kumar/kumar4.htm Relevance of Gandhism in Modern Polity]
*[http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/trusteeship.htm Gandhian Trusteeship as an "Instrument of Human Dignity"]
*[http://www.peacemagazine.org/archive/v14n2p28.htm Review of "Gandhian economics"]
*[http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-10-02/edit-page/27850909_1_gandhiji-economics-formulations Gandhian economics is relevant]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070705164639/http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/kawada.pdf Gandhism and Buddhism PDF]
*[http://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/other-books/studies-in-gandhism Studies in Gandhism]
{{Refend}}
{{Gandhi}}
{{Social and political philosophy}}
[[Category:Eponymous political ideologies]]
[[Category:Gandhism| ]]
[[Category:Political positions of Indian politicians]]
[[Category:Simple living]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{More footnotes|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
[[Image:Badshah JimmychooKhan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] of the [[Khudai Khidmatgars]] and [[Mohandas Gandhi]] of the [[Indian National Congress]].]]
'''Gandhism''' is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and the life work of [[Mohandas Gandhi]]. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the idea of [[nonviolent resistance]], sometimes also called [[civil resistance]]. The two pillars of Gandhism are truth and non-violence.
The term "Gandhism" also encompasses what Gandhi's ideas, words, and actions mean to people around the world and how they used them for guidance in building their own future. Gandhism also permeates into the realm of the individual human being, non-political and non-social. A [[:Category:Gandhians|Gandhian]] can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.<ref>{{cite book | author = Nicholas F. Gier | title = The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi | publisher = SUNY Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-7914-5949-2 | page = 222 }}</ref>
However, Gandhi did not approve of the term 'Gandhism'. As he explained:
{{quote|"There is no such thing as "Gandhism" and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills."<ref>Gwilym Beckerlegge, World religions reader, 2001</ref>}}
In the absence of a "Gandhism" approved by Gandhi himself, there is a school of thought that one has to derive what Gandhism stands for, from his life and works. One such deduction is a philosophy based on "truth" and "non-violence" in the following sense. First, we should acknowledge and accept the truth that people are different at all levels ("truth"). Second, that one should never resort to violence to settle inherent differences between human beings at any level: from between two people to two nations to two races or two religions ("non-violence").
==Antecedents==
Although Gandhi's thought is unique in its own right, it is not without ideological parents. Gandhi has in his own writings specified the inspiration for his saying certain things. It can be said that it is his exposure to the West, during his time in London, that compelled him to look at his position on various religious, social, and political affairs.
Soon after his arrival in London, he came under the influence of [[Henry Stephens Salt]], who was not yet the famous campaigner and social reformer that he would later become. Salt's first work, ''A plea for vegetarianism'' turned Gandhi towards the question of vegetarianism and food habits. It was also around this time that Gandhi joined vegetarian societies in London. Salt eventually became Gandhi's friend too. Talking of the significance of Salt's work, historian Ramachandra Guha said in his work 'Gandhi before India"For our visiting Indian, however, the Vegetarian Society was a shelter that saved him. The young Gandhi had little interest in the two great popular passions of late nineteenth-century London, the theatre and sport. Imperial and socialist politics left him cold. However, in the weekly meetings of the vegetarians of London he found a cause, and his first English friends."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gandhi before India|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|publisher=Allen Lane|year=2013|isbn=978-9-351-18322-8|location=|pages=}}</ref> </blockquote>Salt's work allowed Gandhi for the first time to take part in collective action. Salt later went on to write a biography of [[Henry David Thoreau]], who had a profound impact on Gandhi. Although [[Walden]] could as well have moved Gandhi, it was [[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)]] that was of greater importance. Gandhi was already in the midst of a form of civil disobedience in South Africa when he read Thoreau. Not only did he adopt the name for the kind of struggle that he would become a champion of, but also adopted the means of breaking laws in order to call for their reform. In 1907, Thoreau's name first appeared in the journal that Gandhi was then editing, [[Indian Opinion]] where Gandhi called Thoreau's logic 'incisive' and 'unanswerable'. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gandhi|first=MK|date=26 October 1907|title=|url=|journal=Indian Opinion|volume=|pages=438|via=}}</ref>
Gandhi's residence in South Africa itself sought inspiration from another Western literary figure - [[Leo Tolstoy]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gandhi before India|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|publisher=Allen Lane|year=2012|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Leo Tolstoy's critique of institutional Christianity and faith in the love of the spirit greatly moved him. He would after becoming a popular political activist write the foreword to Tolstoy's essay, ''A letter to a Hindu''. Gandhi exchanged letters with Tolstoy and named his Ashram 'Tolstoy Farm'. In Gandhian thought, Tolstoy's [[The Kingdom of God Is Within You]] sits alongside ''A plea'' and ''Civil Disobedience''.
Tolstoy Farm was Gandhi's experiment of his utopian political economy - later to be called 'Gram Swaraj'. One key source of this concept was [[John Ruskin]]'s [[Unto This Last]] in which Ruskin critiques the 'economic man' (this was written after Ruskin's retreat from Art criticism for which he was well-known). Gandhi tried in all his Ashrams a system of self-sufficiency and decentralised economies. Gandhi was gifted this book by his close associate named Henry Polak in South Africa. The philosophy of Ruskin urged Gandhi to translate this work into Gujarati.
In the Indian Opinion, we find mention of [[Giuseppe Mazzini]], [[Edward Carpenter]], [[Sir Henry Maine]], [[Helena Blavatsky]]. His first exploration of pluralism can be said to have begun with his association with the Jain guru near home, Raychandbhai Mehta.
==''Satyagraha''==
{{Main|Satyagraha}}
Satyagraha is formed by two Sanskrit words Satya (truth) and Agraha. The term was popularised during the [[Indian Independence Movement]], and is used in many [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] including [[Hindi]].
===Satya===
The pivotal and defining element of Gandhism is [[satya]],{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} a [[Sanskrit]] word for truth.<ref name=aam>[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell|A. A. Macdonell]], Sanskrit English Dictionary, Asian Educational Services, {{ISBN|978-8120617797}}, page 330-331</ref><ref>J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen et al (2003), Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Thomson Gale, {{ISBN|0-02-865704-7}}, page 405</ref> It also refers to a virtue in [[Indian religions]], referring to being truthful in one's thought, speech and action. Satya is also called as truth.<ref name=knt>KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816077}}, page 87</ref>
Gandhi said:- "The truth is far more powerful than any weapon of mass destruction."<ref>Nonviolence By Senthil Ram, Ralph Summy, 2007</ref>
==Brahmacharya and ahimsa==
{{see also|Brahmacharya|Ahimsa|Henry David Thoreau|Leo Tolstoy}}
The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) and nonviolent resistance has a long history in Indian religious thought and has had many revivals in Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Jain contexts. Gandhi explains his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography, ''The Story of My Experiments with Truth''. He was quoted as saying:
:"What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans, and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?"<ref>page 388, The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, by Gandhi (Mahatma), India. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Publications Division</ref>
:"It has always been easier to destroy than to create".<ref>Trustworthiness
by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</ref>
:"There are many causes that I am prepared to die for but no causes that I am prepared to kill for".<ref>Trustworthiness, by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</ref>
At the age of 36, Gandhi adopted the vow of [[brahmacharya]], or celibacy. He committed himself to the control of the senses, thoughts and actions. Celibacy was important to Gandhi for not only purifying himself of any [[lust]] and sexual urges, but also to purify his love for his wife as genuine and not an outlet for any turmoil or aggression within his mind.
[[Ahimsa]], or non-violence, was another key tenet of Gandhi's beliefs. He held that total non-violence would rid a person of anger, obsession and destructive impulses. While his vegetarianism was inspired by his rearing in the Hindu-[[Jain]] culture of [[Gujarat]], it was also an extension of ahimsa.
On 6 July 1940, Gandhi published an article in ''[[Harijan]]'' which applied these philosophies to the question of British involvement in [[World War II]]. Homer Jack notes in his reprint of this article, "To Every Briton" (''The Gandhi Reader''<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPR14,M1 ''The Gandhi Reader'']</ref>) that, "to Gandhi, all war was wrong, and suddenly it 'came to him like a flash' to appeal to the British to adopt the method of non-violence."<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPR14,M1The Gandhi Reader]'', p.344</ref> In this article, Gandhi stated,
:I appeal to every Briton, wherever he may be now, to accept the method of non-violence instead of that of war, for the adjustment of relations between nations and other matters [...] I do not want Britain to be defeated, nor do I want her to be victorious in a trial of brute strength [...] I venture to present you with a nobler and braver way worthier of the bravest soldier. I want you to fight Nazism without arms, or, if I am to maintain military terminology, with non-violent arms. I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions. Let them take possession of your beautiful island, with your many beautiful buildings. You will give all these but neither your souls, nor your minds. If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourself, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them [...] my non-violence demands universal love, and you are not a small part of it. It is that love which has prompted my appeal to you.<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPR14,M1The Gandhi Reader]'', pp.345–6</ref>
==Economics==
{{Main|Gandhian economics|Swadeshi}}
Gandhi espoused an economic theory of [[simple living]] and [[self-sufficiency]]/import substitution, rather than generating exports like Japan and South Korea did. He envisioned a more agrarian India upon independence that would focus on meeting the material needs of its citizenry prior to generating wealth and industrialising.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mia Mahmudur Rahim|author2=Sanjaya Kuruppu|editor1-last=Ngwu|editor1-first=Franklin|editor2-last=Onyeka|editor2-first=Osuji|editor3-last=Frank|editor3-first=Stephen|title=Corporate Governance in Developing and Emerging Markets|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|url=http://www.tandfebooks.com/isbn/9781315666020|chapter=Corporate Governance in India: The Potential for Ghandism}}</ref>
===Khadi===
{{wikisource|The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_V/The_Birth_of_Khadi|The Birth of Khadi}}
Gandhi also adopted the clothing style of most Indians in the early 20th century. His adoption of [[khadi]], or homespun cloth, was intended to help eradicate the evils of poverty, social and economic discrimination. It was also aimed as a challenge to the contrast that he saw between most Indians, who were poor and traditional, and the richer classes of educated, liberal-minded Indians who had adopted Western mannerisms, clothing and practices.
The clothing policy was designed to protest against British economic policies in India. Millions of poor Indian workers were unemployed and entrenched in poverty, which Gandhi linked to the industrialisation of cotton processing in Britain. Gandhi promoted khadi as a direct boycott of the [[Lancashire cotton industry]], linking [[British imperialism]] to [[Indian poverty]]. He focused on persuading all members of the [[Indian National Congress]] to spend some time each day hand-spinning on the [[Spinning wheel#Charkha|charkha]] (spinning wheel). In addition to its point as an economic campaign, the drive for hand-spinning was an attempt to connect the privileged Indian [[brahmins]] and lawyers of Congress to connect with the mass of Indian peasantry.
Many prominent figures of the [[Indian independence movement]], including [[Motilal Nehru]], were persuaded by Gandhi to renounce their smart London-made clothes in favour of khadi.
==Fasting==
To Gandhi, [[fasting]] was an important method of exerting mental control over base desires. In his autobiography, Gandhi analyses the need to fast to eradicate his desire for delicious, spicy food. He believed that abstention would diminish his sensual faculties, bringing the body increasingly under the mind's absolute control. Gandhi was opposed to the partaking of meat, alcohol, stimulants, salt and most spices, and also eliminated different types of cooking from the food he ate.
Fasting would also put the body through unusual hardship, which Gandhi believed would cleanse the spirit by stimulating the courage to withstand all impulses and pain. Gandhi undertook a "Fast Unto Death" on three notable occasions:
*when he wanted to stop all revolutionary activities after the [[Chauri Chaura incident]] of 1922;
*when he feared that the 1932 [[Communal Award]] giving separate electorates to [[Dalit (outcaste)|Untouchable]] Hindus would politically divide the [[Hindu]] people;
*and in 1947, when he wanted to stop the bloodshed between Hindus and Muslims in [[Bengal]] and [[Delhi]].
In all three cases, Gandhi was able to abandon his fast before death. There was some controversy over the 1932 fast, which brought him into conflict with the other great leader [[B.R. Ambedkar]]. In the end, Gandhi and Ambedkar both made some concessions to negotiate the [[Poona Pact]], which abandoned the call for separate electorates in turn for voluntary representation and a commitment to abolish untouchability.
Gandhi also used the fasts as a penance, blaming himself for inciting Chauri Chaura and the divisive communal politics of both 1932 and 1947, especially the [[Partition of India]]. Gandhi sought to purify his soul and expiate his sins, in what he saw as his role in allowing terrible tragedies to happen. It took a heavy toll on his physical health and often brought him close to death.
==Religion==
{{Further|Hindu–Muslim unity}}
{{see also|Bhagavad Gita|Dharma|Hinduism|Jainism|Buddhism}}
Gandhi described his religious beliefs as being rooted in Hinduism as well and, in particular, the Bhagavad Gita:
:"Hinduism as I know it satisfies my soul, fills my whole being. When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and when I see not one ray of light on the horizon, I turn to the [[Bhagavad Gita]], and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. My life has been full of tragedies and if they have not left any visible and indelible effect on me, I owe it to the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita".<ref name="ReferenceA">Encyclopaedia of Indian philosophy by Vraj Kumar Pandey – History – 2007</ref>
He professed the philosophy of Hindu Universalism (also see [[Universalism]]), which maintains that all religions contain truth and therefore worthy of toleration and respect. It was articulated by Gandhi:
:"After long study and experience, I have come to the conclusion that all religions are true all religions have some error in them; all religions are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism, in as much as all human beings should be as dear to one as one's own close relatives. My own veneration for other faiths is the same as that for my own faith; therefore no thought of conversion is possible."<ref>M. K. Gandhi, All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words, Paris, UNESCO 1958, p 60.</ref>
Gandhi believed that at the core of every religion was truth (satya), non-violence (ahimsa) and the Golden Rule.
Despite his belief in Hinduism, Gandhi was also critical of many of the social practices of Hindus and sought to reform the religion.
:"Thus if I could not accept Christianity either as a perfect, or the greatest religion, neither was I then convinced of Hinduism being such. Hindu defects were pressingly visible to me. If [[untouchability]] could be a part of Hinduism, it could but be a rotten part or an excrescence. I could not understand the raison d'etre of a multitude of sects and castes. What was the meaning of saying that the [[Vedas]] were the inspired Word of God? If they were inspired, why not also the Bible and the [[Koran]]? As Christian friends were endeavouring to convert me, so were Muslim friends. Abdullah Sheth had kept on inducing me to study Islam, and of course he had always something to say regarding its beauty".<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
He then went on to say:
:"As soon as we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious. There is no such thing as religion over-riding morality. Man, for instance, cannot be untruthful, cruel or incontinent and claim to have God on his side".<ref>Mahatma Gandhi and comparative religion – Page 54 , by K.L. Seshagiri Rao – Biography & Autobiography – 1990</ref>
Gandhi was critical of the hypocrisy in organised religion, rather than the principles on which they were based.
:
Later in his life when he was asked whether he was a Hindu, he replied:
:"Yes I am. I am also a Christian, a Muslim, a [[Buddhist]] and a Jew".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wIiIWWjWargC&pg=PA5 A Man Called Bapu], Subhadra Sen Gupta, Pratham Books, 2008. P.5</ref>
Gandhi's religious views are reflected in the hymns his group often sang:
* [[Vaishnav jan to]] Call them Vishnava, those who understand the sufferings of others...
* [[Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram]] Call him [[Rama]] or God or Allah...
==Nehru's India==
{{See also|Sarvodaya}}
Gandhi was assassinated in 1948, but his teachings and philosophy would play a major role in India's economic and social development and foreign relations for decades to come.
''[[Sarvodaya]]'' is a term meaning 'universal uplift' or 'progress of all'. It was coined by Gandhi in 1908 as a title for his translation of [[John Ruskin]]'s ''Unto This Last''. Later, nonviolence leader [[Vinoba Bhave]] used the term to refer to the struggle of post-independence Gandhians to ensure that self-determination and equality reached the masses and the downtrodden. Sarvodaya workers associated with Vinoba, including [[Jaya Prakash Narayan]] and [[Dada Dharmadhikari]], undertook various projects aimed at encouraging popular self-organisation during the 1950s and 1960s. Many groups descended from these networks continue to function locally in India today.
The [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], was often considered Gandhi's successor, although he was not religious and often disagreed with Gandhi. He was, however, deeply influenced by Gandhi personally as well as politically, and used his premiership to pursue ideological policies based on Gandhi's principles. In fact, on 15 January 1942, in the AICC session Gandhi openly proclaimed Nehru as his successor. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Rajaji, A life|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|publisher=Penguin India|year=1997|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>
Nehru's foreign policy was staunch anti-[[colonialism]] and [[Neutral country|neutrality]] in the [[Cold War]]. Nehru backed the independence movement in Tanzania and other African nations, as well as the [[Civil Rights Movement]] in the United States and the anti-apartheid struggle of [[Nelson Mandela]] and the [[African National Congress]] in South Africa. Nehru refused to align with either the United States or the [[Soviet Union]], and helped found the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].
Nehru also pushed through major legislation that granted legal rights and freedoms to Indian women, and outlawed [[untouchability]] and many different kinds of social discrimination, in the face of strong opposition from orthodox Hindus.
Not all of Nehru's policies were Gandhian. Nehru refused to condemn the [[USSR]]'s 1956–57 invasion of Hungary to put down an anti-communist, popular revolt. Some of his economic policies were criticised for removing the right of property and freedoms from the landowning peasants of [[Gujarat]] for whom Gandhi had fought in the early 1920s. India's economic policies under Nehru were highly different from Gandhi's with Nehru following a socialist model. Nehru also brought Goa and Hyderabad into the Indian union through military invasion.
At this point it is important to note that Gandhi believed in a kind of socialism but one that was very different from Nehru's. In praise of socialism, Gandhi once said, "... socialism is as pure as a crystal. It therefore requires crystal-like means to achieve it."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas|date=13 July 1946|title=The Means|url=|journal=Harijan|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Moreover Gandhi was conscious of the fact that Nehru's ideology differed from his but did not object to that as he was aware that this was a well-thought-out standpoint. He called this a difference in emphasis, his being on 'means' while Nehru's being on ends.
Nehru's biggest failure is often considered to be the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]], though his policy is said to have been inspired by Gandhian [[pacifism]]. In this instance, it led to the defeat of the [[Indian Army]] against a surprise Chinese invasion. Nehru had neglected the defence budget and disallowed the Army to prepare, which caught the soldiers in India's north eastern frontier off-guard with lack of supplies and reinforcements.
==Freedom==
{{see also|Apartheid|Tienanmen Square protests of 1989|Civil Rights Movement}}
Gandhi's deep commitment and disciplined belief in non-violent civil disobedience as a way to oppose forms of oppression or injustice has inspired many subsequent political figures, including [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] of the United States, [[Julius Nyerere]] of Tanzania, [[Nelson Mandela]] and [[Steve Biko]] of South Africa, [[Lech Wałęsa]] of Poland and [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] of Myanmar.
Gandhi's early life work in South Africa between the years 1910 and 1915, for the improved rights of Indian residents living under the white minority South African government inspired the later work of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC). From the 1950s, the ANC organised non-violent civil disobedience akin to the campaign advanced by the [[Indian National Congress]] under the inspiration of Gandhi between the 1920s and 1940s. ANC activists braved the harsh tactics of the police to protest against the oppressive South African government. Many, especially Mandela, languished for decades in jail, while the world outside was divided in its effort to remove [[apartheid]]. [[Steve Biko]], perhaps the most vocal adherent to non-violent civil resistance, was allegedly murdered in 1977 by agents of the government.
When the first universal, free elections were held in South Africa in 1994, the ANC was elected and Mandela became president. Mandela made a special visit to India and publicly honoured Gandhi as the man who inspired the freedom struggle of black South Africans. Statues of Gandhi have been erected in [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]], [[Pretoria]] and [[Johannesburg]].
[[Martin Luther King Jr.]], a young Christian minister and a leader of the [[Civil Rights Movement]] seeking the emancipation of African Americans from racial segregation in the American South, and also from economic and social injustice and political disenfranchisement, traveled to India in 1962 to meet [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]. The two discussed Gandhi's teachings, and the methodology of organising peaceful resistance. The graphic imagery of black protesters being hounded by police, beaten and brutalised, evoked admiration for King and the protesters across America and the world, and precipitated the [[1964 Civil Rights Act]].
The non-violent [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement of [[Lech Wałęsa]] of Poland overthrew a Soviet-backed communist government after two decades of peaceful resistance and strikes in 1989, precipitating the downfall of the Soviet Union.
Myanmar's [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] was put under house arrest, and her [[National League for Democracy]] suppressed in their non-violent quest for democracy and freedom in military-controlled Myanmar. This struggle was inaugurated when the military dismissed the results of the 1991 democratic elections and imposed military rule. She was released in November 2010, when free elections were to be held.
=="Without truth, nothing"==
Mohandas Gandhi's early life was a series of personal struggles to decipher the truth about life's important issues and discover the true way of living. He admitted in his autobiography to hitting his wife when he was young,<ref>Mohatma Gandhi, (1957) An autobiography: The story of my experiments with truth (M. H. Desai Trans.). Beacon Press. pp. 24–25</ref> and indulging in carnal pleasures out of lust, jealousy and possessiveness, not genuine love. He had eaten meat, smoked a cigarette, and almost visited a hustler. It was only after much personal turmoil and repeated failures that Gandhi developed his philosophy.
Gandhi disliked having a cult following, and was averse to being addressed as ''[[Mahatma]]'', claiming that he was not a perfect human being.
In 1942, while he had already condemned [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Benito Mussolini]] and the Japanese militarists, Gandhi took on an offensive in civil resistance, called the [[Quit India Movement]], which was even more dangerous and definitive owing to its direct call for Indian independence. Gandhi did not perceive the British as defenders of freedom due to their rule in India. He did not feel a need to take sides with world powers.
==Gandhians==
There have been Muslim Gandhians, such as [[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], known as the "Frontier Gandhi"{{by whom|date=October 2018}}; under the influence of Gandhi, he organised the Pathans of the Northwest Frontier as early as 1919.<ref>Ronald M. McCarthy and Gene Sharp, ''Nonviolent action: a research guide'' (1997) p. 317</ref> Christian Gandhians include [[Horace Alexander]]<ref>Horace Alexander, ''Consider India: An Essay in Values'' (London: Asia, 1961), p. 73</ref> and [[Martin Luther King]].<ref>Mary Elizabeth King, ''Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr: the power of nonviolent action'' (UNESCO Publishing, 1999), p. 183</ref> Jewish Gandhians include Gandhi's close associate [[Herman Kallenbach]]. Atheist Gandhians include [[Jawaharlal Nehru]].
==Promotion of Gandhian ideas==
Several journals have also been published to promote Gandhian ideas. One of the most well-known is ''Gandhi Marg'',
an English-language journal published since 1957 by the [[Gandhi Peace Foundation]].<ref>[[Ananda M. Pandiri]],
''A Comprehensive, Annotated Bibliography on Mahatma Gandhi:Biographies, Works by Gandhi, and Bibliographical Sources''
Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995
{{ISBN|0313253374}} (p. 349).</ref>
Harold Dwight Lasswell, a political scientist and communications theorist, defined propaganda as the management of eclectic attitudes by manipulation of significant symbols. Based on this definition of Propaganda, Gandhi made use of significant symbols to drive his ideal of a united India free of British rule.<ref>Barlow, David M., and Brett Mills. "Harold D. Lasswell." Reading media theory: thinkers, approaches and contexts. Second Edition ed. Harlow, England: Pearson Longman, 2012. 103. Print.</ref>
His ideas symbolized in propaganda stated that India was a nation capable of economic self-sufficiency without the British, a unity transcending religion would make for a stronger nation, and that the most effective method of protest was through passive resistance, including non-violence and the principle of satyagraha. In the "Quit India" speeches, Gandhi says "the proposal for the withdrawal of British power is to enable India to play its due part at the present critical juncture. It is not a happy position for a big country like India to be merely helping with money and material obtained willy-nilly from her while the United Nations are conducting the war. We cannot evoke the true spirit of sacrifice and velour, so long as we are not free." On his ideas towards a unified India he said: "Thousands of Mussalmans have told me, that if Hindu-Muslim question was to be solved satisfactorily, it must be done in my lifetime. I should feel flattered at this; but how can I agree to proposal which does not appeal to my reason? Hindu-Muslim unity is not a new thing. Millions of Hindus and Mussalmans have sought after it. I consciously strove for its achievement from my boyhood. While at school, I made it a point to cultivate the friendship of Muslims and Parsi co-students. I believed even at that tender age that the Hindus in India, if they wished to live in peace and amity with the other communities, should assiduously cultivate the virtue of neighbourliness. It did not matter, I felt, if I made no special effort to cultivate the friendship with Hindus, but I must make friends with at least a few Mussalmans. In India too I continued my efforts and left no stone unturned to achieve that unity. It was my life-long aspiration for it that made me offer my fullest co-operation to the Mussalmans in the Khilafat movement. Muslims throughout the country accepted me as their true friend." <ref>Bandopadhaya, Sailesh Kumar. "The "Quit India" Resolution." My non-violence. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Pub. House, 1960. 183-205. Print.</ref> Gandhi's belief in the effectiveness of passive, non-violent resistance has been quoted as being the "belief that non-violence alone will lead men to do right under all circumstances."
These ideas were symbolized by Gandhi through the use of significant symbols, an important proponent in the acceptance of propaganda, in his speeches and movements. On 3 November 1930, there was the speech given before the Dandi March which possibly could have been one of Gandhi's last speeches, in which the significant symbol of the march itself demonstrates the exclusively nonviolent struggle to empower a self-sufficient India. Beginning in Ahmedabad and concluding in Dandi, Gujarat, the march saw Gandhi and his supporters directly disobey the Rowlatt Act which imposed heavy taxation and enforced British monopoly on the salt market.<ref>Gandhi, M. K., and Mahadev Desai. "On The Eve Of Historic Dandi March." The selected works of Mahatma Gandhi. Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan Publ. House, 1968. 28-30. Print.</ref>
The Khadi movement, part of the larger swadeshi movement, employed the significant symbol of the burning of British cloth in order to manipulate attitudes towards boycotting British goods and rejecting Western culture and urging the return to ancient, precolonial culture. Gandhi obtained a wheel and engaged his disciples in spinning their own cloth called Khadi; this commitment to hand spinning was an essential element to Gandhi's philosophy and politics.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=2156064 | pmid=18048775 | doi=10.2105/AJPH.2007.120139 | volume=98 | title=Spinning for India's independence | year=2008 | journal=Am J Public Health | pages=39 | last1 = Brown | first1 = TM | last2 = Fee | first2 = E}}</ref>
On 1 December 1948, Gandhi dictated his speech on the eve of the last fast. Using the fast as a form of significant symbolism, he justifies it as "a fast which a votary of non-violence sometimes feels impelled to undertake by way of protest against some wrong done by society, and this he does when as a votary of Ahimsa has no other remedy left. Such an occasion has come my way." This fast was conducted in line with his idea of a nation's communities and religions brought together. Gandhi's fast was only to end when he was satisfied with the reunion of hearts of all the communities brought about without any outside pressure, but from an awakened sense of duty.<ref>"Speech on the Eve of the Last Fast." Famous Speeches by Mahatma Gandhi. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 March 2014. <http://www.mkgandhi.org/speeches/evelast.htm</ref>
==Criticism and controversy==
{{see also|Partition of India|Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi}}
Gandhi's rigid [[ahimsa]] implies [[pacifism]], and is thus a source of criticism from across the political spectrum.
===Concept of partition===
{{Main|Opposition to the partition of India}}
As a rule, Gandhi was [[Opposition to the partition of India|opposed]] to the concept of [[Partition (politics)|partition]] as it contradicted his vision of religious unity.<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'', Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 106–108.</ref> Of the [[Partition of India|partition of India to create Pakistan]], he wrote in ''[[Harijan]]'' on 6 October 1946:
:[The demand for Pakistan] as put forth by the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] is un-Islamic and I have not hesitated to call it sinful. Islam stands for unity and the brotherhood of mankind, not for disrupting the oneness of the human family. Therefore, those who want to divide India into possibly warring groups are enemies alike of India and Islam. They may cut me into pieces but they cannot make me subscribe to something which I consider to be wrong [...] we must not cease to aspire, in spite of [the] wild talk, to befriend all Muslims and hold them fast as prisoners of our love.<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].''Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 308–9.</ref>
However, as Homer Jack notes of Gandhi's long correspondence with [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Jinnah]] on the topic of Pakistan: "Although Gandhi was personally opposed to the partition of India, he proposed an agreement [...] which provided that the Congress and the Muslim League would cooperate to attain independence under a provisional government, after which the question of partition would be decided by a [[plebiscite]] in the districts having a Muslim majority."<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY The Gandhi Reader]'', p. 418.</ref>
These dual positions on the topic of the partition of India opened Gandhi up to criticism from both Hindus and Muslims. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] and his contemporary fellow-travelers condemned Gandhi for undermining Muslim political rights. [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] and his allies condemned Gandhi, accusing him of politically [[appeasement|appeasing]] Muslims while turning a blind eye to their [[persecution of Hindus|atrocities against Hindus]], and for allowing the creation of Pakistan (despite having publicly declared that "before partitioning India, my body will have to be cut into two pieces"<ref>"The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi", on BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/50664.stm], see section "Independence and partition."</ref>).
His refusal to protest against the hanging of [[Bhagat Singh]], [[Sukhdev]], [[Udham Singh]] and [[Rajguru]] by the British occupation authorities was a source of condemnation and intense anger for many Indians.<ref>[http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/onbhagatsingh.htm Mahatma Gandhi on Bhagat Singh].</ref><ref>[http://india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html Gandhi – 'Mahatma' or Flawed Genius?] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20121209000556/india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html |date=9 December 2012 }}.</ref> Economists, such as [[Jagdish Bhagwati]], have [http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-10-25/india/27797749_1_trade-liberalisation-free-trade-structural-adjustment-loans criticized] Gandhi's ideas of [[swadeshi]].
Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, "There was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms when they had no arms [...] but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the [[Religious violence in India|Hindu-Moslem riots]] and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense."<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'', Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) p. 311.</ref>
==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=40em}}
*[[Ambedkarism]]
*[[Marxism]]
*[[Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
*[[Nelson Mandela]]
*[[Civil resistance]]
*[[Gandhigiri]]
*[[Nonviolent resistance]]
*[[Satyagraha]]
*[[Tolstoyan movement]]
*[[Trusteeship (Gandhism)|Trusteeship]]
{{colend}}
==Further reading==
*[[Ram Swarup|Swarup, Ram]] (1955). Gandhism and communism: Principles and technique. New Delhi: J. Prakashan.
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
* ''Gandhi today: a report on Mahatma Gandhi's successors'', by Mark Shepard. Published by Shepard Publications, 1987. {{ISBN|0-938497-04-9}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQyPbvLvK_sC&pg=PA65&lpg=PA65&dq=Chandi+Prasad+Bhatt&source=bl&ots=dQrndg964B&sig=0c1alTiCJTitzsjAaBcwSTH08J8&hl=en&ei=nqjZSYb2Koro6gP-9_H5Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7#PPP1,M1 Excerpts]
==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* Fischer, Louis. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'' Vintage: New York, 2002. (reprint edition) {{ISBN|1-4000-3050-1}}
*{{cite book
| last = Jack
| first = Homer
| title = ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPP1,M1 The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings.]''
| publisher = Grove Press
| year = 1956
| isbn = 0-8021-3161-1
| url = https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand
}}
* Hardiman, David. ''Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas'' (2004) {{ISBN|0-231-13114-3}}
*{{cite book
| last1 = Dwivedi
| first1 = Divya
| last2 = Mohan
| first2 = Shaj
| title = Gandhi and Philosophy: On Theological Anti-politics
| publisher = [[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury Academic, UK]]
| year = 2019
| ISBN = 9781474221726
| url = https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/gandhi-and-philosophy-9781474221719/
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Narayan
| first = Shriman
| title = Relevance of Gandhian economics
| publisher = Navajivan Publishing House
| year = 1970
| id = ASIN B0006CDLA8
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Pani
| first = Narendar
| title = Inclusive Economics: Gandhian Method and Contemporary Policy
| publisher = Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd.
| year = 2002
| isbn = 978-0-7619-9580-7
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Sharma
| first = R.
| title = Gandhian economics
| publisher = Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.
| year = 1997
| isbn = 978-81-7100-986-2
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Weber
| first = Thomas
| title = Gandhi, Gandhism and the Gandhians
| publisher = Roli Books Pvt. Ltd.
| year = 2006
| isbn = 81-7436-468-4
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Mashelkar
| first = Ramesh
| title = Timeless Inspirator-Reliving Gandhi [http://www.timelessinspirator.com]
| publisher = Sakal Papers Ltd.
| year = 2010
| isbn = 978-93-8057-148-5
| url = https://archive.org/details/timelessinspirat0000unse
}}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
{{Refbegin}}
*[http://www.mkgandhi.org/philosophy/gandhiphil.htm Gandhian Philosophy in Short]
*[http://bahai-library.com/gandhimohan_gandhi_bahais_nonviolence#9 Gandhian ideals]
*[http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/library/kumar/kumar4.htm Relevance of Gandhism in Modern Polity]
*[http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/trusteeship.htm Gandhian Trusteeship as an "Instrument of Human Dignity"]
*[http://www.peacemagazine.org/archive/v14n2p28.htm Review of "Gandhian economics"]
*[http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-10-02/edit-page/27850909_1_gandhiji-economics-formulations Gandhian economics is relevant]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070705164639/http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/kawada.pdf Gandhism and Buddhism PDF]
*[http://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/other-books/studies-in-gandhism Studies in Gandhism]
{{Refend}}
{{Gandhi}}
{{Social and political philosophy}}
[[Category:Eponymous political ideologies]]
[[Category:Gandhism| ]]
[[Category:Political positions of Indian politicians]]
[[Category:Simple living]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><table class="box-More_footnotes plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">list of references</a>, but <b>its sources remain unclear</b> because it has <b>insufficient <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Check" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check">improve</a> this article by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2019</span>)</i></small><small class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Badshah_JimmychooKhan.jpg" class="new" title="File:Badshah JimmychooKhan.jpg">File:Badshah JimmychooKhan.jpg</a> <div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khan_Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khudai_Khidmatgars" class="mw-redirect" title="Khudai Khidmatgars">Khudai Khidmatgars</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohandas_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a>.</div></div></div>
<p><b>Gandhism</b> is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and the life work of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohandas_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a>. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the idea of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">nonviolent resistance</a>, sometimes also called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">civil resistance</a>. The two pillars of Gandhism are truth and non-violence.
</p><p>The term "Gandhism" also encompasses what Gandhi's ideas, words, and actions mean to people around the world and how they used them for guidance in building their own future. Gandhism also permeates into the realm of the individual human being, non-political and non-social. A <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Gandhians" title="Category:Gandhians">Gandhian</a> can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>However, Gandhi did not approve of the term 'Gandhism'. As he explained:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047036">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"There is no such thing as "Gandhism" and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p></blockquote>
<p>In the absence of a "Gandhism" approved by Gandhi himself, there is a school of thought that one has to derive what Gandhism stands for, from his life and works. One such deduction is a philosophy based on "truth" and "non-violence" in the following sense. First, we should acknowledge and accept the truth that people are different at all levels ("truth"). Second, that one should never resort to violence to settle inherent differences between human beings at any level: from between two people to two nations to two races or two religions ("non-violence").
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Antecedents"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Antecedents</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Satyagraha"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Satyagraha</i></span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Satya"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Satya</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Brahmacharya_and_ahimsa"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Brahmacharya and ahimsa</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Economics"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Economics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Khadi"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Khadi</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Fasting"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Fasting</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Religion"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Religion</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Nehru's_India"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Nehru's India</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Freedom"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Freedom</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#"Without_truth,_nothing""><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">"Without truth, nothing"</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Gandhians"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Gandhians</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Promotion_of_Gandhian_ideas"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Promotion of Gandhian ideas</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Criticism_and_controversy"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism and controversy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Concept_of_partition"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Concept of partition</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">17</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Antecedents">Antecedents</span></h2>
<p>Although Gandhi's thought is unique in its own right, it is not without ideological parents. Gandhi has in his own writings specified the inspiration for his saying certain things. It can be said that it is his exposure to the West, during his time in London, that compelled him to look at his position on various religious, social, and political affairs.
</p><p>
Soon after his arrival in London, he came under the influence of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt" title="Henry Stephens Salt">Henry Stephens Salt</a>, who was not yet the famous campaigner and social reformer that he would later become. Salt's first work, <i>A plea for vegetarianism</i> turned Gandhi towards the question of vegetarianism and food habits. It was also around this time that Gandhi joined vegetarian societies in London. Salt eventually became Gandhi's friend too. Talking of the significance of Salt's work, historian Ramachandra Guha said in his work 'Gandhi before India"For our visiting Indian, however, the Vegetarian Society was a shelter that saved him. The young Gandhi had little interest in the two great popular passions of late nineteenth-century London, the theatre and sport. Imperial and socialist politics left him cold. However, in the weekly meetings of the vegetarians of London he found a cause, and his first English friends."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Salt's work allowed Gandhi for the first time to take part in collective action. Salt later went on to write a biography of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a>, who had a profound impact on Gandhi. Although <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden</a> could as well have moved Gandhi, it was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Disobedience_(Thoreau)" title="Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)">Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)</a> that was of greater importance. Gandhi was already in the midst of a form of civil disobedience in South Africa when he read Thoreau. Not only did he adopt the name for the kind of struggle that he would become a champion of, but also adopted the means of breaking laws in order to call for their reform. In 1907, Thoreau's name first appeared in the journal that Gandhi was then editing, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Opinion" title="Indian Opinion">Indian Opinion</a> where Gandhi called Thoreau's logic 'incisive' and 'unanswerable'. <sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>Gandhi's residence in South Africa itself sought inspiration from another Western literary figure - <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Leo Tolstoy's critique of institutional Christianity and faith in the love of the spirit greatly moved him. He would after becoming a popular political activist write the foreword to Tolstoy's essay, <i>A letter to a Hindu</i>. Gandhi exchanged letters with Tolstoy and named his Ashram 'Tolstoy Farm'. In Gandhian thought, Tolstoy's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a> sits alongside <i>A plea</i> and <i>Civil Disobedience</i>.
</p><p>Tolstoy Farm was Gandhi's experiment of his utopian political economy - later to be called 'Gram Swaraj'. One key source of this concept was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unto_This_Last" title="Unto This Last">Unto This Last</a> in which Ruskin critiques the 'economic man' (this was written after Ruskin's retreat from Art criticism for which he was well-known). Gandhi tried in all his Ashrams a system of self-sufficiency and decentralised economies. Gandhi was gifted this book by his close associate named Henry Polak in South Africa. The philosophy of Ruskin urged Gandhi to translate this work into Gujarati.
</p><p>In the Indian Opinion, we find mention of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edward_Carpenter" title="Edward Carpenter">Edward Carpenter</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sir_Henry_Maine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Henry Maine">Sir Henry Maine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky" title="Helena Blavatsky">Helena Blavatsky</a>. His first exploration of pluralism can be said to have begun with his association with the Jain guru near home, Raychandbhai Mehta.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Satyagraha"><i>Satyagraha</i></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></div>
<p>Satyagraha is formed by two Sanskrit words Satya (truth) and Agraha. The term was popularised during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Independence_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Independence Movement">Indian Independence Movement</a>, and is used in many <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Indian languages</a> including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Satya">Satya</span></h3>
<p>The pivotal and defining element of Gandhism is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">satya</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word for truth.<sup id="cite_ref-aam_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aam-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> It also refers to a virtue in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a>, referring to being truthful in one's thought, speech and action. Satya is also called as truth.<sup id="cite_ref-knt_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knt-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>Gandhi said:- "The truth is far more powerful than any weapon of mass destruction."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Brahmacharya_and_ahimsa">Brahmacharya and ahimsa</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></div>
<p>The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) and nonviolent resistance has a long history in Indian religious thought and has had many revivals in Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Jain contexts. Gandhi explains his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography, <i>The Story of My Experiments with Truth</i>. He was quoted as saying:
</p>
<dl><dd>"What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans, and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?"<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<dl><dd>"It has always been easier to destroy than to create".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<dl><dd>"There are many causes that I am prepared to die for but no causes that I am prepared to kill for".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>At the age of 36, Gandhi adopted the vow of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">brahmacharya</a>, or celibacy. He committed himself to the control of the senses, thoughts and actions. Celibacy was important to Gandhi for not only purifying himself of any <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lust" title="Lust">lust</a> and sexual urges, but also to purify his love for his wife as genuine and not an outlet for any turmoil or aggression within his mind.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a>, or non-violence, was another key tenet of Gandhi's beliefs. He held that total non-violence would rid a person of anger, obsession and destructive impulses. While his vegetarianism was inspired by his rearing in the Hindu-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain">Jain</a> culture of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>, it was also an extension of ahimsa.
</p><p>On 6 July 1940, Gandhi published an article in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Harijan">Harijan</a></i> which applied these philosophies to the question of British involvement in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Homer Jack notes in his reprint of this article, "To Every Briton" (<i>The Gandhi Reader</i><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>) that, "to Gandhi, all war was wrong, and suddenly it 'came to him like a flash' to appeal to the British to adopt the method of non-violence."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> In this article, Gandhi stated,
</p>
<dl><dd>I appeal to every Briton, wherever he may be now, to accept the method of non-violence instead of that of war, for the adjustment of relations between nations and other matters [...] I do not want Britain to be defeated, nor do I want her to be victorious in a trial of brute strength [...] I venture to present you with a nobler and braver way worthier of the bravest soldier. I want you to fight Nazism without arms, or, if I am to maintain military terminology, with non-violent arms. I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions. Let them take possession of your beautiful island, with your many beautiful buildings. You will give all these but neither your souls, nor your minds. If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourself, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them [...] my non-violence demands universal love, and you are not a small part of it. It is that love which has prompted my appeal to you.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Economics">Economics</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhian_economics" title="Gandhian economics">Gandhian economics</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swadeshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Swadeshi">Swadeshi</a></div>
<p>Gandhi espoused an economic theory of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">simple living</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self-sufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-sufficiency">self-sufficiency</a>/import substitution, rather than generating exports like Japan and South Korea did. He envisioned a more agrarian India upon independence that would focus on meeting the material needs of its citizenry prior to generating wealth and industrialising.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Khadi">Khadi</span></h3>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article:
<div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_V/The_Birth_of_Khadi" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The Story of My Experiments with Truth/Part V/The Birth of Khadi">The Birth of Khadi</a></b></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<p>Gandhi also adopted the clothing style of most Indians in the early 20th century. His adoption of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khadi" title="Khadi">khadi</a>, or homespun cloth, was intended to help eradicate the evils of poverty, social and economic discrimination. It was also aimed as a challenge to the contrast that he saw between most Indians, who were poor and traditional, and the richer classes of educated, liberal-minded Indians who had adopted Western mannerisms, clothing and practices.
</p><p>The clothing policy was designed to protest against British economic policies in India. Millions of poor Indian workers were unemployed and entrenched in poverty, which Gandhi linked to the industrialisation of cotton processing in Britain. Gandhi promoted khadi as a direct boycott of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lancashire_cotton_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Lancashire cotton industry">Lancashire cotton industry</a>, linking <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="British imperialism">British imperialism</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian poverty">Indian poverty</a>. He focused on persuading all members of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> to spend some time each day hand-spinning on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spinning_wheel#Charkha" title="Spinning wheel">charkha</a> (spinning wheel). In addition to its point as an economic campaign, the drive for hand-spinning was an attempt to connect the privileged Indian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brahmins" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmins">brahmins</a> and lawyers of Congress to connect with the mass of Indian peasantry.
</p><p>Many prominent figures of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a>, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Motilal_Nehru" title="Motilal Nehru">Motilal Nehru</a>, were persuaded by Gandhi to renounce their smart London-made clothes in favour of khadi.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Fasting">Fasting</span></h2>
<p>To Gandhi, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a> was an important method of exerting mental control over base desires. In his autobiography, Gandhi analyses the need to fast to eradicate his desire for delicious, spicy food. He believed that abstention would diminish his sensual faculties, bringing the body increasingly under the mind's absolute control. Gandhi was opposed to the partaking of meat, alcohol, stimulants, salt and most spices, and also eliminated different types of cooking from the food he ate.
</p><p>Fasting would also put the body through unusual hardship, which Gandhi believed would cleanse the spirit by stimulating the courage to withstand all impulses and pain. Gandhi undertook a "Fast Unto Death" on three notable occasions:
</p>
<ul><li>when he wanted to stop all revolutionary activities after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chauri_Chaura_incident" title="Chauri Chaura incident">Chauri Chaura incident</a> of 1922;</li>
<li>when he feared that the 1932 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communal_Award" title="Communal Award">Communal Award</a> giving separate electorates to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dalit_(outcaste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalit (outcaste)">Untouchable</a> Hindus would politically divide the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> people;</li>
<li>and in 1947, when he wanted to stop the bloodshed between Hindus and Muslims in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>.</li></ul>
<p>In all three cases, Gandhi was able to abandon his fast before death. There was some controversy over the 1932 fast, which brought him into conflict with the other great leader <a href="/enwiki/wiki/B.R._Ambedkar" class="mw-redirect" title="B.R. Ambedkar">B.R. Ambedkar</a>. In the end, Gandhi and Ambedkar both made some concessions to negotiate the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poona_Pact" title="Poona Pact">Poona Pact</a>, which abandoned the call for separate electorates in turn for voluntary representation and a commitment to abolish untouchability.
</p><p>Gandhi also used the fasts as a penance, blaming himself for inciting Chauri Chaura and the divisive communal politics of both 1932 and 1947, especially the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a>. Gandhi sought to purify his soul and expiate his sins, in what he saw as his role in allowing terrible tragedies to happen. It took a heavy toll on his physical health and often brought him close to death.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion">Religion</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Muslim_unity" title="Hindu–Muslim unity">Hindu–Muslim unity</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></div>
<p>Gandhi described his religious beliefs as being rooted in Hinduism as well and, in particular, the Bhagavad Gita:
</p>
<dl><dd>"Hinduism as I know it satisfies my soul, fills my whole being. When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and when I see not one ray of light on the horizon, I turn to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a>, and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. My life has been full of tragedies and if they have not left any visible and indelible effect on me, I owe it to the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita".<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-17">[17]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>He professed the philosophy of Hindu Universalism (also see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a>), which maintains that all religions contain truth and therefore worthy of toleration and respect. It was articulated by Gandhi:
</p>
<dl><dd>"After long study and experience, I have come to the conclusion that all religions are true all religions have some error in them; all religions are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism, in as much as all human beings should be as dear to one as one's own close relatives. My own veneration for other faiths is the same as that for my own faith; therefore no thought of conversion is possible."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Gandhi believed that at the core of every religion was truth (satya), non-violence (ahimsa) and the Golden Rule.
</p><p>Despite his belief in Hinduism, Gandhi was also critical of many of the social practices of Hindus and sought to reform the religion.
</p>
<dl><dd>"Thus if I could not accept Christianity either as a perfect, or the greatest religion, neither was I then convinced of Hinduism being such. Hindu defects were pressingly visible to me. If <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">untouchability</a> could be a part of Hinduism, it could but be a rotten part or an excrescence. I could not understand the raison d'etre of a multitude of sects and castes. What was the meaning of saying that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> were the inspired Word of God? If they were inspired, why not also the Bible and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Koran" class="mw-redirect" title="Koran">Koran</a>? As Christian friends were endeavouring to convert me, so were Muslim friends. Abdullah Sheth had kept on inducing me to study Islam, and of course he had always something to say regarding its beauty".<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-17">[17]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>He then went on to say:
</p>
<dl><dd>"As soon as we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious. There is no such thing as religion over-riding morality. Man, for instance, cannot be untruthful, cruel or incontinent and claim to have God on his side".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Gandhi was critical of the hypocrisy in organised religion, rather than the principles on which they were based.
</p>
<dl><dd></dd></dl>
<p>Later in his life when he was asked whether he was a Hindu, he replied:
</p>
<dl><dd>"Yes I am. I am also a Christian, a Muslim, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> and a Jew".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Gandhi's religious views are reflected in the hymns his group often sang:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vaishnav_jan_to" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaishnav jan to">Vaishnav jan to</a> Call them Vishnava, those who understand the sufferings of others...</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raghupati_Raghava_Raja_Ram" title="Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram">Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram</a> Call him <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a> or God or Allah...</li></ul>
<h2><span id="Nehru.27s_India"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Nehru's_India">Nehru's India</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Sarvodaya</a></div>
<p>Gandhi was assassinated in 1948, but his teachings and philosophy would play a major role in India's economic and social development and foreign relations for decades to come.
</p><p><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Sarvodaya</a></i> is a term meaning 'universal uplift' or 'progress of all'. It was coined by Gandhi in 1908 as a title for his translation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a>'s <i>Unto This Last</i>. Later, nonviolence leader <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vinoba_Bhave" title="Vinoba Bhave">Vinoba Bhave</a> used the term to refer to the struggle of post-independence Gandhians to ensure that self-determination and equality reached the masses and the downtrodden. Sarvodaya workers associated with Vinoba, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jaya_Prakash_Narayan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaya Prakash Narayan">Jaya Prakash Narayan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dada_Dharmadhikari" title="Dada Dharmadhikari">Dada Dharmadhikari</a>, undertook various projects aimed at encouraging popular self-organisation during the 1950s and 1960s. Many groups descended from these networks continue to function locally in India today.
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">Prime Minister of India</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>, was often considered Gandhi's successor, although he was not religious and often disagreed with Gandhi. He was, however, deeply influenced by Gandhi personally as well as politically, and used his premiership to pursue ideological policies based on Gandhi's principles. In fact, on 15 January 1942, in the AICC session Gandhi openly proclaimed Nehru as his successor. <sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nehru's foreign policy was staunch anti-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">neutrality</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. Nehru backed the independence movement in Tanzania and other African nations, as well as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> in the United States and the anti-apartheid struggle of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> in South Africa. Nehru refused to align with either the United States or the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, and helped found the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a>.
</p><p>Nehru also pushed through major legislation that granted legal rights and freedoms to Indian women, and outlawed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">untouchability</a> and many different kinds of social discrimination, in the face of strong opposition from orthodox Hindus.
</p><p>Not all of Nehru's policies were Gandhian. Nehru refused to condemn the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>'s 1956–57 invasion of Hungary to put down an anti-communist, popular revolt. Some of his economic policies were criticised for removing the right of property and freedoms from the landowning peasants of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> for whom Gandhi had fought in the early 1920s. India's economic policies under Nehru were highly different from Gandhi's with Nehru following a socialist model. Nehru also brought Goa and Hyderabad into the Indian union through military invasion.
</p><p>At this point it is important to note that Gandhi believed in a kind of socialism but one that was very different from Nehru's. In praise of socialism, Gandhi once said, "... socialism is as pure as a crystal. It therefore requires crystal-like means to achieve it."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Moreover Gandhi was conscious of the fact that Nehru's ideology differed from his but did not object to that as he was aware that this was a well-thought-out standpoint. He called this a difference in emphasis, his being on 'means' while Nehru's being on ends.
</p><p>Nehru's biggest failure is often considered to be the 1962 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a>, though his policy is said to have been inspired by Gandhian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a>. In this instance, it led to the defeat of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Indian Army</a> against a surprise Chinese invasion. Nehru had neglected the defence budget and disallowed the Army to prepare, which caught the soldiers in India's north eastern frontier off-guard with lack of supplies and reinforcements.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Freedom">Freedom</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tienanmen_Square_protests_of_1989" class="mw-redirect" title="Tienanmen Square protests of 1989">Tienanmen Square protests of 1989</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></div>
<p>Gandhi's deep commitment and disciplined belief in non-violent civil disobedience as a way to oppose forms of oppression or injustice has inspired many subsequent political figures, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> of the United States, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a> of Tanzania, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a> of South Africa, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a> of Poland and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a> of Myanmar.
</p><p>Gandhi's early life work in South Africa between the years 1910 and 1915, for the improved rights of Indian residents living under the white minority South African government inspired the later work of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> (ANC). From the 1950s, the ANC organised non-violent civil disobedience akin to the campaign advanced by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> under the inspiration of Gandhi between the 1920s and 1940s. ANC activists braved the harsh tactics of the police to protest against the oppressive South African government. Many, especially Mandela, languished for decades in jail, while the world outside was divided in its effort to remove <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a>, perhaps the most vocal adherent to non-violent civil resistance, was allegedly murdered in 1977 by agents of the government.
When the first universal, free elections were held in South Africa in 1994, the ANC was elected and Mandela became president. Mandela made a special visit to India and publicly honoured Gandhi as the man who inspired the freedom struggle of black South Africans. Statues of Gandhi have been erected in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/KwaZulu-Natal_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="KwaZulu-Natal Province">Natal</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pretoria" title="Pretoria">Pretoria</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johannesburg" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a>.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, a young Christian minister and a leader of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> seeking the emancipation of African Americans from racial segregation in the American South, and also from economic and social injustice and political disenfranchisement, traveled to India in 1962 to meet <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>. The two discussed Gandhi's teachings, and the methodology of organising peaceful resistance. The graphic imagery of black protesters being hounded by police, beaten and brutalised, evoked admiration for King and the protesters across America and the world, and precipitated the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1964_Civil_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="1964 Civil Rights Act">1964 Civil Rights Act</a>.
</p><p>The non-violent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a> movement of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a> of Poland overthrew a Soviet-backed communist government after two decades of peaceful resistance and strikes in 1989, precipitating the downfall of the Soviet Union.
</p><p>Myanmar's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a> was put under house arrest, and her <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_League_for_Democracy" title="National League for Democracy">National League for Democracy</a> suppressed in their non-violent quest for democracy and freedom in military-controlled Myanmar. This struggle was inaugurated when the military dismissed the results of the 1991 democratic elections and imposed military rule. She was released in November 2010, when free elections were to be held.
</p>
<h2><span id=".22Without_truth.2C_nothing.22"></span><span class="mw-headline" id=""Without_truth,_nothing"">"Without truth, nothing"</span></h2>
<p>Mohandas Gandhi's early life was a series of personal struggles to decipher the truth about life's important issues and discover the true way of living. He admitted in his autobiography to hitting his wife when he was young,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> and indulging in carnal pleasures out of lust, jealousy and possessiveness, not genuine love. He had eaten meat, smoked a cigarette, and almost visited a hustler. It was only after much personal turmoil and repeated failures that Gandhi developed his philosophy.
</p><p>Gandhi disliked having a cult following, and was averse to being addressed as <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahatma">Mahatma</a></i>, claiming that he was not a perfect human being.
</p><p>In 1942, while he had already condemned <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> and the Japanese militarists, Gandhi took on an offensive in civil resistance, called the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India Movement</a>, which was even more dangerous and definitive owing to its direct call for Indian independence. Gandhi did not perceive the British as defenders of freedom due to their rule in India. He did not feel a need to take sides with world powers.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Gandhians">Gandhians</span></h2>
<p>There have been Muslim Gandhians, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khan_Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a>, known as the "Frontier Gandhi"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (October 2018)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup>; under the influence of Gandhi, he organised the Pathans of the Northwest Frontier as early as 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Christian Gandhians include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horace_Alexander" title="Horace Alexander">Horace Alexander</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther_King" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Luther King">Martin Luther King</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> Jewish Gandhians include Gandhi's close associate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herman_Kallenbach" class="mw-redirect" title="Herman Kallenbach">Herman Kallenbach</a>. Atheist Gandhians include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Promotion_of_Gandhian_ideas">Promotion of Gandhian ideas</span></h2>
<p>Several journals have also been published to promote Gandhian ideas. One of the most well-known is <i>Gandhi Marg</i>,
an English-language journal published since 1957 by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Foundation" title="Gandhi Peace Foundation">Gandhi Peace Foundation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>Harold Dwight Lasswell, a political scientist and communications theorist, defined propaganda as the management of eclectic attitudes by manipulation of significant symbols. Based on this definition of Propaganda, Gandhi made use of significant symbols to drive his ideal of a united India free of British rule.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>His ideas symbolized in propaganda stated that India was a nation capable of economic self-sufficiency without the British, a unity transcending religion would make for a stronger nation, and that the most effective method of protest was through passive resistance, including non-violence and the principle of satyagraha. In the "Quit India" speeches, Gandhi says "the proposal for the withdrawal of British power is to enable India to play its due part at the present critical juncture. It is not a happy position for a big country like India to be merely helping with money and material obtained willy-nilly from her while the United Nations are conducting the war. We cannot evoke the true spirit of sacrifice and velour, so long as we are not free." On his ideas towards a unified India he said: "Thousands of Mussalmans have told me, that if Hindu-Muslim question was to be solved satisfactorily, it must be done in my lifetime. I should feel flattered at this; but how can I agree to proposal which does not appeal to my reason? Hindu-Muslim unity is not a new thing. Millions of Hindus and Mussalmans have sought after it. I consciously strove for its achievement from my boyhood. While at school, I made it a point to cultivate the friendship of Muslims and Parsi co-students. I believed even at that tender age that the Hindus in India, if they wished to live in peace and amity with the other communities, should assiduously cultivate the virtue of neighbourliness. It did not matter, I felt, if I made no special effort to cultivate the friendship with Hindus, but I must make friends with at least a few Mussalmans. In India too I continued my efforts and left no stone unturned to achieve that unity. It was my life-long aspiration for it that made me offer my fullest co-operation to the Mussalmans in the Khilafat movement. Muslims throughout the country accepted me as their true friend." <sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> Gandhi's belief in the effectiveness of passive, non-violent resistance has been quoted as being the "belief that non-violence alone will lead men to do right under all circumstances."
</p><p>These ideas were symbolized by Gandhi through the use of significant symbols, an important proponent in the acceptance of propaganda, in his speeches and movements. On 3 November 1930, there was the speech given before the Dandi March which possibly could have been one of Gandhi's last speeches, in which the significant symbol of the march itself demonstrates the exclusively nonviolent struggle to empower a self-sufficient India. Beginning in Ahmedabad and concluding in Dandi, Gujarat, the march saw Gandhi and his supporters directly disobey the Rowlatt Act which imposed heavy taxation and enforced British monopoly on the salt market.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup>
The Khadi movement, part of the larger swadeshi movement, employed the significant symbol of the burning of British cloth in order to manipulate attitudes towards boycotting British goods and rejecting Western culture and urging the return to ancient, precolonial culture. Gandhi obtained a wheel and engaged his disciples in spinning their own cloth called Khadi; this commitment to hand spinning was an essential element to Gandhi's philosophy and politics.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
On 1 December 1948, Gandhi dictated his speech on the eve of the last fast. Using the fast as a form of significant symbolism, he justifies it as "a fast which a votary of non-violence sometimes feels impelled to undertake by way of protest against some wrong done by society, and this he does when as a votary of Ahimsa has no other remedy left. Such an occasion has come my way." This fast was conducted in line with his idea of a nation's communities and religions brought together. Gandhi's fast was only to end when he was satisfied with the reunion of hearts of all the communities brought about without any outside pressure, but from an awakened sense of duty.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticism_and_controversy">Criticism and controversy</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assassination_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi">Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi</a></div>
<p>Gandhi's rigid <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">ahimsa</a> implies <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a>, and is thus a source of criticism from across the political spectrum.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Concept_of_partition">Concept of partition</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Opposition_to_the_partition_of_India" title="Opposition to the partition of India">Opposition to the partition of India</a></div>
<p>As a rule, Gandhi was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Opposition_to_the_partition_of_India" title="Opposition to the partition of India">opposed</a> to the concept of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_(politics)" title="Partition (politics)">partition</a> as it contradicted his vision of religious unity.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> Of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition of India to create Pakistan</a>, he wrote in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Harijan">Harijan</a></i> on 6 October 1946:
</p>
<dl><dd>[The demand for Pakistan] as put forth by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">Muslim League</a> is un-Islamic and I have not hesitated to call it sinful. Islam stands for unity and the brotherhood of mankind, not for disrupting the oneness of the human family. Therefore, those who want to divide India into possibly warring groups are enemies alike of India and Islam. They may cut me into pieces but they cannot make me subscribe to something which I consider to be wrong [...] we must not cease to aspire, in spite of [the] wild talk, to befriend all Muslims and hold them fast as prisoners of our love.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>However, as Homer Jack notes of Gandhi's long correspondence with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Jinnah</a> on the topic of Pakistan: "Although Gandhi was personally opposed to the partition of India, he proposed an agreement [...] which provided that the Congress and the Muslim League would cooperate to attain independence under a provisional government, after which the question of partition would be decided by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebiscite">plebiscite</a> in the districts having a Muslim majority."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>These dual positions on the topic of the partition of India opened Gandhi up to criticism from both Hindus and Muslims. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a> and his contemporary fellow-travelers condemned Gandhi for undermining Muslim political rights. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vinayak_Damodar_Savarkar" title="Vinayak Damodar Savarkar">Vinayak Damodar Savarkar</a> and his allies condemned Gandhi, accusing him of politically <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">appeasing</a> Muslims while turning a blind eye to their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">atrocities against Hindus</a>, and for allowing the creation of Pakistan (despite having publicly declared that "before partitioning India, my body will have to be cut into two pieces"<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>).
</p><p>His refusal to protest against the hanging of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhagat_Singh" title="Bhagat Singh">Bhagat Singh</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sukhdev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sukhdev">Sukhdev</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Udham_Singh" title="Udham Singh">Udham Singh</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rajguru" title="Rajguru">Rajguru</a> by the British occupation authorities was a source of condemnation and intense anger for many Indians.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> Economists, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a>, have <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-10-25/india/27797749_1_trade-liberalisation-free-trade-structural-adjustment-loans">criticized</a> Gandhi's ideas of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swadeshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Swadeshi">swadeshi</a>.
</p><p>Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, "There was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms when they had no arms [...] but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India" title="Religious violence in India">Hindu-Moslem riots</a> and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 40em; -webkit-column-width: 40em; column-width: 40em;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ambedkarism" title="Ambedkarism">Ambedkarism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dr._Martin_Luther_King,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.">Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil resistance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhigiri" title="Gandhigiri">Gandhigiri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent resistance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trusteeship_(Gandhism)" title="Trusteeship (Gandhism)">Trusteeship</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ram_Swarup" title="Ram Swarup">Swarup, Ram</a> (1955). Gandhism and communism: Principles and technique. New Delhi: J. Prakashan.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Nicholas F. Gier (2004). <i>The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi</i>. SUNY Press. p. 222. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5949-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5949-2"><bdi>978-0-7914-5949-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Virtue+of+Nonviolence%3A+From+Gautama+to+Gandhi&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5949-2&rft.au=Nicholas+F.+Gier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886058088">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gwilym Beckerlegge, World religions reader, 2001</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Guha, Ramachandra (2013). <i>Gandhi before India</i>. Allen Lane. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-351-18322-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-351-18322-8"><bdi>978-9-351-18322-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhi+before+India&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9-351-18322-8&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Ramachandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Gandhi, MK (26 October 1907). <i>Indian Opinion</i>: 438.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Opinion&rft.pages=438&rft.date=1907-10-26&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=MK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Guha, Ramachandra (2012). <i>Gandhi before India</i>. Allen Lane.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhi+before+India&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Ramachandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-aam-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aam_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arthur_Anthony_Macdonell" title="Arthur Anthony Macdonell">A. A. Macdonell</a>, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Asian Educational Services, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120617797" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120617797">978-8120617797</a>, page 330-331</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen et al (2003), Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Thomson Gale, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865704-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-865704-7">0-02-865704-7</a>, page 405</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-knt-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-knt_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120816077" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120816077">978-8120816077</a>, page 87</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nonviolence By Senthil Ram, Ralph Summy, 2007</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">page 388, The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, by Gandhi (Mahatma), India. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Publications Division</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trustworthiness
by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trustworthiness, by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPR14,M1"><i>The Gandhi Reader</i></a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack, Homer. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPR14,M1The">Gandhi Reader</a></i>, p.344</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack, Homer. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPR14,M1The">Gandhi Reader</a></i>, pp.345–6</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Mia Mahmudur Rahim; Sanjaya Kuruppu (2016). "Corporate Governance in India: The Potential for Ghandism". In Ngwu, Franklin; Onyeka, Osuji; Frank, Stephen (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfebooks.com/isbn/9781315666020"><i>Corporate Governance in Developing and Emerging Markets</i></a>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Corporate+Governance+in+India%3A+The+Potential+for+Ghandism&rft.btitle=Corporate+Governance+in+Developing+and+Emerging+Markets&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Mia+Mahmudur+Rahim&rft.au=Sanjaya+Kuruppu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfebooks.com%2Fisbn%2F9781315666020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Encyclopaedia of Indian philosophy by Vraj Kumar Pandey – History – 2007</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. K. Gandhi, All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words, Paris, UNESCO 1958, p 60.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mahatma Gandhi and comparative religion – Page 54 , by K.L. Seshagiri Rao – Biography & Autobiography – 1990</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wIiIWWjWargC&pg=PA5">A Man Called Bapu</a>, Subhadra Sen Gupta, Pratham Books, 2008. P.5</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Gandhi, Rajmohan (1997). <i>Rajaji, A life</i>. Penguin India.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rajaji%2C+A+life&rft.pub=Penguin+India&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=Rajmohan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Gandhi, Mohandas (13 July 1946). "The Means". <i>Harijan</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harijan&rft.atitle=The+Means&rft.date=1946-07-13&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=Mohandas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohatma Gandhi, (1957) An autobiography: The story of my experiments with truth (M. H. Desai Trans.). Beacon Press. pp. 24–25</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald M. McCarthy and Gene Sharp, <i>Nonviolent action: a research guide</i> (1997) p. 317</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horace Alexander, <i>Consider India: An Essay in Values</i> (London: Asia, 1961), p. 73</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Elizabeth King, <i>Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr: the power of nonviolent action</i> (UNESCO Publishing, 1999), p. 183</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Ananda_M._Pandiri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ananda M. Pandiri (page does not exist)">Ananda M. Pandiri</a>,
<i>A Comprehensive, Annotated Bibliography on Mahatma Gandhi:Biographies, Works by Gandhi, and Bibliographical Sources</i>
Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0313253374" title="Special:BookSources/0313253374">0313253374</a> (p. 349).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barlow, David M., and Brett Mills. "Harold D. Lasswell." Reading media theory: thinkers, approaches and contexts. Second Edition ed. Harlow, England: Pearson Longman, 2012. 103. Print.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bandopadhaya, Sailesh Kumar. "The "Quit India" Resolution." My non-violence. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Pub. House, 1960. 183-205. Print.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gandhi, M. K., and Mahadev Desai. "On The Eve Of Historic Dandi March." The selected works of Mahatma Gandhi. Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan Publ. House, 1968. 28-30. Print.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Brown, TM; Fee, E (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2156064">"Spinning for India's independence"</a>. <i>Am J Public Health</i>. <b>98</b>: 39. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2007.120139">10.2105/AJPH.2007.120139</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2156064">2156064</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18048775">18048775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am+J+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Spinning+for+India%27s+independence&rft.volume=98&rft.pages=39&rft.date=2008&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2156064&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18048775&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2105%2FAJPH.2007.120139&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=TM&rft.au=Fee%2C+E&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2156064&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Speech on the Eve of the Last Fast." Famous Speeches by Mahatma Gandhi. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 March 2014. <<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.mkgandhi.org/speeches/evelast.htm">http://www.mkgandhi.org/speeches/evelast.htm</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">reprinted in <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/">The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas</a>.</i>, Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 106–108.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">reprinted in <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/">The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas</a>.</i>Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 308–9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack, Homer. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY">The Gandhi Reader</a></i>, p. 418.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi", on BBC News <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/50664.stm">[1]</a>, see section "Independence and partition."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/onbhagatsingh.htm">Mahatma Gandhi on Bhagat Singh</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html">Gandhi – 'Mahatma' or Flawed Genius?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20121209000556/india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html">Archived</a> 9 December 2012 at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">Archive.today</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">reprinted in <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/">The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas</a>.</i>, Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) p. 311.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<ul><li><i>Gandhi today: a report on Mahatma Gandhi's successors</i>, by Mark Shepard. Published by Shepard Publications, 1987. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-938497-04-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-938497-04-9">0-938497-04-9</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQyPbvLvK_sC&pg=PA65&lpg=PA65&dq=Chandi+Prasad+Bhatt&source=bl&ots=dQrndg964B&sig=0c1alTiCJTitzsjAaBcwSTH08J8&hl=en&ei=nqjZSYb2Koro6gP-9_H5Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7#PPP1,M1">Excerpts</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047268">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin reflist" style="">
<ul><li>Fischer, Louis. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/">The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas</a>.</i> Vintage: New York, 2002. (reprint edition) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-3050-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-3050-1">1-4000-3050-1</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Jack, Homer (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand"><i><span></span></i>[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR11&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&sig=mu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY#PPP1,M1 The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings.]<i><span></span></i></a>. Grove Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8021-3161-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8021-3161-1"><bdi>0-8021-3161-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%5Bhttps%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXpWO-GoOhVEC%26pg%3DPR13%26lpg%3DPR11%26dq%3DThe%2BGandhi%2BReader%3A%2BA%2BSourcebook%2Bof%2BHis%2BLife%2Band%2BWritings%26sig%3Dmu7B1to2ve7qqIYNmXQMd5jifsY%23PPP1%2CM1+The+Gandhi+Reader%3A+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings.%5D&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=1956&rft.isbn=0-8021-3161-1&rft.aulast=Jack&rft.aufirst=Homer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgandhireadersou00gand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">External link in <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#param_has_ext_link" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li>Hardiman, David. <i>Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas</i> (2004) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-13114-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-13114-3">0-231-13114-3</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Dwivedi, Divya; Mohan, Shaj (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/gandhi-and-philosophy-9781474221719/"><i>Gandhi and Philosophy: On Theological Anti-politics</i></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Academic, UK</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781474221726" title="Special:BookSources/9781474221726"><bdi>9781474221726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhi+and+Philosophy%3A+On+Theological+Anti-politics&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic%2C+UK&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781474221726&rft.aulast=Dwivedi&rft.aufirst=Divya&rft.au=Mohan%2C+Shaj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomsbury.com%2Fuk%2Fgandhi-and-philosophy-9781474221719%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Narayan, Shriman (1970). <i>Relevance of Gandhian economics</i>. Navajivan Publishing House. ASIN B0006CDLA8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relevance+of+Gandhian+economics&rft.pub=Navajivan+Publishing+House&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Narayan&rft.aufirst=Shriman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Pani, Narendar (2002). <i>Inclusive Economics: Gandhian Method and Contemporary Policy</i>. Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-9580-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-9580-7"><bdi>978-0-7619-9580-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inclusive+Economics%3A+Gandhian+Method+and+Contemporary+Policy&rft.pub=Sage+Publications+Pvt.+Ltd.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-9580-7&rft.aulast=Pani&rft.aufirst=Narendar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Sharma, R. (1997). <i>Gandhian economics</i>. Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7100-986-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7100-986-2"><bdi>978-81-7100-986-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhian+economics&rft.pub=Deep+and+Deep+Publications+Pvt.+Ltd.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-81-7100-986-2&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Weber, Thomas (2006). <i>Gandhi, Gandhism and the Gandhians</i>. Roli Books Pvt. Ltd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7436-468-4" title="Special:BookSources/81-7436-468-4"><bdi>81-7436-468-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhi%2C+Gandhism+and+the+Gandhians&rft.pub=Roli+Books+Pvt.+Ltd.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=81-7436-468-4&rft.aulast=Weber&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Mashelkar, Ramesh (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timelessinspirat0000unse"><i>Timeless Inspirator-Reliving Gandhi [http://www.timelessinspirator.com]</i></a>. Sakal Papers Ltd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-8057-148-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-8057-148-5"><bdi>978-93-8057-148-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Timeless+Inspirator-Reliving+Gandhi+%5Bhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.timelessinspirator.com%5D&rft.pub=Sakal+Papers+Ltd.&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-93-8057-148-5&rft.aulast=Mashelkar&rft.aufirst=Ramesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftimelessinspirat0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">External link in <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#param_has_ext_link" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin reflist" style="">
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mkgandhi.org/philosophy/gandhiphil.htm">Gandhian Philosophy in Short</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bahai-library.com/gandhimohan_gandhi_bahais_nonviolence#9">Gandhian ideals</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/library/kumar/kumar4.htm">Relevance of Gandhism in Modern Polity</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/trusteeship.htm">Gandhian Trusteeship as an "Instrument of Human Dignity"</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peacemagazine.org/archive/v14n2p28.htm">Review of "Gandhian economics"</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-10-02/edit-page/27850909_1_gandhiji-economics-formulations">Gandhian economics is relevant</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070705164639/http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/kawada.pdf">Gandhism and Buddhism PDF</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/other-books/studies-in-gandhism">Studies in Gandhism</a></li></ul>
</div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mahatma_Gandhi" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Template:Mahatma Gandhi"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Template talk:Mahatma Gandhi"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Mahatma_Gandhi&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mahatma_Gandhi" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life events<br />and movements</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Ambulance_Corps" title="Indian Ambulance Corps">Indian Ambulance Corps</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bardoli_Satyagraha" title="Bardoli Satyagraha">Bardoli Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Champaran_Satyagraha" title="Champaran Satyagraha">Champaran Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kheda_Satyagraha_of_1918" title="Kheda Satyagraha of 1918">Kheda Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_independence_movement#Gandhi_arrives_in_India" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement" title="Non-cooperation movement">Non-cooperation Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chauri_Chaura_incident" title="Chauri Chaura incident">Chauri Chaura incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purna_Swaraj" title="Purna Swaraj">Purna Swaraj</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_India" title="Flag of India">flag</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salt_March" title="Salt March">Salt March</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dharasana_Satyagraha" title="Dharasana Satyagraha">Dharasana Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vaikom_Satyagraha" title="Vaikom Satyagraha">Vaikom Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aundh_Experiment" title="Aundh Experiment">Aundh Experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi%E2%80%93Irwin_Pact" title="Gandhi–Irwin Pact">Gandhi–Irwin Pact</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_(India)#Second_Round_Table_Conference_(September_–_December_1931)" title="Round Table Conferences (India)">Second Round Table Conference</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poona_Pact" title="Poona Pact">Poona Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natal_Indian_Congress" title="Natal Indian Congress">Natal Indian Congress</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quit_India_speech" title="Quit India speech">speech</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gujarat_Vidyapith" title="Gujarat Vidyapith">Gujarat Vidyapith University</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harijan_Sevak_Sangh" title="Harijan Sevak Sangh">Harijan Sevak Sangh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kochrab_Ashram" title="Kochrab Ashram">Ashrams (Kochrab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement#African" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoy Farm</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sabarmati_Ashram" title="Sabarmati Ashram">Sabarmati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sevagram" title="Sevagram">Sevagram)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_fasts_undertaken_by_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="List of fasts undertaken by Mahatma Gandhi">List of fasts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assassination_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi">Assassination</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gandhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhian_economics" title="Gandhian economics">Economics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trusteeship_(Gandhism)" title="Trusteeship (Gandhism)">trusteeship</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nai_Talim" title="Nai Talim">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Sarvodaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swadeshi_movement" title="Swadeshi movement">Swadeshi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swaraj" title="Swaraj">Swaraj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_cap" title="Gandhi cap">Gandhi cap</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Heritage_Portal" title="Gandhi Heritage Portal">Publications</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Harijan"><i>Harijan</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hind_Swaraj_or_Indian_Home_Rule" title="Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule"><i>Hind Swaraj (Indian Home Rule)</i></a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Opinion" title="Indian Opinion">Indian Opinion</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth" title="The Story of My Experiments with Truth">The Story of My Experiments with Truth</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Young_India" title="Young India"><i>Young India</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seven_Social_Sins" title="Seven Social Sins">Seven Social Sins</a></li>
<li>(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Heritage_Portal" title="Gandhi Heritage Portal">Gandhi Heritage Portal</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_Letter_to_a_Hindu" title="A Letter to a Hindu">A Letter to a Hindu</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Disobedience_(Thoreau)" title="Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)"><i>Civil Disobedience</i> (essay)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">Fasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harishchandra" title="Harishchandra">Harishchandra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khadi" title="Khadi">Khadi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parsee_Rustomjee" title="Parsee Rustomjee">Parsee Rustomjee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Masque_of_Anarchy" title="The Masque of Anarchy">The Masque of Anarchy</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narmad" title="Narmad">Narmad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shravan" title="Shravan">Shravan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shrimad_Rajchandra" title="Shrimad Rajchandra">Shrimad Rajchandra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt" title="Henry Stephens Salt">Henry Stephens Salt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Ba%E1%B8%B7" title="Tirukkuṛaḷ">Tirukkuṛaḷ</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unto_This_Last" title="Unto This Last">Unto This Last</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Gandhi's translation</a></li></ul></li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raghupati_Raghava_Raja_Ram" title="Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram">Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram</a>"</li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ekla_Chalo_Re" title="Ekla Chalo Re">Ekla Chalo Re</a>"</li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hari_Tuma_Haro" title="Hari Tuma Haro">Hari Tuma Haro</a>"</li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vaishnava_Jana_To" title="Vaishnava Jana To">Vaishnava Jana To</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associates</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swami_Anand" title="Swami Anand">Swami Anand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Freer_Andrews" title="Charles Freer Andrews">C. F. Andrews</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jamnalal_Bajaj" title="Jamnalal Bajaj">Jamnalal Bajaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shankarlal_Banker" title="Shankarlal Banker">Shankarlal Banker</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarla_Behn" title="Sarla Behn">Sarla Behn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vinoba_Bhave" title="Vinoba Bhave">Vinoba Bhave</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brij_Krishna_Chandiwala" title="Brij Krishna Chandiwala">Brij Krishna Chandiwala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sudhakar_Chaturvedi" title="Sudhakar Chaturvedi">Sudhakar Chaturvedi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jugatram_Dave" title="Jugatram Dave">Jugatram Dave</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahadev_Desai" title="Mahadev Desai">Mahadev Desai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dada_Dharmadhikari" title="Dada Dharmadhikari">Dada Dharmadhikari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanu_Gandhi" title="Kanu Gandhi">Kanu Gandhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shiv_Prasad_Gupta" title="Shiv Prasad Gupta">Shiv Prasad Gupta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umar_Hajee_Ahmed_Jhaveri" title="Umar Hajee Ahmed Jhaveri">Umar Hajee Ahmed Jhaveri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/J._C._Kumarappa" title="J. C. Kumarappa">J. C. Kumarappa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hermann_Kallenbach" title="Hermann Kallenbach">Hermann Kallenbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bacha_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacha Khan">Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/J._B._Kripalani" title="J. B. Kripalani">Acharya Kripalani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mirabehn" title="Mirabehn">Mirabehn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohanlal_Pandya" title="Mohanlal Pandya">Mohanlal Pandya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vallabhbhai_Patel" title="Vallabhbhai Patel">Vallabhbhai Patel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narhari_Parikh" title="Narhari Parikh">Narhari Parikh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mithuben_Petit" title="Mithuben Petit">Mithuben Petit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/C._Rajagopalachari" title="C. Rajagopalachari">Chakravarti Rajagopalachari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibi_Amtus_Salam" title="Bibi Amtus Salam">Bibi Amtus Salam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sonja_Schlesin" title="Sonja Schlesin">Sonja Schlesin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anugrah_Narayan_Sinha" title="Anugrah Narayan Sinha">Anugrah Narayan Sinha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shri_Krishna_Singh_(politician)" title="Shri Krishna Singh (politician)">Shri Krishna Singh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rettamalai_Srinivasan" title="Rettamalai Srinivasan">Rettamalai Srinivasan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/V._A._Sundaram" title="V. A. Sundaram">V. A. Sundaram</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abbas_Tyabji" title="Abbas Tyabji">Abbas Tyabji</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ravishankar_Vyas" title="Ravishankar Vyas">Ravishankar Vyas</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_artistic_depictions_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi">Artistic depictions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhigiri" title="Gandhigiri">Gandhigiri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Award" title="Gandhi Peace Award">Gandhi Peace Award</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Prize" title="Gandhi Peace Prize">Gandhi Peace Prize</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Kashi_Vidyapith" title="Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith">Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Series" title="Mahatma Gandhi Series">Indian currency</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Family_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Family of Mahatma Gandhi">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karamchand_Uttamchand_Gandhi" title="Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi">Karamchand Gandhi (father)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kasturba_Gandhi" title="Kasturba Gandhi">Kasturba (wife)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harilal_Gandhi" title="Harilal Gandhi">Harilal (son)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manilal_Gandhi" title="Manilal Gandhi">Manilal (son)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramdas_Gandhi" title="Ramdas Gandhi">Ramdas (son)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Devdas_Gandhi" title="Devdas Gandhi">Devdas (son)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maganlal_Gandhi" title="Maganlal Gandhi">Maganlal (cousin)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samaldas_Gandhi" title="Samaldas Gandhi">Samaldas (nephew)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arun_Manilal_Gandhi" title="Arun Manilal Gandhi">Arun (grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ela_Gandhi" title="Ela Gandhi">Ela (granddaughter)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rajmohan_Gandhi" title="Rajmohan Gandhi">Rajmohan (grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gopalkrishna_Gandhi" title="Gopalkrishna Gandhi">Gopalkrishna (grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramchandra_Gandhi" title="Ramchandra Gandhi">Ramchandra (grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanu_Gandhi_(scientist)" title="Kanu Gandhi (scientist)">Kanu (grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanu_Gandhi" title="Kanu Gandhi">Kanu (grandnephew)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tushar_Gandhi" title="Tushar Gandhi">Tushar (great-grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leela_Gandhi" title="Leela Gandhi">Leela (great-granddaughter)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gopaldas_Ambaidas_Desai" title="Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai">Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morarji_Desai" title="Morarji Desai">Morarji Desai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eknath_Easwaran" title="Eknath Easwaran">Eknath Easwaran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maria_Lacerda_de_Moura" title="Maria Lacerda de Moura">Maria Lacerda de Moura</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brajkishore_Prasad" title="Brajkishore Prasad">Brajkishore Prasad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rajendra_Prasad" title="Rajendra Prasad">Rajendra Prasad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramjee_Singh" title="Ramjee Singh">Ramjee Singh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lanza_del_Vasto" title="Lanza del Vasto">Lanza del Vasto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abhay_and_Rani_Bang" title="Abhay and Rani Bang">Abhay Bang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pandurang_Sadashiv_Sane" title="Pandurang Sadashiv Sane">Sane Guruji</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Memorials_to_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Category:Memorials to Mahatma Gandhi">Memorials</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statues</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li>India
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Gandhi_Maidan" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Gandhi Maidan">Patna</a></li></ul></li>
<li>South Africa
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Johannesburg" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a></li></ul></li>
<li>UK
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Parliament_Square" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Parliament Square">Parliament Square</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Tavistock_Square" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Tavistock Square">Tavistock Square</a></li></ul></li>
<li>US
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi_(Houston)" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi (Houston)">Houston</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Memorial_(Milwaukee)" title="Mahatma Gandhi Memorial (Milwaukee)">Milwaukee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi_(New_York_City)" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi (New York City)">New York</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi_(San_Francisco)" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi (San Francisco)">San Francisco</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Memorial_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Mahatma Gandhi Memorial (Washington, D.C.)">Washington</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observances</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Jayanti" title="Gandhi Jayanti">Gandhi Jayanti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Day_of_Non-Violence" title="International Day of Non-Violence">International Day of Non-Violence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martyrs%27_Day_(India)" title="Martyrs' Day (India)">Martyrs' Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Season_for_Nonviolence" title="Season for Nonviolence">Season for Nonviolence</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aga_Khan_Palace" title="Aga Khan Palace">Aga Khan Palace</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bust_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Shanghai" title="Bust of Mahatma Gandhi, Shanghai">Bust</a> (Shanghai)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Bhawan,_Chandigarh" title="Gandhi Bhawan, Chandigarh">Gandhi Bhawan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Mandapam_(Chennai)" title="Gandhi Mandapam (Chennai)">Gandhi Mandapam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Market" title="Gandhi Market">Gandhi Market</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_(bookstore)" title="Gandhi (bookstore)">Bookstores</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Promenade" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhi Promenade">Gandhi Promenade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Smriti" title="Gandhi Smriti">Gandhi Smriti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanyakumari#Tourist_sites" title="Kanyakumari">Gandhi Memorial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Memorial_Museum,_Madurai" title="Gandhi Memorial Museum, Madurai">Gandhi Memorial Museum, Madurai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaba_Gandhi_No_Delo" title="Kaba Gandhi No Delo">Kaba Gandhi No Delo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kirti_Mandir,_Porbandar" title="Kirti Mandir, Porbandar">Kirti Mandir</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_College" title="Mahatma Gandhi College">Mahatma Gandhi College</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alfred_High_School_(Rajkot)" title="Alfred High School (Rajkot)">Mohandas Gandhi High School</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Gandhi_Museum" title="National Gandhi Museum">National Gandhi Museum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raj_Ghat_and_associated_memorials" title="Raj Ghat and associated memorials">Raj Ghat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sabarmati_Ashram" title="Sabarmati Ashram">Sabarmati Ashram</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satyagraha_House" title="Satyagraha House">Satyagraha House</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Teerth" title="Gandhi Teerth">Gandhi Teerth</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_roads_named_after_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="List of roads named after Mahatma Gandhi">Roads named after Gandhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Memorial_Centre,_Matale" title="Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Centre, Matale">Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Centre, Matale</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_and_political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Social_and_political_philosophy" title="Template:Social and political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Social_and_political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social and political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Social_and_political_philosophy&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_and_political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient<br />philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xun_Kuang" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval<br />philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baldus_de_Ubaldis" title="Baldus de Ubaldis">Baldus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bartolus_de_Saxoferrato" title="Bartolus de Saxoferrato">Bartolus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_of_Segusio" title="Henry of Segusio">Hostiensis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_of_Paris" title="John of Paris">John of Paris</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_of_Salisbury" title="John of Salisbury">John of Salisbury</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brunetto_Latini" title="Brunetto Latini">Latini</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Beza</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giovanni_Botero" title="Giovanni Botero">Botero</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Buchanan" title="George Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Richard_Cumberland_(philosopher)" title="Richard Cumberland (philosopher)">Cumberland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philippe_de_Mornay" title="Philippe de Mornay">Duplessis-Mornay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan">Hayashi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hotman" title="François Hotman">Hotman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huang_Zongxi" title="Huang Zongxi">Huang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Juan_de_Mariana" title="Juan de Mariana">Mariana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gabriel_Naud%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Naudé">Naudé</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henri,_Duke_of_Rohan" title="Henri, Duke of Rohan">Rohan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francesco_Sansovino" title="Francesco Sansovino">Sansovino</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th–19th-century<br />philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_Gabriel_Ambroise_de_Bonald" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Gabriel Ambroise de Bonald">Bonald</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bernard_Bosanquet_(philosopher)" title="Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher)">Bosanquet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Hamann</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Gottlob_Justi" title="Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi">Justi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Justus_M%C3%B6ser" title="Justus Möser">Möser</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th–21st-century<br />philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodor_Adorno" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor Adorno">Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">De Beauvoir</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_Gauthier" title="David Gauthier">Gauthier</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mou_Zongsan" title="Mou Zongsan">Mou</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Said_Nurs%C3%AE" title="Said Nursî">Nursî</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Plamenatz" title="John Plamenatz">Plamenatz</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/T._M._Scanlon" title="T. M. Scanlon">Scanlon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ljubodrag_Simonovi%C4%87" title="Ljubodrag Simonović">Simonović</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ugo_Spirito" title="Ugo Spirito">Spirito</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Social_theories" title="Category:Social theories">Social theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consensus_theory" title="Consensus theory">Consensus theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminist political theory</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gandhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">Four occupations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li>
<li><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">more...</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Philosophy and economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_love" title="Philosophy of love">Philosophy of love</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Philosophy of sex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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