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{{History_of Somalia}}
{{Culture of Somalia}}
'''Somalia''' ({{lang-so|Soomaaliya}}; {{transl|ar|''aṣ-Ṣūmāl''}}), officially the '''[[Federal Republic of Somalia]]''' ({{lang-so|Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya}}, {{transl|ar|''Jumhūriyyat aṣ-Ṣūmāl al-Fideraaliya''}}) and formerly known as the '''[[Somali Democratic Republic]]''', is a country located in the [[Horn of Africa]].
Somalia was an important centre for commerce of which many of the rest of the ancient world,<ref>John Kenrick, ''Phoenicia'', (B. Fellowes: 1855), p. 199.</ref><ref>Jeanne Rose, John Hulburd, ''The aromatherapy book: applications & inhalations'', (North Atlantic Books: 1992), p. 94.</ref> and according to most scholars,<ref name="Sceotaw">{{cite book|last=Charnan|first=Simon|title=Explorers of the Ancient World|year=1990|publisher=Childrens Press|isbn=0-516-03053-1|page=26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vCf_fBfS5xUC}}</ref><ref name=Sfnrtmm>{{cite journal|journal=The Mariner's Mirror|year=1984|volume=66–71|page=261|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjJVAAAAYAAJ|title=The Mariner's mirror|publisher=Society For Nautical Research}}</ref> it is among the most probable locations of the fabled ancient [[Land of Punt]].<ref name="Mahdy">Christine El Mahdy, ''Egypt : 3000 Years of Civilization Brought to Life'', (Raincoast Books: 2005), p.297.</ref><ref name="SGoodwin">Stefan Goodwin, ''Africa's legacies of urbanization: unfolding saga of a continent'', (Lexington Books: 2006), p. 48.</ref>
During the old ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the [[Ajuran Sultanate]], the [[Adal Sultanate]], the Warsangali Sultanate, the [[Sultanate of the Geledi]], the [[Sultanate of the Bimal]] and the [[Majeerteen Sultanate]][[Gasargude dynasty]]
In the late 19th century, through a succession of treaties with these kingdoms, the British and Italians gained control of parts of the coast, and established [[British Somaliland]] and [[Italian Somaliland]].<ref name = "Laitin 1977 8">{{Harvnb|Laitin|1977|p=8}}.</ref><ref name="Issa-Salwe">{{cite book|first=Abdisalam M.|last=Issa-Salwe|authorlink=Abdisalam Issa-Salwe|title=The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy|publisher=Haan Associates|year=1996|location=London|isbn= 187420991X|pages=34–35}}</ref> In the interior, [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]]'s [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]] successfully repulsed the [[British Empire]] four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region,<ref>Kevin Shillington, ''Encyclopedia of African history''‎, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 1406.</ref> but the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 by British airpower.<ref>{{cite book|last = Samatar|first = Said Sheikh|title = Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1982|pages = 131, 135|isbn = 0-521-23833-1}}</ref> Italy acquired full control of the northeastern, central and southern parts of the territory after successfully waging a [[History of Somalia#20th century|Campaign of the Sultanates]] against the ruling [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] and the [[Sultanate of Hobyo]].<ref name="Issa-Salwe"/> This occupation lasted until 1941 when it was replaced by a British [[military administration]]. Northwestern Somalia would remain a [[protectorate]], while northeastern, central and southern Somalia by agreement became a [[Trust Territory of Somaliland|United Nations Trusteeship]] on 1 April 1950, with a promise of independence after 10 years. On 1 July 1960, the two regions united as planned to form the independent [[Somali Republic]] under a civilian government. The Somali National Assembly, headed by [[Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf]], approved the act uniting the former [[Italian Somaliland]] with [[British Somaliland]], establishing the Republic of Somalia.<ref>Greystone Press Staff, ''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', (Greystone Press: 1967), p. 338.</ref>
Ancient Ethiopia domesticated the camel somewhere between the third millennium and second millennium BCE from where it spread to [[Ancient Egypt]] and North Africa.<ref>Suzanne Richard, ''Near Eastern archaeology: a reader''. p. 120</ref>
==Prehistory==
[[File:LaasGeel.jpg|thumb|Neolithic [[rock art]] at the [[Laas Geel]] complex depicting a [[camel]].]]
Somalia has been inhabited since at least the [[Paleolithic]], when the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished.<!-- 'a country formed by Maxamed Mahamoud Abdulkadir Mahamud Gurey' - Unless this guy founded Somalia in the stone age, he is irrelevance to this paragraph (let alone this sentence). --><ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Robertshaw|title=A History of African Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105|year=1990|publisher=J. Currey|isbn=978-0-435-08041-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105 105]}}</ref> The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BC.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Early Holocene Mortuary Practices and Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in Southern Somalia|jstor=124524|pmid=16470993|pages=40–56|author=S. A. Brandt|volume=20|issue=1|journal=World Archaeology|year=1988|doi=10.1080/00438243.1988.9980055}}</ref> The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterized in 1909 as important artefacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://archive.org/stream/mananth9a10royauoft/mananth9a10royauoft_djvu.txt|title=Prehistoric Implements From Somaliland|author=H.W. Seton-Karr|journal=[[Man (journal)|Man]]|accessdate=30 January 2011|volume=9|issue=106|pages=182–183|year=1909|authorlink=Henry Seton-Karr|doi=10.2307/2840281|jstor=2840281}}</ref>
According to linguists, the first [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing [[Neolithic]] period from the family's proposed [[Afroasiatic Urheimat|urheimat]] ("original homeland") in the [[Nile Valley]],<ref>Zarins, Juris (1990), "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia", (Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research)</ref> or the [[Near East]].<ref>Diamond J, Bellwood P (2003) Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions SCIENCE 300, {{doi|10.1126/science.1078208}}</ref> Other scholars propose that the Afro-Asiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there.<ref name="Blench143144">{{cite book|last1=Blench|first1=R.|title=Archaeology, Language, and the African Past|date=2006|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=0759104662|pages=143–144|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C|accessdate=8 September 2014}}</ref>
The [[Laas Geel]] complex on the outskirts of [[Hargeisa]] in northwestern Somalia dates back around 5,000 years, and has [[rock art]] depicting both wild animals and decorated cows.<ref name="Bakano">{{cite news|last=Bakano|first=Otto|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jMNd90UAafsRNEDPyelL7Hee1ydw?docId=CNG.82196a5b15ef45a2d4e744675740cd6a.6e1 |title=Grotto galleries show early Somali life |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=24 April 2011|accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref> Other [[cave painting]]s are found in the northern [[Dhambalin]] region, which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the distinctive Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE.<ref name="Tdodras">{{cite journal|last=Mire|first=Sada|title=The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, Somaliland|journal=African Archaeological Review|year=2008|volume=25|issue=3–4|pages=153–168|url=http://www.mbali.info/doc494.htm|accessdate=22 June 2013|doi=10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627100400/http://www.mbali.info/doc494.htm|archivedate=27 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="Guafcpaonas">{{cite news|last=Alberge|first=Dalya|title=UK archaeologist finds cave paintings at 100 new African sites|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/17/cave-paintings-found-in-somaliland|accessdate=25 June 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|date=17 September 2010}}</ref> Additionally, between the towns of [[Las Khorey]] and [[El Ayo]] in northern Somalia lies [[Karinhegane]], the site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old.<ref name="Mheah">{{cite book|last=Hodd|first=Michael|title=East African Handbook|year=1994|publisher=Trade & Travel Publications|isbn=0844289833|page=640|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bL8tAQAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Astgi">{{cite book|last=Ali|first=Ismail Mohamed|title=Somalia Today: General Information|year=1970|publisher=Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic|page=295|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMVAAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>
==Ancient==
{{Main|Somali architecture|Military history of Somalia|Macrobians}}
===Land of Punt===
{{Main|Land of Punt}}
Ancient [[Somalian architecture|pyramidical structures]], [[mausoleum]]s, [[Lost city|ruined cities]] and [[stone wall]]s found in Somalia (such as the [[Wargaade Wall]]) are evidence of an old sophisticated civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula.<ref name="Nthos">{{cite book|last=Njoku|first=Raphael Chijioke|title=The History of Somalia|year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0313378577|pages=29–31|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C}}</ref><ref name="Titthtw">{{cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|title=The Illustrated Timeline of the History of the World|year=2011|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1448847976|page=131|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RO4kS1IR71sC}}</ref> The findings of archaeological excavations and research in Somalia show that this civilization enjoyed a lucrative trading relationship with [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mycenaean Greece]] since the second millennium BCE. This supports the hypothesis of Somalia and/or the adjacent Horn territories corresponding with the ancient [[Land of Punt]].<ref name="Nthos"/><ref name="Etdttfc">{{cite book|last=Abdel Monem A. H. Sayed|first=Zahi A. Hawass (ed.)|title=Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology|year=2003|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|isbn=9774246748|pages=432–433|url=https://books.google.com/?id=1E13DorsFMEC}}</ref> The Puntites traded [[myrrh]], spices, gold, [[ebony]], short-horned cattle, ivory and [[frankincense]] with the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Ancient Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the 18th dynasty Queen [[Hatshepsut]] is recorded on the temple reliefs at [[Deir el-Bahari]], during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati.<ref name="Nthos"/>
===Macrobia Kingdom===
{{Main|Macrobians}}
In the [[Classical antiquity|classical era]], the [[Macrobians]], who were [[Proto-Somali]], established a powerful tribal kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men".<ref name="Wheeler pg 526">[https://archive.org/stream/geographyofherod00whee/geographyofherod00whee_djvu.txt The Geography of Herodotus: Illustrated from Modern Researches and Discoveries] by James Talboys Wheeler, pg 1xvi, 315, 526</ref> The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the [[Persian Emperor]] [[Cambyses II]], upon his [[History of Achaemenid Egypt|conquest of Egypt]] (525 BC), sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.<ref name="Wheeler pg 526"/><ref name="Kitto2">John Kitto, James Taylor, ''The popular cyclopædia of Biblical literature: condensed from the larger work'', (Gould and Lincoln: 1856), p.302.</ref> The Macrobians were a regional power that were known from east to west and were highly advanced in architecture and extremely known for their wealth were they were noted for its gold, which was so plentiful that the Macrobians shackled their prisoners in golden chains.<ref name="Kitto2"/>
===Somali City States===
{{Main|Maritime history of Somalia}}
[[File:Silk route.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Silk Road]] extending from southern Europe through [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], Somalia, [[Egypt]], [[Iran|Persia]], [[India]] and [[Java]] until it reaches China.]]
In the [[Classical antiquity|classical period]], the [[Maritime history of Somalia#Ancient|Somali city-states]] of [[Mosylon]], [[Opone]], [[Malao]], [[Sarapion]], [[Heis (town)|Mundus]], [[Essina]] and Tabae in Somalia developed a lucrative [[Trade route|trade network]] connecting with merchants from [[Phoenicia]], [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemic Egypt]], Greece, [[Parthian Empire|Parthian Persia]], [[Sheba]], [[Nabataeans|Nabataea]] and the [[Roman Empire]]. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the ''[[beden]]'' to transport their cargo.
After the [[Nabatea#Roman annexation|Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire]] and the Roman naval presence at [[Aden]] to curb pillaging, Somali and Gulf Arab merchants by agreement barred Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the [[Arabian peninsula]]<ref>Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', p. 54.</ref> to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient [[Red Sea]]–[[Mediterranean Sea]] commerce.<ref name="EHW">Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', p. 229.</ref> However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the [[Somali peninsula]], which was free from Roman interference.<ref>Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', p. 187.</ref>
For centuries, the Indian merchants brought large quantities of [[cinnamon]] from [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Indonesia]] to Somalia and Arabia. This is said to have been the best kept secret of the Somali and Gulf Arab merchants in their trade with the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Greeks|Greek]] world. The Romans and Greeks believed the source of cinnamon to have been the Somali peninsula, but in reality, the highly valued product was brought to Somalia by way of Indian ships.<ref>Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', pp. 185–186.</ref> Through collusive agreement by Somali and Gulf Arab traders, Indian/Chinese cinnamon was also exported for far higher prices to North Africa, the [[Near East]] and Europe, which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shipped across ancient sea and land routes.<ref name="EHW"/>
==Medieval==
{{main|Ifat Sultanate|Adal Sultanate|Ajuran Sultanate|Warsangali Sultanate}}
[[File:Zayla.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Adal Sultanate|Sultanate of Adal]] in [[Zeila]], Somalia.]]
[[Islam]] was introduced to the northern Somali coast early on from the [[Arabian peninsula]], shortly after the [[Hijra (Islam)|hijra]]. [[Zeila]]'s two-[[mihrab]] [[Masjid al-Qiblatayn (Somalia)|Masjid al-Qiblatayn]] dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in Africa.<ref name="Btgpb">{{cite book|last=Briggs|first=Phillip|title=Somaliland|year=2012|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1841623719|page=7|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC}}</ref> In the late 9th century, [[Al-Yaqubi]] wrote that [[Muslim]]s were living along the northern Somali seaboard.<ref name="Encyamer">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25|year=1965|publisher=Americana Corporation|pages=255|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=OP5LAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city,<ref name="Encyamer"/><ref name="Lewispohoa">{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I.M.|title=Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho|year=1955|publisher=International African Institute|pages=140|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=Cd0mAQAAMAAJ}}</ref> suggesting that the [[Adal Sultanate]] with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local [[Somali people|Somali]] dynasties, who also ruled over the similarly-established [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]] in the littoral [[Benadir]] region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]].<ref name="Lewispohoa"/>
[[File:Fakr Ud Din Mosque.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving of the 13th century [[Fakr ad-Din Mosque]] built by Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]].]]
The Sultanate of Mogadishu's first dynasty was established by Sultan Fakr ad-Din. This ruling house was succeeded by the Garen dynasty, and the kingdom subsequently evolved into the powerful Somali [[Ajuran Empire]] during the 13th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|title=The Modern History of Somaliland: From Nation to State|page=37|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=LLQeAAAAIAAJ|year=1965|publisher=F.A. Praeger}}</ref> For many years, [[Mogadishu]] stood as the pre-eminent city in the بلاد البربر, ''[[Barbara (region)|Bilad-al-Barbar]]'' ("Land of the Berbers"), which was the medieval Arab term for the Somali coast.<ref>M. Elfasi, Ivan Hrbek [https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&pg=PA600&lpg=PA600&dq=Bilad+al-Barbar&source=bl&ots=UCiSgqq_kG&sig=EX-Jr5FtaaYmk7Nax3Ei1bAmyME&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi23Zef-YTKAhVEPRoKHYLmAuQQ6AEIPjAJ#v=onepage&q=Barbar&f=false "Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century"], "General history of AfrÄÃǎica". Retrieved 31 December 2015</ref><ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ''The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama'', (Cambridge University Press: 1998), p. 121.</ref><ref>J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p. 190.</ref><ref>[[George Wynn Brereton Huntingford]], Agatharchides, ''The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea"'', (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p. 83.</ref> Following his visit to the city, the 12th century Syrian historian [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]] wrote that it was inhabited by "Berbers", the ancestors of the modern Somalis.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fage|first1=J. D.|last2=Oliver|first2=Roland Anthony|title=The Cambridge History of Africa|page=30|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=Z0zZKCpGmfkC|volume=7|year=1986|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22505-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|title=A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa|page=20|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=Nt5yAAAAMAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-8133-7402-4}}</ref>
The Warsangali Sultanate was a kingdom centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the [[Sanaag]] region and parts of the northeastern [[Bari, Somalia|Bari]] region of the country, an area historically known as [[Maakhir]] or the ''[[Maakhir Coast]]''. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the [[Warsangali]] branch of the [[Darod]] clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the [[Gerad Dhidhin]].<ref>[http://www.warsangeli.org Warsangeli Sultanate]</ref>
[[File:Mogadishan currency.JPG|thumb|right|100px|[[Mogadishu currency|Mogadishan currency]] – The [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]] was an important monetary supporter of [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]].]]
The conquest of Shoa ignited a rivalry for supremacy between the [[Solomonic dynasty|Christian Solomonids]] and the [[Ifat Sultanate|Muslim Ifatites]], which resulted in several devastating wars and ultimately ended in a Solomonic victory over the Kingdom of Ifat. Parts of northwestern Somalia came under the rule of the Solomonids in medieval times, especially during the reign of [[Amda Seyon I of Ethiopia|Amda Seyon I]] (r. 1314–1344). In 1403 or 1415 (under Emperor [[Dawit I of Ethiopia|Dawit I]] or Emperor [[Yeshaq I of Ethiopia|Yeshaq I]], respectively), measures were taken against the Muslim Sultanate of Adal. The Emperor eventually captured King [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]] of the [[Walashma dynasty]] in Zeila and had him executed. The Walashma Chronicle, however, records the date as 1415, which would make the Ethiopian victor Emperor Yeshaq I. After the war, the reigning king had his minstrels compose a song praising his victory, which contains the first written record of the word "Somali". Sa'ad ad-Din II's family was subsequently given safe haven at the court of the [[Imams of Yemen|King of Yemen]], where his sons regrouped and planned their revenge on the Solomonids.
The oldest son [[Sabr ad-Din II]] built a new capital eastwards of Zeila known as [[Dakkar]] and began referring to himself as the King of Adal. He continued the war against the [[Ethiopian Empire|Solomonic Empire]]. Despite his army's smaller size, he was able to defeat the Solomonids at the battles of Serjan and Zikr Amhara and consequently pillaged the surrounding areas. Many similar battles were fought between the Adalites and the Solomonids with both sides achieving victory and suffering defeat but ultimately [[Sultan]] Sabr ad-Din II successfully managed to drive the Solomonic army out of Adal territory. He died a natural death and was succeeded by his brother [[Mansur ad-Din of Adal|Mansur ad-Din]] who invaded the capital and royal seat of the Solomonic Empire and drove Emperor [[Dawit II of Ethiopia|Dawit II]] to Yedaya where according to [[al-Maqrizi]], Sultan Mansur destroyed a Solomonic army and killed the Emperor. He then advanced to the mountains of Mokha, where he encountered a 30,000 strong Solomonic army. The Adalite soldiers surrounded their enemies and for two months besieged the trapped Solomonic soldiers until a truce was declared in Mansur's favour.
[[File:Ancient-Almnara.jpg|thumb|left|Almnara Tower, Mogadishu.]]
Later on in the campaign, the Adalites were struck by a catastrophe when Sultan Mansur and his brother Muhammad were captured in battle by the Solomonids. Mansur was immediately succeeded by the youngest brother of the family [[Jamal ad-Din II]]. Sultan Jamal reorganized the army into a formidable force and defeated the Solomonic armies at [[Bale Province, Ethiopia|Bale]], Yedeya and Jazja. Emperor Yeshaq I responded by gathering a large army and invaded the cities of Yedeya and Jazja but was repulsed by the soldiers of Jamal. Following this success, Jamal organized another successful attack against the Solomonic forces and inflicted heavy casualties in what was reportedly the largest Adalite army ever fielded. As a result, Yeshaq was forced to withdraw towards the [[Blue Nile]] over the next five months, while Jamal ad Din's forces pursued them and looted much gold on the way, although no engagement ensued.
After returning home, Jamal sent his brother Ahmad with the Christian battle-expert Harb Jaush to successfully attack the province of Dawaro. Despite his losses, Emperor Yeshaq was still able to continue field armies against Jamal. Sultan Jamal continued to advance further into the Abyssinian heartland. However, Jamal on hearing of Yeshaq's plan to send several large armies to attack three different areas of Adal (including the capital), returned to Adal, where he fought the Solomonic forces at Harjai and, according to al-Maqrizi, this is where the Emperor Yeshaq died in battle. The young Sultan Jamal ad-Din II at the end of his reign had outperformed his brothers and forefathers in the war arena and became the most successful ruler of Adal to date. Within a few years, however, Jamal was assassinated by either disloyal friends or cousins around 1432 or 1433, and was succeeded by his brother [[Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din]]. Sultan Badlay continued the campaigns of his younger brother and began several successful expeditions against the Christian empire. He recovered the [[Bale Zone|Kingdom of Bali]] and began preparations of a major Adalite offensive into the [[Ethiopian Highlands]]. He successfully collected funding from surrounding Muslim kingdoms as far away as the Kingdom of Mogadishu.<ref>Richard Gray, ''The Cambridge history of Africa'', Volume 4. p. 155.</ref> However, these ambitious plans were thrown out the war chamber when King Badlay died during the invasion of Dawaro. He was succeeded by his son [[Muhammad ibn Badlay]], who sent envoys to the Sultan of [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Egypt]] to gather support and arms in the continuing war against the Christian empire. The Adalite ruler Muhammad and the Solomonic ruler [[Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia|Baeda Maryam]] agreed to a truce and both states in the following decades saw an unprecedented period of peace and stability.
==Early modern==
{{Main|Maritime history of Somalia}}
Sultan Muhammad was succeeded by his son [[Shams ad-Din ibn Muhammad|Shams ad Din]], while Emperor Baeda Maryam was succeeded by his son [[Eskender]]. During this time, period warfare broke out again between the two states and Emperor Eskender invaded Dakkar, where he was stopped by a large Adalite army, which destroyed the Solomonic army to such an extent that no further expeditions were carried out for the remainder of Eskender's reign. Adal, however, continued to raid the Christian empire unabated under General [[Mahfuz]], the leader of the Adalite war machine, who annually invaded the Christian territories. Eskender was succeeded by Emperor [[Na'od]], who tried to defend the Christians from General Mahfuz but he too was also killed in battle by the Adalite army in Ifat.
[[File:Ottoman cannon end of 16th century length 385cm cal 178mm weight 2910 stone projectile founded 8 October 1581 Alger seized 1830.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]]'s pioneering use of cannons supplied by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]s figured prominently in his [[Ethiopian–Adal War|Conquest of Ethiopian territories]].<ref>Jeremy Black, Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492–1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 16th century, Adal regrouped and, around 1527, under the charismatic leadership of Imam [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] (Gurey in [[Somali language|Somali]], Gragn in [[Amharic language|Amharic]], both meaning "left-handed"), invaded Abyssinia. Adalite armies, with Ottoman arms and support, marched into Ethiopia and caused considerable damage on the highland state. Many historic churches, manuscripts and settlements were looted and burned during the campaigns.<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopians: a history''. p. 90.</ref> Adal's use of firearms, still only rarely used in Ethiopia, allowed the conquest of well over half of Ethiopia, reaching as far north as [[Tigray Province|Tigray]]. The complete conquest of Ethiopia was averted by the timely arrival of a Portuguese expedition led by [[Cristóvão da Gama]], son of the famed navigator [[Vasco da Gama]].<ref>Edgar Prestage, ''The Portuguese Pioneers'', p. 222.</ref> The Portuguese had been in the area earlier – in the early 16th century, in search of the legendary priest-king [[Prester John]]) – and, although a diplomatic mission from Portugal, led by Rodrigo de Lima, had failed to improve relations between the countries, they responded to the Ethiopian pleas for help and sent a military expedition to their fellow Christians. A Portuguese fleet under the command of [[Estêvão da Gama (16th century)|Estêvão da Gama]] was sent from [[Portuguese India]] and arrived at [[Massawa]] in February 1541. Here, he received an ambassador from the Emperor beseeching him to send help against the Muslims. In July, a force of 400 [[musketeer]]s, under the command of Cristóvão da Gama, younger brother of Estêvão, marched into the interior. Joined by Ethiopian troops, they were at first successful against the Muslims; but, they were subsequently defeated at the [[Battle of Wofla]] (28 August 1542), and their commander captured and executed. On 21 February 1543, however, a joint Portuguese-Ethiopian force defeated the Muslim army at the [[Battle of Wayna Daga]], in which Ahmed Gurey was killed and the war won. Ahmed Gurey's widow married his nephew [[Nur ibn Mujahid]], in return for his promise to avenge Ahmed's death, who succeeded Ahmed Gurey, and continued hostilities against his northern adversaries until he killed the Ethiopian Emperor in his second invasion of Ethiopia.
[[File:Barawa.jpg|thumb|[[Barawa]] city was an important medieval centre of [[Maritime history of Somalia|Somali enterprise]].]]
During the [[Ajuran Sultanate|age of the Ajurans]], the sultanates and republics of [[Merca]], Mogadishu, [[Barawa]], [[Hobyo]] and their respective ports flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India, [[Venetia (region)|Venetia]],<ref>John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver, ''Journal of African History'', p. 50.</ref> Persia, Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China. Vasco da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical [[minaret]]s.<ref>Da Gama's First Voyage p. 88</ref> In the 16th century, [[Duarte Barbosa]] noted that many ships from the [[Khambhat|Kingdom of Cambaya]] in India sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.<ref>East Africa and its Invaders p. 38</ref>
[[File:Mogadishan ship.JPG|thumb|left|Model of a medieval [[Mogadishu|Mogadishan]] ship.]]
Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as ''toob benadir'' (specialized for the markets in Egypt and Syria),<ref>Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 35</ref> together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for [[Swahili people|Swahili]] merchants from [[Mombasa]] and [[Malindi]] and for the gold trade from [[Kilwa Sultanate|Kilwa]].<ref>The return of Cosmopolitan Capital:Globalization, the State and War p. 22</ref> [[Jewish]] merchants from the [[Hormuz Island|Hormuz]] brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood,<ref>R. J. Barendse, ''The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century''{{page needed|date=February 2020}}</ref> Trading relations were established with [[Malacca]] in the 15th century<ref>Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 30</ref> with cloth, [[ambergris]] and [[porcelain]] being the main commodities of the trade.<ref>Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: aspects of trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV-XIX centuries. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1978 p. 2</ref> Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the [[Ming dynasty]] of China, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between the Asia and Africa.<ref>East Africa and its Invaders p. 37</ref> In the process, the Somali language influenced the Chinese language. [[Hindu]] merchants from [[Surat]] and Southeast African merchants from [[Pate Island|Pate]], seeking to bypass both the Portuguese blockade and Omani meddling, used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference.<ref>Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 45</ref>
[[File:Medieval Mombasa.jpg|thumb|In 1660, the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] in [[Mombasa]] surrendered to a joint [[Somali people|Somali]]-[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] force.<ref>Tanzania notes and records: the journal of the Tanzania Society p. 76</ref>]]
The 16th century [[Ajuran Sultanate#Ajuran-Portuguese wars|Somali-Portuguese wars]] in East Africa meant that [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] tensions would remain high and the increased contact between Somali sailors and Ottoman [[Barbary corsairs|corsairs]] worried the Portuguese who actually sent multiple punitive expeditions against the [[Ajuran Empire]] so that Portuguese could colonize the wealthy [[Somali people|Somali]] port cities but came very unsuccessful and would eventually be defeated by the powerful [[Somalis]]. Example, [[Barawa]] under [[Tristão da Cunha]] but was soundly defeated by [[Ajuran Empire]] in the [[Battle of Barawa]] and Mogadishu under [[Portuguese Navy|João de Sepúvelda]], which was also unsuccessful in the [[Battle of Benadir]].<ref>The Portuguese period in East Africa – Page 112</ref> Ottoman-Somali cooperation against the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean reached a high point in the 1580s when Ajuran clients of the Somali coastal cities began to sympathize with the Arabs and Swahilis under [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese rule]] and sent an envoy to the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] corsair [[Ottoman Navy|Mir Ali Bey]] for a joint expedition against the Portuguese. He agreed and was joined by a Somali fleet, which began attacking Portuguese colonies in [[Swahili Coast|Southeast Africa]].<ref>Portuguese rule and Spanish crown in South Africa, 1581–1640 – Page 25</ref> The Somali-Ottoman offensive managed to drive out the Portuguese from several important cities such as Pate, Mombasa and [[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]]. However, the Portuguese governor sent envoys to India requesting a large Portuguese fleet. This request was answered and it reversed the previous offensive of the Muslims into one of defense. The Portuguese armada managed to re-take most of the lost cities and began punishing their leaders, but they refrained from attacking Mogadishu.<ref>Four centuries of Swahili verse: a literary history and anthology – Page 11</ref>
[[Berbera]] was the most important port in the [[Horn of Africa]] between the 18th–19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Prichard|first1=J. C.|title= Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Ethnography of the African races.|date=1837|publisher= Sherwood, Gilbert & Piper|pages=160|language=English}}</ref> For centuries, [[Berbera]] had extensive trade relations with several historic ports in the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent on [[Berbera]] for trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from. During the 1833 trading season, the port town swelled to over 70,000 people, and upwards of 6,000 camels laden with goods arrived from the interior within a single day. [[Berbera]] was the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from the interior, such as [[livestock]], [[coffee]], [[frankincense]], [[myrrh]], [[acacia gum]], [[saffron]], [[feathers]], [[ghee]], [[hide (skin)]], [[gold]] and [[ivory]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Colonial Magazine and Commercial-maritime Journal, Volume 2|date=1840|pages=22|language=english}}</ref>
According to a trade journal published in 1856, [[Berbera]] was described as "the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf".:
[[File:Berbera engraving.jpg|thumb|right|400px|19th century engraving of Berbera]]
{{cquote|"The only seaports of importance on this coast are Feyla [Zeila] and Berbera; the former is an Arabian colony, dependent of Mocha, but Berbera is independent of any foreign power. It is, without having the name, the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf. From the beginning of November to the end of April, a large fair assembles in Berbera, and caravans of 6,000 camels at a time come from the interior loaded with coffee, (considered superior to Mocha in Bombay), gum, ivory, hides, skins, grain, cattle, and sour milk, the substitute of fermented drinks in these regions; also much cattle is brought there for the Aden market."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hunt|first1=Freeman|title=The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review, Volume 34|date=1856|pages=694|language=english}}</ref>}}
Historically, the port of [[Berbera]] was controlled indigenously between the [[mercantile]] Reer Ahmed Nur and Reer Yunis Nuh sub-clans of the [[Habar Awal]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=I. M.|title= A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa|date=1988|publisher=Westview Press|pages=35|language=english}}</ref>
==19th century==
[[File:Martello Tower-Berbera.png|thumb|250px|19th century Martello fort in Berbera constructed by Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh]]
In 1841, Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh, a successful and ambitious Somali merchant, successfully invaded Zeila utilizing canons and Somali Musketeers, he deposed and imprisoned the port town's Arab ruler and succeeded him as the undisputed ruler of Zeila and its dependencies. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far as Harar and the Ogaden. In 1845, Sharmarke deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring Berbera from that town's then feuding Somali authorities.<ref>Abir, Mordechai (1968). Ethiopia: the era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and re-unification of the Christian Empire, 1769–1855. Praeger. p. 18.</ref><ref>Richard Burton, ''First footseps in to Africa'', pp. 16–30.</ref><ref>Rayne Henry. ''Sun, sand and Somals; leaves from the note-book of a district commissioner in British Somaliland'', pp. 15–16.</ref> Sharmarke's influence was not limited to the coast as he had many allies in the interior of the Somali country and even further in Abbyssinia. Among his allies were the Sultans of Shewa. When there was tension between the Amir of Harar [[Abu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munan]] and Sharmarke, as a result of the Amir arresting one of his agents in [[Harar]], Sharmarke persuaded the son of [[Sahle Selassie]], ruler of [[Shewa]], to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for a length of two years.<ref name=Burton-176>Burton, ''First Footsteps'', pp. 176 and note</ref>
Sultan [[Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim]], the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started the Golden age of the Gobroon dynasty. His army came out victorious during the [[Bardera|Bardheere]] ''[[jihad]]'', which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East African [[ivory trade]]. He also received presents and had cordial relations with the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as the Omani, [[Wituland]] and Yemeni sultans. Sultan Ibrahim's son [[Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]] succeeded him and was one of the most important figures in 19th century East Africa. [[Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]] was considered to be the most powerful king in East Africa in his time. He managed to gather 20 thousand Somali troops and invaded the [[Zanzibar]] island near [[Tanzania]] and he captured the islands, defeated the enemy troops and freed the [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] slaves and through his military dominance, Sultan Yusuf managed to exact [[tribute]] from the [[Omani]] king in the coastal town of [[Lamu]].<ref>Sudan Notes and Records – Page 147</ref> In northern and southern Somalia, the Gerad Dynasty conducted trade with Yemen and Persia and competed with the merchants of the Bari Dynasty. The Gerads and the Bari Sultans built impressive palaces, castles and fortresses and had close relations with many different empires in the Near East.
[[File:XaajiSuudicropped2.png|thumb|200px|left|Dervish commander [[Haji Sudi]] on the left with his brother in-law Duale Idres. Aden, 1892.]]
[[File:Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan.jpeg|thumb|200px|[[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]], leader of the [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]].]]
In the late 19th century, after the [[Berlin Conference (1884)|Berlin Conference]], European powers began the [[Scramble for Africa]], which inspired the [[Dervish]] leaders [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]] and [[Nur Ahmed Aman|Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman]] to rally support from across the Horn of Africa and begin one of the longest anti-colonial struggles on the continent.
News of the incident that sparked the Dervish rebellion and the 21 years disturbance according to the consul-general [[James Hayes Sadler (colonial administrator)|James Hayes Sadler]] was spread by Sultan Nur of the [[Habr Yunis]]. The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children that were converted to Christianity and adopted by the French [[Catholic missions|Catholic Mission]] at [[Berbera]] in 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in the [[Tariqa]] at Kob Fardod in June 1899, precipitating the religious rebellion that later morphed into the Somali Dervish.<ref>F.O.78/5031,Sayyid Mohamad to the Aidagalla, Enclosed Sadler To Salisbury. 69, 20 August 1899.</ref> In one of his letters to Sultan Deria in 1899, Hassan said that the British "''have destroyed our religion and made our children their children''" alluding to Sultan Nur's incident with the Roman French Mission at Berbera. The Dervish soon emerged as an opposition of the Christian activities, defending their version of Islam against the Christian mission.<ref name="Fageoliver">{{cite book|last=J. D. Fage, A. D. Roberts, Roland Anthony Oliver (eds.)|title=The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7|date=1986|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521225051|page=196|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=Z0zZKCpGmfkC}}</ref> In several of his poems and speeches, Hassan insisted that the British and the Christian [[People of Ethiopia|Ethiopians]] in league with the British were bent upon plundering the political and religious freedom of the Somali nation. He soon emerged as "a champion of his country's political and religious freedom, defending it against all Christian invaders." Hassan issued a religious ordinance that any Somali national who did not accept the goal of unity of Somalia and would not fight under his leadership would be considered as ''[[kafir]]'' or ''gaal''. He soon acquired weapons from the Ottoman Empire, Sudan, and other sympathetic Muslim countries, and appointed ministers and advisers to administer different areas or sectors of Somalia. In addition, Hassan gave a clarion call for Somali unity and independence, in the process organizing his follower-warriors. His Dervish movement had an essentially military character, and the [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]] was fashioned on the model of a Salihiya brotherhood. It was characterized by a rigid hierarchy and centralization. Hassan threatened to drive the Christians into the sea; he committed the first attack by launching his first major military offensive with his 1,500 Dervish equipped with 20 modern rifles on the British soldiers stationed in the region.
He repulsed the British in four expeditions and had favorable diplomatic relations with the [[Central Powers]] of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[German Empire]]s.
==20th century==
{{Refimprove|date=January 2020}}
In 1920, the Dervish movement collapsed after intensive British aerial bombardments, and Dervish territories were subsequently turned into a [[protectorate]]. The dawn of fascism in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy, as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of ''La Grande Somalia'' according to the plan of [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]]. With the arrival of Governor [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]] on 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of [[History of Somaliland|Somaliland]]. Italy had access to these areas under the successive protection treaties, but not direct rule. The Fascist government had direct rule only over the [[Benadir]] territory Given the defeat of the Dervish movement in the early 1920s and the rise of fascism in Europe, on 10 July 1925, [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] gave the green light to De Vecchi to start the takeover of the north-eastern sultanates. Everything was to be changed and the treaties abrogated.
[[File:Taleh Castle.jpg|thumb|left|[[Taleh]] was the capital of the [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]].]]
Governor De Vecchi's first plan was to disarm the sultanates. But, before the plan could be carried out, there had to be sufficient Italian troops in both sultanates. To make the enforcement of his plan more viable, he began to reconstitute the old Somali police corps, the ''Corpo Zaptié'', as a colonial force.
In preparation for the invasion plan of the sultanates, the [[Alula District|Alula]] Commissioner, E. Coronaro received orders in April 1924 to carry out a reconnaissance on the territories targeted for invasion. In spite of the 40-year Italian relationship with the sultanates, Italy did not have adequate knowledge of the geography. During this time, the Stefanini-Puccioni geological survey was scheduled to take place, so it was a good opportunity for the expedition of Coronaro to join with this.
Coronaro's survey concluded that the [[Majeerteen|Ismaan Sultanate]] (Majeerteen) depended on sea traffic, therefore, if this were blocked, any resistance that could be mounted after the invasion of the sultanate would be minimal. As the first stage of the invasion plan, Governor De Vecchi ordered the two Sultanates to disarm. The reaction of both sultanates was to object, as they felt the policy was in breach of the protectorate agreements. The pressure engendered by the new development forced the two rival sultanates to settle their differences over possession of [[Nugal, Somalia|Nugaal]], and form a united front against their common enemy.
The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] was different from that of the Majeerteen in terms of its geography and the pattern of the territory. It was founded by [[Yusuf Ali Kenadid]] in the middle of the 19th century in central Somalia. Its jurisdiction stretched from [[El Dher District|Ceeldheer]] (El Dher) through to [[Dhusamareb]] in the south-west, from Galladi to [[Galkayo]] in the west, from [[Jariban]] to Garaad in the north-east, and the Indian Ocean in the east.
By 1 October, De Vecchi's plan was to go into action. The operation to invade Hobyo started in October 1925 . Columns of the new Zaptié began to move towards the sultanate. Hobyo, [[El Buur|Ceelbuur]] (El Buur), Galkayo, and the territory between were completely overrun within a month. Hobyo was transformed from a sultanate into an administrative region. Sultan Yusuf Ali surrendered. Nevertheless, soon suspicions were aroused as Trivulzio, the Hobyo commissioner, reported movement of armed men towards the borders of the sultanate before the takeover and after. Before the Italians could concentrate on the Majeerteen, they were diverted by new setbacks. On 9 November, the Italian fear was realized when a mutiny, led by one of the military chiefs of Sultan Ali Yusuf, [[Sultanate of Hobyo#Omar Samatar's Rebellion (November 1925 - January 1926)|Omar Samatar]], recaptured El Buur. Soon the rebellion expanded to the local population. The region went into revolt as El-Dheere also came under the control of Omar Samatar. The Italian forces tried to recapture El Buur, but they were repulsed. On 15 November, the Italians retreated to Bud Bud and on the way they were ambushed and suffered heavy casualties.
While a third attempt was in the last stages of preparation, the operation's commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Splendorelli, was ambushed between Bud Bud and Buula Barde. He and some of his staff were killed. As a consequence of the death of the commander of the operations and the effect of two failed operations intended to overcome the El Buur mutiny, the spirit of Italian troops began to wane. The Governor took the situation seriously and, to prevent any more failure, he requested two battalions from [[Eritrea]] to reinforce his troops, and assumed lead of the operations. Meanwhile, the rebellion was gaining sympathy across the country, and as far afield as [[Ogaden|Western Somalia]].
The fascist government was surprised by the setback in Hobyo. The whole policy of conquest was collapsing under its nose. The El-Buur episode drastically changed the strategy of Italy as it revived memories of the [[Battle of Adwa|Adwa fiasco]] when Italy had been defeated by Abyssinia. Furthermore, in the Colonial Ministry in Rome, senior officials distrusted the Governor's ability to deal with the matter. Rome instructed De Vecchi that he was to receive the reinforcement from Eritrea, but that the commander of the two battalions was to temporarily assume the military command of the operations and De Vecchi was to stay in Mogadishu and confine himself to other colonial matters. In the case of any military development, the military commander was to report directly to the Chief of Staff in Rome.
While the situation remained perplexing, De Vecchi moved the deposed sultan to Mogadishu. Fascist Italy was poised to re-conquer the sultanate by whatever means. To maneuver the situation within Hobyo, they even contemplated the idea of reinstating Ali Yusuf. However, the idea was dropped after they became pessimistic about the results.
To undermine the resistance, however, and before the Eritrean reinforcement could arrive, De Vecchi began to instill distrust among the local people by buying the loyalty of some of them. In fact, these tactics had better results than the military campaign had, and the resistance began gradually to wear down. Given the anarchy that would follow, the new policy was a success.
On the military front, Italian troops finally overran El Buur on 26 December 1925, and the forces of Omar Samatar were compelled to retreat to Western Somaliland.
By neutralising Hobyo, the fascists could concentrate on the Majeerteen. In early October 1924, E. Coronaro, the new Alula commissioner, presented Boqor (king) [[Osman Mahamuud]] with an ultimatum to disarm and surrender. Meanwhile, Italian troops began to pour into the sultanate in anticipation of this operation. While landing at Haafuun and Alula, the sultanate's troops opened fire on them. Fierce fighting ensued and to avoid escalating the conflict and to press the fascist government to revoke their policy, Boqor Osman tried to open a dialogue. However, he failed, and again fighting broke out between the two parties. Following this disturbance, on 7 October, the Governor instructed Coronaro to order the Sultan to surrender; to intimidate the people he ordered the seizure of all merchant boats in the Alula area. At [[Hafun]], Arimondi bombarded and destroyed all the boats in the area.
[[File:Mogadishu1936.jpg|thumb|Downtown Mogadishu in 1936. Arch of Triumph Umberto to the left, Cathedral and Arba Rucun mosque to the centre-right.]]
On 13 October, Coronaro was to meet Boqor Osman at [[Bargal|Baargaal]] to press for his surrender. Under siege already, Boqor Osman was playing for time. However, on 23 October, Boqor Osman sent an angry response to the Governor defying his order. Following this a full-scale attack was ordered in November. Baargaal was bombarded and destroyed to the ground. This region was ethnically compact, and was out of range of direct action by the fascist government of Muqdisho. The attempt of the colonizers to suppress the region erupted into explosive confrontation. The Italians were meeting fierce resistance on many fronts. In December 1925, led by the charismatic leader [[Hersi Boqor]], son of Boqor Osman, the sultanate forces drove the Italians out of Hurdia and Hafun, two strategic coastal towns. Another contingent attacked and destroyed an Italian communications centre at Cape Guardafui, at the tip of the Horn. In retaliation the ''Bernica'' and other warships were called on to bombard all main coastal towns of the Majeerteen. After a violent confrontation Italian forces captured [[Eyl]] (Eil), which until then had remained in the hands of Hersi Boqor. In response to the unyielding situation, Italy called for reinforcements from their other colonies, notably Eritrea. With their arrival at the closing of 1926, the Italians began to move into the interior where they had not been able to venture since their first seizure of the coastal towns. Their attempt to capture Dharoor Valley was resisted, and ended in failure.
De Vecchi had to reassess his plans as he was being humiliated on many fronts. After one year of exerting full force he could not yet manage to gain a result over the sultanate. In spite of the fact that the Italian navy sealed the sultanate's main coastal entrance, they could not succeed in stopping them from receiving arms and ammunition through it. It was only early 1927 when they finally succeeded in shutting the northern coast of the sultanate, thus cutting arms and ammunition supplies for the Majeerteen. By this time, the balance had tilted to the Italians' side, and in January 1927 they began to attack with a massive force, capturing [[Iskushuban]], at the heart of the Majeerteen. Hersi Boqor unsuccessfully attacked and challenged the Italians at Iskushuban. To demoralise the resistance, ships were ordered to target and bombard the sultanate's coastal towns and villages. In the interior, the Italian troops confiscated livestock. By the end of the 1927, the Italians had taken full control of the sultanate. Hersi Boqor and his troops retreated to Ethiopia in order to rebuild their forces, but were unable to retake their territories, effectively ending the ''Campaign of the Sultanates''.
=="Somalia italiana" and World War II==
[[File:Italian Somaliland.png|thumb|right|Map of [[Italian Somaliland]].]]
On 9 May 1936, Mussolini proclaimed the creation of the [[Italian Empire]], calling it the ''[[Italian East Africa|Africa Orientale Italiana]]'' (A.O.I.) and formed by [[Italian Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] and [[Italian Somaliland]] (called officially "Somalia italiana"). The Italians made many new investments in infrastructure in the region, such as the ''Strada Imperiale'' ("imperial road") between [[Addis Ababa]] and Mogadishu and the railway Mogadishu-Villabruzzi of 114 km.
Over the course of Italian Somaliland's existence, many Somali troops fought in the so-called ''Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali''. The soldiers were enrolled as [[Dubats]], [[Zaptié]] and [[Bands (Italian Army irregulars)|Bande irregolari]]. During [[World War II]], these troops were regarded as a wing of the Italian Army's Infantry Division, as was the case in [[Italian Libyan Colonial Division|Libya]] and [[Italian 1st Eritrean Division|Eritrea]]. The Zaptié provided a ceremonial escort for the Italian [[Viceroy]] (Governor) as well as the territorial police. There were already more than one thousand such soldiers in 1922. In 1941, in Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia, 2,186 Zaptié plus an additional 500 recruits under training officially constituted a part of the [[Carabinieri]]. They were organised into a battalion commanded by Major Alfredo Serranti that defended [[:it:Battaglia di Culqualber|Culqualber]] (Ethiopia) for three months until this military unit was destroyed by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]]. After heavy fighting, the Somali troops and the Italian Carabinieri received full military honors from the British.<ref>[http://www.carabinieri.it/Internet/Arma/Curiosita/Non+tutti+sanno+che/Z/2+Z.htm "Non tutti sanno che... Zaptié" (in Italian)]</ref>
In the first half of 1940, there were 22,000 Italians living in Somalia and the colony was one of the most developed in East Africa in terms of the standard of living of the colonists and of the Somalis, mainly in the urban areas. More than 10,000 Italians were living in [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadishu]], the administrative capital of the ''Africa Orientale Italiana'', and new buildings were erected in the Italian architectural tradition.<ref>[https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/05/italian-mogadishu.html Italian Mogadiscio]</ref> By 1940, the [[Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi]] (now [[Jowhar]]) had a population of 12,000 people, of whom nearly 3,000 were [[Italian Somalis]], and enjoyed a notable level of development with a small manufacturing area with agricultural industries (sugar mills, etc.).<ref>[http://xoomer.alice.it/fernandotermentini/somalia.htm Article with photos on a 2005 visit to 'Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi' and areas of former Italian Somaliland (in italian)]</ref>
In the second half of 1940, Italian troops invaded [[British Somaliland]]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PT1&lpg=PT1&dq= |title=Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War |accessdate=10 February 2014|isbn=9780521338356 |last1=Knox |first1=Macgregor |date=27 June 1986 }}</ref> and ejected the British. The Italians also occupied parts of the British [[East Africa Protectorate]] bordering [[Jubaland]] around the towns of [[Moyale]] and [[Buna, Kenya|Buna]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasecondaguerramondiale.it/africa_orie_2.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802101751/http://www.lasecondaguerramondiale.it/africa_orie_2.html |archivedate=2 August 2009 }} The first map shows the Italian occupied areas around Moyale/Buna</ref>
[[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] boasted in front of a group of Somalis leaders -in late summer 1940- that he had created the "''Greater Somalia''" (dreamed by the Somali population) after the union of British Somaliland to his [[Somalia Governorate]].<ref>Antonicelli, Franco. "Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945". Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961. (p. 38)</ref>
<gallery>
File:Somalia1911.png|Italian Somalia
File:Mogadischu Cathedral.jpg|Mogadiscio cathedral
File:CinemaitaliaMogadiscio.png|Cinema Italia in Mogadiscio, 1937
File:Fiatmogadiscio1940.png|Fiat building in Mogadiscio, 1940
File:ItaSomalia 1936 MiNr0237 pm Mogadishu B002.jpg|Italian stamp from Mogadiscio
File:1931-quaderno-Mogadiscio-palazzo-del-governatore.jpg|Governor's palace in Mogadiscio
</gallery>
==Independence==
[[File:Flag of the Somali Youth League.svg|thumb|Flag of the [[Somali Youth League]] (SYL), the nation's first political party.]]
During [[World War II]], Britain regained control of British Somaliland and conquered Italian Somaliland, administering both militarily as [[protectorate]]s. In November 1945, during the [[Potsdam Conference]], the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close supervision and on the condition—first proposed by the [[Somali Youth League]] (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as [[Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali]] (HDMS) and the [[Somali National League]] (SNL)—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.<ref name = "Zolberg"/><ref name=Gates1999>{{cite book|author1=Kwame Anthony Appiah|author2=Henry Louis Gates|title=Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience : the concise desk reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cereWkyNJckC|accessdate=15 December 2011|date=26 November 2003|publisher=Running Press|isbn=978-0-7624-1642-4|page=1749}}</ref> British Somaliland remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.<ref name=Tripodi1999>{{cite book|author=Paolo Tripodi|title=The colonial legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu : from colonial administration to Operation Restore Hope|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eJR3RAAACAAJ|accessdate=15 December 2011|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan Press|isbn=978-0-312-22393-9|page=68}}</ref>
To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although, in the 1950s, British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts.<ref name=ChapinMetz>Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Somalia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1992. [http://countrystudies.us/somalia countrystudies.us]</ref>
Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them.<ref name="Zolberg">Zolberg, Aristide R., et al., ''Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World'', (Oxford University Press: 1992), p. 106</ref> This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over.<ref name="Zolberg"/> Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited<ref>Francis Vallat, ''First report on succession of states in respect of treaties: International Law Commission twenty-sixth session 6 May 26 July 1974'', (United Nations: 1974), p. 20</ref> [[Northern Frontier District]] (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists despite an informal [[plebiscite]] demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.<ref>Laitin, p. 75</ref>
[[File:Mogadishu city centre - 1960s.jpg|thumb|left|An avenue in downtown [[Mogadishu]] in 1963.]]
A [[French Somaliland overseas territory referendum, 1958|referendum]] was held in neighboring [[Djibouti]] (then known as [[French Somaliland]]) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable [[Afar people|Afar]] ethnic group and resident Europeans.<ref name=Barrington2006/> There was also allegations of widespread [[vote rigging]], with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.<ref name="Kseoah">Kevin Shillington, ''Encyclopedia of African history'', (CRC Press: 2005), p. 360.</ref> The majority of those who voted "no" were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by [[Mahmoud Harbi]], Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.<ref name=Barrington2006>Barrington, Lowell, ''After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States'', (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p. 115</ref> Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]], a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991).<ref name=Barrington2006/>
On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the [[Somali Republic]], albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain.<ref name="buluugleey.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm |title=The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960 |publisher=Buluugleey.com |accessdate=25 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116055005/http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm |archivedate=16 January 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htwin/articles/20060809.aspx |title=The making of a Somalia state |publisher=Strategypage.com |date=9 August 2006 |accessdate=25 February 2009}}</ref> A government was formed by [[Abdullahi Issa Mohamud]] and [[Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal]] and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with the Speaker of the Somali Union Act [[Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf]] as President of the [[Parliament of Somalia|Somali National Assembly]], [[Aden Abdullah Osman Daar]] as [[List of Presidents of Somalia|President]] of Somali Republic, and [[Abdirashid Ali Shermarke]] as [[Prime Minister of Somalia|Prime Minister]] (later to become President from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a [[Somali constitutional referendum, 1961|popular referendum]], the people of Somalia ratified a new [[Constitution of Somalia|constitution]], which was first drafted in 1960.<ref>Greystone Press Staff, ''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', (Greystone Press: 1967), p. 338</ref> In 1967, [[Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal]] became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous [[Somaliland]] region in northwestern Somalia.
On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of [[Las Anod]], Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by a policeman. His assassination was quickly followed by a [[1969 Somali coup d'état|military coup d'état]] on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the [[Military of Somalia|Somali Army]] seized power without encountering armed opposition – essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General [[Siad Barre|Mohamed Siad Barre]], who at the time commanded the army.<ref name="Myswenvwp">Moshe Y. Sachs, ''Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations'', Volume 2, (Worldmark Press: 1988), p. 290.</ref>
==Somali Democratic Republic==
{{main|Somali Democratic Republic}}
===Supreme Revolutionary Council===
Alongside Barre, the [[Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)|Supreme Revolutionary Council]] (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel [[Salaad Gabeyre Kediye]] and Chief of Police [[Jama Korshel]]. Kediye officially held the title of "Father of the Revolution," and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC.<ref name="Adam">{{cite book | last1= Adam | first1= Hussein Mohamed |author2= Richard Ford | title = Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century | publisher = Red Sea Press | year = 1997 | pages = 226 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0m9yAAAAMAAJ | isbn = 1-56902-073-6}}</ref> The SRC subsequently renamed the country the [[Somali Democratic Republic]],<ref>J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, ''The Cambridge history of Africa'', Volume 8, (Cambridge University Press: 1985), p. 478.</ref><ref name="Grolierenc">''The Encyclopedia Americana: complete in thirty volumes. Skin to Sumac'', Volume 25, (Grolier: 1995), p. 214.</ref> dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.<ref name="Pjdlfw">Peter John de la Fosse Wiles, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lgMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279 The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy]'', (Taylor & Francis: 1982), p. 279 {{ISBN|0-7099-2709-6}}.</ref>
The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural [[literacy]] campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the [[Arab world]], eventually joining the [[Arab League]] (AL) in 1974.<ref name="Frankel">Benjamin Frankel, ''The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World'', (Gale Research: 1992), p. 306 {{ISBN|0-8103-8928-2}}.</ref> That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU), the predecessor of the [[African Union]] (AU).<ref name="Yang">Oihe Yang, ''Africa South of the Sahara 2001'', 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p. 1025 {{ISBN|1-85743-078-6}}.</ref>
In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the [[Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party]] (SRSP), a one-party government based on [[scientific socialism]] and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to [[Revisionism (Marxism)|reconcile]] the official state ideology with the official state religion by adapting Marxist precepts to local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was essentially [[Communism|communist]].<ref name="Pjdlfw"/>
===Ogaden War===
{{Main|Ogaden War}}
[[File:Xhksposter3.JPG|thumb|130px|Poster showing the [[Ogaden]] as part of [[Greater Somalia]].]]
In July 1977, the [[Ogaden War]] broke out after Barre's government sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited [[Ogaden]] region of Ethiopia into a Pan-Somali [[Greater Somalia]]. In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces seized the southern and central parts of the Ogaden. The units in the Godey Front were led by Colonel [[Abdullahi Ahmed Irro]].<ref name="Hosmp">{{cite web|last=Ahmed III|first=Abdul|title=History of Somali Military Personnel|url=http://www.thoapi.org/index.php?p=1_9_Articles|publisher=THOAPI|accessdate=13 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430152227/http://www.thoapi.org/index.php?p=1_9_Articles|archive-date=30 April 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> For most of the war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army, following it as far as [[Sidamo Province|Sidamo]]. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as [[Jijiga]] and put heavy pressure on [[Dire Dawa]], threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of [[Harar]], a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 Cuban forces and several thousand Soviet experts came to the aid of Ethiopia's communist [[Derg]] regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviets' [[Cold War]] arch-rival, the United States, which had been courting the Somali government for some time. All in all, Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.<ref name="Ramsbotham">Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse, ''Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations'', (ABC-CLIO: 1999), p. 222 {{ISBN|0-87436-892-8}}.</ref>
===Rebellion===
[[File:Siabar 003.jpg|thumb|170px|right|Major General [[Mohamed Siad Barre]], Chairman of the [[Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)|Supreme Revolutionary Council]].]]
A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party [[politburo]] continued to rule.<ref name="Grolierenc"/> In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.<ref name="Pjdlfw"/>
[[File:Tuur.jpg |thumb|left|150px|[[Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur]] Chairman of the [[Somali National Movement]] that overthrew Barre's regime in Northern Somalia ]]
In May 1986, President Barre suffered serious injuries in a life-threatening automobile accident near Mogadishu, when the car that was transporting him smashed into the back of a bus during a heavy rainstorm.<ref name="Woinffir">World of Information (Firm), ''Africa review'', (World of Information: 1987), p.213.</ref> He was treated in a hospital in [[Saudi Arabia]] for head injuries, broken ribs and shock over a period of a month.<ref name="Photw">Arthur S. Banks, Thomas C. Muller, William Overstreet, ''Political Handbook of the World 2008'', (CQ Press: 2008), p.1198.</ref><ref name="Sahrisr">National Academy of Sciences (U.S.). Committee on Human Rights, Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Health and Human Rights, ''Scientists and human rights in Somalia: report of a delegation'', (National Academies: 1988), p.9.</ref> Lieutenant General [[Mohamed Ali Samatar]], then Vice President, subsequently served as de facto head of state for the next several months. Although Barre managed to recover enough to present himself as the sole presidential candidate for re-election over a term of seven years on 23 December 1986, his poor health and advanced age led to speculation about who would succeed him in power. Possible contenders included his son-in-law General Ahmed Suleiman Abdille, who was at the time the Minister of the Interior, in addition to Barre's Vice President Lt. Gen. Samatar.<ref name="Woinffir"/><ref name="Photw"/>
By that time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]], and [[resistance movement]]s, encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to the [[Somali Civil War]]. Among the militia groups were the [[Somali Salvation Democratic Front]] (SSDF), [[United Somali Congress]] (USC), [[Somali National Movement]] (SNM) and the [[Somali Patriotic Movement]] (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the [[Somali Democratic Movement]] (SDM), the [[Factions in the Somali Civil War#Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA)|Somali Democratic Alliance]] (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).
==Somali Civil War==
{{Main|Somali Civil War}}
[[File:Black Hawk Down Super64 over Mogadishu coast.jpg|thumb|[[United States Army|US Army]] helicopter shortly before [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Battle of Mogadishu]] in 1993.]]
With the political situation deteriorating, Barre's long-standing government in 1991 eventually collapsed under the pressure. The national army disbanded shortly afterwards.
[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 794]] was unanimously passed on 3 December 1992, which approved a coalition of [[United Nations peacekeeping|United Nations peacekeepers]] led by the United States. Forming the [[Unified Task Force]] (UNITAF), the force was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts aimed at stabilizing the situation were transferred to the UN. Landing in 1993, the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two-year [[United Nations Operation in Somalia II]] (UNOSOM II) primarily in the south to provide humanitarian relief.
Some militias that had seized power after the oust of Barre regime's interpreted the UN troops' presence as a threat to their hegemony. Consequently, several gun battles took place in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers. Among these was the [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Battle of Mogadishu]], an unsuccessful attempt by US troops to apprehend faction leader [[Mohamed Farah Aidid]]. The UN soldiers eventually withdrew altogether from the country on 3 March 1995, having incurred more significant casualties.
==Decentralization==
Following the outbreak of the civil war and the ensuing collapse of the central government, Somalia's residents reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, traditional or Islamic law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. The legal structure in Somalia is thus divided along three lines: [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], [[religious law]] and [[Custom (law)|customary law]].<ref name="2009factbook">{{cite web|work=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Somalia|location=Langley, Virginia|year=2011|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html|accessdate=5 October 2011}}</ref>
===Civil law===
While Somalia's formal judicial system was largely destroyed after the fall of the [[Siad Barre]] regime, it was later gradually rebuilt and administered under different regional governments, such as the autonomous [[Puntland]] and [[Somaliland]] macro-regions. In the case of the later [[Transitional Federal Government]], a new interim judicial structure was formed through various international conferences.
Despite some significant political differences between them, all of these administrations share similar legal structures, much of which are predicated on the judicial systems of previous Somali administrations. These similarities in civil law include: a) a [[charter]] which affirms the primacy of [[Muslim]] shari'a or religious law, although in practice shari'a is applied mainly to matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and civil issues. The charter guarantees respect for universal standards of human rights to all subjects of the law. It also assures the independence of the [[judiciary]], which in turn is protected by a judicial committee; b) a three-tier judicial system including a [[supreme court]], a [[court of appeal]]s, and courts of first instance (either divided between district and regional courts, or a single court per region); and c) the laws of the civilian government which were in effect prior to the military coup d'état that saw the Barre regime into power remain in force until the laws are amended.<ref name="SJS">
{{cite web
|title=Stateless Justice in Somalia
|url=http://www.hdcentre.org/files/Somalia%20report.pdf
|date=1 June 2005
|author=Dr Andre Le Sage
|publisher=Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue
|accessdate=26 June 2009
|url-status=dead
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118151830/http://www.hdcentre.org/files/Somalia%20report.pdf
|archivedate=18 January 2012
}}</ref>
===Shari'a===
Islamic [[shari'a]] has traditionally played a significant part in Somali society. In theory, it has served as the basis for all national legislation in every Somali constitution. In practice, however, it only applied to common civil cases such as marriage, divorce, [[inheritance]] and family matters. This changed after the start of the civil war, when a number of new shari'a courts began to spring up in many different cities and towns across the country. These new shari'a courts serve three functions; namely, to pass rulings in both criminal and civil cases, to organize a militia capable of arresting criminals, and to keep convicted prisoners incarcerated.<ref name="SJS"/>
The shari'a courts, though structured along simple lines, feature a conventional hierarchy of a chairman, vice-chairman and four judges. A police force that reports to the court enforces the judges' rulings, but also helps settle community disputes and apprehend suspected criminals. In addition, the courts manage detention centers where criminals are kept. An independent finance committee is also assigned the task of collecting and managing tax revenue levied on regional merchants by the local authorities.<ref name="SJS"/>
===Xeer===
{{Main|Xeer}}
Somalis have for centuries practiced a form of customary law, called [[Xeer]] (pronounced /ħeːr/). Xeer is a [[polycentric law|polycentric]] legal system where there is no monopolistic institution or agent that determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted.
The Xeer legal system is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Africa since approximately the 7th century. There is no evidence that it developed elsewhere or was greatly influenced by any foreign legal system. Its legal terminology is practically devoid of [[Loanword|loan words]] from foreign languages, suggesting that it is truly indigenous.<ref name="Mises">{{cite web|url=https://mises.org/story/2701 |title=The Rule of Law without the State – Spencer Heath MacCallum – Mises Daily |publisher=Mises.org |accessdate=27 June 2010|date=4 September 2007 }}</ref>
The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount of [[division of labour|specialization]] of different functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can find ''odayaal'' (judges), ''xeerbogeyaal'' ([[jurist]]s), ''guurtiyaal'' (detectives), ''garxajiyaal'' ([[Lawyer|attorneys]]), ''markhaatiyal'' ([[witnesses]]) and ''waranle'' (police officers) to enforce the law.<ref name=HAblele>{{cite web|url=http://www.hiiraan.com/op2/2008/oct/back_to_somali_roots.aspx |title=Back to Somali roots |publisher=Hiiraan.com |accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref>
Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely approximate the principle of ''[[jus cogens]]'' in [[international law]]: These precepts include: a) payment of [[Blood money (term)|blood money]] (locally referred to as ''[[Diyya|diya]]'') for libel, theft, physical harm, rape and death, as well as supplying assistance to relatives; b) assuring good inter-[[clan]] relations by treating women justly, negotiating with "peace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected groups "Birr Magaydo," (e.g. children, women, the pious, poets, messengers, sheikhs, and guests); c) family obligations such as the payment of [[dowry]], and sanctions for eloping; d) rules pertaining to the management of resources such as the use of pasture land, water, and other natural resources; e) providing financial support to married female relatives and newlyweds; f) donating livestock and other assets to the poor.<ref name="SJS"/>
==Recent history==
{{Main|Politics of Somalia}}
[[File:Somalian embassy in Paris.jpg|thumb|right|Embassy of Somalia in Paris, France.]]
===Transitional National Government===
In 2000, [[Abdiqasim Salad Hassan]] was selected as the President of the nation's new [[Transitional National Government]] (TNG), an interim administration formed to guide Somalia to its third permanent republican government.
On 10 October 2004, in a session held by the [[Transitional Federal Parliament]] (TFP), [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]] was elected as President of the succeeding [[Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG), an interim federal administrative body that he had helped establish earlier in the year.<ref name="Spmoarc">[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-11/13/content_2213479.htm Somali PM optimistic about rebuilding country]</ref> He received 189 votes from the TFG Parliament, while the closest contender, erstwhile Somali ambassador to Washington [[Abdullahi Ahmed Addou]], got 79 votes in the third round of voting. The then incumbent President of Somalia, Abdiqasim Salad Hassan, peacefully withdrew his candidature.<ref name="Smenp">[http://aceproject.org/ero-en/regions/africa/SO/Somalia%20-%20BBC%20article%20MPs%20elect%20new%20president.doc Somalia MPs elect new president]</ref><ref name="Rulers">[http://www.rulers.org/2004-10.html Rulers – Somalia – October 2004]</ref> Ahmed was sworn in a few days later on 14 October 2004.<ref name="Rulers"/>
===Transitional Federal Institutions===
{{Main|Transitional Federal Institutions|Transitional Federal Government|Transitional Federal Parliament}}
The [[Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG) was the internationally recognised government of Somalia until 20 August 2012, when its tenure officially ended.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm">{{cite news|title=Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html|accessdate=24 August 2012|newspaper=Forum on China-Africa Cooperation|date=21 August 2012}}</ref> It was established as one of the [[Transitional Federal Institutions]] (TFIs) of government as defined in the [[Transitional Federal Charter]] (TFC) adopted in November 2004 by the [[Transitional Federal Parliament]] (TFP).
The Transitional Federal Government officially comprised the executive branch of government, with the TFP serving as the [[Legislature|legislative]] branch. The government was headed by the [[President of Somalia]], to whom the cabinet reported through the [[Prime Minister of Somalia|Prime Minister]]. However, it was also used as a general term to refer to all three branches collectively.
===Islamic Courts Union and Ethiopian intervention===
{{See also|Battle of Mogadishu (2006)|Rise of the Islamic Courts Union (2006)|War in Somalia (2006–2009)}}
In 2006, the [[Islamic Courts Union]] (ICU), an [[Islamism|Islamist]] organization, assumed control of much of the southern part of the country and promptly imposed [[Shari'a]] law. The Transitional Federal Government sought to reestablish its authority, and, with the assistance of [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|Ethiopian troops]], [[African Union]] peacekeepers and air support by the United States, managed to drive out the rival ICU and solidify its rule.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/153/26334.html |title=Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia |publisher=Globalpolicy.org |date=14 August 2007 |accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref>
On 8 January 2007, as the [[Battle of Ras Kamboni]] raged, TFG President and founder Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, a former colonel in the [[Somali Army]] and decorated war hero, entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office. The government then relocated to [[Villa Somalia]] in the capital from its interim location in [[Baidoa]]. This marked the first time since the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of the country.<ref name="Gosppsdott">{{cite web|last=Online |first=Garowe |url=http://www.garoweonline.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=558:somalia-president-parliament-speaker-dispute-over-tfg-term&catid=55:somalia&Itemid=79 |title=Somalia President, Parliament Speaker dispute over TFG term |publisher=Garoweonline.com |date=12 January 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131640/http://www.garoweonline.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=558%3Asomalia-president-parliament-speaker-dispute-over-tfg-term&catid=55%3Asomalia&Itemid=79 |archivedate=14 May 2011 }}</ref>
Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including [[Al-Shabaab (Somalia)|Al-Shabaab]], regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At the end of 2008, the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.<ref>{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,USCIRF,,,4a4f272bc,0.html |title=USCIRF Annual Report 2009 – The Commission's Watch List: Somalia |publisher=Unhcr.org |date=1 May 2009 |accessdate=27 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510005900/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher%2CUSCIRF%2C%2C%2C4a4f272bc%2C0.html |archivedate=10 May 2011 }}</ref>
Due to a lack of funding and human resources, an [[arms embargo]] that made it difficult to re-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Yusuf found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.<ref name="Sgtpe">{{cite web|url=http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Guide_to_Puntland_Election_2009.shtml |title=Somalia: Guide to Puntland Election 2009 |publisher=Garoweonline.com |date=25 December 2008 |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131633/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Guide_to_Puntland_Election_2009.shtml |archivedate=14 May 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Oagadsgumsp">{{cite web |url=http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2005/ga10386.html |title=Opening Annual General Assembly Debate, Secretary-General Urges Member States to Press in Tackling Poverty, Terrorism, Human Rights Abuses, Conflicts |publisher=Unis.unvienna.org |accessdate=12 June 2011}}</ref>
On 29 December 2008, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as [[President of Somalia]]. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Yusuf expressed regret at failing to end the country's seventeen-year conflict as his government had mandated to do.<ref name=Resignation>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7802622.stm "Somalia's president quits office"], BBC News, 29 December 2008.</ref> He also blamed the international community for its failure to support the government, and said that the speaker of parliament would succeed him in office per the [[Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic|Charter]] of the Transitional Federal Government.<ref>[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a790e984-d590-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658.html "Somali President Yusuf resigns"], Reuters (FT.com), 29 December 2008.</ref>
===Coalition government===
{{See also|Al-Shabaab (militant group)|Hizbul Islam|Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a|Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia|Somali Civil War (2009–present)|2009 timeline of the War in Somalia}}
[[File:ShababFlag.svg|thumb|right|The battle flag of [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|Al-Shabaab]], an Islamist group waging war against the federal government.]]
Between 31 and 9 May June 2008, representatives of Somalia's federal government and the moderate [[Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia]] (ARS) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in [[Djibouti]] brokered by the former United Nations Special Envoy to Somalia, [[Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah]]. The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected [[Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed]], the former ARS chairman, to office. President Sharif shortly afterwards appointed [[Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]], the son of the assassinated former President [[Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]], as the nation's new Prime Minister.<ref name="2009factbook"/>
With the help of a small team of [[African Union]] troops, the coalition government also began a [[Somali Civil War (2009–present)|counteroffensive]] in February 2009 to assume full control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its rule, the TFG formed an alliance with the [[Islamic Courts Union]], other members of the [[Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia]], and [[Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a]], a moderate [[Sufism|Sufi]] militia.<ref>{{cite web|author=Kamaal says |url=http://horseedmedia.net/2010/05/un-boss-urges-support-for-somalia-ahead-of-istanbul-summit/ |title=UN boss urges support for Somalia ahead of Istanbul summit |publisher=Horseedmedia.net |date=22 May 2010 |accessdate=27 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619183438/http://horseedmedia.net/2010/05/un-boss-urges-support-for-somalia-ahead-of-istanbul-summit/ |archivedate=19 June 2010 }}</ref> Furthermore, Al-Shabaab and [[Hizbul Islam]], the two main Islamist groups in opposition, began to fight amongst themselves in mid-2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8318798.stm |title=Islamists break Somali port truce |work=BBC News|date=21 October 2009 |accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref>
As a truce, in March 2009, Somalia's coalition government announced that it would re-implement Shari'a as the nation's official judicial system.<ref name="Shariah in Somalia">[http://www.arabnews.com/?page=4§ion=0&article=119757&d=1&m=3&y=2009 Shariah in Somalia] – ''[[Arab News]]''</ref> However, conflict continued in the southern and central parts of the country. Within months, the coalition government had gone from holding about 70% of south-central Somalia's conflict zones, territory which it had inherited from the previous Yusuf administration, to losing control of over 80% of the disputed territory to the Islamist insurgents.<ref name="Gosppsdott"/>
On 14 October 2010, diplomat [[Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed]] (Farmajo) was appointed the new Prime Minister of Somalia. The former Premier Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke resigned the month before following a protracted dispute with President Sharif over a proposed draft constitution.<ref name="Sanpms">{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2010/10/14/somali-president-names-new-prime-minister/ |title=Somali-American is new prime minister in Somalia |publisher=Fox News Channel |date=1 February 2010 |accessdate=30 December 2010}}</ref>
[[File:Mohamed Abdullah Omaar.jpg|thumb|Foreign Minister of Somalia [[Mohamed Abdullahi Omaar]] in a meeting with UNDP Administrator [[Helen Clark]] and other diplomats at the UN headquarters in New York.]]
Per the [[Transitional Federal Government]]'s (TFG) [[Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic|Charter]],<ref name="Pasnpmard">{{cite web|url=http://www.allheadlinenews.com/articles/7020386438?Parliament |title=Approves Somalia's New PM After Repeated Delays |publisher=Allheadlinenews.com |date=31 October 2010 |accessdate=30 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515182839/http://www.allheadlinenews.com/articles/7020386438?Parliament |archivedate=15 May 2011 }}</ref> Prime Minister Mohamed named a new Cabinet on 12 November 2010,<ref name="Nspmusc">{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=12131958 |title=New Somali Prime Minister Unveils Smaller Cabinet |publisher=ABC News |date=12 November 2010 |accessdate=12 June 2011}}</ref> which has been lauded by the international community.<ref name="Alshspmuhc">{{cite web |url=http://english.alshahid.net/archives/15120 |title=Somali Prime Minister Unveiled His Cabinet |publisher=English.alshahid.net |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511194929/http://english.alshahid.net/archives/15120 |archivedate=11 May 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Slppc">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/11/27/ap/africa/main7094041.shtml |title=Somali Lawmakers Pass Proposed Cabinet |publisher=CBS News |accessdate=30 December 2010 }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> As had been expected, the allotted ministerial positions were significantly reduced in numbers, with only 18 administrative posts unveiled versus the previous government's bloated 39 portfolios.<ref name="Nspmusc"/><ref name="Spmulc">{{cite web |author=US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton |url=http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/middle-east/132370-somali-pm-unveils-leaner-cabinet.html |title=Somali PM unveils leaner cabinet |publisher=Thepeninsulaqatar.com |date=13 November 2010 |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20121211051610/http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/middle-east/132370-somali-pm-unveils-leaner-cabinet.html |archivedate=11 December 2012 }}</ref> Only two Ministers from the previous Cabinet were reappointed: Hussein Abdi Halane, the former Minister of Finance and a well-regarded figure in the international community, was put in charge of a consolidated Ministry of Finance and Treasury; and Dr. Mohamud Abdi Ibrahim was reassigned to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.<ref name="Sprunvc">{{cite web|url=http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somali_Premier_Unveils_New_Cabinets.shtml |title=Somali Premier Unveils New Cabinet |publisher=Garoweonline.com |date=12 November 2010 |accessdate=30 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131621/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somali_Premier_Unveils_New_Cabinets.shtml |archivedate=14 May 2011 }}</ref> [[Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a]], a moderate [[Sufism|Sufi]] group and an important military ally of the TFG, was also accorded the key Interior and Labour ministries.<ref name="Spmulc"/><ref name="Sprunvc"/> The remaining ministerial positions were largely assigned to technocrats new to the Somali political arena.<ref name="Xspmnc">{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2010-11/13/c_13604352.htm |title=Somali PM names new cabinet |agency=Xinhua News Agency |date=13 November 2010 |accessdate=30 December 2010}}</ref>
In its first 50 days in office, Prime Minister Mohamed's new administration completed its first monthly payment of stipends to government soldiers, and initiated the implementation of a full biometric register for the security forces within a window of four months. Additional members of the Independent Constitutional Commission were also appointed to engage Somali constitutional lawyers, religious scholars and experts in Somali culture over the nation's upcoming new constitution, a key part of the government's Transitional Federal Tasks. In addition, high level federal delegations were dispatched to defuse clan-related tensions in several regions. According to the prime minister of Somalia, to improve transparency, Cabinet ministers fully disclosed their assets and signed a [[Ethical code|code of ethics]].<ref name="Swscmos">{{cite web|url=http://www.somaliweyn.org/pages/news/Jan_11/15Jan18.html |title=Security Council Meeting on Somalia |publisher=Somaliweyn.org |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105060056/http://www.somaliweyn.org/pages/news/Jan_11/15Jan18.html |archivedate=5 January 2014 }}</ref>
An Anti-Corruption Commission with the power to carry out formal investigations and to review government decisions and protocols was also established so as to more closely monitor all activities by public officials. Furthermore, unnecessary trips abroad by members of government were prohibited, and all travel by ministers now require the Premier's consent.<ref name="Swscmos"/><ref name="Spmaigwccwbbtj">{{cite web |url=http://www.allheadlinenews.com/briefs/articles/90029659?Somali_PM%3A_Anyone_in_gov%26%23146%3Bt_who_commits_corruption_will_be_brought_to_justice |title=Somali PM: Anyone in gov't who commits corruption will be brought to justice |publisher=Allheadlinenews.com |date=4 January 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515182825/http://www.allheadlinenews.com/briefs/articles/90029659?Somali_PM%3A_Anyone_in_gov&%23146%3Bt_who_commits_corruption_will_be_brought_to_justice |archivedate=15 May 2011 }}</ref> A budget outlining 2011's federal expenditures was also put before and approved by members of parliament, with the payment of civil service employees prioritized. In addition, a full audit of government property and vehicles is being put into place. On the war front, the new government and its AMISOM allies also managed to secure control of 60% of Mogadishu, where 80% of the capital's population now lives. According to the [[African Union]] and Prime Minister Mohamed, with increasing troop strength the pace of territorial gains is expected to greatly accelerate.<ref name="Swscmos"/><ref name="Mgamisom">{{cite web|url=http://amisom-au.org/uploads/AMISOM_Bulletin_No_11.pdf |title=Making Gains – AMISOM forces take new territory |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511115655/http://amisom-au.org/uploads/AMISOM_Bulletin_No_11.pdf |archivedate=11 May 2011 }}</ref>
On 19 June 2011, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed resigned from his position as Prime Minister of Somalia. Part of the controversial Kampala Accord's conditions, the agreement would also see the mandates of the President, the Parliament Speaker and Deputies extended until August 2012, after which point new elections are to be organized.<ref name="Bbcspmmafr">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13830470 Somalia: PM Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo resigns]. BBC.co.uk (19 June 2011). Retrieved 15 December 2011.</ref> [[Abdiweli Mohamed Ali]], Mohamed's former Minister of Planning and International Cooperation, was later named permanent Prime Minister.<ref name="Nytsnnpm">{{cite news|last=Gettleman|first=Jeffrey|title=Harvard-Educated Technocrat Chosen as Somalia Premier|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/24/world/africa/24somalia.html?partner=rssnyt&emc=rss|accessdate=23 June 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times|date=23 June 2011}}</ref>
===Federal government===
{{main|Federal Government of Somalia}}
[[File:Mohamed Abdullahi Farmaajo.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed]], current [[President of Somalia|President]]]]
As part of the official "Roadmap for the End of Transition", a political process which provided clear benchmarks leading toward the formation of permanent democratic institutions in Somalia, the Transitional Federal Government's interim mandate ended on 20 August 2012.<ref name="Aasratdocwau">{{cite news|last=Ahmed|first=Muddassar|title=Somalia rising after two decades of civil war and unrest|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/views/2012/08/08/231008.html|accessdate=9 August 2012|publisher=Al Arabiya|date=8 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809223608/http://english.alarabiya.net/views/2012/08/08/231008.html|archive-date=9 August 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The [[Federal Parliament of Somalia]] was concurrently inaugurated, ushering in the [[Federal Government of Somalia]], the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm"/>
On 10 September 2012, parliament elected [[Hassan Sheikh Mohamud]] as the new President of Somalia.<ref name="Rslemanp">{{cite news|title=Somali lawmakers elect Mohamud as next president|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/10/somalia-politics-idUSL5E8KAIUR20120910|agency=Reuters|accessdate=10 September 2012|date=10 September 2012}}</ref> President Mohamud later appointed [[Abdi Farah Shirdon]] as the new Prime Minister on 6 October 2012,<ref name="Rspnpnapm">{{cite news|title=Somali president names political newcomer as PM -diplomats|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFL6E8L60GZ20121006|accessdate=6 October 2012|agency=Reuters|date=6 October 2012}}</ref> who was succeeded in office by [[Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed]] on 21 December 2013.<ref name="Rspanonspasa">{{cite news|title=SOMALIA: Parliament approves nomination of new Somali PM Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed|url=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2013/12/somalia-parliament-approves-nomination-of-new-somali-pm-abdiweli-sheikh-ahmed/|accessdate=21 December 2013|newspaper=Raxanreeb|date=21 December 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224095458/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2013/12/somalia-parliament-approves-nomination-of-new-somali-pm-abdiweli-sheikh-ahmed/|archivedate=24 December 2013}}</ref> On 17 December 2014, former Premier [[Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]] was reappointed Prime Minister.<ref name="Gbnphasauatp">{{cite news|title=Breaking News: President Hassan appoints Somalia's ambassador to US as the third premier|url=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p=7317|accessdate=17 December 2014|agency=Goobjoog|date=17 December 2014}}</ref>
On 8 February 2017, Somali MPs elected Ex-Prime Minister [[Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed|Mohamed Abdullahi "Farmajo" Mohamed]] in a surprise result.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-38904663|title=Somalia's Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo chosen as president|date=8 February 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=23 February 2017}}</ref> On 23 February 2017, President Mohamed appointed former humanitarian worker and businessman [[Hassan Ali Khayre|Hassan Khaire]] as his Prime Minister..
==Timelines==
===Ancient===
:*'''c. 2350 BC:''' The [[Land of Punt]] establishes trade with the [[Ancient Egypt]]ians.<ref name="Nthos34">{{cite book|last=Njoku|first=Raphael Chijioke|title=The History of Somalia|year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0313378577|pages=29–34|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C}}</ref>
:*'''1st century AD:''' City states on the Somali coast are active in commerce trading with [[Ancient Greeks|Greek]], and later [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] merchants.<ref name="Nthos34"/>
===Muslim era===
:*'''700–900:''' [[Somali people|Somalis]] adopt [[Islam]].<ref name="Encyamer"/>
:*'''9th century – 13th century:''' [[Adal Kingdom]].
:*'''10th century – 16th century:''' [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]].
:*'''1285–1415:''' The rise and fall of the [[Sultanate of Ifat]].
:*'''1200s – late 1600s:''' The rise and fall of the [[Ajuran Sultanate]].
:*'''1300–1400:''' [[Mogadishu]], [[Zeila]] and [[Barawe]] are visited by [[Ibn Battuta]] and [[Zheng He]].
:*'''1415–1559:''' The rise and fall of the [[Adal Sultanate]].
:*'''1528–1535:''' [[Ethiopian-Adal War|Jihad]] against [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] led by [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]] (also called Ahmed Gurey and Ahmed Gran; "the Left-handed").<ref name=SOMALIA-CONTACT-WITH-GREECE-ROME>[http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/somalia/1994/dawn_of_civilization/chapter_5.htm ''Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times'' Chapter 5: Puntland: Ancient Somali Contacts With Other Countries] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315102918/http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/somalia/1994/dawn_of_civilization/chapter_5.htm |date=15 March 2007 }} CivicsWeb</ref>
:*'''late 17th – late 19th century:''' [[Berbera]]'s domination in Gulf of Aden trade, Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh, governor of [[Zeila]], [[Berbera]] and [[Tadjourah]], and [[Sultanate of the Geledi]].
:*'''mid-18th century – 1929:''' [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] also known as Migiurtinia/Majeerteenia.
:*'''1878–1927:''' [[Sultanate of Hobyo]].
===Modern era===
:*'''20 July 1887 :''' [[British Somaliland]] protectorate (in the north) subordinated to [[Aden]] to 1905.
:*'''3 August 1889:''' Benadir Coast Italian Protectorate (in the northeast), (unoccupied until May 1893).
:*'''1896–1920:''' [[Dervish State]] (proto state)
:*'''16 March 1905:''' [[Italian Somaliland]] colony (in the northeast, central and south).
:*'''July 1910:''' Italian Somaliland a crown colony
:*'''1920:''' Mohammed Abdullah Hassan (called "the Mad Mullah" by the British) of the [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]] dies and the longest and bloodiest colonial resistance war in Africa ends.
:*'''15 January 1935:''' Italian Somaliland, part of Italian East Africa along with [[Italian Eritrea]] (and from 1936 Ethiopia).
:*'''1 June 1936:''' The [[Somalia Governorate]] is established as one of the six governorates of Italian East Africa.
===World War II===
:*'''18 August 1940:''' Italian occupation of British Somaliland.
:*'''February 1941:''' British administration of Italian Somaliland.
===Independence and Cold War===
:*'''1 April 1950:''' Italian Somaliland becomes a United Nations trust territory administration, the [[Trust Territory of Somalia]], which is promised independence within 10 years.
:*'''26 June 1960:''' British Somaliland is granted independence as the [[State of Somaliland]], with the understanding that it is to reunite with Italian Somaliland.
:*'''1 July 1960:''' Reunification of British Somaliland with Italian Somaliland to form the [[Somali Republic]].
:*'''1 July 1960:''' First president of Somali National Assembly, Speaker of the Somali Union Act. [[Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf]].
:*'''1 July 1960 – 1967:''' Presidency of [[Aden Abdullah Osman Daar]]
:*'''1967–1969:''' Presidency of [[Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]]; assassinated by one of the policemen assigned to his protection.
:*'''21 October 1969:''' [[Somali Democratic Republic]].
:*'''1969–1991:''' [[Siad Barre]], leader of the Supreme Revolutionary Council, rises to power.
:*'''23 July 1977 – 15 March 1978:''' [[Ogaden War]].
:*'''1982''': [[1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War]].
:*'''1986''': Fall of Barre government.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Al-Ghwell|first1=Hafed|title=What ever happened to Somalia?|url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1301391|accessdate=28 May 2018|agency=Arab News|date=12 May 2018}}</ref>
:*'''1991''': Somaliland declares independence from Somalia.<ref name="Somaliland Constitution">{{cite web|title=Somaliland Constitution|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Somaliland_Constitution/body_somaliland_constitution.htm#Chapter1|website=Somalilandlaw.com|accessdate=28 May 2018}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Main|Outline of Somalia|Index of Somalia-related articles}}
*[[Economic history of Somalia]]
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[List of colonial governors of British Somaliland]]
*[[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland]]
*[[President of Somalia]]
*[[Prime Minister of Somalia]]
*[[Xeer]]
*[[Federal Parliament of Somalia]]
== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}
==References==
* {{cite journal
| first =Said S.
| last =Samatar (ed.)
| date =9 November 2005
| title =Somalia Country Studies
| journal =Federal Research Division of Library of Congress
| url =http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sotoc.html
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Aidid
| first = Mohamed Farrah
| authorlink = Mohamed Farrah Aidid
| author2= Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela
| title = Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times
| publisher = Civic Webs Virtual Library
| year= 2001
| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/Somalia.html?id=gaphQgAACAAJ
|accessdate=10 February 2014| isbn = 9780706980042
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Aidid
| first = Mohamed Farrah
| author2= Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela
| title = Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times
| publisher = Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD
| year= 1993
| location = India
| isbn = 0-7069-8004-2
}}
{{Somalia topics}}
{{History of Africa}}
[[Category:History of Somalia| ]]
[[ja:ソマリア#歴史]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{History_of Somalia}}
{{Culture of Somalia}}
'''Somalia''' ({{lang-so|Soomaaliya}}; {{transl|ar|''aṣ-Ṣūmāl''}}), officially the '''[[Federal Republic of Somalia]]''' ({{lang-so|Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya}}, {{transl|ar|''Jumhūriyyat aṣ-Ṣūmāl al-Fideraaliya''}}) and formerly known as the '''[[Somali Democratic Republic]]''', is a country located in the [[Horn of Africa]].
Somalia was an important centre for commerce of which many of the rest of the ancient world,<ref>John Kenrick, ''Phoenicia'', (B. Fellowes: 1855), p. 199.</ref><ref>Jeanne Rose, John Hulburd, ''The aromatherapy book: applications & inhalations'', (North Atlantic Books: 1992), p. 94.</ref> and according to most scholars,<ref name="Sceotaw">{{cite book|last=Charnan|first=Simon|title=Explorers of the Ancient World|year=1990|publisher=Childrens Press|isbn=0-516-03053-1|page=26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vCf_fBfS5xUC}}</ref><ref name=Sfnrtmm>{{cite journal|journal=The Mariner's Mirror|year=1984|volume=66–71|page=261|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjJVAAAAYAAJ|title=The Mariner's mirror|publisher=Society For Nautical Research}}</ref> it is among the most probable locations of the fabled ancient [[Land of Punt]].<ref name="Mahdy">Christine El Mahdy, ''Egypt : 3000 Years of Civilization Brought to Life'', (Raincoast Books: 2005), p.297.</ref><ref name="SGoodwin">Stefan Goodwin, ''Africa's legacies of urbanization: unfolding saga of a continent'', (Lexington Books: 2006), p. 48.</ref>
During the old ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the [[Ajuran Sultanate]], the [[Adal Sultanate]], the Warsangali Sultanate, the [[Sultanate of the Geledi]], the [[Sultanate of the Bimal]] and the [[Majeerteen Sultanate]][[Gasargude dynasty]]
In the late 19th century, through a succession of treaties with these kingdoms, the British and Italians gained control of parts of the coast, and established [[British Somaliland]] and [[Italian Somaliland]].<ref name = "Laitin 1977 8">{{Harvnb|Laitin|1977|p=8}}.</ref><ref name="Issa-Salwe">{{cite book|first=Abdisalam M.|last=Issa-Salwe|authorlink=Abdisalam Issa-Salwe|title=The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy|publisher=Haan Associates|year=1996|location=London|isbn= 187420991X|pages=34–35}}</ref> In the interior, [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]]'s [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]] successfully repulsed the [[British Empire]] four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region,<ref>Kevin Shillington, ''Encyclopedia of African history''‎, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 1406.</ref> but the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 by British airpower.<ref>{{cite book|last = Samatar|first = Said Sheikh|title = Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1982|pages = 131, 135|isbn = 0-521-23833-1}}</ref> Italy acquired full control of the northeastern, central and southern parts of the territory after successfully waging a [[History of Somalia#20th century|Campaign of the Sultanates]] against the ruling [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] and the [[Sultanate of Hobyo]].<ref name="Issa-Salwe"/> This occupation lasted until 1941 when it was replaced by a British [[military administration]]. Northwestern Somalia would remain a [[protectorate]], while northeastern, central and southern Somalia by agreement became a [[Trust Territory of Somaliland|United Nations Trusteeship]] on 1 April 1950, with a promise of independence after 10 years. On 1 July 1960, the two regions united as planned to form the independent [[Somali Republic]] under a civilian government. The Somali National Assembly, headed by [[Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf]], approved the act uniting the former [[Italian Somaliland]] with [[British Somaliland]], establishing the Republic of Somalia.<ref>Greystone Press Staff, ''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', (Greystone Press: 1967), p. 338.</ref>
Ancient Ethiopia domesticated the camel somewhere between the third millennium and second millennium BCE from where it spread to [[Ancient Egypt]] and North Africa.<ref>Suzanne Richard, ''Near Eastern archaeology: a reader''. p. 120</ref>
==Prehistory==
[[File:LaasGeel.jpg|thumb|Neolithic [[rock art]] at the [[Laas Geel]] complex depicting a [[camel]].]]
Somalia has been inhabited since at least the [[Paleolithic]], when the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished.<!-- 'a country formed by Maxamed Mahamoud Abdulkadir Mahamud Gurey' - Unless this guy founded Somalia in the stone age, he is irrelevance to this paragraph (let alone this sentence). --><ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Robertshaw|title=A History of African Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105|year=1990|publisher=J. Currey|isbn=978-0-435-08041-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105 105]}}</ref> The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BC.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Early Holocene Mortuary Practices and Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in Southern Somalia|jstor=124524|pmid=16470993|pages=40–56|author=S. A. Brandt|volume=20|issue=1|journal=World Archaeology|year=1988|doi=10.1080/00438243.1988.9980055}}</ref> The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterized in 1909 as important artefacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://archive.org/stream/mananth9a10royauoft/mananth9a10royauoft_djvu.txt|title=Prehistoric Implements From Somaliland|author=H.W. Seton-Karr|journal=[[Man (journal)|Man]]|accessdate=30 January 2011|volume=9|issue=106|pages=182–183|year=1909|authorlink=Henry Seton-Karr|doi=10.2307/2840281|jstor=2840281}}</ref>
According to linguists, the first [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing [[Neolithic]] period from the family's proposed [[Afroasiatic Urheimat|urheimat]] ("original homeland") in the [[Nile Valley]],<ref>Zarins, Juris (1990), "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia", (Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research)</ref> or the [[Near East]].<ref>Diamond J, Bellwood P (2003) Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions SCIENCE 300, {{doi|10.1126/science.1078208}}</ref> Other scholars propose that the Afro-Asiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there.<ref name="Blench143144">{{cite book|last1=Blench|first1=R.|title=Archaeology, Language, and the African Past|date=2006|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=0759104662|pages=143–144|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C|accessdate=8 September 2014}}</ref>
The [[Laas Geel]] complex on the outskirts of [[Hargeisa]] in northwestern Somalia dates back around 5,000 years, and has [[rock art]] depicting both wild animals and decorated cows.<ref name="Bakano">{{cite news|last=Bakano|first=Otto|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jMNd90UAafsRNEDPyelL7Hee1ydw?docId=CNG.82196a5b15ef45a2d4e744675740cd6a.6e1 |title=Grotto galleries show early Somali life |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=24 April 2011|accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref> Other [[cave painting]]s are found in the northern [[Dhambalin]] region, which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the distinctive Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE.<ref name="Tdodras">{{cite journal|last=Mire|first=Sada|title=The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, Somaliland|journal=African Archaeological Review|year=2008|volume=25|issue=3–4|pages=153–168|url=http://www.mbali.info/doc494.htm|accessdate=22 June 2013|doi=10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627100400/http://www.mbali.info/doc494.htm|archivedate=27 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="Guafcpaonas">{{cite news|last=Alberge|first=Dalya|title=UK archaeologist finds cave paintings at 100 new African sites|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/17/cave-paintings-found-in-somaliland|accessdate=25 June 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|date=17 September 2010}}</ref> Additionally, between the towns of [[Las Khorey]] and [[El Ayo]] in northern Somalia lies [[Karinhegane]], the site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old.<ref name="Mheah">{{cite book|last=Hodd|first=Michael|title=East African Handbook|year=1994|publisher=Trade & Travel Publications|isbn=0844289833|page=640|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bL8tAQAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Astgi">{{cite book|last=Ali|first=Ismail Mohamed|title=Somalia Today: General Information|year=1970|publisher=Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic|page=295|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMVAAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>
==Ancient==
{{Main|Somali architecture|Military history of Somalia|Macrobians}}
===Land of Punt===
{{Main|Land of Punt}}
Ancient [[Somalian architecture|pyramidical structures]], [[mausoleum]]s, [[Lost city|ruined cities]] and [[stone wall]]s found in Somalia (such as the [[Wargaade Wall]]) are evidence of an old sophisticated civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula.<ref name="Nthos">{{cite book|last=Njoku|first=Raphael Chijioke|title=The History of Somalia|year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0313378577|pages=29–31|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C}}</ref><ref name="Titthtw">{{cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|title=The Illustrated Timeline of the History of the World|year=2011|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1448847976|page=131|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RO4kS1IR71sC}}</ref> The findings of archaeological excavations and research in Somalia show that this civilization enjoyed a lucrative trading relationship with [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mycenaean Greece]] since the second millennium BCE. This supports the hypothesis of Somalia and/or the adjacent Horn territories corresponding with the ancient [[Land of Punt]].<ref name="Nthos"/><ref name="Etdttfc">{{cite book|last=Abdel Monem A. H. Sayed|first=Zahi A. Hawass (ed.)|title=Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology|year=2003|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|isbn=9774246748|pages=432–433|url=https://books.google.com/?id=1E13DorsFMEC}}</ref> The Puntites traded [[myrrh]], spices, gold, [[ebony]], short-horned cattle, ivory and [[frankincense]] with the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Ancient Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the 18th dynasty Queen [[Hatshepsut]] is recorded on the temple reliefs at [[Deir el-Bahari]], during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati.<ref name="Nthos"/>
===Macrobia Kingdom===
{{Main|Macrobians}}
In the [[Classical antiquity|classical era]], the [[Macrobians]], who were [[Proto-Somali]], established a powerful tribal kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men".<ref name="Wheeler pg 526">[https://archive.org/stream/geographyofherod00whee/geographyofherod00whee_djvu.txt The Geography of Herodotus: Illustrated from Modern Researches and Discoveries] by James Talboys Wheeler, pg 1xvi, 315, 526</ref> The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the [[Persian Emperor]] [[Cambyses II]], upon his [[History of Achaemenid Egypt|conquest of Egypt]] (525 BC), sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.<ref name="Wheeler pg 526"/><ref name="Kitto2">John Kitto, James Taylor, ''The popular cyclopædia of Biblical literature: condensed from the larger work'', (Gould and Lincoln: 1856), p.302.</ref> The Macrobians were a regional power that were known from east to west and were highly advanced in architecture and extremely known for their wealth were they were noted for its gold, which was so plentiful that the Macrobians shackled their prisoners in golden chains.<ref name="Kitto2"/>
===Somali City States===
{{Main|Maritime history of Somalia}}
[[File:Silk route.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Silk Road]] extending from southern Europe through [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], Somalia, [[Egypt]], [[Iran|Persia]], [[India]] and [[Java]] until it reaches China.]]
In the [[Classical antiquity|classical period]], the [[Maritime history of Somalia#Ancient|Somali city-states]] of [[Mosylon]], [[Opone]], [[Malao]], [[Sarapion]], [[Heis (town)|Mundus]], [[Essina]] and Tabae in Somalia developed a lucrative [[Trade route|trade network]] connecting with merchants from [[Phoenicia]], [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemic Egypt]], Greece, [[Parthian Empire|Parthian Persia]], [[Sheba]], [[Nabataeans|Nabataea]] and the [[Roman Empire]]. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the ''[[beden]]'' to transport their cargo.
After the [[Nabatea#Roman annexation|Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire]] and the Roman naval presence at [[Aden]] to curb pillaging, Somali and Gulf Arab merchants by agreement barred Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the [[Arabian peninsula]]<ref>Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', p. 54.</ref> to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient [[Red Sea]]–[[Mediterranean Sea]] commerce.<ref name="EHW">Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', p. 229.</ref> However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the [[Somali peninsula]], which was free from Roman interference.<ref>Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', p. 187.</ref>
For centuries, the Indian merchants brought large quantities of [[cinnamon]] from [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Indonesia]] to Somalia and Arabia. This is said to have been the best kept secret of the Somali and Gulf Arab merchants in their trade with the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Greeks|Greek]] world. The Romans and Greeks believed the source of cinnamon to have been the Somali peninsula, but in reality, the highly valued product was brought to Somalia by way of Indian ships.<ref>Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', pp. 185–186.</ref> Through collusive agreement by Somali and Gulf Arab traders, Indian/Chinese cinnamon was also exported for far higher prices to North Africa, the [[Near East]] and Europe, which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shipped across ancient sea and land routes.<ref name="EHW"/>
==Medieval==
{{main|Ifat Sultanate|Adal Sultanate|Ajuran Sultanate|Warsangali Sultanate}}
[[File:Zayla.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Adal Sultanate|Sultanate of Adal]] in [[Zeila]], Somalia.]]
[[Islam]] was introduced to the northern Somali coast early on from the [[Arabian peninsula]], shortly after the [[Hijra (Islam)|hijra]]. [[Zeila]]'s two-[[mihrab]] [[Masjid al-Qiblatayn (Somalia)|Masjid al-Qiblatayn]] dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in Africa.<ref name="Btgpb">{{cite book|last=Briggs|first=Phillip|title=Somaliland|year=2012|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1841623719|page=7|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC}}</ref> In the late 9th century, [[Al-Yaqubi]] wrote that [[Muslim]]s were living along the northern Somali seaboard.<ref name="Encyamer">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25|year=1965|publisher=Americana Corporation|pages=255|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=OP5LAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city,<ref name="Encyamer"/><ref name="Lewispohoa">{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I.M.|title=Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho|year=1955|publisher=International African Institute|pages=140|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=Cd0mAQAAMAAJ}}</ref> suggesting that the [[Adal Sultanate]] with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local [[Somali people|Somali]] dynasties, who also ruled over the similarly-established [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]] in the littoral [[Benadir]] region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]].<ref name="Lewispohoa"/>
[[File:Fakr Ud Din Mosque.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving of the 13th century [[Fakr ad-Din Mosque]] built by Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]].]]
The Sultanate of Mogadishu's first dynasty was established by Sultan Fakr ad-Din. This ruling house was succeeded by the Garen dynasty, and the kingdom subsequently evolved into the powerful Somali [[Ajuran Empire]] during the 13th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|title=The Modern History of Somaliland: From Nation to State|page=37|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=LLQeAAAAIAAJ|year=1965|publisher=F.A. Praeger}}</ref> For many years, [[Mogadishu]] stood as the pre-eminent city in the بلاد البربر, ''[[Barbara (region)|Bilad-al-Barbar]]'' ("Land of the Berbers"), which was the medieval Arab term for the Somali coast.<ref>M. Elfasi, Ivan Hrbek [https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&pg=PA600&lpg=PA600&dq=Bilad+al-Barbar&source=bl&ots=UCiSgqq_kG&sig=EX-Jr5FtaaYmk7Nax3Ei1bAmyME&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi23Zef-YTKAhVEPRoKHYLmAuQQ6AEIPjAJ#v=onepage&q=Barbar&f=false "Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century"], "General history of AfrÄÃǎica". Retrieved 31 December 2015</ref><ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ''The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama'', (Cambridge University Press: 1998), p. 121.</ref><ref>J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p. 190.</ref><ref>[[George Wynn Brereton Huntingford]], Agatharchides, ''The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea"'', (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p. 83.</ref> Following his visit to the city, the 12th century Syrian historian [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]] wrote that it was inhabited by "Berbers", the ancestors of the modern Somalis.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fage|first1=J. D.|last2=Oliver|first2=Roland Anthony|title=The Cambridge History of Africa|page=30|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=Z0zZKCpGmfkC|volume=7|year=1986|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22505-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|title=A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa|page=20|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=Nt5yAAAAMAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-8133-7402-4}}</ref>
The Warsangali Sultanate was a kingdom centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the [[Sanaag]] region and parts of the northeastern [[Bari, Somalia|Bari]] region of the country, an area historically known as [[Maakhir]] or the ''[[Maakhir Coast]]''. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the [[Warsangali]] branch of the [[Darod]] clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the [[Gerad Dhidhin]].<ref>[http://www.warsangeli.org Warsangeli Sultanate]</ref>
[[File:Mogadishan currency.JPG|thumb|right|100px|[[Mogadishu currency|Mogadishan currency]] – The [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]] was an important monetary supporter of [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]].]]
The conquest of Shoa ignited a rivalry for supremacy between the [[Solomonic dynasty|Christian Solomonids]] and the [[Ifat Sultanate|Muslim Ifatites]], which resulted in several devastating wars and ultimately ended in a Solomonic victory over the Kingdom of Ifat. Parts of northwestern Somalia came under the rule of the Solomonids in medieval times, especially during the reign of [[Amda Seyon I of Ethiopia|Amda Seyon I]] (r. 1314–1344). In 1403 or 1415 (under Emperor [[Dawit I of Ethiopia|Dawit I]] or Emperor [[Yeshaq I of Ethiopia|Yeshaq I]], respectively), measures were taken against the Muslim Sultanate of Adal. The Emperor eventually captured King [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]] of the [[Walashma dynasty]] in Zeila and had him executed. The Walashma Chronicle, however, records the date as 1415, which would make the Ethiopian victor Emperor Yeshaq I. After the war, the reigning king had his minstrels compose a song praising his victory, which contains the first written record of the word "Somali". Sa'ad ad-Din II's family was subsequently given safe haven at the court of the [[Imams of Yemen|King of Yemen]], where his sons regrouped and planned their revenge on the Solomonids.
The oldest son [[Sabr ad-Din II]] built a new capital eastwards of Zeila known as [[Dakkar]] and began referring to himself as the King of Adal. He continued the war against the [[Ethiopian Empire|Solomonic Empire]]. Despite his army's smaller size, he was able to defeat the Solomonids at the battles of Serjan and Zikr Amhara and consequently pillaged the surrounding areas. Many similar battles were fought between the Adalites and the Solomonids with both sides achieving victory and suffering defeat but ultimately [[Sultan]] Sabr ad-Din II successfully managed to drive the Solomonic army out of Adal territory. He died a natural death and was succeeded by his brother [[Mansur ad-Din of Adal|Mansur ad-Din]] who invaded the capital and royal seat of the Solomonic Empire and drove Emperor [[Dawit II of Ethiopia|Dawit II]] to Yedaya where according to [[al-Maqrizi]], Sultan Mansur destroyed a Solomonic army and killed the Emperor. He then advanced to the mountains of Mokha, where he encountered a 30,000 strong Solomonic army. The Adalite soldiers surrounded their enemies and for two months besieged the trapped Solomonic soldiers until a truce was declared in Mansur's favour.
[[File:Ancient-Almnara.jpg|thumb|left|Almnara Tower, Mogadishu.]]
Later on in the campaign, the Adalites were struck by a catastrophe when Sultan Mansur and his brother Muhammad were captured in battle by the Solomonids. Mansur was immediately succeeded by the youngest brother of the family [[Jamal ad-Din II]]. Sultan Jamal reorganized the army into a formidable force and defeated the Solomonic armies at [[Bale Province, Ethiopia|Bale]], Yedeya and Jazja. Emperor Yeshaq I responded by gathering a large army and invaded the cities of Yedeya and Jazja but was repulsed by the soldiers of Jamal. Following this success, Jamal organized another successful attack against the Solomonic forces and inflicted heavy casualties in what was reportedly the largest Adalite army ever fielded. As a result, Yeshaq was forced to withdraw towards the [[Blue Nile]] over the next five months, while Jamal ad Din's forces pursued them and looted much gold on the way, although no engagement ensued.
After returning home, Jamal sent his brother Ahmad with the Christian battle-expert Harb Jaush to successfully attack the province of Dawaro. Despite his losses, Emperor Yeshaq was still able to continue field armies against Jamal. Sultan Jamal continued to advance further into the Abyssinian heartland. However, Jamal on hearing of Yeshaq's plan to send several large armies to attack three different areas of Adal (including the capital), returned to Adal, where he fought the Solomonic forces at Harjai and, according to al-Maqrizi, this is where the Emperor Yeshaq died in battle. The young Sultan Jamal ad-Din II at the end of his reign had outperformed his brothers and forefathers in the war arena and became the most successful ruler of Adal to date. Within a few years, however, Jamal was assassinated by either disloyal friends or cousins around 1432 or 1433, and was succeeded by his brother [[Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din]]. Sultan Badlay continued the campaigns of his younger brother and began several successful expeditions against the Christian empire. He recovered the [[Bale Zone|Kingdom of Bali]] and began preparations of a major Adalite offensive into the [[Ethiopian Highlands]]. He successfully collected funding from surrounding Muslim kingdoms as far away as the Kingdom of Mogadishu.<ref>Richard Gray, ''The Cambridge history of Africa'', Volume 4. p. 155.</ref> However, these ambitious plans were thrown out the war chamber when King Badlay died during the invasion of Dawaro. He was succeeded by his son [[Muhammad ibn Badlay]], who sent envoys to the Sultan of [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Egypt]] to gather support and arms in the continuing war against the Christian empire. The Adalite ruler Muhammad and the Solomonic ruler [[Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia|Baeda Maryam]] agreed to a truce and both states in the following decades saw an unprecedented period of peace and stability.
==Early modern==
{{Main|Maritime history of Somalia}}
Sultan Muhammad was succeeded by his son [[Shams ad-Din ibn Muhammad|Shams ad Din]], while Emperor Baeda Maryam was succeeded by his son [[Eskender]]. During this time, period warfare broke out again between the two states and Emperor Eskender invaded Dakkar, where he was stopped by a large Adalite army, which destroyed the Solomonic army to such an extent that no further expeditions were carried out for the remainder of Eskender's reign. Adal, however, continued to raid the Christian empire unabated under General [[Mahfuz]], the leader of the Adalite war machine, who annually invaded the Christian territories. Eskender was succeeded by Emperor [[Na'od]], who tried to defend the Christians from General Mahfuz but he too was also killed in battle by the Adalite army in Ifat.
[[File:Ottoman cannon end of 16th century length 385cm cal 178mm weight 2910 stone projectile founded 8 October 1581 Alger seized 1830.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]]'s pioneering use of cannons supplied by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]s figured prominently in his [[Ethiopian–Adal War|Conquest of Ethiopian territories]].<ref>Jeremy Black, Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492–1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 16th century, Adal regrouped and, around 1527, under the charismatic leadership of Imam [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] (Gurey in [[Somali language|Somali]], Gragn in [[Amharic language|Amharic]], both meaning "left-handed"), invaded Abyssinia. Adalite armies, with Ottoman arms and support, marched into Ethiopia and caused considerable damage on the highland state. Many historic churches, manuscripts and settlements were looted and burned during the campaigns.<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopians: a history''. p. 90.</ref> Adal's use of firearms, still only rarely used in Ethiopia, allowed the conquest of well over half of Ethiopia, reaching as far north as [[Tigray Province|Tigray]]. The complete conquest of Ethiopia was averted by the timely arrival of a Portuguese expedition led by [[Cristóvão da Gama]], son of the famed navigator [[Vasco da Gama]].<ref>Edgar Prestage, ''The Portuguese Pioneers'', p. 222.</ref> The Portuguese had been in the area earlier – in the early 16th century, in search of the legendary priest-king [[Prester John]]) – and, although a diplomatic mission from Portugal, led by Rodrigo de Lima, had failed to improve relations between the countries, they responded to the Ethiopian pleas for help and sent a military expedition to their fellow Christians. A Portuguese fleet under the command of [[Estêvão da Gama (16th century)|Estêvão da Gama]] was sent from [[Portuguese India]] and arrived at [[Massawa]] in February 1541. Here, he received an ambassador from the Emperor beseeching him to send help against the Muslims. In July, a force of 400 [[musketeer]]s, under the command of Cristóvão da Gama, younger brother of Estêvão, marched into the interior. Joined by Ethiopian troops, they were at first successful against the Muslims; but, they were subsequently defeated at the [[Battle of Wofla]] (28 August 1542), and their commander captured and executed. On 21 February 1543, however, a joint Portuguese-Ethiopian force defeated the Muslim army at the [[Battle of Wayna Daga]], in which Ahmed Gurey was killed and the war won. Ahmed Gurey's widow married his nephew [[Nur ibn Mujahid]], in return for his promise to avenge Ahmed's death, who succeeded Ahmed Gurey, and continued hostilities against his northern adversaries until he killed the Ethiopian Emperor in his second invasion of Ethiopia.
[[File:Barawa.jpg|thumb|[[Barawa]] city was an important medieval centre of [[Maritime history of Somalia|Somali enterprise]].]]
During the [[Ajuran Sultanate|age of the Ajurans]], the sultanates and republics of [[Merca]], Mogadishu, [[Barawa]], [[Hobyo]] and their respective ports flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India, [[Venetia (region)|Venetia]],<ref>John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver, ''Journal of African History'', p. 50.</ref> Persia, Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China. Vasco da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical [[minaret]]s.<ref>Da Gama's First Voyage p. 88</ref> In the 16th century, [[Duarte Barbosa]] noted that many ships from the [[Khambhat|Kingdom of Cambaya]] in India sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.<ref>East Africa and its Invaders p. 38</ref>
[[File:Mogadishan ship.JPG|thumb|left|Model of a medieval [[Mogadishu|Mogadishan]] ship.]]
Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as ''toob benadir'' (specialized for the markets in Egypt and Syria),<ref>Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 35</ref> together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for [[Swahili people|Swahili]] merchants from [[Mombasa]] and [[Malindi]] and for the gold trade from [[Kilwa Sultanate|Kilwa]].<ref>The return of Cosmopolitan Capital:Globalization, the State and War p. 22</ref> [[Jewish]] merchants from the [[Hormuz Island|Hormuz]] brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood,<ref>R. J. Barendse, ''The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century''{{page needed|date=February 2020}}</ref> Trading relations were established with [[Malacca]] in the 15th century<ref>Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 30</ref> with cloth, [[ambergris]] and [[porcelain]] being the main commodities of the trade.<ref>Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: aspects of trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV-XIX centuries. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1978 p. 2</ref> Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the [[Ming dynasty]] of China, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between the Asia and Africa.<ref>East Africa and its Invaders p. 37</ref> In the process, the Somali language influenced the Chinese language. [[Hindu]] merchants from [[Surat]] and Southeast African merchants from [[Pate Island|Pate]], seeking to bypass both the Portuguese blockade and Omani meddling, used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference.<ref>Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 45</ref>
[[File:Medieval Mombasa.jpg|thumb|In 1660, the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] in [[Mombasa]] surrendered to a joint [[Somali people|Somali]]-[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] force.<ref>Tanzania notes and records: the journal of the Tanzania Society p. 76</ref>]]
The 16th century [[Ajuran Sultanate#Ajuran-Portuguese wars|Somali-Portuguese wars]] in East Africa meant that [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] tensions would remain high and the increased contact between Somali sailors and Ottoman [[Barbary corsairs|corsairs]] worried the Portuguese who actually sent multiple punitive expeditions against the [[Ajuran Empire]] so that Portuguese could colonize the wealthy [[Somali people|Somali]] port cities but came very unsuccessful and would eventually be defeated by the powerful [[Somalis]]. Example, [[Barawa]] under [[Tristão da Cunha]] but was soundly defeated by [[Ajuran Empire]] in the [[Battle of Barawa]] and Mogadishu under [[Portuguese Navy|João de Sepúvelda]], which was also unsuccessful in the [[Battle of Benadir]].<ref>The Portuguese period in East Africa – Page 112</ref> Ottoman-Somali cooperation against the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean reached a high point in the 1580s when Ajuran clients of the Somali coastal cities began to sympathize with the Arabs and Swahilis under [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese rule]] and sent an envoy to the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] corsair [[Ottoman Navy|Mir Ali Bey]] for a joint expedition against the Portuguese. He agreed and was joined by a Somali fleet, which began attacking Portuguese colonies in [[Swahili Coast|Southeast Africa]].<ref>Portuguese rule and Spanish crown in South Africa, 1581–1640 – Page 25</ref> The Somali-Ottoman offensive managed to drive out the Portuguese from several important cities such as Pate, Mombasa and [[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]]. However, the Portuguese governor sent envoys to India requesting a large Portuguese fleet. This request was answered and it reversed the previous offensive of the Muslims into one of defense. The Portuguese armada managed to re-take most of the lost cities and began punishing their leaders, but they refrained from attacking Mogadishu.<ref>Four centuries of Swahili verse: a literary history and anthology – Page 11</ref>
[[Berbera]] was the most important port in the [[Horn of Africa]] between the 18th–19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Prichard|first1=J. C.|title= Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Ethnography of the African races.|date=1837|publisher= Sherwood, Gilbert & Piper|pages=160|language=English}}</ref> For centuries, [[Berbera]] had extensive trade relations with several historic ports in the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent on [[Berbera]] for trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from. During the 1833 trading season, the port town swelled to over 70,000 people, and upwards of 6,000 camels laden with goods arrived from the interior within a single day. [[Berbera]] was the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from the interior, such as [[livestock]], [[coffee]], [[frankincense]], [[myrrh]], [[acacia gum]], [[saffron]], [[feathers]], [[ghee]], [[hide (skin)]], [[gold]] and [[ivory]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Colonial Magazine and Commercial-maritime Journal, Volume 2|date=1840|pages=22|language=english}}</ref>
According to a trade journal published in 1856, [[Berbera]] was described as "the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf".:
[[File:Berbera engraving.jpg|thumb|right|400px|19th century engraving of Berbera]]
{{cquote|"The only seaports of importance on this coast are Feyla [Zeila] and Berbera; the former is an Arabian colony, dependent of Mocha, but Berbera is independent of any foreign power. It is, without having the name, the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf. From the beginning of November to the end of April, a large fair assembles in Berbera, and caravans of 6,000 camels at a time come from the interior loaded with coffee, (considered superior to Mocha in Bombay), gum, ivory, hides, skins, grain, cattle, and sour milk, the substitute of fermented drinks in these regions; also much cattle is brought there for the Aden market."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hunt|first1=Freeman|title=The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review, Volume 34|date=1856|pages=694|language=english}}</ref>}}
Historically, the port of [[Berbera]] was controlled indigenously between the [[mercantile]] Reer Ahmed Nur and Reer Yunis Nuh sub-clans of the [[Habar Awal]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=I. M.|title= A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa|date=1988|publisher=Westview Press|pages=35|language=english}}</ref>
==19th century==
[[File:Martello Tower-Berbera.png|thumb|250px|19th century Martello fort in Berbera constructed by Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh]]
In 1841, Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh, a successful and ambitious Somali merchant, successfully invaded Zeila utilizing canons and Somali Musketeers, he deposed and imprisoned the port town's Arab ruler and succeeded him as the undisputed ruler of Zeila and its dependencies. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far as Harar and the Ogaden. In 1845, Sharmarke deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring Berbera from that town's then feuding Somali authorities.<ref>Abir, Mordechai (1968). Ethiopia: the era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and re-unification of the Christian Empire, 1769–1855. Praeger. p. 18.</ref><ref>Richard Burton, ''First footseps in to Africa'', pp. 16–30.</ref><ref>Rayne Henry. ''Sun, sand and Somals; leaves from the note-book of a district commissioner in British Somaliland'', pp. 15–16.</ref> Sharmarke's influence was not limited to the coast as he had many allies in the interior of the Somali country and even further in Abbyssinia. Among his allies were the Sultans of Shewa. When there was tension between the Amir of Harar [[Abu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munan]] and Sharmarke, as a result of the Amir arresting one of his agents in [[Harar]], Sharmarke persuaded the son of [[Sahle Selassie]], ruler of [[Shewa]], to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for a length of two years.<ref name=Burton-176>Burton, ''First Footsteps'', pp. 176 and note</ref>
Sultan [[Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim]], the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started the Golden age of the Gobroon dynasty. His army came out victorious during the [[Bardera|Bardheere]] ''[[jihad]]'', which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East African [[ivory trade]]. He also received presents and had cordial relations with the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as the Omani, [[Wituland]] and Yemeni sultans. Sultan Ibrahim's son [[Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]] succeeded him and was one of the most important figures in 19th century East Africa. [[Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]] was considered to be the most powerful king in East Africa in his time. He managed to gather 20 thousand Somali troops and invaded the [[Zanzibar]] island near [[Tanzania]] and he captured the islands, defeated the enemy troops and freed the [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] slaves and through his military dominance, Sultan Yusuf managed to exact [[tribute]] from the [[Omani]] king in the coastal town of [[Lamu]].<ref>Sudan Notes and Records – Page 147</ref> In northern and southern Somalia, the Gerad Dynasty conducted trade with Yemen and Persia and competed with the merchants of the Bari Dynasty. The Gerads and the Bari Sultans built impressive palaces, castles and fortresses and had close relations with many different empires in the Near East.
[[File:XaajiSuudicropped2.png|thumb|200px|left|Dervish commander [[Haji Sudi]] on the left with his brother in-law Duale Idres. Aden, 1892.]]
[[File:Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan.jpeg|thumb|200px|[[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]], leader of the [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]].]]
In the late 19th century, after the [[Berlin Conference (1884)|Berlin Conference]], European powers began the [[Scramble for Africa]], which inspired the [[Dervish]] leaders [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]] and [[Nur Ahmed Aman|Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman]] to rally support from across the Horn of Africa and begin one of the longest anti-colonial struggles on the continent.
News of the incident that sparked the Dervish rebellion and the 21 years disturbance according to the consul-general [[James Hayes Sadler (colonial administrator)|James Hayes Sadler]] was spread by Sultan Nur of the [[Habr Yunis]]. The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children that were converted to Christianity and adopted by the French [[Catholic missions|Catholic Mission]] at [[Berbera]] in 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in the [[Tariqa]] at Kob Fardod in June 1899, precipitating the religious rebellion that later morphed into the Somali Dervish.<ref>F.O.78/5031,Sayyid Mohamad to the Aidagalla, Enclosed Sadler To Salisbury. 69, 20 August 1899.</ref> In one of his letters to Sultan Deria in 1899, Hassan said that the British "''have destroyed our religion and made our children their children''" alluding to Sultan Nur's incident with the Roman French Mission at Berbera. The Dervish soon emerged as an opposition of the Christian activities, defending their version of Islam against the Christian mission.<ref name="Fageoliver">{{cite book|last=J. D. Fage, A. D. Roberts, Roland Anthony Oliver (eds.)|title=The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7|date=1986|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521225051|page=196|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=Z0zZKCpGmfkC}}</ref> In several of his poems and speeches, Hassan insisted that the British and the Christian [[People of Ethiopia|Ethiopians]] in league with the British were bent upon plundering the political and religious freedom of the Somali nation. He soon emerged as "a champion of his country's political and religious freedom, defending it against all Christian invaders." Hassan issued a religious ordinance that any Somali national who did not accept the goal of unity of Somalia and would not fight under his leadership would be considered as ''[[kafir]]'' or ''gaal''. He soon acquired weapons from the Ottoman Empire, Sudan, and other sympathetic Muslim countries, and appointed ministers and advisers to administer different areas or sectors of Somalia. In addition, Hassan gave a clarion call for Somali unity and independence, in the process organizing his follower-warriors. His Dervish movement had an essentially military character, and the [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]] was fashioned on the model of a Salihiya brotherhood. It was characterized by a rigid hierarchy and centralization. Hassan threatened to drive the Christians into the sea; he committed the first attack by launching his first major military offensive with his 1,500 Dervish equipped with 20 modern rifles on the British soldiers stationed in the region.
He repulsed the British in four expeditions and had favorable diplomatic relations with the [[Central Powers]] of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[German Empire]]s.
==Somalia is the best country in the world
=="Somalia italiana" and World War II==
[[File:Italian Somaliland.png|thumb|right|Map of [[Italian Somaliland]].]]
On 9 May 1936, Mussolini proclaimed the creation of the [[Italian Empire]], calling it the ''[[Italian East Africa|Africa Orientale Italiana]]'' (A.O.I.) and formed by [[Italian Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] and [[Italian Somaliland]] (called officially "Somalia italiana"). The Italians made many new investments in infrastructure in the region, such as the ''Strada Imperiale'' ("imperial road") between [[Addis Ababa]] and Mogadishu and the railway Mogadishu-Villabruzzi of 114 km.
Over the course of Italian Somaliland's existence, many Somali troops fought in the so-called ''Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali''. The soldiers were enrolled as [[Dubats]], [[Zaptié]] and [[Bands (Italian Army irregulars)|Bande irregolari]]. During [[World War II]], these troops were regarded as a wing of the Italian Army's Infantry Division, as was the case in [[Italian Libyan Colonial Division|Libya]] and [[Italian 1st Eritrean Division|Eritrea]]. The Zaptié provided a ceremonial escort for the Italian [[Viceroy]] (Governor) as well as the territorial police. There were already more than one thousand such soldiers in 1922. In 1941, in Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia, 2,186 Zaptié plus an additional 500 recruits under training officially constituted a part of the [[Carabinieri]]. They were organised into a battalion commanded by Major Alfredo Serranti that defended [[:it:Battaglia di Culqualber|Culqualber]] (Ethiopia) for three months until this military unit was destroyed by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]]. After heavy fighting, the Somali troops and the Italian Carabinieri received full military honors from the British.<ref>[http://www.carabinieri.it/Internet/Arma/Curiosita/Non+tutti+sanno+che/Z/2+Z.htm "Non tutti sanno che... Zaptié" (in Italian)]</ref>
In the first half of 1940, there were 22,000 Italians living in Somalia and the colony was one of the most developed in East Africa in terms of the standard of living of the colonists and of the Somalis, mainly in the urban areas. More than 10,000 Italians were living in [[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadishu]], the administrative capital of the ''Africa Orientale Italiana'', and new buildings were erected in the Italian architectural tradition.<ref>[https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/05/italian-mogadishu.html Italian Mogadiscio]</ref> By 1940, the [[Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi]] (now [[Jowhar]]) had a population of 12,000 people, of whom nearly 3,000 were [[Italian Somalis]], and enjoyed a notable level of development with a small manufacturing area with agricultural industries (sugar mills, etc.).<ref>[http://xoomer.alice.it/fernandotermentini/somalia.htm Article with photos on a 2005 visit to 'Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi' and areas of former Italian Somaliland (in italian)]</ref>
In the second half of 1940, Italian troops invaded [[British Somaliland]]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PT1&lpg=PT1&dq= |title=Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War |accessdate=10 February 2014|isbn=9780521338356 |last1=Knox |first1=Macgregor |date=27 June 1986 }}</ref> and ejected the British. The Italians also occupied parts of the British [[East Africa Protectorate]] bordering [[Jubaland]] around the towns of [[Moyale]] and [[Buna, Kenya|Buna]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasecondaguerramondiale.it/africa_orie_2.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802101751/http://www.lasecondaguerramondiale.it/africa_orie_2.html |archivedate=2 August 2009 }} The first map shows the Italian occupied areas around Moyale/Buna</ref>
[[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] boasted in front of a group of Somalis leaders -in late summer 1940- that he had created the "''Greater Somalia''" (dreamed by the Somali population) after the union of British Somaliland to his [[Somalia Governorate]].<ref>Antonicelli, Franco. "Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945". Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961. (p. 38)</ref>
<gallery>
File:Somalia1911.png|Italian Somalia
File:Mogadischu Cathedral.jpg|Mogadiscio cathedral
File:CinemaitaliaMogadiscio.png|Cinema Italia in Mogadiscio, 1937
File:Fiatmogadiscio1940.png|Fiat building in Mogadiscio, 1940
File:ItaSomalia 1936 MiNr0237 pm Mogadishu B002.jpg|Italian stamp from Mogadiscio
File:1931-quaderno-Mogadiscio-palazzo-del-governatore.jpg|Governor's palace in Mogadiscio
</gallery>
==Independence==
[[File:Flag of the Somali Youth League.svg|thumb|Flag of the [[Somali Youth League]] (SYL), the nation's first political party.]]
During [[World War II]], Britain regained control of British Somaliland and conquered Italian Somaliland, administering both militarily as [[protectorate]]s. In November 1945, during the [[Potsdam Conference]], the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close supervision and on the condition—first proposed by the [[Somali Youth League]] (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as [[Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali]] (HDMS) and the [[Somali National League]] (SNL)—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.<ref name = "Zolberg"/><ref name=Gates1999>{{cite book|author1=Kwame Anthony Appiah|author2=Henry Louis Gates|title=Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience : the concise desk reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cereWkyNJckC|accessdate=15 December 2011|date=26 November 2003|publisher=Running Press|isbn=978-0-7624-1642-4|page=1749}}</ref> British Somaliland remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.<ref name=Tripodi1999>{{cite book|author=Paolo Tripodi|title=The colonial legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu : from colonial administration to Operation Restore Hope|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eJR3RAAACAAJ|accessdate=15 December 2011|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan Press|isbn=978-0-312-22393-9|page=68}}</ref>
To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although, in the 1950s, British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts.<ref name=ChapinMetz>Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Somalia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1992. [http://countrystudies.us/somalia countrystudies.us]</ref>
Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them.<ref name="Zolberg">Zolberg, Aristide R., et al., ''Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World'', (Oxford University Press: 1992), p. 106</ref> This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over.<ref name="Zolberg"/> Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited<ref>Francis Vallat, ''First report on succession of states in respect of treaties: International Law Commission twenty-sixth session 6 May 26 July 1974'', (United Nations: 1974), p. 20</ref> [[Northern Frontier District]] (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists despite an informal [[plebiscite]] demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.<ref>Laitin, p. 75</ref>
[[File:Mogadishu city centre - 1960s.jpg|thumb|left|An avenue in downtown [[Mogadishu]] in 1963.]]
A [[French Somaliland overseas territory referendum, 1958|referendum]] was held in neighboring [[Djibouti]] (then known as [[French Somaliland]]) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable [[Afar people|Afar]] ethnic group and resident Europeans.<ref name=Barrington2006/> There was also allegations of widespread [[vote rigging]], with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.<ref name="Kseoah">Kevin Shillington, ''Encyclopedia of African history'', (CRC Press: 2005), p. 360.</ref> The majority of those who voted "no" were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by [[Mahmoud Harbi]], Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.<ref name=Barrington2006>Barrington, Lowell, ''After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States'', (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p. 115</ref> Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]], a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991).<ref name=Barrington2006/>
On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the [[Somali Republic]], albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain.<ref name="buluugleey.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm |title=The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960 |publisher=Buluugleey.com |accessdate=25 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116055005/http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm |archivedate=16 January 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htwin/articles/20060809.aspx |title=The making of a Somalia state |publisher=Strategypage.com |date=9 August 2006 |accessdate=25 February 2009}}</ref> A government was formed by [[Abdullahi Issa Mohamud]] and [[Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal]] and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with the Speaker of the Somali Union Act [[Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf]] as President of the [[Parliament of Somalia|Somali National Assembly]], [[Aden Abdullah Osman Daar]] as [[List of Presidents of Somalia|President]] of Somali Republic, and [[Abdirashid Ali Shermarke]] as [[Prime Minister of Somalia|Prime Minister]] (later to become President from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a [[Somali constitutional referendum, 1961|popular referendum]], the people of Somalia ratified a new [[Constitution of Somalia|constitution]], which was first drafted in 1960.<ref>Greystone Press Staff, ''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', (Greystone Press: 1967), p. 338</ref> In 1967, [[Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal]] became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous [[Somaliland]] region in northwestern Somalia.
On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of [[Las Anod]], Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by a policeman. His assassination was quickly followed by a [[1969 Somali coup d'état|military coup d'état]] on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the [[Military of Somalia|Somali Army]] seized power without encountering armed opposition – essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General [[Siad Barre|Mohamed Siad Barre]], who at the time commanded the army.<ref name="Myswenvwp">Moshe Y. Sachs, ''Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations'', Volume 2, (Worldmark Press: 1988), p. 290.</ref>
==Somali Democratic Republic==
{{main|Somali Democratic Republic}}
===Supreme Revolutionary Council===
Alongside Barre, the [[Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)|Supreme Revolutionary Council]] (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel [[Salaad Gabeyre Kediye]] and Chief of Police [[Jama Korshel]]. Kediye officially held the title of "Father of the Revolution," and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC.<ref name="Adam">{{cite book | last1= Adam | first1= Hussein Mohamed |author2= Richard Ford | title = Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century | publisher = Red Sea Press | year = 1997 | pages = 226 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0m9yAAAAMAAJ | isbn = 1-56902-073-6}}</ref> The SRC subsequently renamed the country the [[Somali Democratic Republic]],<ref>J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, ''The Cambridge history of Africa'', Volume 8, (Cambridge University Press: 1985), p. 478.</ref><ref name="Grolierenc">''The Encyclopedia Americana: complete in thirty volumes. Skin to Sumac'', Volume 25, (Grolier: 1995), p. 214.</ref> dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.<ref name="Pjdlfw">Peter John de la Fosse Wiles, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lgMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279 The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy]'', (Taylor & Francis: 1982), p. 279 {{ISBN|0-7099-2709-6}}.</ref>
The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural [[literacy]] campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the [[Arab world]], eventually joining the [[Arab League]] (AL) in 1974.<ref name="Frankel">Benjamin Frankel, ''The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World'', (Gale Research: 1992), p. 306 {{ISBN|0-8103-8928-2}}.</ref> That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU), the predecessor of the [[African Union]] (AU).<ref name="Yang">Oihe Yang, ''Africa South of the Sahara 2001'', 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p. 1025 {{ISBN|1-85743-078-6}}.</ref>
In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the [[Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party]] (SRSP), a one-party government based on [[scientific socialism]] and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to [[Revisionism (Marxism)|reconcile]] the official state ideology with the official state religion by adapting Marxist precepts to local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was essentially [[Communism|communist]].<ref name="Pjdlfw"/>
===Ogaden War===
{{Main|Ogaden War}}
[[File:Xhksposter3.JPG|thumb|130px|Poster showing the [[Ogaden]] as part of [[Greater Somalia]].]]
In July 1977, the [[Ogaden War]] broke out after Barre's government sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited [[Ogaden]] region of Ethiopia into a Pan-Somali [[Greater Somalia]]. In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces seized the southern and central parts of the Ogaden. The units in the Godey Front were led by Colonel [[Abdullahi Ahmed Irro]].<ref name="Hosmp">{{cite web|last=Ahmed III|first=Abdul|title=History of Somali Military Personnel|url=http://www.thoapi.org/index.php?p=1_9_Articles|publisher=THOAPI|accessdate=13 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430152227/http://www.thoapi.org/index.php?p=1_9_Articles|archive-date=30 April 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> For most of the war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army, following it as far as [[Sidamo Province|Sidamo]]. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as [[Jijiga]] and put heavy pressure on [[Dire Dawa]], threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of [[Harar]], a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 Cuban forces and several thousand Soviet experts came to the aid of Ethiopia's communist [[Derg]] regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviets' [[Cold War]] arch-rival, the United States, which had been courting the Somali government for some time. All in all, Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.<ref name="Ramsbotham">Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse, ''Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations'', (ABC-CLIO: 1999), p. 222 {{ISBN|0-87436-892-8}}.</ref>
===Rebellion===
[[File:Siabar 003.jpg|thumb|170px|right|Major General [[Mohamed Siad Barre]], Chairman of the [[Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)|Supreme Revolutionary Council]].]]
A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party [[politburo]] continued to rule.<ref name="Grolierenc"/> In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.<ref name="Pjdlfw"/>
[[File:Tuur.jpg |thumb|left|150px|[[Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur]] Chairman of the [[Somali National Movement]] that overthrew Barre's regime in Northern Somalia ]]
In May 1986, President Barre suffered serious injuries in a life-threatening automobile accident near Mogadishu, when the car that was transporting him smashed into the back of a bus during a heavy rainstorm.<ref name="Woinffir">World of Information (Firm), ''Africa review'', (World of Information: 1987), p.213.</ref> He was treated in a hospital in [[Saudi Arabia]] for head injuries, broken ribs and shock over a period of a month.<ref name="Photw">Arthur S. Banks, Thomas C. Muller, William Overstreet, ''Political Handbook of the World 2008'', (CQ Press: 2008), p.1198.</ref><ref name="Sahrisr">National Academy of Sciences (U.S.). Committee on Human Rights, Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Health and Human Rights, ''Scientists and human rights in Somalia: report of a delegation'', (National Academies: 1988), p.9.</ref> Lieutenant General [[Mohamed Ali Samatar]], then Vice President, subsequently served as de facto head of state for the next several months. Although Barre managed to recover enough to present himself as the sole presidential candidate for re-election over a term of seven years on 23 December 1986, his poor health and advanced age led to speculation about who would succeed him in power. Possible contenders included his son-in-law General Ahmed Suleiman Abdille, who was at the time the Minister of the Interior, in addition to Barre's Vice President Lt. Gen. Samatar.<ref name="Woinffir"/><ref name="Photw"/>
By that time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]], and [[resistance movement]]s, encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to the [[Somali Civil War]]. Among the militia groups were the [[Somali Salvation Democratic Front]] (SSDF), [[United Somali Congress]] (USC), [[Somali National Movement]] (SNM) and the [[Somali Patriotic Movement]] (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the [[Somali Democratic Movement]] (SDM), the [[Factions in the Somali Civil War#Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA)|Somali Democratic Alliance]] (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).
==Somali Civil War==
{{Main|Somali Civil War}}
[[File:Black Hawk Down Super64 over Mogadishu coast.jpg|thumb|[[United States Army|US Army]] helicopter shortly before [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Battle of Mogadishu]] in 1993.]]
With the political situation deteriorating, Barre's long-standing government in 1991 eventually collapsed under the pressure. The national army disbanded shortly afterwards.
[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 794]] was unanimously passed on 3 December 1992, which approved a coalition of [[United Nations peacekeeping|United Nations peacekeepers]] led by the United States. Forming the [[Unified Task Force]] (UNITAF), the force was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts aimed at stabilizing the situation were transferred to the UN. Landing in 1993, the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two-year [[United Nations Operation in Somalia II]] (UNOSOM II) primarily in the south to provide humanitarian relief.
Some militias that had seized power after the oust of Barre regime's interpreted the UN troops' presence as a threat to their hegemony. Consequently, several gun battles took place in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers. Among these was the [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Battle of Mogadishu]], an unsuccessful attempt by US troops to apprehend faction leader [[Mohamed Farah Aidid]]. The UN soldiers eventually withdrew altogether from the country on 3 March 1995, having incurred more significant casualties.
==Decentralization==
Following the outbreak of the civil war and the ensuing collapse of the central government, Somalia's residents reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, traditional or Islamic law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. The legal structure in Somalia is thus divided along three lines: [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], [[religious law]] and [[Custom (law)|customary law]].<ref name="2009factbook">{{cite web|work=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Somalia|location=Langley, Virginia|year=2011|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html|accessdate=5 October 2011}}</ref>
===Civil law===
While Somalia's formal judicial system was largely destroyed after the fall of the [[Siad Barre]] regime, it was later gradually rebuilt and administered under different regional governments, such as the autonomous [[Puntland]] and [[Somaliland]] macro-regions. In the case of the later [[Transitional Federal Government]], a new interim judicial structure was formed through various international conferences.
Despite some significant political differences between them, all of these administrations share similar legal structures, much of which are predicated on the judicial systems of previous Somali administrations. These similarities in civil law include: a) a [[charter]] which affirms the primacy of [[Muslim]] shari'a or religious law, although in practice shari'a is applied mainly to matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and civil issues. The charter guarantees respect for universal standards of human rights to all subjects of the law. It also assures the independence of the [[judiciary]], which in turn is protected by a judicial committee; b) a three-tier judicial system including a [[supreme court]], a [[court of appeal]]s, and courts of first instance (either divided between district and regional courts, or a single court per region); and c) the laws of the civilian government which were in effect prior to the military coup d'état that saw the Barre regime into power remain in force until the laws are amended.<ref name="SJS">
{{cite web
|title=Stateless Justice in Somalia
|url=http://www.hdcentre.org/files/Somalia%20report.pdf
|date=1 June 2005
|author=Dr Andre Le Sage
|publisher=Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue
|accessdate=26 June 2009
|url-status=dead
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118151830/http://www.hdcentre.org/files/Somalia%20report.pdf
|archivedate=18 January 2012
}}</ref>
===Shari'a===
Islamic [[shari'a]] has traditionally played a significant part in Somali society. In theory, it has served as the basis for all national legislation in every Somali constitution. In practice, however, it only applied to common civil cases such as marriage, divorce, [[inheritance]] and family matters. This changed after the start of the civil war, when a number of new shari'a courts began to spring up in many different cities and towns across the country. These new shari'a courts serve three functions; namely, to pass rulings in both criminal and civil cases, to organize a militia capable of arresting criminals, and to keep convicted prisoners incarcerated.<ref name="SJS"/>
The shari'a courts, though structured along simple lines, feature a conventional hierarchy of a chairman, vice-chairman and four judges. A police force that reports to the court enforces the judges' rulings, but also helps settle community disputes and apprehend suspected criminals. In addition, the courts manage detention centers where criminals are kept. An independent finance committee is also assigned the task of collecting and managing tax revenue levied on regional merchants by the local authorities.<ref name="SJS"/>
===Xeer===
{{Main|Xeer}}
Somalis have for centuries practiced a form of customary law, called [[Xeer]] (pronounced /ħeːr/). Xeer is a [[polycentric law|polycentric]] legal system where there is no monopolistic institution or agent that determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted.
The Xeer legal system is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Africa since approximately the 7th century. There is no evidence that it developed elsewhere or was greatly influenced by any foreign legal system. Its legal terminology is practically devoid of [[Loanword|loan words]] from foreign languages, suggesting that it is truly indigenous.<ref name="Mises">{{cite web|url=https://mises.org/story/2701 |title=The Rule of Law without the State – Spencer Heath MacCallum – Mises Daily |publisher=Mises.org |accessdate=27 June 2010|date=4 September 2007 }}</ref>
The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount of [[division of labour|specialization]] of different functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can find ''odayaal'' (judges), ''xeerbogeyaal'' ([[jurist]]s), ''guurtiyaal'' (detectives), ''garxajiyaal'' ([[Lawyer|attorneys]]), ''markhaatiyal'' ([[witnesses]]) and ''waranle'' (police officers) to enforce the law.<ref name=HAblele>{{cite web|url=http://www.hiiraan.com/op2/2008/oct/back_to_somali_roots.aspx |title=Back to Somali roots |publisher=Hiiraan.com |accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref>
Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely approximate the principle of ''[[jus cogens]]'' in [[international law]]: These precepts include: a) payment of [[Blood money (term)|blood money]] (locally referred to as ''[[Diyya|diya]]'') for libel, theft, physical harm, rape and death, as well as supplying assistance to relatives; b) assuring good inter-[[clan]] relations by treating women justly, negotiating with "peace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected groups "Birr Magaydo," (e.g. children, women, the pious, poets, messengers, sheikhs, and guests); c) family obligations such as the payment of [[dowry]], and sanctions for eloping; d) rules pertaining to the management of resources such as the use of pasture land, water, and other natural resources; e) providing financial support to married female relatives and newlyweds; f) donating livestock and other assets to the poor.<ref name="SJS"/>
==Recent history==
{{Main|Politics of Somalia}}
[[File:Somalian embassy in Paris.jpg|thumb|right|Embassy of Somalia in Paris, France.]]
===Transitional National Government===
In 2000, [[Abdiqasim Salad Hassan]] was selected as the President of the nation's new [[Transitional National Government]] (TNG), an interim administration formed to guide Somalia to its third permanent republican government.
On 10 October 2004, in a session held by the [[Transitional Federal Parliament]] (TFP), [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]] was elected as President of the succeeding [[Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG), an interim federal administrative body that he had helped establish earlier in the year.<ref name="Spmoarc">[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-11/13/content_2213479.htm Somali PM optimistic about rebuilding country]</ref> He received 189 votes from the TFG Parliament, while the closest contender, erstwhile Somali ambassador to Washington [[Abdullahi Ahmed Addou]], got 79 votes in the third round of voting. The then incumbent President of Somalia, Abdiqasim Salad Hassan, peacefully withdrew his candidature.<ref name="Smenp">[http://aceproject.org/ero-en/regions/africa/SO/Somalia%20-%20BBC%20article%20MPs%20elect%20new%20president.doc Somalia MPs elect new president]</ref><ref name="Rulers">[http://www.rulers.org/2004-10.html Rulers – Somalia – October 2004]</ref> Ahmed was sworn in a few days later on 14 October 2004.<ref name="Rulers"/>
===Transitional Federal Institutions===
{{Main|Transitional Federal Institutions|Transitional Federal Government|Transitional Federal Parliament}}
The [[Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG) was the internationally recognised government of Somalia until 20 August 2012, when its tenure officially ended.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm">{{cite news|title=Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html|accessdate=24 August 2012|newspaper=Forum on China-Africa Cooperation|date=21 August 2012}}</ref> It was established as one of the [[Transitional Federal Institutions]] (TFIs) of government as defined in the [[Transitional Federal Charter]] (TFC) adopted in November 2004 by the [[Transitional Federal Parliament]] (TFP).
The Transitional Federal Government officially comprised the executive branch of government, with the TFP serving as the [[Legislature|legislative]] branch. The government was headed by the [[President of Somalia]], to whom the cabinet reported through the [[Prime Minister of Somalia|Prime Minister]]. However, it was also used as a general term to refer to all three branches collectively.
===Islamic Courts Union and Ethiopian intervention===
{{See also|Battle of Mogadishu (2006)|Rise of the Islamic Courts Union (2006)|War in Somalia (2006–2009)}}
In 2006, the [[Islamic Courts Union]] (ICU), an [[Islamism|Islamist]] organization, assumed control of much of the southern part of the country and promptly imposed [[Shari'a]] law. The Transitional Federal Government sought to reestablish its authority, and, with the assistance of [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|Ethiopian troops]], [[African Union]] peacekeepers and air support by the United States, managed to drive out the rival ICU and solidify its rule.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/153/26334.html |title=Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia |publisher=Globalpolicy.org |date=14 August 2007 |accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref>
On 8 January 2007, as the [[Battle of Ras Kamboni]] raged, TFG President and founder Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, a former colonel in the [[Somali Army]] and decorated war hero, entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office. The government then relocated to [[Villa Somalia]] in the capital from its interim location in [[Baidoa]]. This marked the first time since the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of the country.<ref name="Gosppsdott">{{cite web|last=Online |first=Garowe |url=http://www.garoweonline.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=558:somalia-president-parliament-speaker-dispute-over-tfg-term&catid=55:somalia&Itemid=79 |title=Somalia President, Parliament Speaker dispute over TFG term |publisher=Garoweonline.com |date=12 January 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131640/http://www.garoweonline.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=558%3Asomalia-president-parliament-speaker-dispute-over-tfg-term&catid=55%3Asomalia&Itemid=79 |archivedate=14 May 2011 }}</ref>
Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including [[Al-Shabaab (Somalia)|Al-Shabaab]], regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At the end of 2008, the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.<ref>{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,USCIRF,,,4a4f272bc,0.html |title=USCIRF Annual Report 2009 – The Commission's Watch List: Somalia |publisher=Unhcr.org |date=1 May 2009 |accessdate=27 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510005900/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher%2CUSCIRF%2C%2C%2C4a4f272bc%2C0.html |archivedate=10 May 2011 }}</ref>
Due to a lack of funding and human resources, an [[arms embargo]] that made it difficult to re-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Yusuf found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.<ref name="Sgtpe">{{cite web|url=http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Guide_to_Puntland_Election_2009.shtml |title=Somalia: Guide to Puntland Election 2009 |publisher=Garoweonline.com |date=25 December 2008 |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131633/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Guide_to_Puntland_Election_2009.shtml |archivedate=14 May 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Oagadsgumsp">{{cite web |url=http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2005/ga10386.html |title=Opening Annual General Assembly Debate, Secretary-General Urges Member States to Press in Tackling Poverty, Terrorism, Human Rights Abuses, Conflicts |publisher=Unis.unvienna.org |accessdate=12 June 2011}}</ref>
On 29 December 2008, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as [[President of Somalia]]. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Yusuf expressed regret at failing to end the country's seventeen-year conflict as his government had mandated to do.<ref name=Resignation>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7802622.stm "Somalia's president quits office"], BBC News, 29 December 2008.</ref> He also blamed the international community for its failure to support the government, and said that the speaker of parliament would succeed him in office per the [[Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic|Charter]] of the Transitional Federal Government.<ref>[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a790e984-d590-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658.html "Somali President Yusuf resigns"], Reuters (FT.com), 29 December 2008.</ref>
===Coalition government===
{{See also|Al-Shabaab (militant group)|Hizbul Islam|Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a|Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia|Somali Civil War (2009–present)|2009 timeline of the War in Somalia}}
[[File:ShababFlag.svg|thumb|right|The battle flag of [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|Al-Shabaab]], an Islamist group waging war against the federal government.]]
Between 31 and 9 May June 2008, representatives of Somalia's federal government and the moderate [[Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia]] (ARS) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in [[Djibouti]] brokered by the former United Nations Special Envoy to Somalia, [[Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah]]. The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected [[Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed]], the former ARS chairman, to office. President Sharif shortly afterwards appointed [[Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]], the son of the assassinated former President [[Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]], as the nation's new Prime Minister.<ref name="2009factbook"/>
With the help of a small team of [[African Union]] troops, the coalition government also began a [[Somali Civil War (2009–present)|counteroffensive]] in February 2009 to assume full control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its rule, the TFG formed an alliance with the [[Islamic Courts Union]], other members of the [[Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia]], and [[Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a]], a moderate [[Sufism|Sufi]] militia.<ref>{{cite web|author=Kamaal says |url=http://horseedmedia.net/2010/05/un-boss-urges-support-for-somalia-ahead-of-istanbul-summit/ |title=UN boss urges support for Somalia ahead of Istanbul summit |publisher=Horseedmedia.net |date=22 May 2010 |accessdate=27 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619183438/http://horseedmedia.net/2010/05/un-boss-urges-support-for-somalia-ahead-of-istanbul-summit/ |archivedate=19 June 2010 }}</ref> Furthermore, Al-Shabaab and [[Hizbul Islam]], the two main Islamist groups in opposition, began to fight amongst themselves in mid-2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8318798.stm |title=Islamists break Somali port truce |work=BBC News|date=21 October 2009 |accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref>
As a truce, in March 2009, Somalia's coalition government announced that it would re-implement Shari'a as the nation's official judicial system.<ref name="Shariah in Somalia">[http://www.arabnews.com/?page=4§ion=0&article=119757&d=1&m=3&y=2009 Shariah in Somalia] – ''[[Arab News]]''</ref> However, conflict continued in the southern and central parts of the country. Within months, the coalition government had gone from holding about 70% of south-central Somalia's conflict zones, territory which it had inherited from the previous Yusuf administration, to losing control of over 80% of the disputed territory to the Islamist insurgents.<ref name="Gosppsdott"/>
On 14 October 2010, diplomat [[Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed]] (Farmajo) was appointed the new Prime Minister of Somalia. The former Premier Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke resigned the month before following a protracted dispute with President Sharif over a proposed draft constitution.<ref name="Sanpms">{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2010/10/14/somali-president-names-new-prime-minister/ |title=Somali-American is new prime minister in Somalia |publisher=Fox News Channel |date=1 February 2010 |accessdate=30 December 2010}}</ref>
[[File:Mohamed Abdullah Omaar.jpg|thumb|Foreign Minister of Somalia [[Mohamed Abdullahi Omaar]] in a meeting with UNDP Administrator [[Helen Clark]] and other diplomats at the UN headquarters in New York.]]
Per the [[Transitional Federal Government]]'s (TFG) [[Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic|Charter]],<ref name="Pasnpmard">{{cite web|url=http://www.allheadlinenews.com/articles/7020386438?Parliament |title=Approves Somalia's New PM After Repeated Delays |publisher=Allheadlinenews.com |date=31 October 2010 |accessdate=30 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515182839/http://www.allheadlinenews.com/articles/7020386438?Parliament |archivedate=15 May 2011 }}</ref> Prime Minister Mohamed named a new Cabinet on 12 November 2010,<ref name="Nspmusc">{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=12131958 |title=New Somali Prime Minister Unveils Smaller Cabinet |publisher=ABC News |date=12 November 2010 |accessdate=12 June 2011}}</ref> which has been lauded by the international community.<ref name="Alshspmuhc">{{cite web |url=http://english.alshahid.net/archives/15120 |title=Somali Prime Minister Unveiled His Cabinet |publisher=English.alshahid.net |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511194929/http://english.alshahid.net/archives/15120 |archivedate=11 May 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Slppc">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/11/27/ap/africa/main7094041.shtml |title=Somali Lawmakers Pass Proposed Cabinet |publisher=CBS News |accessdate=30 December 2010 }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> As had been expected, the allotted ministerial positions were significantly reduced in numbers, with only 18 administrative posts unveiled versus the previous government's bloated 39 portfolios.<ref name="Nspmusc"/><ref name="Spmulc">{{cite web |author=US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton |url=http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/middle-east/132370-somali-pm-unveils-leaner-cabinet.html |title=Somali PM unveils leaner cabinet |publisher=Thepeninsulaqatar.com |date=13 November 2010 |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20121211051610/http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/middle-east/132370-somali-pm-unveils-leaner-cabinet.html |archivedate=11 December 2012 }}</ref> Only two Ministers from the previous Cabinet were reappointed: Hussein Abdi Halane, the former Minister of Finance and a well-regarded figure in the international community, was put in charge of a consolidated Ministry of Finance and Treasury; and Dr. Mohamud Abdi Ibrahim was reassigned to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.<ref name="Sprunvc">{{cite web|url=http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somali_Premier_Unveils_New_Cabinets.shtml |title=Somali Premier Unveils New Cabinet |publisher=Garoweonline.com |date=12 November 2010 |accessdate=30 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131621/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somali_Premier_Unveils_New_Cabinets.shtml |archivedate=14 May 2011 }}</ref> [[Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a]], a moderate [[Sufism|Sufi]] group and an important military ally of the TFG, was also accorded the key Interior and Labour ministries.<ref name="Spmulc"/><ref name="Sprunvc"/> The remaining ministerial positions were largely assigned to technocrats new to the Somali political arena.<ref name="Xspmnc">{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2010-11/13/c_13604352.htm |title=Somali PM names new cabinet |agency=Xinhua News Agency |date=13 November 2010 |accessdate=30 December 2010}}</ref>
In its first 50 days in office, Prime Minister Mohamed's new administration completed its first monthly payment of stipends to government soldiers, and initiated the implementation of a full biometric register for the security forces within a window of four months. Additional members of the Independent Constitutional Commission were also appointed to engage Somali constitutional lawyers, religious scholars and experts in Somali culture over the nation's upcoming new constitution, a key part of the government's Transitional Federal Tasks. In addition, high level federal delegations were dispatched to defuse clan-related tensions in several regions. According to the prime minister of Somalia, to improve transparency, Cabinet ministers fully disclosed their assets and signed a [[Ethical code|code of ethics]].<ref name="Swscmos">{{cite web|url=http://www.somaliweyn.org/pages/news/Jan_11/15Jan18.html |title=Security Council Meeting on Somalia |publisher=Somaliweyn.org |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105060056/http://www.somaliweyn.org/pages/news/Jan_11/15Jan18.html |archivedate=5 January 2014 }}</ref>
An Anti-Corruption Commission with the power to carry out formal investigations and to review government decisions and protocols was also established so as to more closely monitor all activities by public officials. Furthermore, unnecessary trips abroad by members of government were prohibited, and all travel by ministers now require the Premier's consent.<ref name="Swscmos"/><ref name="Spmaigwccwbbtj">{{cite web |url=http://www.allheadlinenews.com/briefs/articles/90029659?Somali_PM%3A_Anyone_in_gov%26%23146%3Bt_who_commits_corruption_will_be_brought_to_justice |title=Somali PM: Anyone in gov't who commits corruption will be brought to justice |publisher=Allheadlinenews.com |date=4 January 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515182825/http://www.allheadlinenews.com/briefs/articles/90029659?Somali_PM%3A_Anyone_in_gov&%23146%3Bt_who_commits_corruption_will_be_brought_to_justice |archivedate=15 May 2011 }}</ref> A budget outlining 2011's federal expenditures was also put before and approved by members of parliament, with the payment of civil service employees prioritized. In addition, a full audit of government property and vehicles is being put into place. On the war front, the new government and its AMISOM allies also managed to secure control of 60% of Mogadishu, where 80% of the capital's population now lives. According to the [[African Union]] and Prime Minister Mohamed, with increasing troop strength the pace of territorial gains is expected to greatly accelerate.<ref name="Swscmos"/><ref name="Mgamisom">{{cite web|url=http://amisom-au.org/uploads/AMISOM_Bulletin_No_11.pdf |title=Making Gains – AMISOM forces take new territory |accessdate=12 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511115655/http://amisom-au.org/uploads/AMISOM_Bulletin_No_11.pdf |archivedate=11 May 2011 }}</ref>
On 19 June 2011, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed resigned from his position as Prime Minister of Somalia. Part of the controversial Kampala Accord's conditions, the agreement would also see the mandates of the President, the Parliament Speaker and Deputies extended until August 2012, after which point new elections are to be organized.<ref name="Bbcspmmafr">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13830470 Somalia: PM Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo resigns]. BBC.co.uk (19 June 2011). Retrieved 15 December 2011.</ref> [[Abdiweli Mohamed Ali]], Mohamed's former Minister of Planning and International Cooperation, was later named permanent Prime Minister.<ref name="Nytsnnpm">{{cite news|last=Gettleman|first=Jeffrey|title=Harvard-Educated Technocrat Chosen as Somalia Premier|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/24/world/africa/24somalia.html?partner=rssnyt&emc=rss|accessdate=23 June 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times|date=23 June 2011}}</ref>
===Federal government===
{{main|Federal Government of Somalia}}
[[File:Mohamed Abdullahi Farmaajo.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed]], current [[President of Somalia|President]]]]
As part of the official "Roadmap for the End of Transition", a political process which provided clear benchmarks leading toward the formation of permanent democratic institutions in Somalia, the Transitional Federal Government's interim mandate ended on 20 August 2012.<ref name="Aasratdocwau">{{cite news|last=Ahmed|first=Muddassar|title=Somalia rising after two decades of civil war and unrest|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/views/2012/08/08/231008.html|accessdate=9 August 2012|publisher=Al Arabiya|date=8 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809223608/http://english.alarabiya.net/views/2012/08/08/231008.html|archive-date=9 August 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The [[Federal Parliament of Somalia]] was concurrently inaugurated, ushering in the [[Federal Government of Somalia]], the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm"/>
On 10 September 2012, parliament elected [[Hassan Sheikh Mohamud]] as the new President of Somalia.<ref name="Rslemanp">{{cite news|title=Somali lawmakers elect Mohamud as next president|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/10/somalia-politics-idUSL5E8KAIUR20120910|agency=Reuters|accessdate=10 September 2012|date=10 September 2012}}</ref> President Mohamud later appointed [[Abdi Farah Shirdon]] as the new Prime Minister on 6 October 2012,<ref name="Rspnpnapm">{{cite news|title=Somali president names political newcomer as PM -diplomats|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFL6E8L60GZ20121006|accessdate=6 October 2012|agency=Reuters|date=6 October 2012}}</ref> who was succeeded in office by [[Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed]] on 21 December 2013.<ref name="Rspanonspasa">{{cite news|title=SOMALIA: Parliament approves nomination of new Somali PM Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed|url=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2013/12/somalia-parliament-approves-nomination-of-new-somali-pm-abdiweli-sheikh-ahmed/|accessdate=21 December 2013|newspaper=Raxanreeb|date=21 December 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224095458/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2013/12/somalia-parliament-approves-nomination-of-new-somali-pm-abdiweli-sheikh-ahmed/|archivedate=24 December 2013}}</ref> On 17 December 2014, former Premier [[Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]] was reappointed Prime Minister.<ref name="Gbnphasauatp">{{cite news|title=Breaking News: President Hassan appoints Somalia's ambassador to US as the third premier|url=http://goobjoog.com/english/?p=7317|accessdate=17 December 2014|agency=Goobjoog|date=17 December 2014}}</ref>
On 8 February 2017, Somali MPs elected Ex-Prime Minister [[Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed|Mohamed Abdullahi "Farmajo" Mohamed]] in a surprise result.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-38904663|title=Somalia's Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo chosen as president|date=8 February 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=23 February 2017}}</ref> On 23 February 2017, President Mohamed appointed former humanitarian worker and businessman [[Hassan Ali Khayre|Hassan Khaire]] as his Prime Minister..
==Timelines==
===Ancient===
:*'''c. 2350 BC:''' The [[Land of Punt]] establishes trade with the [[Ancient Egypt]]ians.<ref name="Nthos34">{{cite book|last=Njoku|first=Raphael Chijioke|title=The History of Somalia|year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0313378577|pages=29–34|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C}}</ref>
:*'''1st century AD:''' City states on the Somali coast are active in commerce trading with [[Ancient Greeks|Greek]], and later [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] merchants.<ref name="Nthos34"/>
===Muslim era===
:*'''700–900:''' [[Somali people|Somalis]] adopt [[Islam]].<ref name="Encyamer"/>
:*'''9th century – 13th century:''' [[Adal Kingdom]].
:*'''10th century – 16th century:''' [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]].
:*'''1285–1415:''' The rise and fall of the [[Sultanate of Ifat]].
:*'''1200s – late 1600s:''' The rise and fall of the [[Ajuran Sultanate]].
:*'''1300–1400:''' [[Mogadishu]], [[Zeila]] and [[Barawe]] are visited by [[Ibn Battuta]] and [[Zheng He]].
:*'''1415–1559:''' The rise and fall of the [[Adal Sultanate]].
:*'''1528–1535:''' [[Ethiopian-Adal War|Jihad]] against [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] led by [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]] (also called Ahmed Gurey and Ahmed Gran; "the Left-handed").<ref name=SOMALIA-CONTACT-WITH-GREECE-ROME>[http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/somalia/1994/dawn_of_civilization/chapter_5.htm ''Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times'' Chapter 5: Puntland: Ancient Somali Contacts With Other Countries] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315102918/http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/somalia/1994/dawn_of_civilization/chapter_5.htm |date=15 March 2007 }} CivicsWeb</ref>
:*'''late 17th – late 19th century:''' [[Berbera]]'s domination in Gulf of Aden trade, Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh, governor of [[Zeila]], [[Berbera]] and [[Tadjourah]], and [[Sultanate of the Geledi]].
:*'''mid-18th century – 1929:''' [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] also known as Migiurtinia/Majeerteenia.
:*'''1878–1927:''' [[Sultanate of Hobyo]].
===Modern era===
:*'''20 July 1887 :''' [[British Somaliland]] protectorate (in the north) subordinated to [[Aden]] to 1905.
:*'''3 August 1889:''' Benadir Coast Italian Protectorate (in the northeast), (unoccupied until May 1893).
:*'''1896–1920:''' [[Dervish State]] (proto state)
:*'''16 March 1905:''' [[Italian Somaliland]] colony (in the northeast, central and south).
:*'''July 1910:''' Italian Somaliland a crown colony
:*'''1920:''' Mohammed Abdullah Hassan (called "the Mad Mullah" by the British) of the [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]] dies and the longest and bloodiest colonial resistance war in Africa ends.
:*'''15 January 1935:''' Italian Somaliland, part of Italian East Africa along with [[Italian Eritrea]] (and from 1936 Ethiopia).
:*'''1 June 1936:''' The [[Somalia Governorate]] is established as one of the six governorates of Italian East Africa.
===World War II===
:*'''18 August 1940:''' Italian occupation of British Somaliland.
:*'''February 1941:''' British administration of Italian Somaliland.
===Independence and Cold War===
:*'''1 April 1950:''' Italian Somaliland becomes a United Nations trust territory administration, the [[Trust Territory of Somalia]], which is promised independence within 10 years.
:*'''26 June 1960:''' British Somaliland is granted independence as the [[State of Somaliland]], with the understanding that it is to reunite with Italian Somaliland.
:*'''1 July 1960:''' Reunification of British Somaliland with Italian Somaliland to form the [[Somali Republic]].
:*'''1 July 1960:''' First president of Somali National Assembly, Speaker of the Somali Union Act. [[Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf]].
:*'''1 July 1960 – 1967:''' Presidency of [[Aden Abdullah Osman Daar]]
:*'''1967–1969:''' Presidency of [[Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]]; assassinated by one of the policemen assigned to his protection.
:*'''21 October 1969:''' [[Somali Democratic Republic]].
:*'''1969–1991:''' [[Siad Barre]], leader of the Supreme Revolutionary Council, rises to power.
:*'''23 July 1977 – 15 March 1978:''' [[Ogaden War]].
:*'''1982''': [[1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War]].
:*'''1986''': Fall of Barre government.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Al-Ghwell|first1=Hafed|title=What ever happened to Somalia?|url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1301391|accessdate=28 May 2018|agency=Arab News|date=12 May 2018}}</ref>
:*'''1991''': Somaliland declares independence from Somalia.<ref name="Somaliland Constitution">{{cite web|title=Somaliland Constitution|url=http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Somaliland_Constitution/body_somaliland_constitution.htm#Chapter1|website=Somalilandlaw.com|accessdate=28 May 2018}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Main|Outline of Somalia|Index of Somalia-related articles}}
*[[Economic history of Somalia]]
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[List of colonial governors of British Somaliland]]
*[[List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland]]
*[[President of Somalia]]
*[[Prime Minister of Somalia]]
*[[Xeer]]
*[[Federal Parliament of Somalia]]
== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}
==References==
* {{cite journal
| first =Said S.
| last =Samatar (ed.)
| date =9 November 2005
| title =Somalia Country Studies
| journal =Federal Research Division of Library of Congress
| url =http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sotoc.html
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Aidid
| first = Mohamed Farrah
| authorlink = Mohamed Farrah Aidid
| author2= Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela
| title = Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times
| publisher = Civic Webs Virtual Library
| year= 2001
| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/Somalia.html?id=gaphQgAACAAJ
|accessdate=10 February 2014| isbn = 9780706980042
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Aidid
| first = Mohamed Farrah
| author2= Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela
| title = Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times
| publisher = Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD
| year= 1993
| location = India
| isbn = 0-7069-8004-2
}}
{{Somalia topics}}
{{History of Africa}}
[[Category:History of Somalia| ]]
[[ja:ソマリア#歴史]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -93,34 +93,5 @@
He repulsed the British in four expeditions and had favorable diplomatic relations with the [[Central Powers]] of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[German Empire]]s.
-==20th century==
-{{Refimprove|date=January 2020}}
-In 1920, the Dervish movement collapsed after intensive British aerial bombardments, and Dervish territories were subsequently turned into a [[protectorate]]. The dawn of fascism in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy, as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of ''La Grande Somalia'' according to the plan of [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]]. With the arrival of Governor [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]] on 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of [[History of Somaliland|Somaliland]]. Italy had access to these areas under the successive protection treaties, but not direct rule. The Fascist government had direct rule only over the [[Benadir]] territory Given the defeat of the Dervish movement in the early 1920s and the rise of fascism in Europe, on 10 July 1925, [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] gave the green light to De Vecchi to start the takeover of the north-eastern sultanates. Everything was to be changed and the treaties abrogated.
-[[File:Taleh Castle.jpg|thumb|left|[[Taleh]] was the capital of the [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]].]]
-
-Governor De Vecchi's first plan was to disarm the sultanates. But, before the plan could be carried out, there had to be sufficient Italian troops in both sultanates. To make the enforcement of his plan more viable, he began to reconstitute the old Somali police corps, the ''Corpo Zaptié'', as a colonial force.
-
-In preparation for the invasion plan of the sultanates, the [[Alula District|Alula]] Commissioner, E. Coronaro received orders in April 1924 to carry out a reconnaissance on the territories targeted for invasion. In spite of the 40-year Italian relationship with the sultanates, Italy did not have adequate knowledge of the geography. During this time, the Stefanini-Puccioni geological survey was scheduled to take place, so it was a good opportunity for the expedition of Coronaro to join with this.
-
-Coronaro's survey concluded that the [[Majeerteen|Ismaan Sultanate]] (Majeerteen) depended on sea traffic, therefore, if this were blocked, any resistance that could be mounted after the invasion of the sultanate would be minimal. As the first stage of the invasion plan, Governor De Vecchi ordered the two Sultanates to disarm. The reaction of both sultanates was to object, as they felt the policy was in breach of the protectorate agreements. The pressure engendered by the new development forced the two rival sultanates to settle their differences over possession of [[Nugal, Somalia|Nugaal]], and form a united front against their common enemy.
-
-The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] was different from that of the Majeerteen in terms of its geography and the pattern of the territory. It was founded by [[Yusuf Ali Kenadid]] in the middle of the 19th century in central Somalia. Its jurisdiction stretched from [[El Dher District|Ceeldheer]] (El Dher) through to [[Dhusamareb]] in the south-west, from Galladi to [[Galkayo]] in the west, from [[Jariban]] to Garaad in the north-east, and the Indian Ocean in the east.
-
-By 1 October, De Vecchi's plan was to go into action. The operation to invade Hobyo started in October 1925 . Columns of the new Zaptié began to move towards the sultanate. Hobyo, [[El Buur|Ceelbuur]] (El Buur), Galkayo, and the territory between were completely overrun within a month. Hobyo was transformed from a sultanate into an administrative region. Sultan Yusuf Ali surrendered. Nevertheless, soon suspicions were aroused as Trivulzio, the Hobyo commissioner, reported movement of armed men towards the borders of the sultanate before the takeover and after. Before the Italians could concentrate on the Majeerteen, they were diverted by new setbacks. On 9 November, the Italian fear was realized when a mutiny, led by one of the military chiefs of Sultan Ali Yusuf, [[Sultanate of Hobyo#Omar Samatar's Rebellion (November 1925 - January 1926)|Omar Samatar]], recaptured El Buur. Soon the rebellion expanded to the local population. The region went into revolt as El-Dheere also came under the control of Omar Samatar. The Italian forces tried to recapture El Buur, but they were repulsed. On 15 November, the Italians retreated to Bud Bud and on the way they were ambushed and suffered heavy casualties.
-
-While a third attempt was in the last stages of preparation, the operation's commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Splendorelli, was ambushed between Bud Bud and Buula Barde. He and some of his staff were killed. As a consequence of the death of the commander of the operations and the effect of two failed operations intended to overcome the El Buur mutiny, the spirit of Italian troops began to wane. The Governor took the situation seriously and, to prevent any more failure, he requested two battalions from [[Eritrea]] to reinforce his troops, and assumed lead of the operations. Meanwhile, the rebellion was gaining sympathy across the country, and as far afield as [[Ogaden|Western Somalia]].
-
-The fascist government was surprised by the setback in Hobyo. The whole policy of conquest was collapsing under its nose. The El-Buur episode drastically changed the strategy of Italy as it revived memories of the [[Battle of Adwa|Adwa fiasco]] when Italy had been defeated by Abyssinia. Furthermore, in the Colonial Ministry in Rome, senior officials distrusted the Governor's ability to deal with the matter. Rome instructed De Vecchi that he was to receive the reinforcement from Eritrea, but that the commander of the two battalions was to temporarily assume the military command of the operations and De Vecchi was to stay in Mogadishu and confine himself to other colonial matters. In the case of any military development, the military commander was to report directly to the Chief of Staff in Rome.
-
-While the situation remained perplexing, De Vecchi moved the deposed sultan to Mogadishu. Fascist Italy was poised to re-conquer the sultanate by whatever means. To maneuver the situation within Hobyo, they even contemplated the idea of reinstating Ali Yusuf. However, the idea was dropped after they became pessimistic about the results.
-
-To undermine the resistance, however, and before the Eritrean reinforcement could arrive, De Vecchi began to instill distrust among the local people by buying the loyalty of some of them. In fact, these tactics had better results than the military campaign had, and the resistance began gradually to wear down. Given the anarchy that would follow, the new policy was a success.
-
-On the military front, Italian troops finally overran El Buur on 26 December 1925, and the forces of Omar Samatar were compelled to retreat to Western Somaliland.
-
-By neutralising Hobyo, the fascists could concentrate on the Majeerteen. In early October 1924, E. Coronaro, the new Alula commissioner, presented Boqor (king) [[Osman Mahamuud]] with an ultimatum to disarm and surrender. Meanwhile, Italian troops began to pour into the sultanate in anticipation of this operation. While landing at Haafuun and Alula, the sultanate's troops opened fire on them. Fierce fighting ensued and to avoid escalating the conflict and to press the fascist government to revoke their policy, Boqor Osman tried to open a dialogue. However, he failed, and again fighting broke out between the two parties. Following this disturbance, on 7 October, the Governor instructed Coronaro to order the Sultan to surrender; to intimidate the people he ordered the seizure of all merchant boats in the Alula area. At [[Hafun]], Arimondi bombarded and destroyed all the boats in the area.
-[[File:Mogadishu1936.jpg|thumb|Downtown Mogadishu in 1936. Arch of Triumph Umberto to the left, Cathedral and Arba Rucun mosque to the centre-right.]]
-On 13 October, Coronaro was to meet Boqor Osman at [[Bargal|Baargaal]] to press for his surrender. Under siege already, Boqor Osman was playing for time. However, on 23 October, Boqor Osman sent an angry response to the Governor defying his order. Following this a full-scale attack was ordered in November. Baargaal was bombarded and destroyed to the ground. This region was ethnically compact, and was out of range of direct action by the fascist government of Muqdisho. The attempt of the colonizers to suppress the region erupted into explosive confrontation. The Italians were meeting fierce resistance on many fronts. In December 1925, led by the charismatic leader [[Hersi Boqor]], son of Boqor Osman, the sultanate forces drove the Italians out of Hurdia and Hafun, two strategic coastal towns. Another contingent attacked and destroyed an Italian communications centre at Cape Guardafui, at the tip of the Horn. In retaliation the ''Bernica'' and other warships were called on to bombard all main coastal towns of the Majeerteen. After a violent confrontation Italian forces captured [[Eyl]] (Eil), which until then had remained in the hands of Hersi Boqor. In response to the unyielding situation, Italy called for reinforcements from their other colonies, notably Eritrea. With their arrival at the closing of 1926, the Italians began to move into the interior where they had not been able to venture since their first seizure of the coastal towns. Their attempt to capture Dharoor Valley was resisted, and ended in failure.
-
-De Vecchi had to reassess his plans as he was being humiliated on many fronts. After one year of exerting full force he could not yet manage to gain a result over the sultanate. In spite of the fact that the Italian navy sealed the sultanate's main coastal entrance, they could not succeed in stopping them from receiving arms and ammunition through it. It was only early 1927 when they finally succeeded in shutting the northern coast of the sultanate, thus cutting arms and ammunition supplies for the Majeerteen. By this time, the balance had tilted to the Italians' side, and in January 1927 they began to attack with a massive force, capturing [[Iskushuban]], at the heart of the Majeerteen. Hersi Boqor unsuccessfully attacked and challenged the Italians at Iskushuban. To demoralise the resistance, ships were ordered to target and bombard the sultanate's coastal towns and villages. In the interior, the Italian troops confiscated livestock. By the end of the 1927, the Italians had taken full control of the sultanate. Hersi Boqor and his troops retreated to Ethiopia in order to rebuild their forces, but were unable to retake their territories, effectively ending the ''Campaign of the Sultanates''.
+==Somalia is the best country in the world
=="Somalia italiana" and World War II==
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0 => '==20th century==',
1 => '{{Refimprove|date=January 2020}}',
2 => 'In 1920, the Dervish movement collapsed after intensive British aerial bombardments, and Dervish territories were subsequently turned into a [[protectorate]]. The dawn of fascism in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy, as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of ''La Grande Somalia'' according to the plan of [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]]. With the arrival of Governor [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]] on 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of [[History of Somaliland|Somaliland]]. Italy had access to these areas under the successive protection treaties, but not direct rule. The Fascist government had direct rule only over the [[Benadir]] territory Given the defeat of the Dervish movement in the early 1920s and the rise of fascism in Europe, on 10 July 1925, [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] gave the green light to De Vecchi to start the takeover of the north-eastern sultanates. Everything was to be changed and the treaties abrogated.',
3 => '[[File:Taleh Castle.jpg|thumb|left|[[Taleh]] was the capital of the [[Dervish movement (Somali)|Dervish movement]].]]',
4 => '',
5 => 'Governor De Vecchi's first plan was to disarm the sultanates. But, before the plan could be carried out, there had to be sufficient Italian troops in both sultanates. To make the enforcement of his plan more viable, he began to reconstitute the old Somali police corps, the ''Corpo Zaptié'', as a colonial force.',
6 => '',
7 => 'In preparation for the invasion plan of the sultanates, the [[Alula District|Alula]] Commissioner, E. Coronaro received orders in April 1924 to carry out a reconnaissance on the territories targeted for invasion. In spite of the 40-year Italian relationship with the sultanates, Italy did not have adequate knowledge of the geography. During this time, the Stefanini-Puccioni geological survey was scheduled to take place, so it was a good opportunity for the expedition of Coronaro to join with this.',
8 => '',
9 => 'Coronaro's survey concluded that the [[Majeerteen|Ismaan Sultanate]] (Majeerteen) depended on sea traffic, therefore, if this were blocked, any resistance that could be mounted after the invasion of the sultanate would be minimal. As the first stage of the invasion plan, Governor De Vecchi ordered the two Sultanates to disarm. The reaction of both sultanates was to object, as they felt the policy was in breach of the protectorate agreements. The pressure engendered by the new development forced the two rival sultanates to settle their differences over possession of [[Nugal, Somalia|Nugaal]], and form a united front against their common enemy.',
10 => '',
11 => 'The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] was different from that of the Majeerteen in terms of its geography and the pattern of the territory. It was founded by [[Yusuf Ali Kenadid]] in the middle of the 19th century in central Somalia. Its jurisdiction stretched from [[El Dher District|Ceeldheer]] (El Dher) through to [[Dhusamareb]] in the south-west, from Galladi to [[Galkayo]] in the west, from [[Jariban]] to Garaad in the north-east, and the Indian Ocean in the east.',
12 => '',
13 => 'By 1 October, De Vecchi's plan was to go into action. The operation to invade Hobyo started in October 1925 . Columns of the new Zaptié began to move towards the sultanate. Hobyo, [[El Buur|Ceelbuur]] (El Buur), Galkayo, and the territory between were completely overrun within a month. Hobyo was transformed from a sultanate into an administrative region. Sultan Yusuf Ali surrendered. Nevertheless, soon suspicions were aroused as Trivulzio, the Hobyo commissioner, reported movement of armed men towards the borders of the sultanate before the takeover and after. Before the Italians could concentrate on the Majeerteen, they were diverted by new setbacks. On 9 November, the Italian fear was realized when a mutiny, led by one of the military chiefs of Sultan Ali Yusuf, [[Sultanate of Hobyo#Omar Samatar's Rebellion (November 1925 - January 1926)|Omar Samatar]], recaptured El Buur. Soon the rebellion expanded to the local population. The region went into revolt as El-Dheere also came under the control of Omar Samatar. The Italian forces tried to recapture El Buur, but they were repulsed. On 15 November, the Italians retreated to Bud Bud and on the way they were ambushed and suffered heavy casualties.',
14 => '',
15 => 'While a third attempt was in the last stages of preparation, the operation's commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Splendorelli, was ambushed between Bud Bud and Buula Barde. He and some of his staff were killed. As a consequence of the death of the commander of the operations and the effect of two failed operations intended to overcome the El Buur mutiny, the spirit of Italian troops began to wane. The Governor took the situation seriously and, to prevent any more failure, he requested two battalions from [[Eritrea]] to reinforce his troops, and assumed lead of the operations. Meanwhile, the rebellion was gaining sympathy across the country, and as far afield as [[Ogaden|Western Somalia]].',
16 => '',
17 => 'The fascist government was surprised by the setback in Hobyo. The whole policy of conquest was collapsing under its nose. The El-Buur episode drastically changed the strategy of Italy as it revived memories of the [[Battle of Adwa|Adwa fiasco]] when Italy had been defeated by Abyssinia. Furthermore, in the Colonial Ministry in Rome, senior officials distrusted the Governor's ability to deal with the matter. Rome instructed De Vecchi that he was to receive the reinforcement from Eritrea, but that the commander of the two battalions was to temporarily assume the military command of the operations and De Vecchi was to stay in Mogadishu and confine himself to other colonial matters. In the case of any military development, the military commander was to report directly to the Chief of Staff in Rome.',
18 => '',
19 => 'While the situation remained perplexing, De Vecchi moved the deposed sultan to Mogadishu. Fascist Italy was poised to re-conquer the sultanate by whatever means. To maneuver the situation within Hobyo, they even contemplated the idea of reinstating Ali Yusuf. However, the idea was dropped after they became pessimistic about the results.',
20 => '',
21 => 'To undermine the resistance, however, and before the Eritrean reinforcement could arrive, De Vecchi began to instill distrust among the local people by buying the loyalty of some of them. In fact, these tactics had better results than the military campaign had, and the resistance began gradually to wear down. Given the anarchy that would follow, the new policy was a success.',
22 => '',
23 => 'On the military front, Italian troops finally overran El Buur on 26 December 1925, and the forces of Omar Samatar were compelled to retreat to Western Somaliland.',
24 => '',
25 => 'By neutralising Hobyo, the fascists could concentrate on the Majeerteen. In early October 1924, E. Coronaro, the new Alula commissioner, presented Boqor (king) [[Osman Mahamuud]] with an ultimatum to disarm and surrender. Meanwhile, Italian troops began to pour into the sultanate in anticipation of this operation. While landing at Haafuun and Alula, the sultanate's troops opened fire on them. Fierce fighting ensued and to avoid escalating the conflict and to press the fascist government to revoke their policy, Boqor Osman tried to open a dialogue. However, he failed, and again fighting broke out between the two parties. Following this disturbance, on 7 October, the Governor instructed Coronaro to order the Sultan to surrender; to intimidate the people he ordered the seizure of all merchant boats in the Alula area. At [[Hafun]], Arimondi bombarded and destroyed all the boats in the area.',
26 => '[[File:Mogadishu1936.jpg|thumb|Downtown Mogadishu in 1936. Arch of Triumph Umberto to the left, Cathedral and Arba Rucun mosque to the centre-right.]]',
27 => 'On 13 October, Coronaro was to meet Boqor Osman at [[Bargal|Baargaal]] to press for his surrender. Under siege already, Boqor Osman was playing for time. However, on 23 October, Boqor Osman sent an angry response to the Governor defying his order. Following this a full-scale attack was ordered in November. Baargaal was bombarded and destroyed to the ground. This region was ethnically compact, and was out of range of direct action by the fascist government of Muqdisho. The attempt of the colonizers to suppress the region erupted into explosive confrontation. The Italians were meeting fierce resistance on many fronts. In December 1925, led by the charismatic leader [[Hersi Boqor]], son of Boqor Osman, the sultanate forces drove the Italians out of Hurdia and Hafun, two strategic coastal towns. Another contingent attacked and destroyed an Italian communications centre at Cape Guardafui, at the tip of the Horn. In retaliation the ''Bernica'' and other warships were called on to bombard all main coastal towns of the Majeerteen. After a violent confrontation Italian forces captured [[Eyl]] (Eil), which until then had remained in the hands of Hersi Boqor. In response to the unyielding situation, Italy called for reinforcements from their other colonies, notably Eritrea. With their arrival at the closing of 1926, the Italians began to move into the interior where they had not been able to venture since their first seizure of the coastal towns. Their attempt to capture Dharoor Valley was resisted, and ended in failure.',
28 => '',
29 => 'De Vecchi had to reassess his plans as he was being humiliated on many fronts. After one year of exerting full force he could not yet manage to gain a result over the sultanate. In spite of the fact that the Italian navy sealed the sultanate's main coastal entrance, they could not succeed in stopping them from receiving arms and ammunition through it. It was only early 1927 when they finally succeeded in shutting the northern coast of the sultanate, thus cutting arms and ammunition supplies for the Majeerteen. By this time, the balance had tilted to the Italians' side, and in January 1927 they began to attack with a massive force, capturing [[Iskushuban]], at the heart of the Majeerteen. Hersi Boqor unsuccessfully attacked and challenged the Italians at Iskushuban. To demoralise the resistance, ships were ordered to target and bombard the sultanate's coastal towns and villages. In the interior, the Italian troops confiscated livestock. By the end of the 1927, the Italians had taken full control of the sultanate. Hersi Boqor and his troops retreated to Ethiopia in order to rebuild their forces, but were unable to retake their territories, effectively ending the ''Campaign of the Sultanates''.'
] |
All external links added in the edit (added_links) | [] |
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102 => 'https://books.google.com/books/about/Somalia.html?id=gaphQgAACAAJ'
] |
Links in the page, before the edit (old_links) | [
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2 => 'http://www.allheadlinenews.com/briefs/articles/90029659?Somali_PM:_Anyone_in_gov%26%23146%3Bt_who_commits_corruption_will_be_brought_to_justice',
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4 => 'http://www.arabnews.com/node/1301391',
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6 => 'http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/11/27/ap/africa/main7094041.shtml',
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25 => 'http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-11/13/content_2213479.htm',
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<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks vcard" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><div style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:70%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:History_of_Somalia" title="Category:History of Somalia"><b>a series</b></a> on the</div></th>
</tr><tr>
<th class="vcard navbox-title" style="background: none; font-size: 145%;padding: 0.15em 0.1em;line-height: 1.2em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of <span class="fn org label">Somalia</span></a></th>
</tr><tr><td style="padding: 0.2em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;padding:0.5em 0;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Insigne_Somaliae.svg" class="image" title="Coat of arms of Somalia"><img alt="Coat of arms of Somalia" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Insigne_Somaliae.svg/40px-Insigne_Somaliae.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="61" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Insigne_Somaliae.svg/60px-Insigne_Somaliae.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Insigne_Somaliae.svg/80px-Insigne_Somaliae.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="461" /></a></td></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;height:auto;padding-top:0.2em;background:#e3e3ff;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Somalia#Prehistory" title="History of Somalia">Prehistory</a></div><div class="NavContent plainlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laas_Gaal" class="mw-redirect" title="Laas Gaal">Laas Gaal</a> (9,000~3,000 BCE)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a> (2,500-1,500 BCE)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dhambalin" title="Dhambalin">Dhambalin</a> (3,000~1,000 BCE)</li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;height:auto;padding-top:0.2em;background:#e3e3ff;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Somalia#Ancient" title="History of Somalia">Ancient</a></div><div class="NavContent plainlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macrobians" title="Macrobians">Macrobians</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbara_(region)" title="Barbara (region)">Berber city-states</a> (c. 1st century)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azania" title="Azania">Azania city-states</a></li></ul>
(c. 1st century)</div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;height:auto;padding-top:0.2em;background:#e3e3ff;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Somalia#Medieval" title="History of Somalia">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="NavContent plainlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a> (9th-16th c.)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ifat_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ifat Sultanate">Ifat Sultanate</a> (12th-15th c.)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Sultanate</a> (13th-17th c.)</li>
<li>Warsangali Sultanate (13th-19th c.)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_Mogadishu" title="Sultanate of Mogadishu">Sultanate of Mogadishu</a> (13th-16th c.)</li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;height:auto;padding-top:0.2em;background:#e3e3ff;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Somalia#Early_modern" title="History of Somalia">Early modern</a></div><div class="NavContent plainlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geledi_sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Geledi sultanate">Geledi sultanate</a> (16th-1910)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Majeerteen_Sultanate" title="Majeerteen Sultanate">Majeerteen Sultanate</a> (16th-1924)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_Hobyo" title="Sultanate of Hobyo">Sultanate of Hobyo</a> (1876-1926)</li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;height:auto;padding-top:0.2em;background:#e3e3ff;text-align:center;"><div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Somalia#20th_century" title="History of Somalia">Colonial period<br />(1884–1960)</a></div></div><div class="NavContent plainlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a> (1884-1960)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a> (1889-1941)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dervish_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Dervish State">Dervish State</a> (1896-1920)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust Territory of Somalia">Trust Territory</a> (1941-1960)</li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;height:auto;padding-top:0.2em;background:#e3e3ff;text-align:center;"><div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Somalia#Independence" title="History of Somalia">Modern Somalia<br />(since 1960)</a></div></div><div class="NavContent plainlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Republic" title="Somali Republic">Somali Republic</a> (1960-1969)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Communist rule</a> (1969-1991)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_National_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional National Government">Transitional National Government</a> (2000-2004)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Government">Transitional Federal Government</a> (2004-2012)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Government_of_Somalia" title="Federal Government of Somalia">Federal Government</a> (2012-)</li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of Somalia.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/16px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Somalia" title="Portal:Somalia">Somalia portal</a></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:History_of_Somalia" title="Template:History of Somalia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Somalia" title="Template talk:History of Somalia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Somalia&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0.4em 0"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Laas_Geel.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Laas Geel.jpg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Laas_Geel.jpg/210px-Laas_Geel.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="333" /></a></td></tr><tr><td style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em">Part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Somalia" title="Category:Somalia">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_Somalia" title="Culture of Somalia">Culture of Somalia</a></th></tr><tr><th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_Somalia" title="Culture of Somalia">Culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_art" title="Somali art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinema_of_Somalia" title="Cinema of Somalia">Cinema</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_cuisine" title="Somali cuisine">Cuisine</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somalian_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalian literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Maritime</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Media_of_Somalia" title="Media of Somalia">Media</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_of_Somalia" title="Music of Somalia">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Folklore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sports_in_Somalia" title="Sports in Somalia">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_Somalia" title="Tourism in Somalia">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Traditions_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditions of Somalia">Traditions</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_Somalia" title="Demographics of Somalia">People</a></th></tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somalis" title="Somalis">Somalis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bravanese_people" title="Bravanese people">Bravanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bajuni_people" title="Bajuni people">Bajunis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Bantu" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali Bantu">Bantus</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam_in_Somalia" title="Islam in Somalia">Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christianity_in_Somalia" title="Christianity in Somalia">Christianity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia#Traditional_faiths" title="Religion in Somalia">Traditional faiths</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Languages_of_Somalia" title="Languages of Somalia">Language</a></th></tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soqotri_language" title="Soqotri language">Soqotri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="navbox-abovebelow" style="padding:0.1em">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_Somalia" title="Politics of Somalia">Politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Somalia" title="Federal Parliament of Somalia">Parliament</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Armed_Forces" title="Somali Armed Forces">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Somalia" title="Economy of Somalia">Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judiciary_of_Somalia" title="Judiciary of Somalia">Laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_symbols_of_Somalia" title="National symbols of Somalia">Symbols</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transport_in_Somalia" title="Transport in Somalia">Transportation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communications_in_Somalia" title="Communications in Somalia">Communications</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education_in_Somalia" title="Education in Somalia">Education</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><td class="plainlist" style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;font-weight:normal; border-top:#aaa 1px solid">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Somalia" title="Portal:Somalia">Somalia portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Culture_of_Somalia" title="Template:Culture of Somalia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Culture_of_Somalia" title="Template talk:Culture of Somalia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Culture_of_Somalia&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Somalia</b> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>: <i lang="so">Soomaaliya</i>; <i lang="ar-Latn" title="Arabic-language romanization"><i>aṣ-Ṣūmāl</i></i>), officially the <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Republic of Somalia">Federal Republic of Somalia</a></b> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>: <i lang="so">Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya</i>, <i lang="ar-Latn" title="Arabic-language romanization"><i>Jumhūriyyat aṣ-Ṣūmāl al-Fideraaliya</i></i>) and formerly known as the <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somali Democratic Republic</a></b>, is a country located in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>.
</p><p>Somalia was an important centre for commerce of which many of the rest of the ancient world,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> and according to most scholars,<sup id="cite_ref-Sceotaw_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sceotaw-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sfnrtmm_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sfnrtmm-4">[4]</a></sup> it is among the most probable locations of the fabled ancient <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mahdy_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahdy-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SGoodwin_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SGoodwin-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the old ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Sultanate</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a>, the Warsangali Sultanate, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_the_Geledi" title="Sultanate of the Geledi">Sultanate of the Geledi</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Sultanate_of_the_Bimal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sultanate of the Bimal (page does not exist)">Sultanate of the Bimal</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Majeerteen_Sultanate" title="Majeerteen Sultanate">Majeerteen Sultanate</a><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gasargude_dynasty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gasargude dynasty (page does not exist)">Gasargude dynasty</a>
</p><p>In the late 19th century, through a succession of treaties with these kingdoms, the British and Italians gained control of parts of the coast, and established <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Laitin_1977_8_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laitin_1977_8-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Issa-Salwe_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Issa-Salwe-8">[8]</a></sup> In the interior, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan" title="Mohammed Abdullah Hassan">Mohammed Abdullah Hassan</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dervish_movement_(Somali)" title="Dervish movement (Somali)">Dervish movement</a> successfully repulsed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> but the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 by British airpower.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> Italy acquired full control of the northeastern, central and southern parts of the territory after successfully waging a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Somalia#20th_century" title="History of Somalia">Campaign of the Sultanates</a> against the ruling <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Majeerteen_Sultanate" title="Majeerteen Sultanate">Majeerteen Sultanate</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_Hobyo" title="Sultanate of Hobyo">Sultanate of Hobyo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Issa-Salwe_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Issa-Salwe-8">[8]</a></sup> This occupation lasted until 1941 when it was replaced by a British <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">military administration</a>. Northwestern Somalia would remain a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a>, while northeastern, central and southern Somalia by agreement became a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_Somaliland" title="Trust Territory of Somaliland">United Nations Trusteeship</a> on 1 April 1950, with a promise of independence after 10 years. On 1 July 1960, the two regions united as planned to form the independent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Republic" title="Somali Republic">Somali Republic</a> under a civilian government. The Somali National Assembly, headed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haji_Bashir_Ismail_Yusuf" class="mw-redirect" title="Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf">Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf</a>, approved the act uniting the former <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a> with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a>, establishing the Republic of Somalia.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ancient Ethiopia domesticated the camel somewhere between the third millennium and second millennium BCE from where it spread to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Prehistory"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Prehistory</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Ancient"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Land_of_Punt"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Land of Punt</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Macrobia_Kingdom"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Macrobia Kingdom</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Somali_City_States"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Somali City States</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Medieval"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Early_modern"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Early modern</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#19th_century"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">19th century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#"Somalia_italiana"_and_World_War_II"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">"Somalia italiana" and World War II</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Independence"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Independence</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Somali_Democratic_Republic"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Somali Democratic Republic</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Supreme_Revolutionary_Council"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Supreme Revolutionary Council</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Ogaden_War"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ogaden War</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Rebellion"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Rebellion</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Somali_Civil_War"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Somali Civil War</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Decentralization"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Decentralization</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Civil_law"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">Civil law</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Shari'a"><span class="tocnumber">10.2</span> <span class="toctext">Shari'a</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Xeer"><span class="tocnumber">10.3</span> <span class="toctext">Xeer</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Recent_history"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Recent history</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Transitional_National_Government"><span class="tocnumber">11.1</span> <span class="toctext">Transitional National Government</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Transitional_Federal_Institutions"><span class="tocnumber">11.2</span> <span class="toctext">Transitional Federal Institutions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Islamic_Courts_Union_and_Ethiopian_intervention"><span class="tocnumber">11.3</span> <span class="toctext">Islamic Courts Union and Ethiopian intervention</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Coalition_government"><span class="tocnumber">11.4</span> <span class="toctext">Coalition government</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Federal_government"><span class="tocnumber">11.5</span> <span class="toctext">Federal government</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Timelines"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Timelines</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Ancient_2"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Muslim_era"><span class="tocnumber">12.2</span> <span class="toctext">Muslim era</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Modern_era"><span class="tocnumber">12.3</span> <span class="toctext">Modern era</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#World_War_II"><span class="tocnumber">12.4</span> <span class="toctext">World War II</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Independence_and_Cold_War"><span class="tocnumber">12.5</span> <span class="toctext">Independence and Cold War</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Prehistory">Prehistory</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:LaasGeel.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/9/95/LaasGeel.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="170" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="170" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:LaasGeel.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Neolithic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">rock art</a> at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laas_Geel" title="Laas Geel">Laas Geel</a> complex depicting a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camel</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>Somalia has been inhabited since at least the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a>, when the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterized in 1909 as important artefacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to linguists, the first <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Asiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a>-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period from the family's proposed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afroasiatic_Urheimat" title="Afroasiatic Urheimat">urheimat</a> ("original homeland") in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> or the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> Other scholars propose that the Afro-Asiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there.<sup id="cite_ref-Blench143144_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blench143144-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laas_Geel" title="Laas Geel">Laas Geel</a> complex on the outskirts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hargeisa" title="Hargeisa">Hargeisa</a> in northwestern Somalia dates back around 5,000 years, and has <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">rock art</a> depicting both wild animals and decorated cows.<sup id="cite_ref-Bakano_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakano-19">[19]</a></sup> Other <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">cave paintings</a> are found in the northern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dhambalin" title="Dhambalin">Dhambalin</a> region, which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the distinctive Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Tdodras_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tdodras-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Guafcpaonas_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guafcpaonas-21">[21]</a></sup> Additionally, between the towns of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Las_Khorey" title="Las Khorey">Las Khorey</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/El_Ayo" title="El Ayo">El Ayo</a> in northern Somalia lies <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karinhegane" title="Karinhegane">Karinhegane</a>, the site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-Mheah_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mheah-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Astgi_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Astgi-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient">Ancient</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Somali architecture</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_history_of_Somalia" title="Military history of Somalia">Military history of Somalia</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macrobians" title="Macrobians">Macrobians</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Land_of_Punt">Land of Punt</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></div>
<p>Ancient <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somalian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalian architecture">pyramidical structures</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mausoleum" title="Mausoleum">mausoleums</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lost_city" title="Lost city">ruined cities</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stone_wall" title="Stone wall">stone walls</a> found in Somalia (such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wargaade_Wall" title="Wargaade Wall">Wargaade Wall</a>) are evidence of an old sophisticated civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-Nthos_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nthos-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Titthtw_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Titthtw-25">[25]</a></sup> The findings of archaeological excavations and research in Somalia show that this civilization enjoyed a lucrative trading relationship with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a> since the second millennium BCE. This supports the hypothesis of Somalia and/or the adjacent Horn territories corresponding with the ancient <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nthos_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nthos-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Etdttfc_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etdttfc-26">[26]</a></sup> The Puntites traded <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">myrrh</a>, spices, gold, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ebony" title="Ebony">ebony</a>, short-horned cattle, ivory and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a> with the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Ancient Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the 18th dynasty Queen <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a> is recorded on the temple reliefs at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deir_el-Bahari" title="Deir el-Bahari">Deir el-Bahari</a>, during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati.<sup id="cite_ref-Nthos_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nthos-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Macrobia_Kingdom">Macrobia Kingdom</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macrobians" title="Macrobians">Macrobians</a></div>
<p>In the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical era</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macrobians" title="Macrobians">Macrobians</a>, who were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proto-Somali" title="Proto-Somali">Proto-Somali</a>, established a powerful tribal kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men".<sup id="cite_ref-Wheeler_pg_526_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_pg_526-27">[27]</a></sup> The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persian_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Emperor">Persian Emperor</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a>, upon his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Achaemenid_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Achaemenid Egypt">conquest of Egypt</a> (525 BC), sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheeler_pg_526_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_pg_526-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kitto2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitto2-28">[28]</a></sup> The Macrobians were a regional power that were known from east to west and were highly advanced in architecture and extremely known for their wealth were they were noted for its gold, which was so plentiful that the Macrobians shackled their prisoners in golden chains.<sup id="cite_ref-Kitto2_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitto2-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Somali_City_States">Somali City States</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Maritime history of Somalia</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Silk_route.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/250px-Silk_route.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2868" data-file-height="1866" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Silk_route.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> extending from southern Europe through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>, Somalia, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> until it reaches China.</div></div></div>
<p>In the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical period</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia#Ancient" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somali city-states</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mosylon" title="Mosylon">Mosylon</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heis_(town)" title="Heis (town)">Mundus</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a> and Tabae in Somalia developed a lucrative <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade network</a> connecting with merchants from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemic Egypt</a>, Greece, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Persia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sheba" title="Sheba">Sheba</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataea</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">beden</a></i> to transport their cargo.
</p><p>After the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nabatea#Roman_annexation" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabatea">Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire</a> and the Roman naval presence at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a> to curb pillaging, Somali and Gulf Arab merchants by agreement barred Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>–<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-EHW_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EHW-30">[30]</a></sup> However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali peninsula">Somali peninsula</a>, which was free from Roman interference.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
</p><p>For centuries, the Indian merchants brought large quantities of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a> from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> to Somalia and Arabia. This is said to have been the best kept secret of the Somali and Gulf Arab merchants in their trade with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> world. The Romans and Greeks believed the source of cinnamon to have been the Somali peninsula, but in reality, the highly valued product was brought to Somalia by way of Indian ships.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> Through collusive agreement by Somali and Gulf Arab traders, Indian/Chinese cinnamon was also exported for far higher prices to North Africa, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> and Europe, which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shipped across ancient sea and land routes.<sup id="cite_ref-EHW_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EHW-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval">Medieval</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ifat_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ifat Sultanate">Ifat Sultanate</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Sultanate</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Warsangali_Sultanate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Warsangali Sultanate (page does not exist)">Warsangali Sultanate</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Zayla.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Zayla.jpg/220px-Zayla.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="501" data-file-height="338" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Zayla.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Ruins of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Sultanate of Adal</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zeila" title="Zeila">Zeila</a>, Somalia.</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> was introduced to the northern Somali coast early on from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>, shortly after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hijra_(Islam)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijra (Islam)">hijra</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zeila" title="Zeila">Zeila</a>'s two-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">mihrab</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Masjid_al-Qiblatayn_(Somalia)" title="Masjid al-Qiblatayn (Somalia)">Masjid al-Qiblatayn</a> dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Btgpb_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Btgpb-33">[33]</a></sup> In the late 9th century, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Yaqubi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Yaqubi">Al-Yaqubi</a> wrote that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> were living along the northern Somali seaboard.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyamer_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyamer-34">[34]</a></sup> He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city,<sup id="cite_ref-Encyamer_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyamer-34">[34]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lewispohoa_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewispohoa-35">[35]</a></sup> suggesting that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a> with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali people">Somali</a> dynasties, who also ruled over the similarly-established <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_Mogadishu" title="Sultanate of Mogadishu">Sultanate of Mogadishu</a> in the littoral <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benadir" class="mw-redirect" title="Benadir">Benadir</a> region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Abyssinia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewispohoa_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewispohoa-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Fakr_Ud_Din_Mosque.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Fakr_Ud_Din_Mosque.jpg/220px-Fakr_Ud_Din_Mosque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="433" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Fakr_Ud_Din_Mosque.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Engraving of the 13th century <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fakr_ad-Din_Mosque" title="Fakr ad-Din Mosque">Fakr ad-Din Mosque</a> built by Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_Mogadishu" title="Sultanate of Mogadishu">Sultanate of Mogadishu</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>The Sultanate of Mogadishu's first dynasty was established by Sultan Fakr ad-Din. This ruling house was succeeded by the Garen dynasty, and the kingdom subsequently evolved into the powerful Somali <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajuran_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajuran Empire">Ajuran Empire</a> during the 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> For many years, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> stood as the pre-eminent city in the بلاد البربر, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbara_(region)" title="Barbara (region)">Bilad-al-Barbar</a></i> ("Land of the Berbers"), which was the medieval Arab term for the Somali coast.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> Following his visit to the city, the 12th century Syrian historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi" title="Yaqut al-Hamawi">Yaqut al-Hamawi</a> wrote that it was inhabited by "Berbers", the ancestors of the modern Somalis.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Warsangali Sultanate was a kingdom centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanaag" title="Sanaag">Sanaag</a> region and parts of the northeastern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bari,_Somalia" title="Bari, Somalia">Bari</a> region of the country, an area historically known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maakhir" title="Maakhir">Maakhir</a> or the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maakhir_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Maakhir Coast">Maakhir Coast</a></i>. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warsangali" title="Warsangali">Warsangali</a> branch of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darod" title="Darod">Darod</a> clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gerad_Dhidhin" title="Gerad Dhidhin">Gerad Dhidhin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mogadishan_currency.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Mogadishan_currency.JPG/100px-Mogadishan_currency.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="276" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="995" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mogadishan_currency.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogadishu_currency" title="Mogadishu currency">Mogadishan currency</a> – The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_Mogadishu" title="Sultanate of Mogadishu">Sultanate of Mogadishu</a> was an important monetary supporter of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>The conquest of Shoa ignited a rivalry for supremacy between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solomonic_dynasty" title="Solomonic dynasty">Christian Solomonids</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ifat_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ifat Sultanate">Muslim Ifatites</a>, which resulted in several devastating wars and ultimately ended in a Solomonic victory over the Kingdom of Ifat. Parts of northwestern Somalia came under the rule of the Solomonids in medieval times, especially during the reign of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amda_Seyon_I_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Amda Seyon I of Ethiopia">Amda Seyon I</a> (r. 1314–1344). In 1403 or 1415 (under Emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dawit_I_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawit I of Ethiopia">Dawit I</a> or Emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yeshaq_I_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeshaq I of Ethiopia">Yeshaq I</a>, respectively), measures were taken against the Muslim Sultanate of Adal. The Emperor eventually captured King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sa%27ad_ad-Din_II" title="Sa'ad ad-Din II">Sa'ad ad-Din II</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Walashma_dynasty" title="Walashma dynasty">Walashma dynasty</a> in Zeila and had him executed. The Walashma Chronicle, however, records the date as 1415, which would make the Ethiopian victor Emperor Yeshaq I. After the war, the reigning king had his minstrels compose a song praising his victory, which contains the first written record of the word "Somali". Sa'ad ad-Din II's family was subsequently given safe haven at the court of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imams_of_Yemen" title="Imams of Yemen">King of Yemen</a>, where his sons regrouped and planned their revenge on the Solomonids.
</p><p>The oldest son <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sabr_ad-Din_II" title="Sabr ad-Din II">Sabr ad-Din II</a> built a new capital eastwards of Zeila known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dakkar" title="Dakkar">Dakkar</a> and began referring to himself as the King of Adal. He continued the war against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic Empire</a>. Despite his army's smaller size, he was able to defeat the Solomonids at the battles of Serjan and Zikr Amhara and consequently pillaged the surrounding areas. Many similar battles were fought between the Adalites and the Solomonids with both sides achieving victory and suffering defeat but ultimately <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a> Sabr ad-Din II successfully managed to drive the Solomonic army out of Adal territory. He died a natural death and was succeeded by his brother <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mansur_ad-Din_of_Adal" title="Mansur ad-Din of Adal">Mansur ad-Din</a> who invaded the capital and royal seat of the Solomonic Empire and drove Emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dawit_II_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawit II of Ethiopia">Dawit II</a> to Yedaya where according to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">al-Maqrizi</a>, Sultan Mansur destroyed a Solomonic army and killed the Emperor. He then advanced to the mountains of Mokha, where he encountered a 30,000 strong Solomonic army. The Adalite soldiers surrounded their enemies and for two months besieged the trapped Solomonic soldiers until a truce was declared in Mansur's favour.
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ancient-Almnara.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ancient-Almnara.jpg/220px-Ancient-Almnara.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="819" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ancient-Almnara.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Almnara Tower, Mogadishu.</div></div></div>
<p>Later on in the campaign, the Adalites were struck by a catastrophe when Sultan Mansur and his brother Muhammad were captured in battle by the Solomonids. Mansur was immediately succeeded by the youngest brother of the family <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jamal_ad-Din_II" title="Jamal ad-Din II">Jamal ad-Din II</a>. Sultan Jamal reorganized the army into a formidable force and defeated the Solomonic armies at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bale_Province,_Ethiopia" title="Bale Province, Ethiopia">Bale</a>, Yedeya and Jazja. Emperor Yeshaq I responded by gathering a large army and invaded the cities of Yedeya and Jazja but was repulsed by the soldiers of Jamal. Following this success, Jamal organized another successful attack against the Solomonic forces and inflicted heavy casualties in what was reportedly the largest Adalite army ever fielded. As a result, Yeshaq was forced to withdraw towards the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blue_Nile" title="Blue Nile">Blue Nile</a> over the next five months, while Jamal ad Din's forces pursued them and looted much gold on the way, although no engagement ensued.
</p><p>After returning home, Jamal sent his brother Ahmad with the Christian battle-expert Harb Jaush to successfully attack the province of Dawaro. Despite his losses, Emperor Yeshaq was still able to continue field armies against Jamal. Sultan Jamal continued to advance further into the Abyssinian heartland. However, Jamal on hearing of Yeshaq's plan to send several large armies to attack three different areas of Adal (including the capital), returned to Adal, where he fought the Solomonic forces at Harjai and, according to al-Maqrizi, this is where the Emperor Yeshaq died in battle. The young Sultan Jamal ad-Din II at the end of his reign had outperformed his brothers and forefathers in the war arena and became the most successful ruler of Adal to date. Within a few years, however, Jamal was assassinated by either disloyal friends or cousins around 1432 or 1433, and was succeeded by his brother <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Badlay_ibn_Sa%27ad_ad-Din" title="Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din">Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din</a>. Sultan Badlay continued the campaigns of his younger brother and began several successful expeditions against the Christian empire. He recovered the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bale_Zone" title="Bale Zone">Kingdom of Bali</a> and began preparations of a major Adalite offensive into the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian_Highlands" title="Ethiopian Highlands">Ethiopian Highlands</a>. He successfully collected funding from surrounding Muslim kingdoms as far away as the Kingdom of Mogadishu.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> However, these ambitious plans were thrown out the war chamber when King Badlay died during the invasion of Dawaro. He was succeeded by his son <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Badlay" title="Muhammad ibn Badlay">Muhammad ibn Badlay</a>, who sent envoys to the Sultan of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Egypt</a> to gather support and arms in the continuing war against the Christian empire. The Adalite ruler Muhammad and the Solomonic ruler <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baeda_Maryam_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia">Baeda Maryam</a> agreed to a truce and both states in the following decades saw an unprecedented period of peace and stability.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_modern">Early modern</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Maritime history of Somalia</a></div>
<p>Sultan Muhammad was succeeded by his son <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shams_ad-Din_ibn_Muhammad" title="Shams ad-Din ibn Muhammad">Shams ad Din</a>, while Emperor Baeda Maryam was succeeded by his son <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eskender" title="Eskender">Eskender</a>. During this time, period warfare broke out again between the two states and Emperor Eskender invaded Dakkar, where he was stopped by a large Adalite army, which destroyed the Solomonic army to such an extent that no further expeditions were carried out for the remainder of Eskender's reign. Adal, however, continued to raid the Christian empire unabated under General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahfuz" title="Mahfuz">Mahfuz</a>, the leader of the Adalite war machine, who annually invaded the Christian territories. Eskender was succeeded by Emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Na%27od" title="Na'od">Na'od</a>, who tried to defend the Christians from General Mahfuz but he too was also killed in battle by the Adalite army in Ifat.
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ottoman_cannon_end_of_16th_century_length_385cm_cal_178mm_weight_2910_stone_projectile_founded_8_October_1581_Alger_seized_1830.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ottoman_cannon_end_of_16th_century_length_385cm_cal_178mm_weight_2910_stone_projectile_founded_8_October_1581_Alger_seized_1830.jpg/220px-Ottoman_cannon_end_of_16th_century_length_385cm_cal_178mm_weight_2910_stone_projectile_founded_8_October_1581_Alger_seized_1830.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2889" data-file-height="1981" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ottoman_cannon_end_of_16th_century_length_385cm_cal_178mm_weight_2910_stone_projectile_founded_8_October_1581_Alger_seized_1830.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Ibrihim_al-Ghazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi">Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi</a>'s pioneering use of cannons supplied by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a> figured prominently in his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian%E2%80%93Adal_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian–Adal War">Conquest of Ethiopian territories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>At the turn of the 16th century, Adal regrouped and, around 1527, under the charismatic leadership of Imam <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Ibrahim_al-Ghazi" title="Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi">Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi</a> (Gurey in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>, Gragn in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amharic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Amharic language">Amharic</a>, both meaning "left-handed"), invaded Abyssinia. Adalite armies, with Ottoman arms and support, marched into Ethiopia and caused considerable damage on the highland state. Many historic churches, manuscripts and settlements were looted and burned during the campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> Adal's use of firearms, still only rarely used in Ethiopia, allowed the conquest of well over half of Ethiopia, reaching as far north as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tigray_Province" title="Tigray Province">Tigray</a>. The complete conquest of Ethiopia was averted by the timely arrival of a Portuguese expedition led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crist%C3%B3v%C3%A3o_da_Gama" title="Cristóvão da Gama">Cristóvão da Gama</a>, son of the famed navigator <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> The Portuguese had been in the area earlier – in the early 16th century, in search of the legendary priest-king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prester_John" title="Prester John">Prester John</a>) – and, although a diplomatic mission from Portugal, led by Rodrigo de Lima, had failed to improve relations between the countries, they responded to the Ethiopian pleas for help and sent a military expedition to their fellow Christians. A Portuguese fleet under the command of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Est%C3%AAv%C3%A3o_da_Gama_(16th_century)" title="Estêvão da Gama (16th century)">Estêvão da Gama</a> was sent from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a> and arrived at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massawa" title="Massawa">Massawa</a> in February 1541. Here, he received an ambassador from the Emperor beseeching him to send help against the Muslims. In July, a force of 400 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Musketeer" title="Musketeer">musketeers</a>, under the command of Cristóvão da Gama, younger brother of Estêvão, marched into the interior. Joined by Ethiopian troops, they were at first successful against the Muslims; but, they were subsequently defeated at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Wofla" title="Battle of Wofla">Battle of Wofla</a> (28 August 1542), and their commander captured and executed. On 21 February 1543, however, a joint Portuguese-Ethiopian force defeated the Muslim army at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Wayna_Daga" title="Battle of Wayna Daga">Battle of Wayna Daga</a>, in which Ahmed Gurey was killed and the war won. Ahmed Gurey's widow married his nephew <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nur_ibn_Mujahid" title="Nur ibn Mujahid">Nur ibn Mujahid</a>, in return for his promise to avenge Ahmed's death, who succeeded Ahmed Gurey, and continued hostilities against his northern adversaries until he killed the Ethiopian Emperor in his second invasion of Ethiopia.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Barawa.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Barawa.jpg/220px-Barawa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="400" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Barawa.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barawa" title="Barawa">Barawa</a> city was an important medieval centre of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somali enterprise</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>During the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">age of the Ajurans</a>, the sultanates and republics of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merca" title="Merca">Merca</a>, Mogadishu, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barawa" title="Barawa">Barawa</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hobyo" title="Hobyo">Hobyo</a> and their respective ports flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Venetia_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Venetia (region)">Venetia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> Persia, Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China. Vasco da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minaret" title="Minaret">minarets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> In the 16th century, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duarte_Barbosa" title="Duarte Barbosa">Duarte Barbosa</a> noted that many ships from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khambhat" title="Khambhat">Kingdom of Cambaya</a> in India sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mogadishan_ship.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Mogadishan_ship.JPG/220px-Mogadishan_ship.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="227" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mogadishan_ship.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Model of a medieval <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishan</a> ship.</div></div></div>
<p>Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as <i>toob benadir</i> (specialized for the markets in Egypt and Syria),<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swahili_people" title="Swahili people">Swahili</a> merchants from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malindi" title="Malindi">Malindi</a> and for the gold trade from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kilwa_Sultanate" title="Kilwa Sultanate">Kilwa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> merchants from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hormuz_Island" title="Hormuz Island">Hormuz</a> brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> Trading relations were established with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> in the 15th century<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> with cloth, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ambergris" title="Ambergris">ambergris</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a> being the main commodities of the trade.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> of China, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between the Asia and Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> In the process, the Somali language influenced the Chinese language. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> merchants from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a> and Southeast African merchants from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pate_Island" title="Pate Island">Pate</a>, seeking to bypass both the Portuguese blockade and Omani meddling, used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Medieval_Mombasa.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Medieval_Mombasa.jpg/220px-Medieval_Mombasa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="271" data-file-height="231" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Medieval_Mombasa.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>In 1660, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a> surrendered to a joint <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali people">Somali</a>-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> force.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>The 16th century <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate#Ajuran-Portuguese_wars" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Somali-Portuguese wars</a> in East Africa meant that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitical</a> tensions would remain high and the increased contact between Somali sailors and Ottoman <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_corsairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary corsairs">corsairs</a> worried the Portuguese who actually sent multiple punitive expeditions against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajuran_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajuran Empire">Ajuran Empire</a> so that Portuguese could colonize the wealthy <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali people">Somali</a> port cities but came very unsuccessful and would eventually be defeated by the powerful <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somalis" title="Somalis">Somalis</a>. Example, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barawa" title="Barawa">Barawa</a> under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trist%C3%A3o_da_Cunha" title="Tristão da Cunha">Tristão da Cunha</a> but was soundly defeated by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajuran_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajuran Empire">Ajuran Empire</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Barawa" title="Battle of Barawa">Battle of Barawa</a> and Mogadishu under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_Navy" title="Portuguese Navy">João de Sepúvelda</a>, which was also unsuccessful in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Benadir" title="Battle of Benadir">Battle of Benadir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> Ottoman-Somali cooperation against the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean reached a high point in the 1580s when Ajuran clients of the Somali coastal cities began to sympathize with the Arabs and Swahilis under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese rule</a> and sent an envoy to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turkish</a> corsair <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Mir Ali Bey</a> for a joint expedition against the Portuguese. He agreed and was joined by a Somali fleet, which began attacking Portuguese colonies in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swahili_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Swahili Coast">Southeast Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> The Somali-Ottoman offensive managed to drive out the Portuguese from several important cities such as Pate, Mombasa and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kilwa_Kisiwani" title="Kilwa Kisiwani">Kilwa</a>. However, the Portuguese governor sent envoys to India requesting a large Portuguese fleet. This request was answered and it reversed the previous offensive of the Muslims into one of defense. The Portuguese armada managed to re-take most of the lost cities and began punishing their leaders, but they refrained from attacking Mogadishu.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> was the most important port in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> between the 18th–19th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> For centuries, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> had extensive trade relations with several historic ports in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>. Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> for trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from. During the 1833 trading season, the port town swelled to over 70,000 people, and upwards of 6,000 camels laden with goods arrived from the interior within a single day. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> was the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from the interior, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">myrrh</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Acacia_gum" class="mw-redirect" title="Acacia gum">acacia gum</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Feathers">feathers</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghee" title="Ghee">ghee</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hide_(skin)" title="Hide (skin)">hide (skin)</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to a trade journal published in 1856, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> was described as "the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf".:
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Berbera_engraving.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Berbera_engraving.jpg/400px-Berbera_engraving.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="114" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="585" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Berbera_engraving.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>19th century engraving of Berbera</div></div></div>
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<td style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px 10px;">“
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<td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">"The only seaports of importance on this coast are Feyla [Zeila] and Berbera; the former is an Arabian colony, dependent of Mocha, but Berbera is independent of any foreign power. It is, without having the name, the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf. From the beginning of November to the end of April, a large fair assembles in Berbera, and caravans of 6,000 camels at a time come from the interior loaded with coffee, (considered superior to Mocha in Bombay), gum, ivory, hides, skins, grain, cattle, and sour milk, the substitute of fermented drinks in these regions; also much cattle is brought there for the Aden market."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup>
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<td style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px 10px;">”
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<p>Historically, the port of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> was controlled indigenously between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mercantile" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercantile">mercantile</a> Reer Ahmed Nur and Reer Yunis Nuh sub-clans of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habar_Awal" class="mw-redirect" title="Habar Awal">Habar Awal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="19th_century">19th century</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Martello_Tower-Berbera.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Martello_Tower-Berbera.png/250px-Martello_Tower-Berbera.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="655" data-file-height="656" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Martello_Tower-Berbera.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>19th century Martello fort in Berbera constructed by Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh</div></div></div>
<p>In 1841, Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh, a successful and ambitious Somali merchant, successfully invaded Zeila utilizing canons and Somali Musketeers, he deposed and imprisoned the port town's Arab ruler and succeeded him as the undisputed ruler of Zeila and its dependencies. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far as Harar and the Ogaden. In 1845, Sharmarke deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring Berbera from that town's then feuding Somali authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> Sharmarke's influence was not limited to the coast as he had many allies in the interior of the Somali country and even further in Abbyssinia. Among his allies were the Sultans of Shewa. When there was tension between the Amir of Harar <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abu_Bakr_II_ibn_%60Abd_al-Munan" title="Abu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munan">Abu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munan</a> and Sharmarke, as a result of the Amir arresting one of his agents in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harar" title="Harar">Harar</a>, Sharmarke persuaded the son of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sahle_Selassie" title="Sahle Selassie">Sahle Selassie</a>, ruler of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shewa" title="Shewa">Shewa</a>, to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for a length of two years.<sup id="cite_ref-Burton-176_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burton-176-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p><p>Sultan <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yusuf_Mahamud_Ibrahim" title="Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim">Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim</a>, the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started the Golden age of the Gobroon dynasty. His army came out victorious during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bardera" title="Bardera">Bardheere</a> <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a></i>, which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East African <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">ivory trade</a>. He also received presents and had cordial relations with the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as the Omani, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wituland" title="Wituland">Wituland</a> and Yemeni sultans. Sultan Ibrahim's son <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmed_Yusuf_(Gobroon)" title="Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)">Ahmed Yusuf</a> succeeded him and was one of the most important figures in 19th century East Africa. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmed_Yusuf_(Gobroon)" title="Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)">Ahmed Yusuf</a> was considered to be the most powerful king in East Africa in his time. He managed to gather 20 thousand Somali troops and invaded the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> island near <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> and he captured the islands, defeated the enemy troops and freed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a> slaves and through his military dominance, Sultan Yusuf managed to exact <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tribute" title="Tribute">tribute</a> from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Omani" class="mw-redirect" title="Omani">Omani</a> king in the coastal town of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lamu" title="Lamu">Lamu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup> In northern and southern Somalia, the Gerad Dynasty conducted trade with Yemen and Persia and competed with the merchants of the Bari Dynasty. The Gerads and the Bari Sultans built impressive palaces, castles and fortresses and had close relations with many different empires in the Near East.
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:XaajiSuudicropped2.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/XaajiSuudicropped2.png/200px-XaajiSuudicropped2.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="313" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="500" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:XaajiSuudicropped2.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Dervish commander <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haji_Sudi" title="Haji Sudi">Haji Sudi</a> on the left with his brother in-law Duale Idres. Aden, 1892.</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg/200px-Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg" decoding="async" width="200" height="298" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="584" data-file-height="871" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan" title="Mohammed Abdullah Hassan">Mohammed Abdullah Hassan</a>, leader of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dervish_movement_(Somali)" title="Dervish movement (Somali)">Dervish movement</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>In the late 19th century, after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berlin_Conference_(1884)" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin Conference (1884)">Berlin Conference</a>, European powers began the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>, which inspired the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dervish" title="Dervish">Dervish</a> leaders <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan" title="Mohammed Abdullah Hassan">Mohammed Abdullah Hassan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nur_Ahmed_Aman" title="Nur Ahmed Aman">Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman</a> to rally support from across the Horn of Africa and begin one of the longest anti-colonial struggles on the continent.
News of the incident that sparked the Dervish rebellion and the 21 years disturbance according to the consul-general <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Hayes_Sadler_(colonial_administrator)" title="James Hayes Sadler (colonial administrator)">James Hayes Sadler</a> was spread by Sultan Nur of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habr_Yunis" class="mw-redirect" title="Habr Yunis">Habr Yunis</a>. The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children that were converted to Christianity and adopted by the French <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_missions" title="Catholic missions">Catholic Mission</a> at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> in 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">Tariqa</a> at Kob Fardod in June 1899, precipitating the religious rebellion that later morphed into the Somali Dervish.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> In one of his letters to Sultan Deria in 1899, Hassan said that the British "<i>have destroyed our religion and made our children their children</i>" alluding to Sultan Nur's incident with the Roman French Mission at Berbera. The Dervish soon emerged as an opposition of the Christian activities, defending their version of Islam against the Christian mission.<sup id="cite_ref-Fageoliver_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fageoliver-72">[72]</a></sup> In several of his poems and speeches, Hassan insisted that the British and the Christian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/People_of_Ethiopia" title="People of Ethiopia">Ethiopians</a> in league with the British were bent upon plundering the political and religious freedom of the Somali nation. He soon emerged as "a champion of his country's political and religious freedom, defending it against all Christian invaders." Hassan issued a religious ordinance that any Somali national who did not accept the goal of unity of Somalia and would not fight under his leadership would be considered as <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">kafir</a></i> or <i>gaal</i>. He soon acquired weapons from the Ottoman Empire, Sudan, and other sympathetic Muslim countries, and appointed ministers and advisers to administer different areas or sectors of Somalia. In addition, Hassan gave a clarion call for Somali unity and independence, in the process organizing his follower-warriors. His Dervish movement had an essentially military character, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dervish_movement_(Somali)" title="Dervish movement (Somali)">Dervish movement</a> was fashioned on the model of a Salihiya brotherhood. It was characterized by a rigid hierarchy and centralization. Hassan threatened to drive the Christians into the sea; he committed the first attack by launching his first major military offensive with his 1,500 Dervish equipped with 20 modern rifles on the British soldiers stationed in the region.
</p><p>He repulsed the British in four expeditions and had favorable diplomatic relations with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empires</a>.
</p><p>==Somalia is the best country in the world
</p>
<h2><span id=".22Somalia_italiana.22_and_World_War_II"></span><span class="mw-headline" id=""Somalia_italiana"_and_World_War_II">"Somalia italiana" and World War II</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Italian_Somaliland.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Italian_Somaliland.png/220px-Italian_Somaliland.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="426" data-file-height="585" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Italian_Somaliland.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Map of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>On 9 May 1936, Mussolini proclaimed the creation of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a>, calling it the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Africa Orientale Italiana</a></i> (A.O.I.) and formed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Ethiopia" title="Italian Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Eritrea" title="Italian Eritrea">Eritrea</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a> (called officially "Somalia italiana"). The Italians made many new investments in infrastructure in the region, such as the <i>Strada Imperiale</i> ("imperial road") between <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Addis_Ababa" title="Addis Ababa">Addis Ababa</a> and Mogadishu and the railway Mogadishu-Villabruzzi of 114 km.
</p><p>Over the course of Italian Somaliland's existence, many Somali troops fought in the so-called <i>Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali</i>. The soldiers were enrolled as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dubats" title="Dubats">Dubats</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zapti%C3%A9" title="Zaptié">Zaptié</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bands_(Italian_Army_irregulars)" title="Bands (Italian Army irregulars)">Bande irregolari</a>. During <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, these troops were regarded as a wing of the Italian Army's Infantry Division, as was the case in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Libyan_Colonial_Division" title="Italian Libyan Colonial Division">Libya</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_1st_Eritrean_Division" title="Italian 1st Eritrean Division">Eritrea</a>. The Zaptié provided a ceremonial escort for the Italian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">Viceroy</a> (Governor) as well as the territorial police. There were already more than one thousand such soldiers in 1922. In 1941, in Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia, 2,186 Zaptié plus an additional 500 recruits under training officially constituted a part of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carabinieri" title="Carabinieri">Carabinieri</a>. They were organised into a battalion commanded by Major Alfredo Serranti that defended <a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battaglia_di_Culqualber" class="extiw" title="it:Battaglia di Culqualber">Culqualber</a> (Ethiopia) for three months until this military unit was destroyed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a>. After heavy fighting, the Somali troops and the Italian Carabinieri received full military honors from the British.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the first half of 1940, there were 22,000 Italians living in Somalia and the colony was one of the most developed in East Africa in terms of the standard of living of the colonists and of the Somalis, mainly in the urban areas. More than 10,000 Italians were living in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogadishu_under_Italian_rule" title="Mogadishu under Italian rule">Mogadishu</a>, the administrative capital of the <i>Africa Orientale Italiana</i>, and new buildings were erected in the Italian architectural tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup> By 1940, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Villaggio_Duca_degli_Abruzzi" title="Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi">Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi</a> (now <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jowhar" title="Jowhar">Jowhar</a>) had a population of 12,000 people, of whom nearly 3,000 were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Somalis" title="Italian Somalis">Italian Somalis</a>, and enjoyed a notable level of development with a small manufacturing area with agricultural industries (sugar mills, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the second half of 1940, Italian troops invaded <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> and ejected the British. The Italians also occupied parts of the British <a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Africa_Protectorate" title="East Africa Protectorate">East Africa Protectorate</a> bordering <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jubaland" title="Jubaland">Jubaland</a> around the towns of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moyale" title="Moyale">Moyale</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buna,_Kenya" title="Buna, Kenya">Buna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a> boasted in front of a group of Somalis leaders -in late summer 1940- that he had created the "<i>Greater Somalia</i>" (dreamed by the Somali population) after the union of British Somaliland to his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somalia_Governorate" title="Somalia Governorate">Somalia Governorate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Somalia1911.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Somalia1911.png/118px-Somalia1911.png" decoding="async" width="118" height="120" data-file-width="963" data-file-height="976" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Italian Somalia
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mogadischu_Cathedral.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Mogadischu_Cathedral.jpg/74px-Mogadischu_Cathedral.jpg" decoding="async" width="74" height="120" data-file-width="307" data-file-height="496" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Mogadiscio cathedral
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:CinemaitaliaMogadiscio.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/CinemaitaliaMogadiscio.png/74px-CinemaitaliaMogadiscio.png" decoding="async" width="74" height="120" data-file-width="291" data-file-height="470" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Cinema Italia in Mogadiscio, 1937
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:38.5px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Fiatmogadiscio1940.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Fiatmogadiscio1940.png/120px-Fiatmogadiscio1940.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" data-file-width="495" data-file-height="303" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Fiat building in Mogadiscio, 1940
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:38.5px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:ItaSomalia_1936_MiNr0237_pm_Mogadishu_B002.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/ItaSomalia_1936_MiNr0237_pm_Mogadishu_B002.jpg/120px-ItaSomalia_1936_MiNr0237_pm_Mogadishu_B002.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="393" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Italian stamp from Mogadiscio
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:1931-quaderno-Mogadiscio-palazzo-del-governatore.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/1931-quaderno-Mogadiscio-palazzo-del-governatore.jpg/90px-1931-quaderno-Mogadiscio-palazzo-del-governatore.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="804" /></a></div></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Governor's palace in Mogadiscio
</p>
</div>
</div></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Independence">Independence</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Somali_Youth_League.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Somali_Youth_League.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Somali_Youth_League.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Somali_Youth_League.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Somali_Youth_League.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Somali_Youth_League.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Somali_Youth_League.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Somali_Youth_League.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Flag of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Youth_League" title="Somali Youth League">Somali Youth League</a> (SYL), the nation's first political party.</div></div></div>
<p>During <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Britain regained control of British Somaliland and conquered Italian Somaliland, administering both militarily as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorates</a>. In November 1945, during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a>, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close supervision and on the condition—first proposed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Youth_League" title="Somali Youth League">Somali Youth League</a> (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Hizbia_Digil_Mirifle_Somali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (page does not exist)">Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali</a> (HDMS) and the <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Somali_National_League&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Somali National League (page does not exist)">Somali National League</a> (SNL)—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.<sup id="cite_ref-Zolberg_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zolberg-79">[79]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gates1999_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gates1999-80">[80]</a></sup> British Somaliland remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-Tripodi1999_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tripodi1999-81">[81]</a></sup>
</p><p>To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although, in the 1950s, British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts.<sup id="cite_ref-ChapinMetz_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChapinMetz-82">[82]</a></sup>
Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them.<sup id="cite_ref-Zolberg_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zolberg-79">[79]</a></sup> This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over.<sup id="cite_ref-Zolberg_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zolberg-79">[79]</a></sup> Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Frontier_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Frontier District">Northern Frontier District</a> (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists despite an informal <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebiscite">plebiscite</a> demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg/220px-Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="464" data-file-height="587" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>An avenue in downtown <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> in 1963.</div></div></div>
<p>A <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Somaliland_overseas_territory_referendum,_1958" class="mw-redirect" title="French Somaliland overseas territory referendum, 1958">referendum</a> was held in neighboring <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> (then known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Somaliland" title="French Somaliland">French Somaliland</a>) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afar_people" title="Afar people">Afar</a> ethnic group and resident Europeans.<sup id="cite_ref-Barrington2006_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrington2006-85">[85]</a></sup> There was also allegations of widespread <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vote_rigging" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote rigging">vote rigging</a>, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.<sup id="cite_ref-Kseoah_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kseoah-86">[86]</a></sup> The majority of those who voted "no" were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahmoud_Harbi" title="Mahmoud Harbi">Mahmoud Harbi</a>, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.<sup id="cite_ref-Barrington2006_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrington2006-85">[85]</a></sup> Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hassan_Gouled_Aptidon" title="Hassan Gouled Aptidon">Hassan Gouled Aptidon</a>, a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991).<sup id="cite_ref-Barrington2006_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrington2006-85">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Republic" title="Somali Republic">Somali Republic</a>, albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-buluugleey.com_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-buluugleey.com-87">[87]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> A government was formed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdullahi_Issa_Mohamud" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullahi Issa Mohamud">Abdullahi Issa Mohamud</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_Haji_Ibrahim_Egal" title="Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal">Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal</a> and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with the Speaker of the Somali Union Act <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haji_Bashir_Ismail_Yusuf" class="mw-redirect" title="Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf">Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf</a> as President of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parliament_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliament of Somalia">Somali National Assembly</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aden_Abdullah_Osman_Daar" class="mw-redirect" title="Aden Abdullah Osman Daar">Aden Abdullah Osman Daar</a> as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of Somalia">President</a> of Somali Republic, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdirashid_Ali_Shermarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdirashid Ali Shermarke">Abdirashid Ali Shermarke</a> as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">Prime Minister</a> (later to become President from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_constitutional_referendum,_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali constitutional referendum, 1961">popular referendum</a>, the people of Somalia ratified a new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_Somalia" title="Constitution of Somalia">constitution</a>, which was first drafted in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> In 1967, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_Haji_Ibrahim_Egal" title="Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal">Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal</a> became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a> region in northwestern Somalia.
</p><p>On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Las_Anod" title="Las Anod">Las Anod</a>, Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by a policeman. His assassination was quickly followed by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1969_Somali_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Somali coup d'état">military coup d'état</a> on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Somalia">Somali Army</a> seized power without encountering armed opposition – essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Mohamed Siad Barre</a>, who at the time commanded the army.<sup id="cite_ref-Myswenvwp_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myswenvwp-90">[90]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Somali_Democratic_Republic">Somali Democratic Republic</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somali Democratic Republic</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Supreme_Revolutionary_Council">Supreme Revolutionary Council</span></h3>
<p>Alongside Barre, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Revolutionary_Council_(Somalia)" title="Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)">Supreme Revolutionary Council</a> (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salaad_Gabeyre_Kediye" title="Salaad Gabeyre Kediye">Salaad Gabeyre Kediye</a> and Chief of Police <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Jama_Korshel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jama Korshel (page does not exist)">Jama Korshel</a>. Kediye officially held the title of "Father of the Revolution," and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC.<sup id="cite_ref-Adam_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adam-91">[91]</a></sup> The SRC subsequently renamed the country the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somali Democratic Republic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grolierenc_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grolierenc-93">[93]</a></sup> dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Pjdlfw_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pjdlfw-94">[94]</a></sup>
</p><p>The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, eventually joining the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> (AL) in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-Frankel_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frankel-95">[95]</a></sup> That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organization_of_African_Unity" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization of African Unity">Organization of African Unity</a> (OAU), the predecessor of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> (AU).<sup id="cite_ref-Yang_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang-96">[96]</a></sup>
</p><p>In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Revolutionary_Socialist_Party" title="Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party">Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party</a> (SRSP), a one-party government based on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">scientific socialism</a> and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">reconcile</a> the official state ideology with the official state religion by adapting Marxist precepts to local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was essentially <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pjdlfw_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pjdlfw-94">[94]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ogaden_War">Ogaden War</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:132px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Poster_showing_Greater_Somalia.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a0/Poster_showing_Greater_Somalia.jpg/130px-Poster_showing_Greater_Somalia.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="181" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="372" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Poster_showing_Greater_Somalia.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Poster showing the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ogaden" title="Ogaden">Ogaden</a> as part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia">Greater Somalia</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>In July 1977, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a> broke out after Barre's government sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ogaden" title="Ogaden">Ogaden</a> region of Ethiopia into a Pan-Somali <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia">Greater Somalia</a>. In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces seized the southern and central parts of the Ogaden. The units in the Godey Front were led by Colonel <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdullahi_Ahmed_Irro" title="Abdullahi Ahmed Irro">Abdullahi Ahmed Irro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hosmp_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hosmp-97">[97]</a></sup> For most of the war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army, following it as far as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sidamo_Province" title="Sidamo Province">Sidamo</a>. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jijiga" title="Jijiga">Jijiga</a> and put heavy pressure on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dire_Dawa" title="Dire Dawa">Dire Dawa</a>, threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harar" title="Harar">Harar</a>, a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 Cuban forces and several thousand Soviet experts came to the aid of Ethiopia's communist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Derg" title="Derg">Derg</a> regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviets' <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> arch-rival, the United States, which had been courting the Somali government for some time. All in all, Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramsbotham_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramsbotham-98">[98]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rebellion">Rebellion</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Siabar_003.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Siabar_003.jpg/170px-Siabar_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="226" data-file-height="304" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Siabar_003.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Major General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohamed_Siad_Barre" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohamed Siad Barre">Mohamed Siad Barre</a>, Chairman of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Revolutionary_Council_(Somalia)" title="Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)">Supreme Revolutionary Council</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politburo" title="Politburo">politburo</a> continued to rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Grolierenc_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grolierenc-93">[93]</a></sup> In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.<sup id="cite_ref-Pjdlfw_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pjdlfw-94">[94]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tuur.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Tuur.jpg/150px-Tuur.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="216" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="190" data-file-height="273" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tuur.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdirahman_Ahmed_Ali_Tuur" title="Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur">Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur</a> Chairman of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_National_Movement" title="Somali National Movement">Somali National Movement</a> that overthrew Barre's regime in Northern Somalia</div></div></div>
<p>In May 1986, President Barre suffered serious injuries in a life-threatening automobile accident near Mogadishu, when the car that was transporting him smashed into the back of a bus during a heavy rainstorm.<sup id="cite_ref-Woinffir_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woinffir-99">[99]</a></sup> He was treated in a hospital in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> for head injuries, broken ribs and shock over a period of a month.<sup id="cite_ref-Photw_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Photw-100">[100]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sahrisr_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahrisr-101">[101]</a></sup> Lieutenant General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohamed_Ali_Samatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohamed Ali Samatar">Mohamed Ali Samatar</a>, then Vice President, subsequently served as de facto head of state for the next several months. Although Barre managed to recover enough to present himself as the sole presidential candidate for re-election over a term of seven years on 23 December 1986, his poor health and advanced age led to speculation about who would succeed him in power. Possible contenders included his son-in-law General Ahmed Suleiman Abdille, who was at the time the Minister of the Interior, in addition to Barre's Vice President Lt. Gen. Samatar.<sup id="cite_ref-Woinffir_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woinffir-99">[99]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Photw_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Photw-100">[100]</a></sup>
</p><p>By that time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">resistance movements</a>, encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a>. Among the militia groups were the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Salvation_Democratic_Front" title="Somali Salvation Democratic Front">Somali Salvation Democratic Front</a> (SSDF), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Somali_Congress" title="United Somali Congress">United Somali Congress</a> (USC), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_National_Movement" title="Somali National Movement">Somali National Movement</a> (SNM) and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Patriotic_Movement" title="Somali Patriotic Movement">Somali Patriotic Movement</a> (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali Democratic Movement">Somali Democratic Movement</a> (SDM), the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Factions_in_the_Somali_Civil_War#Somali_Democratic_Alliance_(SDA)" title="Factions in the Somali Civil War">Somali Democratic Alliance</a> (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Somali_Civil_War">Somali Civil War</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Black_Hawk_Down_Super64_over_Mogadishu_coast.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Black_Hawk_Down_Super64_over_Mogadishu_coast.jpg/220px-Black_Hawk_Down_Super64_over_Mogadishu_coast.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="237" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Black_Hawk_Down_Super64_over_Mogadishu_coast.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">US Army</a> helicopter shortly before <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Battle of Mogadishu</a> in 1993.</div></div></div>
<p>With the political situation deteriorating, Barre's long-standing government in 1991 eventually collapsed under the pressure. The national army disbanded shortly afterwards.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_794" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 794">United Nations Security Council Resolution 794</a> was unanimously passed on 3 December 1992, which approved a coalition of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_peacekeeping" title="United Nations peacekeeping">United Nations peacekeepers</a> led by the United States. Forming the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">Unified Task Force</a> (UNITAF), the force was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts aimed at stabilizing the situation were transferred to the UN. Landing in 1993, the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two-year <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II" title="United Nations Operation in Somalia II">United Nations Operation in Somalia II</a> (UNOSOM II) primarily in the south to provide humanitarian relief.
</p><p>Some militias that had seized power after the oust of Barre regime's interpreted the UN troops' presence as a threat to their hegemony. Consequently, several gun battles took place in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers. Among these was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Battle of Mogadishu</a>, an unsuccessful attempt by US troops to apprehend faction leader <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohamed_Farah_Aidid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohamed Farah Aidid">Mohamed Farah Aidid</a>. The UN soldiers eventually withdrew altogether from the country on 3 March 1995, having incurred more significant casualties.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Decentralization">Decentralization</span></h2>
<p>Following the outbreak of the civil war and the ensuing collapse of the central government, Somalia's residents reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, traditional or Islamic law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. The legal structure in Somalia is thus divided along three lines: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">religious law</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Custom_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom (law)">customary law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2009factbook_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2009factbook-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Civil_law">Civil law</span></h3>
<p>While Somalia's formal judicial system was largely destroyed after the fall of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a> regime, it was later gradually rebuilt and administered under different regional governments, such as the autonomous <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puntland" title="Puntland">Puntland</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a> macro-regions. In the case of the later <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Government">Transitional Federal Government</a>, a new interim judicial structure was formed through various international conferences.
</p><p>Despite some significant political differences between them, all of these administrations share similar legal structures, much of which are predicated on the judicial systems of previous Somali administrations. These similarities in civil law include: a) a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">charter</a> which affirms the primacy of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> shari'a or religious law, although in practice shari'a is applied mainly to matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and civil issues. The charter guarantees respect for universal standards of human rights to all subjects of the law. It also assures the independence of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a>, which in turn is protected by a judicial committee; b) a three-tier judicial system including a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_court" title="Supreme court">supreme court</a>, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Court_of_appeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of appeal">court of appeals</a>, and courts of first instance (either divided between district and regional courts, or a single court per region); and c) the laws of the civilian government which were in effect prior to the military coup d'état that saw the Barre regime into power remain in force until the laws are amended.<sup id="cite_ref-SJS_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SJS-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Shari.27a"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Shari'a">Shari'a</span></h3>
<p>Islamic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shari%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shari'a">shari'a</a> has traditionally played a significant part in Somali society. In theory, it has served as the basis for all national legislation in every Somali constitution. In practice, however, it only applied to common civil cases such as marriage, divorce, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">inheritance</a> and family matters. This changed after the start of the civil war, when a number of new shari'a courts began to spring up in many different cities and towns across the country. These new shari'a courts serve three functions; namely, to pass rulings in both criminal and civil cases, to organize a militia capable of arresting criminals, and to keep convicted prisoners incarcerated.<sup id="cite_ref-SJS_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SJS-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>The shari'a courts, though structured along simple lines, feature a conventional hierarchy of a chairman, vice-chairman and four judges. A police force that reports to the court enforces the judges' rulings, but also helps settle community disputes and apprehend suspected criminals. In addition, the courts manage detention centers where criminals are kept. An independent finance committee is also assigned the task of collecting and managing tax revenue levied on regional merchants by the local authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-SJS_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SJS-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Xeer">Xeer</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></div>
<p>Somalis have for centuries practiced a form of customary law, called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a> (pronounced /ħeːr/). Xeer is a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polycentric_law" title="Polycentric law">polycentric</a> legal system where there is no monopolistic institution or agent that determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted.
</p><p>The Xeer legal system is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Africa since approximately the 7th century. There is no evidence that it developed elsewhere or was greatly influenced by any foreign legal system. Its legal terminology is practically devoid of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loan words</a> from foreign languages, suggesting that it is truly indigenous.<sup id="cite_ref-Mises_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mises-104">[104]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">specialization</a> of different functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can find <i>odayaal</i> (judges), <i>xeerbogeyaal</i> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurists</a>), <i>guurtiyaal</i> (detectives), <i>garxajiyaal</i> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">attorneys</a>), <i>markhaatiyal</i> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Witnesses" class="mw-redirect" title="Witnesses">witnesses</a>) and <i>waranle</i> (police officers) to enforce the law.<sup id="cite_ref-HAblele_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HAblele-105">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely approximate the principle of <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jus_cogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jus cogens">jus cogens</a></i> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>: These precepts include: a) payment of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blood_money_(term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood money (term)">blood money</a> (locally referred to as <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Diyya">diya</a></i>) for libel, theft, physical harm, rape and death, as well as supplying assistance to relatives; b) assuring good inter-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clan</a> relations by treating women justly, negotiating with "peace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected groups "Birr Magaydo," (e.g. children, women, the pious, poets, messengers, sheikhs, and guests); c) family obligations such as the payment of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a>, and sanctions for eloping; d) rules pertaining to the management of resources such as the use of pasture land, water, and other natural resources; e) providing financial support to married female relatives and newlyweds; f) donating livestock and other assets to the poor.<sup id="cite_ref-SJS_103-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SJS-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Recent_history">Recent history</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_Somalia" title="Politics of Somalia">Politics of Somalia</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Somalian_embassy_in_Paris.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Somalian_embassy_in_Paris.jpg/220px-Somalian_embassy_in_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Somalian_embassy_in_Paris.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Embassy of Somalia in Paris, France.</div></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Transitional_National_Government">Transitional National Government</span></h3>
<p>In 2000, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdiqasim_Salad_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdiqasim Salad Hassan">Abdiqasim Salad Hassan</a> was selected as the President of the nation's new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_National_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional National Government">Transitional National Government</a> (TNG), an interim administration formed to guide Somalia to its third permanent republican government.
</p><p>On 10 October 2004, in a session held by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Parliament">Transitional Federal Parliament</a> (TFP), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed" title="Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed">Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed</a> was elected as President of the succeeding <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Government">Transitional Federal Government</a> (TFG), an interim federal administrative body that he had helped establish earlier in the year.<sup id="cite_ref-Spmoarc_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spmoarc-106">[106]</a></sup> He received 189 votes from the TFG Parliament, while the closest contender, erstwhile Somali ambassador to Washington <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdullahi_Ahmed_Addou" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullahi Ahmed Addou">Abdullahi Ahmed Addou</a>, got 79 votes in the third round of voting. The then incumbent President of Somalia, Abdiqasim Salad Hassan, peacefully withdrew his candidature.<sup id="cite_ref-Smenp_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smenp-107">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rulers_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rulers-108">[108]</a></sup> Ahmed was sworn in a few days later on 14 October 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-Rulers_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rulers-108">[108]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Transitional_Federal_Institutions">Transitional Federal Institutions</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Institutions">Transitional Federal Institutions</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Government">Transitional Federal Government</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Parliament">Transitional Federal Parliament</a></div>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Government">Transitional Federal Government</a> (TFG) was the internationally recognised government of Somalia until 20 August 2012, when its tenure officially ended.<sup id="cite_ref-Fcacsunesinpshm_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fcacsunesinpshm-109">[109]</a></sup> It was established as one of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Institutions">Transitional Federal Institutions</a> (TFIs) of government as defined in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Charter">Transitional Federal Charter</a> (TFC) adopted in November 2004 by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Parliament">Transitional Federal Parliament</a> (TFP).
</p><p>The Transitional Federal Government officially comprised the executive branch of government, with the TFP serving as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative</a> branch. The government was headed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_Somalia" title="President of Somalia">President of Somalia</a>, to whom the cabinet reported through the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">Prime Minister</a>. However, it was also used as a general term to refer to all three branches collectively.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Islamic_Courts_Union_and_Ethiopian_intervention">Islamic Courts Union and Ethiopian intervention</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(2006)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (2006)">Battle of Mogadishu (2006)</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rise_of_the_Islamic_Courts_Union_(2006)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of the Islamic Courts Union (2006)">Rise of the Islamic Courts Union (2006)</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_in_Somalia_(2006%E2%80%932009)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Somalia (2006–2009)">War in Somalia (2006–2009)</a></div>
<p>In 2006, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_Courts_Union" title="Islamic Courts Union">Islamic Courts Union</a> (ICU), an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamist</a> organization, assumed control of much of the southern part of the country and promptly imposed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shari%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shari'a">Shari'a</a> law. The Transitional Federal Government sought to reestablish its authority, and, with the assistance of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian_National_Defense_Force" title="Ethiopian National Defense Force">Ethiopian troops</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> peacekeepers and air support by the United States, managed to drive out the rival ICU and solidify its rule.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 8 January 2007, as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Ras_Kamboni" title="Battle of Ras Kamboni">Battle of Ras Kamboni</a> raged, TFG President and founder Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, a former colonel in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali Army">Somali Army</a> and decorated war hero, entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office. The government then relocated to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Villa_Somalia" title="Villa Somalia">Villa Somalia</a> in the capital from its interim location in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baidoa" title="Baidoa">Baidoa</a>. This marked the first time since the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-Gosppsdott_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gosppsdott-111">[111]</a></sup>
</p><p>Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Shabaab_(Somalia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Shabaab (Somalia)">Al-Shabaab</a>, regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At the end of 2008, the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>Due to a lack of funding and human resources, an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arms_embargo" title="Arms embargo">arms embargo</a> that made it difficult to re-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Yusuf found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-Sgtpe_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sgtpe-113">[113]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Oagadsgumsp_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oagadsgumsp-114">[114]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 29 December 2008, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_Somalia" title="President of Somalia">President of Somalia</a>. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Yusuf expressed regret at failing to end the country's seventeen-year conflict as his government had mandated to do.<sup id="cite_ref-Resignation_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Resignation-115">[115]</a></sup> He also blamed the international community for its failure to support the government, and said that the speaker of parliament would succeed him in office per the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Charter_of_the_Somali_Republic" title="Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic">Charter</a> of the Transitional Federal Government.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Coalition_government">Coalition government</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)" title="Al-Shabaab (militant group)">Al-Shabaab (militant group)</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hizbul_Islam" title="Hizbul Islam">Hizbul Islam</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahlu_Sunna_Waljama%27a" title="Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a">Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Re-liberation_of_Somalia" title="Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia">Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Civil_War_(2009%E2%80%93present)" title="Somali Civil War (2009–present)">Somali Civil War (2009–present)</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2009_timeline_of_the_War_in_Somalia" title="2009 timeline of the War in Somalia">2009 timeline of the War in Somalia</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:ShababFlag.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/ShababFlag.svg/220px-ShababFlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/ShababFlag.svg/330px-ShababFlag.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/ShababFlag.svg/440px-ShababFlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:ShababFlag.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The battle flag of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)" title="Al-Shabaab (militant group)">Al-Shabaab</a>, an Islamist group waging war against the federal government.</div></div></div>
<p>Between 31 and 9 May June 2008, representatives of Somalia's federal government and the moderate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Re-liberation_of_Somalia" title="Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia">Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia</a> (ARS) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> brokered by the former United Nations Special Envoy to Somalia, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmedou_Ould-Abdallah" title="Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah">Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah</a>. The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sheikh_Sharif_Sheikh_Ahmed" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed">Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed</a>, the former ARS chairman, to office. President Sharif shortly afterwards appointed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Omar_Abdirashid_Ali_Sharmarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke">Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke</a>, the son of the assassinated former President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdirashid_Ali_Sharmarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke">Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke</a>, as the nation's new Prime Minister.<sup id="cite_ref-2009factbook_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2009factbook-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>With the help of a small team of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> troops, the coalition government also began a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Civil_War_(2009%E2%80%93present)" title="Somali Civil War (2009–present)">counteroffensive</a> in February 2009 to assume full control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its rule, the TFG formed an alliance with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_Courts_Union" title="Islamic Courts Union">Islamic Courts Union</a>, other members of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Re-liberation_of_Somalia" title="Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia">Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahlu_Sunna_Waljama%27a" title="Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a">Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a</a>, a moderate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> militia.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup> Furthermore, Al-Shabaab and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hizbul_Islam" title="Hizbul Islam">Hizbul Islam</a>, the two main Islamist groups in opposition, began to fight amongst themselves in mid-2009.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup>
</p><p>As a truce, in March 2009, Somalia's coalition government announced that it would re-implement Shari'a as the nation's official judicial system.<sup id="cite_ref-Shariah_in_Somalia_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shariah_in_Somalia-119">[119]</a></sup> However, conflict continued in the southern and central parts of the country. Within months, the coalition government had gone from holding about 70% of south-central Somalia's conflict zones, territory which it had inherited from the previous Yusuf administration, to losing control of over 80% of the disputed territory to the Islamist insurgents.<sup id="cite_ref-Gosppsdott_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gosppsdott-111">[111]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 14 October 2010, diplomat <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohamed_Abdullahi_Mohamed" title="Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed">Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed</a> (Farmajo) was appointed the new Prime Minister of Somalia. The former Premier Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke resigned the month before following a protracted dispute with President Sharif over a proposed draft constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanpms_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanpms-120">[120]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mohamed_Abdullah_Omaar.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Mohamed_Abdullah_Omaar.jpg/220px-Mohamed_Abdullah_Omaar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="303" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mohamed_Abdullah_Omaar.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Foreign Minister of Somalia <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohamed_Abdullahi_Omaar" title="Mohamed Abdullahi Omaar">Mohamed Abdullahi Omaar</a> in a meeting with UNDP Administrator <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Helen_Clark" title="Helen Clark">Helen Clark</a> and other diplomats at the UN headquarters in New York.</div></div></div>
<p>Per the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Government">Transitional Federal Government</a>'s (TFG) <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Charter_of_the_Somali_Republic" title="Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic">Charter</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Pasnpmard_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pasnpmard-121">[121]</a></sup> Prime Minister Mohamed named a new Cabinet on 12 November 2010,<sup id="cite_ref-Nspmusc_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nspmusc-122">[122]</a></sup> which has been lauded by the international community.<sup id="cite_ref-Alshspmuhc_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alshspmuhc-123">[123]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Slppc_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slppc-124">[124]</a></sup> As had been expected, the allotted ministerial positions were significantly reduced in numbers, with only 18 administrative posts unveiled versus the previous government's bloated 39 portfolios.<sup id="cite_ref-Nspmusc_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nspmusc-122">[122]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spmulc_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spmulc-125">[125]</a></sup> Only two Ministers from the previous Cabinet were reappointed: Hussein Abdi Halane, the former Minister of Finance and a well-regarded figure in the international community, was put in charge of a consolidated Ministry of Finance and Treasury; and Dr. Mohamud Abdi Ibrahim was reassigned to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.<sup id="cite_ref-Sprunvc_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sprunvc-126">[126]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahlu_Sunna_Waljama%27a" title="Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a">Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a</a>, a moderate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> group and an important military ally of the TFG, was also accorded the key Interior and Labour ministries.<sup id="cite_ref-Spmulc_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spmulc-125">[125]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sprunvc_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sprunvc-126">[126]</a></sup> The remaining ministerial positions were largely assigned to technocrats new to the Somali political arena.<sup id="cite_ref-Xspmnc_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xspmnc-127">[127]</a></sup>
</p><p>In its first 50 days in office, Prime Minister Mohamed's new administration completed its first monthly payment of stipends to government soldiers, and initiated the implementation of a full biometric register for the security forces within a window of four months. Additional members of the Independent Constitutional Commission were also appointed to engage Somali constitutional lawyers, religious scholars and experts in Somali culture over the nation's upcoming new constitution, a key part of the government's Transitional Federal Tasks. In addition, high level federal delegations were dispatched to defuse clan-related tensions in several regions. According to the prime minister of Somalia, to improve transparency, Cabinet ministers fully disclosed their assets and signed a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethical_code" title="Ethical code">code of ethics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Swscmos_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swscmos-128">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>An Anti-Corruption Commission with the power to carry out formal investigations and to review government decisions and protocols was also established so as to more closely monitor all activities by public officials. Furthermore, unnecessary trips abroad by members of government were prohibited, and all travel by ministers now require the Premier's consent.<sup id="cite_ref-Swscmos_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swscmos-128">[128]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spmaigwccwbbtj_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spmaigwccwbbtj-129">[129]</a></sup> A budget outlining 2011's federal expenditures was also put before and approved by members of parliament, with the payment of civil service employees prioritized. In addition, a full audit of government property and vehicles is being put into place. On the war front, the new government and its AMISOM allies also managed to secure control of 60% of Mogadishu, where 80% of the capital's population now lives. According to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> and Prime Minister Mohamed, with increasing troop strength the pace of territorial gains is expected to greatly accelerate.<sup id="cite_ref-Swscmos_128-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swscmos-128">[128]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mgamisom_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mgamisom-130">[130]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 19 June 2011, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed resigned from his position as Prime Minister of Somalia. Part of the controversial Kampala Accord's conditions, the agreement would also see the mandates of the President, the Parliament Speaker and Deputies extended until August 2012, after which point new elections are to be organized.<sup id="cite_ref-Bbcspmmafr_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bbcspmmafr-131">[131]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdiweli_Mohamed_Ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdiweli Mohamed Ali">Abdiweli Mohamed Ali</a>, Mohamed's former Minister of Planning and International Cooperation, was later named permanent Prime Minister.<sup id="cite_ref-Nytsnnpm_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nytsnnpm-132">[132]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Federal_government">Federal government</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Government_of_Somalia" title="Federal Government of Somalia">Federal Government of Somalia</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mohamed_Abdullahi_Farmaajo.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Mohamed_Abdullahi_Farmaajo.jpg/150px-Mohamed_Abdullahi_Farmaajo.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="197" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="169" data-file-height="222" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mohamed_Abdullahi_Farmaajo.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohamed_Abdullahi_Mohamed" title="Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed">Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed</a>, current <a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_Somalia" title="President of Somalia">President</a></div></div></div>
<p>As part of the official "Roadmap for the End of Transition", a political process which provided clear benchmarks leading toward the formation of permanent democratic institutions in Somalia, the Transitional Federal Government's interim mandate ended on 20 August 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-Aasratdocwau_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aasratdocwau-133">[133]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Somalia" title="Federal Parliament of Somalia">Federal Parliament of Somalia</a> was concurrently inaugurated, ushering in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Government_of_Somalia" title="Federal Government of Somalia">Federal Government of Somalia</a>, the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-Fcacsunesinpshm_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fcacsunesinpshm-109">[109]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 10 September 2012, parliament elected <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud" title="Hassan Sheikh Mohamud">Hassan Sheikh Mohamud</a> as the new President of Somalia.<sup id="cite_ref-Rslemanp_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rslemanp-134">[134]</a></sup> President Mohamud later appointed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdi_Farah_Shirdon" title="Abdi Farah Shirdon">Abdi Farah Shirdon</a> as the new Prime Minister on 6 October 2012,<sup id="cite_ref-Rspnpnapm_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rspnpnapm-135">[135]</a></sup> who was succeeded in office by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdiweli_Sheikh_Ahmed" title="Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed">Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed</a> on 21 December 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-Rspanonspasa_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rspanonspasa-136">[136]</a></sup> On 17 December 2014, former Premier <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Omar_Abdirashid_Ali_Sharmarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke">Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke</a> was reappointed Prime Minister.<sup id="cite_ref-Gbnphasauatp_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gbnphasauatp-137">[137]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 8 February 2017, Somali MPs elected Ex-Prime Minister <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohamed_Abdullahi_Mohamed" title="Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed">Mohamed Abdullahi "Farmajo" Mohamed</a> in a surprise result.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup> On 23 February 2017, President Mohamed appointed former humanitarian worker and businessman <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hassan_Ali_Khayre" title="Hassan Ali Khayre">Hassan Khaire</a> as his Prime Minister..
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Timelines">Timelines</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_2">Ancient</span></h3>
<dl><dd><ul><li><b>c. 2350 BC:</b> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a> establishes trade with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nthos34_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nthos34-139">[139]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>1st century AD:</b> City states on the Somali coast are active in commerce trading with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Greek</a>, and later <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-Nthos34_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nthos34-139">[139]</a></sup></li></ul></dd></dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Muslim_era">Muslim era</span></h3>
<dl><dd><ul><li><b>700–900:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali people">Somalis</a> adopt <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyamer_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyamer-34">[34]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>9th century – 13th century:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adal_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Adal Kingdom">Adal Kingdom</a>.</li>
<li><b>10th century – 16th century:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_Mogadishu" title="Sultanate of Mogadishu">Sultanate of Mogadishu</a>.</li>
<li><b>1285–1415:</b> The rise and fall of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_Ifat" title="Sultanate of Ifat">Sultanate of Ifat</a>.</li>
<li><b>1200s – late 1600s:</b> The rise and fall of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Sultanate</a>.</li>
<li><b>1300–1400:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zeila" title="Zeila">Zeila</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barawe" class="mw-redirect" title="Barawe">Barawe</a> are visited by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>.</li>
<li><b>1415–1559:</b> The rise and fall of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a>.</li>
<li><b>1528–1535:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian-Adal_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian-Adal War">Jihad</a> against <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopia</a> led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Ibrihim_al-Ghazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi">Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi</a> (also called Ahmed Gurey and Ahmed Gran; "the Left-handed").<sup id="cite_ref-SOMALIA-CONTACT-WITH-GREECE-ROME_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SOMALIA-CONTACT-WITH-GREECE-ROME-140">[140]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>late 17th – late 19th century:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a>'s domination in Gulf of Aden trade, Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh, governor of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zeila" title="Zeila">Zeila</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tadjourah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tadjourah">Tadjourah</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_the_Geledi" title="Sultanate of the Geledi">Sultanate of the Geledi</a>.</li>
<li><b>mid-18th century – 1929:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Majeerteen_Sultanate" title="Majeerteen Sultanate">Majeerteen Sultanate</a> also known as Migiurtinia/Majeerteenia.</li>
<li><b>1878–1927:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_Hobyo" title="Sultanate of Hobyo">Sultanate of Hobyo</a>.</li></ul></dd></dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_era">Modern era</span></h3>
<dl><dd><ul><li><b>20 July 1887 :</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a> protectorate (in the north) subordinated to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a> to 1905.</li>
<li><b>3 August 1889:</b> Benadir Coast Italian Protectorate (in the northeast), (unoccupied until May 1893).</li>
<li><b>1896–1920:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dervish_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Dervish State">Dervish State</a> (proto state)</li>
<li><b>16 March 1905:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a> colony (in the northeast, central and south).</li>
<li><b>July 1910:</b> Italian Somaliland a crown colony</li>
<li><b>1920:</b> Mohammed Abdullah Hassan (called "the Mad Mullah" by the British) of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dervish_movement_(Somali)" title="Dervish movement (Somali)">Dervish movement</a> dies and the longest and bloodiest colonial resistance war in Africa ends.</li>
<li><b>15 January 1935:</b> Italian Somaliland, part of Italian East Africa along with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Eritrea" title="Italian Eritrea">Italian Eritrea</a> (and from 1936 Ethiopia).</li>
<li><b>1 June 1936:</b> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somalia_Governorate" title="Somalia Governorate">Somalia Governorate</a> is established as one of the six governorates of Italian East Africa.</li></ul></dd></dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="World_War_II">World War II</span></h3>
<dl><dd><ul><li><b>18 August 1940:</b> Italian occupation of British Somaliland.</li>
<li><b>February 1941:</b> British administration of Italian Somaliland.</li></ul></dd></dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Independence_and_Cold_War">Independence and Cold War</span></h3>
<dl><dd><ul><li><b>1 April 1950:</b> Italian Somaliland becomes a United Nations trust territory administration, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust Territory of Somalia">Trust Territory of Somalia</a>, which is promised independence within 10 years.</li>
<li><b>26 June 1960:</b> British Somaliland is granted independence as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_of_Somaliland" title="State of Somaliland">State of Somaliland</a>, with the understanding that it is to reunite with Italian Somaliland.</li>
<li><b>1 July 1960:</b> Reunification of British Somaliland with Italian Somaliland to form the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Republic" title="Somali Republic">Somali Republic</a>.</li>
<li><b>1 July 1960:</b> First president of Somali National Assembly, Speaker of the Somali Union Act. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haji_Bashir_Ismail_Yusuf" class="mw-redirect" title="Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf">Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf</a>.</li>
<li><b>1 July 1960 – 1967:</b> Presidency of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aden_Abdullah_Osman_Daar" class="mw-redirect" title="Aden Abdullah Osman Daar">Aden Abdullah Osman Daar</a></li>
<li><b>1967–1969:</b> Presidency of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdirashid_Ali_Sharmarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke">Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke</a>; assassinated by one of the policemen assigned to his protection.</li>
<li><b>21 October 1969:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somali Democratic Republic</a>.</li>
<li><b>1969–1991:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a>, leader of the Supreme Revolutionary Council, rises to power.</li>
<li><b>23 July 1977 – 15 March 1978:</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a>.</li>
<li><b>1982</b>: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a>.</li>
<li><b>1986</b>: Fall of Barre government.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>1991</b>: Somaliland declares independence from Somalia.<sup id="cite_ref-Somaliland_Constitution_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Somaliland_Constitution-142">[142]</a></sup></li></ul></dd></dl>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_Somalia" title="Outline of Somalia">Outline of Somalia</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_Somalia-related_articles" title="Index of Somalia-related articles">Index of Somalia-related articles</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_history_of_Somalia" title="Economic history of Somalia">Economic history of Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">History of Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_British_Somaliland" title="List of colonial governors of British Somaliland">List of colonial governors of British Somaliland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Italian_Somaliland" title="List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland">List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_Somalia" title="President of Somalia">President of Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">Prime Minister of Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Somalia" title="Federal Parliament of Somalia">Federal Parliament of Somalia</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Kenrick, <i>Phoenicia</i>, (B. Fellowes: 1855), p. 199.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeanne Rose, John Hulburd, <i>The aromatherapy book: applications & inhalations</i>, (North Atlantic Books: 1992), p. 94.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Sceotaw-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sceotaw_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Charnan, Simon (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vCf_fBfS5xUC"><i>Explorers of the Ancient World</i></a>. Childrens Press. p. 26. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-516-03053-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-516-03053-1"><bdi>0-516-03053-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Explorers+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Childrens+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-516-03053-1&rft.aulast=Charnan&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvCf_fBfS5xUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r935243608">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Sfnrtmm-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sfnrtmm_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hjJVAAAAYAAJ">"The Mariner's mirror"</a>. <i>The Mariner's Mirror</i>. Society For Nautical Research. 66–71: 261. 1984.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mariner%27s+Mirror&rft.atitle=The+Mariner%27s+mirror&rft.volume=66%E2%80%9371&rft.pages=261&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhjJVAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mahdy-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mahdy_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christine El Mahdy, <i>Egypt : 3000 Years of Civilization Brought to Life</i>, (Raincoast Books: 2005), p.297.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-SGoodwin-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SGoodwin_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stefan Goodwin, <i>Africa's legacies of urbanization: unfolding saga of a continent</i>, (Lexington Books: 2006), p. 48.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Laitin_1977_8-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Laitin_1977_8_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaitin1977">Laitin 1977</a>, p. 8.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Issa-Salwe-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Issa-Salwe_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Issa-Salwe_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Abdisalam_Issa-Salwe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abdisalam Issa-Salwe (page does not exist)">Issa-Salwe, Abdisalam M.</a> (1996). <i>The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy</i>. London: Haan Associates. pp. 34–35. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/187420991X" title="Special:BookSources/187420991X"><bdi>187420991X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collapse+of+the+Somali+State%3A+The+Impact+of+the+Colonial+Legacy&rft.place=London&rft.pages=34-35&rft.pub=Haan+Associates&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=187420991X&rft.aulast=Issa-Salwe&rft.aufirst=Abdisalam+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevin Shillington, <i>Encyclopedia of African history</i>‎, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 1406.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Samatar, Said Sheikh (1982). <i>Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 131, 135. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23833-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-23833-1"><bdi>0-521-23833-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oral+Poetry+and+Somali+Nationalism&rft.pages=131%2C+135&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-521-23833-1&rft.aulast=Samatar&rft.aufirst=Said+Sheikh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greystone Press Staff, <i>The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East</i>, (Greystone Press: 1967), p. 338.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suzanne Richard, <i>Near Eastern archaeology: a reader</i>. p. 120</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Peter Robertshaw (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105"><i>A History of African Archaeology</i></a>. J. Currey. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105">105</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-08041-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-435-08041-9"><bdi>978-0-435-08041-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+African+Archaeology&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=J.+Currey&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-435-08041-9&rft.au=Peter+Robertshaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofafrican0000unse_j3c5%2Fpage%2F105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">S. A. Brandt (1988). "Early Holocene Mortuary Practices and Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in Southern Somalia". <i>World Archaeology</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 40–56. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1988.9980055">10.1080/00438243.1988.9980055</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.jstor.org/stable/124524">124524</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16470993">16470993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Early+Holocene+Mortuary+Practices+and+Hunter-Gatherer+Adaptations+in+Southern+Somalia&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-56&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16470993&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F124524&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00438243.1988.9980055&rft.au=S.+A.+Brandt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Seton-Karr" title="Henry Seton-Karr">H.W. Seton-Karr</a> (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/mananth9a10royauoft/mananth9a10royauoft_djvu.txt">"Prehistoric Implements From Somaliland"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Man_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Man (journal)">Man</a></i>. <b>9</b> (106): 182–183. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2840281">10.2307/2840281</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.jstor.org/stable/2840281">2840281</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man&rft.atitle=Prehistoric+Implements+From+Somaliland&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=106&rft.pages=182-183&rft.date=1909&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2840281&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2840281&rft.au=H.W.+Seton-Karr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fmananth9a10royauoft%2Fmananth9a10royauoft_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zarins, Juris (1990), "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia", (Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diamond J, Bellwood P (2003) Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions SCIENCE 300, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1078208">10.1126/science.1078208</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Blench143144-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blench143144_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Blench, R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C"><i>Archaeology, Language, and the African Past</i></a>. Rowman Altamira. pp. 143–144. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0759104662" title="Special:BookSources/0759104662"><bdi>0759104662</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology%2C+Language%2C+and+the+African+Past&rft.pages=143-144&rft.pub=Rowman+Altamira&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0759104662&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DesFy3Po57A8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Bakano-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bakano_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Bakano, Otto (24 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jMNd90UAafsRNEDPyelL7Hee1ydw?docId=CNG.82196a5b15ef45a2d4e744675740cd6a.6e1">"Grotto galleries show early Somali life"</a>. Agence France-Presse<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Grotto+galleries+show+early+Somali+life&rft.date=2011-04-24&rft.aulast=Bakano&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fhostednews%2Fafp%2Farticle%2FALeqM5jMNd90UAafsRNEDPyelL7Hee1ydw%3FdocId%3DCNG.82196a5b15ef45a2d4e744675740cd6a.6e1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Tdodras-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tdodras_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Mire, Sada (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130627100400/http://www.mbali.info/doc494.htm">"The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, Somaliland"</a>. <i>African Archaeological Review</i>. <b>25</b> (3–4): 153–168. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10437-008-9032-2">10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mbali.info/doc494.htm">the original</a> on 27 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Archaeological+Review&rft.atitle=The+Discovery+of+Dhambalin+Rock+Art+Site%2C+Somaliland&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=153-168&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10437-008-9032-2&rft.aulast=Mire&rft.aufirst=Sada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mbali.info%2Fdoc494.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Guafcpaonas-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guafcpaonas_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Alberge, Dalya (17 September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/17/cave-paintings-found-in-somaliland">"UK archaeologist finds cave paintings at 100 new African sites"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=UK+archaeologist+finds+cave+paintings+at+100+new+African+sites&rft.date=2010-09-17&rft.aulast=Alberge&rft.aufirst=Dalya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2010%2Fsep%2F17%2Fcave-paintings-found-in-somaliland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Mheah-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mheah_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hodd, Michael (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bL8tAQAAIAAJ"><i>East African Handbook</i></a>. Trade & Travel Publications. p. 640. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0844289833" title="Special:BookSources/0844289833"><bdi>0844289833</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+African+Handbook&rft.pages=640&rft.pub=Trade+%26+Travel+Publications&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0844289833&rft.aulast=Hodd&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbL8tAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Astgi-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Astgi_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ali, Ismail Mohamed (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tMVAAAAAYAAJ"><i>Somalia Today: General Information</i></a>. Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic. p. 295.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somalia+Today%3A+General+Information&rft.pages=295&rft.pub=Ministry+of+Information+and+National+Guidance%2C+Somali+Democratic+Republic&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Ismail+Mohamed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtMVAAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Nthos-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nthos_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nthos_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nthos_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C"><i>The History of Somalia</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 29–31. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313378577" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313378577"><bdi>978-0313378577</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Somalia&rft.pages=29-31&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0313378577&rft.aulast=Njoku&rft.aufirst=Raphael+Chijioke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DFlL2vE_qRQ8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Titthtw-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Titthtw_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Dalal, Roshen (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RO4kS1IR71sC"><i>The Illustrated Timeline of the History of the World</i></a>. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 131. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1448847976" title="Special:BookSources/978-1448847976"><bdi>978-1448847976</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illustrated+Timeline+of+the+History+of+the+World&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1448847976&rft.aulast=Dalal&rft.aufirst=Roshen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRO4kS1IR71sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Etdttfc-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Etdttfc_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Abdel Monem A. H. Sayed, Zahi A. Hawass (ed.) (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=1E13DorsFMEC"><i>Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology</i></a>. American Univ in Cairo Press. pp. 432–433. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9774246748" title="Special:BookSources/9774246748"><bdi>9774246748</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptology+at+the+Dawn+of+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+Archaeology&rft.pages=432-433&rft.pub=American+Univ+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9774246748&rft.aulast=Abdel+Monem+A.+H.+Sayed&rft.aufirst=Zahi+A.+Hawass+%28ed.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D1E13DorsFMEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: extra text: authors list">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Wheeler_pg_526-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler_pg_526_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler_pg_526_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/geographyofherod00whee/geographyofherod00whee_djvu.txt">The Geography of Herodotus: Illustrated from Modern Researches and Discoveries</a> by James Talboys Wheeler, pg 1xvi, 315, 526</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Kitto2-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kitto2_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kitto2_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John Kitto, James Taylor, <i>The popular cyclopædia of Biblical literature: condensed from the larger work</i>, (Gould and Lincoln: 1856), p.302.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Herbert Warmington, <i>The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India</i>, p. 54.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-EHW-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EHW_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EHW_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Herbert Warmington, <i>The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India</i>, p. 229.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Herbert Warmington, <i>The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India</i>, p. 187.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Herbert Warmington, <i>The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India</i>, pp. 185–186.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Btgpb-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Btgpb_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Briggs, Phillip (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC"><i>Somaliland</i></a>. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 7. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1841623719" title="Special:BookSources/978-1841623719"><bdi>978-1841623719</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somaliland&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Bradt+Travel+Guides&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1841623719&rft.aulast=Briggs&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM6NI2FejIuwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Encyamer-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encyamer_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyamer_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyamer_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=OP5LAAAAMAAJ"><i>Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25</i></a>. Americana Corporation. 1965. p. 255.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana%2C+Volume+25&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=Americana+Corporation&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOP5LAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Lewispohoa-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewispohoa_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewispohoa_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lewis, I.M. (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=Cd0mAQAAMAAJ"><i>Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho</i></a>. International African Institute. p. 140.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peoples+of+the+Horn+of+Africa%3A+Somali%2C+Afar+and+Saho&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=International+African+Institute&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=I.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCd0mAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lewis, I. M. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=LLQeAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Modern History of Somaliland: From Nation to State</i></a>. F.A. Praeger. p. 37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+History+of+Somaliland%3A+From+Nation+to+State&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=F.A.+Praeger&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=I.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLLQeAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Elfasi, Ivan Hrbek <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&pg=PA600&lpg=PA600&dq=Bilad+al-Barbar&source=bl&ots=UCiSgqq_kG&sig=EX-Jr5FtaaYmk7Nax3Ei1bAmyME&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi23Zef-YTKAhVEPRoKHYLmAuQQ6AEIPjAJ#v=onepage&q=Barbar&f=false">"Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century"</a>, "General history of AfrÄÃǎica". Retrieved 31 December 2015</span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sanjay Subrahmanyam, <i>The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama</i>, (Cambridge University Press: 1998), p. 121.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, <i>The Cambridge History of Africa</i>, (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p. 190.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Wynn_Brereton_Huntingford" title="George Wynn Brereton Huntingford">George Wynn Brereton Huntingford</a>, Agatharchides, <i>The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea"</i>, (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p. 83.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=Z0zZKCpGmfkC"><i>The Cambridge History of Africa</i></a>. <b>7</b>. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22505-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22505-2"><bdi>978-0-521-22505-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Africa&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22505-2&rft.aulast=Fage&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Oliver%2C+Roland+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ0zZKCpGmfkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lewis, I. M. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=Nt5yAAAAMAAJ"><i>A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa</i></a>. Westview Press. p. 20. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-7402-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-7402-4"><bdi>978-0-8133-7402-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Modern+History+of+Somalia%3A+Nation+and+State+in+the+Horn+of+Africa&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-7402-4&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=I.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNt5yAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.warsangeli.org">Warsangeli Sultanate</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Gray, <i>The Cambridge history of Africa</i>, Volume 4. p. 155.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeremy Black, Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492–1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Pankhurst, <i>The Ethiopians: a history</i>. p. 90.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edgar Prestage, <i>The Portuguese Pioneers</i>, p. 222.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver, <i>Journal of African History</i>, p. 50.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Da Gama's First Voyage p. 88</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">East Africa and its Invaders p. 38</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 35</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The return of Cosmopolitan Capital:Globalization, the State and War p. 22</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. J. Barendse, <i>The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 30</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: aspects of trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV-XIX centuries. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1978 p. 2</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">East Africa and its Invaders p. 37</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 45</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tanzania notes and records: the journal of the Tanzania Society p. 76</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Portuguese period in East Africa – Page 112</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Portuguese rule and Spanish crown in South Africa, 1581–1640 – Page 25</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Four centuries of Swahili verse: a literary history and anthology – Page 11</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Prichard, J. C. (1837). <i>Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Ethnography of the African races</i>. Sherwood, Gilbert & Piper. p. 160.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researches+Into+the+Physical+History+of+Mankind%3A+Ethnography+of+the+African+races.&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Sherwood%2C+Gilbert+%26+Piper&rft.date=1837&rft.aulast=Prichard&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><i>The Colonial Magazine and Commercial-maritime Journal, Volume 2</i>. 1840. p. 22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Colonial+Magazine+and+Commercial-maritime+Journal%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=22&rft.date=1840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hunt, Freeman (1856). <i>The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review, Volume 34</i>. p. 694.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Merchants%27+Magazine+and+Commercial+Review%2C+Volume+34&rft.pages=694&rft.date=1856&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Freeman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lewis, I. M. (1988). <i>A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa</i>. Westview Press. p. 35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Modern+History+of+Somalia%3A+Nation+and+State+in+the+Horn+of+Africa&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=I.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abir, Mordechai (1968). Ethiopia: the era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and re-unification of the Christian Empire, 1769–1855. Praeger. p. 18.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Burton, <i>First footseps in to Africa</i>, pp. 16–30.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rayne Henry. <i>Sun, sand and Somals; leaves from the note-book of a district commissioner in British Somaliland</i>, pp. 15–16.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Burton-176-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burton-176_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burton, <i>First Footsteps</i>, pp. 176 and note</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sudan Notes and Records – Page 147</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F.O.78/5031,Sayyid Mohamad to the Aidagalla, Enclosed Sadler To Salisbury. 69, 20 August 1899.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Fageoliver-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fageoliver_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">J. D. Fage, A. D. Roberts, Roland Anthony Oliver (eds.) (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=Z0zZKCpGmfkC"><i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521225051" title="Special:BookSources/0521225051"><bdi>0521225051</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Africa%2C+Volume+7&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0521225051&rft.au=J.+D.+Fage%2C+A.+D.+Roberts%2C+Roland+Anthony+Oliver+%28eds.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ0zZKCpGmfkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: extra text: authors list">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.carabinieri.it/Internet/Arma/Curiosita/Non+tutti+sanno+che/Z/2+Z.htm">"Non tutti sanno che... Zaptié" (in Italian)</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/05/italian-mogadishu.html">Italian Mogadiscio</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xoomer.alice.it/fernandotermentini/somalia.htm">Article with photos on a 2005 visit to 'Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi' and areas of former Italian Somaliland (in italian)</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Knox, Macgregor (27 June 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PT1&lpg=PT1&dq="><i>Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War</i></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521338356" title="Special:BookSources/9780521338356"><bdi>9780521338356</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini+Unleashed%2C+1939%E2%80%931941%3A+Politics+and+Strategy+in+Fascist+Italy%27s+Last+War&rft.date=1986-06-27&rft.isbn=9780521338356&rft.aulast=Knox&rft.aufirst=Macgregor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_PwCu_D-HiUC%26pg%3DPT1%26lpg%3DPT1%26dq%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090802101751/http://www.lasecondaguerramondiale.it/africa_orie_2.html">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lasecondaguerramondiale.it/africa_orie_2.html">the original</a> on 2 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lasecondaguerramondiale.it%2Fafrica_orie_2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/> The first map shows the Italian occupied areas around Moyale/Buna</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Antonicelli, Franco. "Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945". Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961. (p. 38)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Zolberg-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zolberg_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zolberg_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zolberg_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zolberg, Aristide R., et al., <i>Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World</i>, (Oxford University Press: 1992), p. 106</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Gates1999-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gates1999_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kwame Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (26 November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cereWkyNJckC"><i>Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience : the concise desk reference</i></a>. Running Press. p. 1749. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7624-1642-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7624-1642-4"><bdi>978-0-7624-1642-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africana%3A+the+encyclopedia+of+the+African+and+African+American+experience+%3A+the+concise+desk+reference&rft.pages=1749&rft.pub=Running+Press&rft.date=2003-11-26&rft.isbn=978-0-7624-1642-4&rft.au=Kwame+Anthony+Appiah&rft.au=Henry+Louis+Gates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcereWkyNJckC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Tripodi1999-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tripodi1999_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Paolo Tripodi (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eJR3RAAACAAJ"><i>The colonial legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu : from colonial administration to Operation Restore Hope</i></a>. Macmillan Press. p. 68. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-22393-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-22393-9"><bdi>978-0-312-22393-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+colonial+legacy+in+Somalia%3A+Rome+and+Mogadishu+%3A+from+colonial+administration+to+Operation+Restore+Hope&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Macmillan+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-312-22393-9&rft.au=Paolo+Tripodi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeJR3RAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ChapinMetz-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ChapinMetz_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Somalia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1992. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/somalia">countrystudies.us</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francis Vallat, <i>First report on succession of states in respect of treaties: International Law Commission twenty-sixth session 6 May 26 July 1974</i>, (United Nations: 1974), p. 20</span>
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<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laitin, p. 75</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Barrington2006-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barrington2006_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barrington2006_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barrington2006_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Barrington, Lowell, <i>After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States</i>, (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p. 115</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Kseoah-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kseoah_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevin Shillington, <i>Encyclopedia of African history</i>, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 360.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-buluugleey.com-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-buluugleey.com_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090116055005/http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm">"The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960"</a>. Buluugleey.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm">the original</a> on 16 January 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+dawn+of+the+Somali+nation-state+in+1960&rft.pub=Buluugleey.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.buluugleey.com%2Fwarkiidanbe%2FGovernance.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htwin/articles/20060809.aspx">"The making of a Somalia state"</a>. Strategypage.com. 9 August 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+making+of+a+Somalia+state&rft.pub=Strategypage.com&rft.date=2006-08-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.strategypage.com%2Fhtmw%2Fhtwin%2Farticles%2F20060809.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greystone Press Staff, <i>The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East</i>, (Greystone Press: 1967), p. 338</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Myswenvwp-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Myswenvwp_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moshe Y. Sachs, <i>Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations</i>, Volume 2, (Worldmark Press: 1988), p. 290.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Adam-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Adam_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Richard Ford (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0m9yAAAAMAAJ"><i>Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century</i></a>. Red Sea Press. p. 226. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56902-073-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-56902-073-6"><bdi>1-56902-073-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mending+rips+in+the+sky%3A+options+for+Somali+communities+in+the+21st+century&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Red+Sea+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-56902-073-6&rft.aulast=Adam&rft.aufirst=Hussein+Mohamed&rft.au=Richard+Ford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0m9yAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, <i>The Cambridge history of Africa</i>, Volume 8, (Cambridge University Press: 1985), p. 478.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Grolierenc-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grolierenc_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grolierenc_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Encyclopedia Americana: complete in thirty volumes. Skin to Sumac</i>, Volume 25, (Grolier: 1995), p. 214.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Pjdlfw-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pjdlfw_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pjdlfw_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pjdlfw_94-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter John de la Fosse Wiles, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lgMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279">The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy</a></i>, (Taylor & Francis: 1982), p. 279 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7099-2709-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7099-2709-6">0-7099-2709-6</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Frankel-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Frankel_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin Frankel, <i>The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World</i>, (Gale Research: 1992), p. 306 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8103-8928-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8103-8928-2">0-8103-8928-2</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Yang-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yang_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oihe Yang, <i>Africa South of the Sahara 2001</i>, 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p. 1025 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85743-078-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-85743-078-6">1-85743-078-6</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hosmp-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hosmp_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Ahmed III, Abdul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130430152227/http://www.thoapi.org/index.php?p=1_9_Articles">"History of Somali Military Personnel"</a>. THOAPI. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thoapi.org/index.php?p=1_9_Articles">the original</a> on 30 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Somali+Military+Personnel&rft.pub=THOAPI&rft.aulast=Ahmed+III&rft.aufirst=Abdul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoapi.org%2Findex.php%3Fp%3D1_9_Articles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ramsbotham-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ramsbotham_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse, <i>Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations</i>, (ABC-CLIO: 1999), p. 222 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87436-892-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87436-892-8">0-87436-892-8</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Woinffir-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Woinffir_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woinffir_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">World of Information (Firm), <i>Africa review</i>, (World of Information: 1987), p.213.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Photw-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Photw_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Photw_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur S. Banks, Thomas C. Muller, William Overstreet, <i>Political Handbook of the World 2008</i>, (CQ Press: 2008), p.1198.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Sahrisr-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sahrisr_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">National Academy of Sciences (U.S.). Committee on Human Rights, Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Health and Human Rights, <i>Scientists and human rights in Somalia: report of a delegation</i>, (National Academies: 1988), p.9.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-2009factbook-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-2009factbook_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2009factbook_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html">"Somalia"</a>. <i>The World Factbook</i>. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Somalia&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Fpublications%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fgeos%2Fso.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-SJS-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SJS_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SJS_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SJS_103-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SJS_103-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">
<cite class="citation web">Dr Andre Le Sage (1 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120118151830/http://www.hdcentre.org/files/Somalia%20report.pdf">"Stateless Justice in Somalia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hdcentre.org/files/Somalia%20report.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 18 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 June</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stateless+Justice+in+Somalia&rft.pub=Centre+for+Humanitarian+Dialogue&rft.date=2005-06-01&rft.au=Dr+Andre+Le+Sage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hdcentre.org%2Ffiles%2FSomalia%2520report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Mises-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mises_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/story/2701">"The Rule of Law without the State – Spencer Heath MacCallum – Mises Daily"</a>. Mises.org. 4 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rule+of+Law+without+the+State+%E2%80%93+Spencer+Heath+MacCallum+%E2%80%93+Mises+Daily&rft.pub=Mises.org&rft.date=2007-09-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmises.org%2Fstory%2F2701&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-HAblele-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HAblele_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hiiraan.com/op2/2008/oct/back_to_somali_roots.aspx">"Back to Somali roots"</a>. Hiiraan.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Back+to+Somali+roots&rft.pub=Hiiraan.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hiiraan.com%2Fop2%2F2008%2Foct%2Fback_to_somali_roots.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Spmoarc-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spmoarc_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-11/13/content_2213479.htm">Somali PM optimistic about rebuilding country</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Smenp-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smenp_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aceproject.org/ero-en/regions/africa/SO/Somalia%20-%20BBC%20article%20MPs%20elect%20new%20president.doc">Somalia MPs elect new president</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Rulers-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rulers_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rulers_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rulers.org/2004-10.html">Rulers – Somalia – October 2004</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Fcacsunesinpshm-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fcacsunesinpshm_109-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fcacsunesinpshm_109-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html">"Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment<span class="cs1-kern-right">'</span>"</a>. <i>Forum on China-Africa Cooperation</i>. 21 August 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forum+on+China-Africa+Cooperation&rft.atitle=Somalia%3A+UN+Envoy+Says+Inauguration+of+New+Parliament+in+Somalia+%27Historic+Moment%27&rft.date=2012-08-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fallafrica.com%2Fstories%2F201208220474.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/153/26334.html">"Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia"</a>. Globalpolicy.org. 14 August 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ethiopian+Invasion+of+Somalia&rft.pub=Globalpolicy.org&rft.date=2007-08-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalpolicy.org%2Fcomponent%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F153%2F26334.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Gosppsdott-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gosppsdott_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gosppsdott_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Online, Garowe (12 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131640/http://www.garoweonline.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=558%3Asomalia-president-parliament-speaker-dispute-over-tfg-term&catid=55%3Asomalia&Itemid=79">"Somalia President, Parliament Speaker dispute over TFG term"</a>. Garoweonline.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.garoweonline.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=558:somalia-president-parliament-speaker-dispute-over-tfg-term&catid=55:somalia&Itemid=79">the original</a> on 14 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Somalia+President%2C+Parliament+Speaker+dispute+over+TFG+term&rft.pub=Garoweonline.com&rft.date=2011-01-12&rft.aulast=Online&rft.aufirst=Garowe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.garoweonline.com%2Fenglish%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D558%3Asomalia-president-parliament-speaker-dispute-over-tfg-term%26catid%3D55%3Asomalia%26Itemid%3D79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110510005900/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher%2CUSCIRF%2C%2C%2C4a4f272bc%2C0.html">"USCIRF Annual Report 2009 – The Commission's Watch List: Somalia"</a>. Unhcr.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,USCIRF,,,4a4f272bc,0.html">the original</a> on 10 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=USCIRF+Annual+Report+2009+%E2%80%93+The+Commission%27s+Watch+List%3A+Somalia&rft.pub=Unhcr.org&rft.date=2009-05-01&rft.au=United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Refugees&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhcr.org%2Frefworld%2Fpublisher%2CUSCIRF%2C%2C%2C4a4f272bc%2C0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Sgtpe-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sgtpe_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131633/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Guide_to_Puntland_Election_2009.shtml">"Somalia: Guide to Puntland Election 2009"</a>. Garoweonline.com. 25 December 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Guide_to_Puntland_Election_2009.shtml">the original</a> on 14 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Somalia%3A+Guide+to+Puntland+Election+2009&rft.pub=Garoweonline.com&rft.date=2008-12-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.garoweonline.com%2Fartman2%2Fpublish%2FSomalia_27%2FSomalia_Guide_to_Puntland_Election_2009.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Oagadsgumsp-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oagadsgumsp_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2005/ga10386.html">"Opening Annual General Assembly Debate, Secretary-General Urges Member States to Press in Tackling Poverty, Terrorism, Human Rights Abuses, Conflicts"</a>. Unis.unvienna.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Opening+Annual+General+Assembly+Debate%2C+Secretary-General+Urges+Member+States+to+Press+in+Tackling+Poverty%2C+Terrorism%2C+Human+Rights+Abuses%2C+Conflicts&rft.pub=Unis.unvienna.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unis.unvienna.org%2Funis%2Fpressrels%2F2005%2Fga10386.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Resignation-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Resignation_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7802622.stm">"Somalia's president quits office"</a>, BBC News, 29 December 2008.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a790e984-d590-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658.html">"Somali President Yusuf resigns"</a>, Reuters (FT.com), 29 December 2008.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Kamaal says (22 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100619183438/http://horseedmedia.net/2010/05/un-boss-urges-support-for-somalia-ahead-of-istanbul-summit/">"UN boss urges support for Somalia ahead of Istanbul summit"</a>. Horseedmedia.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://horseedmedia.net/2010/05/un-boss-urges-support-for-somalia-ahead-of-istanbul-summit/">the original</a> on 19 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UN+boss+urges+support+for+Somalia+ahead+of+Istanbul+summit&rft.pub=Horseedmedia.net&rft.date=2010-05-22&rft.au=Kamaal+says&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhorseedmedia.net%2F2010%2F05%2Fun-boss-urges-support-for-somalia-ahead-of-istanbul-summit%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8318798.stm">"Islamists break Somali port truce"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 21 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Islamists+break+Somali+port+truce&rft.date=2009-10-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fafrica%2F8318798.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Shariah_in_Somalia-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shariah_in_Somalia_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arabnews.com/?page=4&section=0&article=119757&d=1&m=3&y=2009">Shariah in Somalia</a> – <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab_News" title="Arab News">Arab News</a></i></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Sanpms-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sanpms_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foxnews.com/world/2010/10/14/somali-president-names-new-prime-minister/">"Somali-American is new prime minister in Somalia"</a>. Fox News Channel. 1 February 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Somali-American+is+new+prime+minister+in+Somalia&rft.date=2010-02-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fworld%2F2010%2F10%2F14%2Fsomali-president-names-new-prime-minister%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Pasnpmard-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pasnpmard_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110515182839/http://www.allheadlinenews.com/articles/7020386438?Parliament">"Approves Somalia's New PM After Repeated Delays"</a>. Allheadlinenews.com. 31 October 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allheadlinenews.com/articles/7020386438?Parliament">the original</a> on 15 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Approves+Somalia%27s+New+PM+After+Repeated+Delays&rft.pub=Allheadlinenews.com&rft.date=2010-10-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allheadlinenews.com%2Farticles%2F7020386438%3FParliament&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Nspmusc-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nspmusc_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nspmusc_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=12131958">"New Somali Prime Minister Unveils Smaller Cabinet"</a>. ABC News. 12 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+Somali+Prime+Minister+Unveils+Smaller+Cabinet&rft.pub=ABC+News&rft.date=2010-11-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FInternational%2FwireStory%3Fid%3D12131958&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Alshspmuhc-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alshspmuhc_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511194929/http://english.alshahid.net/archives/15120">"Somali Prime Minister Unveiled His Cabinet"</a>. English.alshahid.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.alshahid.net/archives/15120">the original</a> on 11 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Somali+Prime+Minister+Unveiled+His+Cabinet&rft.pub=English.alshahid.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenglish.alshahid.net%2Farchives%2F15120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Slppc-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Slppc_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/11/27/ap/africa/main7094041.shtml">"Somali Lawmakers Pass Proposed Cabinet"</a>. CBS News<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Somali+Lawmakers+Pass+Proposed+Cabinet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Fstories%2F2010%2F11%2F27%2Fap%2Fafrica%2Fmain7094041.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link since June 2016">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Spmulc-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spmulc_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spmulc_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton (13 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20121211051610/http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/middle-east/132370-somali-pm-unveils-leaner-cabinet.html">"Somali PM unveils leaner cabinet"</a>. Thepeninsulaqatar.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/middle-east/132370-somali-pm-unveils-leaner-cabinet.html">the original</a> on 11 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Somali+PM+unveils+leaner+cabinet&rft.pub=Thepeninsulaqatar.com&rft.date=2010-11-13&rft.au=US+Secretary+of+State+Hillary+Clinton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thepeninsulaqatar.com%2Fmiddle-east%2F132370-somali-pm-unveils-leaner-cabinet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Sprunvc-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sprunvc_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sprunvc_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131621/http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somali_Premier_Unveils_New_Cabinets.shtml">"Somali Premier Unveils New Cabinet"</a>. Garoweonline.com. 12 November 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somali_Premier_Unveils_New_Cabinets.shtml">the original</a> on 14 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Somali+Premier+Unveils+New+Cabinet&rft.pub=Garoweonline.com&rft.date=2010-11-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.garoweonline.com%2Fartman2%2Fpublish%2FSomalia_27%2FSomali_Premier_Unveils_New_Cabinets.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Xspmnc-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Xspmnc_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2010-11/13/c_13604352.htm">"Somali PM names new cabinet"</a>. Xinhua News Agency. 13 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Somali+PM+names+new+cabinet&rft.date=2010-11-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.xinhuanet.com%2Fenglish2010%2Fworld%2F2010-11%2F13%2Fc_13604352.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Swscmos-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Swscmos_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swscmos_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swscmos_128-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140105060056/http://www.somaliweyn.org/pages/news/Jan_11/15Jan18.html">"Security Council Meeting on Somalia"</a>. Somaliweyn.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.somaliweyn.org/pages/news/Jan_11/15Jan18.html">the original</a> on 5 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Security+Council+Meeting+on+Somalia&rft.pub=Somaliweyn.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.somaliweyn.org%2Fpages%2Fnews%2FJan_11%2F15Jan18.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Spmaigwccwbbtj-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spmaigwccwbbtj_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110515182825/http://www.allheadlinenews.com/briefs/articles/90029659?Somali_PM%3A_Anyone_in_gov&%23146%3Bt_who_commits_corruption_will_be_brought_to_justice">"Somali PM: Anyone in gov't who commits corruption will be brought to justice"</a>. Allheadlinenews.com. 4 January 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allheadlinenews.com/briefs/articles/90029659?Somali_PM%3A_Anyone_in_gov%26%23146%3Bt_who_commits_corruption_will_be_brought_to_justice">the original</a> on 15 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Somali+PM%3A+Anyone+in+gov%27t+who+commits+corruption+will+be+brought+to+justice&rft.pub=Allheadlinenews.com&rft.date=2011-01-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allheadlinenews.com%2Fbriefs%2Farticles%2F90029659%3FSomali_PM%253A_Anyone_in_gov%2526%2523146%253Bt_who_commits_corruption_will_be_brought_to_justice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mgamisom-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mgamisom_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511115655/http://amisom-au.org/uploads/AMISOM_Bulletin_No_11.pdf">"Making Gains – AMISOM forces take new territory"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amisom-au.org/uploads/AMISOM_Bulletin_No_11.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 11 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Making+Gains+%E2%80%93+AMISOM+forces+take+new+territory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famisom-au.org%2Fuploads%2FAMISOM_Bulletin_No_11.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bbcspmmafr-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bbcspmmafr_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13830470">Somalia: PM Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo resigns</a>. BBC.co.uk (19 June 2011). Retrieved 15 December 2011.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Nytsnnpm-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nytsnnpm_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Gettleman, Jeffrey (23 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/24/world/africa/24somalia.html?partner=rssnyt&emc=rss">"Harvard-Educated Technocrat Chosen as Somalia Premier"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Harvard-Educated+Technocrat+Chosen+as+Somalia+Premier&rft.date=2011-06-23&rft.aulast=Gettleman&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F06%2F24%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2F24somalia.html%3Fpartner%3Drssnyt%26emc%3Drss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Aasratdocwau-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aasratdocwau_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Ahmed, Muddassar (8 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120809223608/http://english.alarabiya.net/views/2012/08/08/231008.html">"Somalia rising after two decades of civil war and unrest"</a>. Al Arabiya. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.alarabiya.net/views/2012/08/08/231008.html">the original</a> on 9 August 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Somalia+rising+after+two+decades+of+civil+war+and+unrest&rft.date=2012-08-08&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Muddassar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenglish.alarabiya.net%2Fviews%2F2012%2F08%2F08%2F231008.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Rslemanp-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rslemanp_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/10/somalia-politics-idUSL5E8KAIUR20120910">"Somali lawmakers elect Mohamud as next president"</a>. Reuters. 10 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Somali+lawmakers+elect+Mohamud+as+next+president&rft.date=2012-09-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2F2012%2F09%2F10%2Fsomalia-politics-idUSL5E8KAIUR20120910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Rspnpnapm-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rspnpnapm_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFL6E8L60GZ20121006">"Somali president names political newcomer as PM -diplomats"</a>. Reuters. 6 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Somali+president+names+political+newcomer+as+PM+-diplomats&rft.date=2012-10-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faf.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FcommoditiesNews%2FidAFL6E8L60GZ20121006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Rspanonspasa-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rspanonspasa_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131224095458/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2013/12/somalia-parliament-approves-nomination-of-new-somali-pm-abdiweli-sheikh-ahmed/">"SOMALIA: Parliament approves nomination of new Somali PM Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed"</a>. <i>Raxanreeb</i>. 21 December 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.raxanreeb.com/2013/12/somalia-parliament-approves-nomination-of-new-somali-pm-abdiweli-sheikh-ahmed/">the original</a> on 24 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Raxanreeb&rft.atitle=SOMALIA%3A+Parliament+approves+nomination+of+new+Somali+PM+Abdiweli+Sheikh+Ahmed&rft.date=2013-12-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.raxanreeb.com%2F2013%2F12%2Fsomalia-parliament-approves-nomination-of-new-somali-pm-abdiweli-sheikh-ahmed%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Gbnphasauatp-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gbnphasauatp_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://goobjoog.com/english/?p=7317">"Breaking News: President Hassan appoints Somalia's ambassador to US as the third premier"</a>. Goobjoog. 17 December 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Breaking+News%3A+President+Hassan+appoints+Somalia%27s+ambassador+to+US+as+the+third+premier&rft.date=2014-12-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgoobjoog.com%2Fenglish%2F%3Fp%3D7317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-38904663">"Somalia's Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo chosen as president"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 8 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Somalia%27s+Mohamed+Abdullahi+Farmajo+chosen+as+president&rft.date=2017-02-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-38904663&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Nthos34-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nthos34_139-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nthos34_139-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C"><i>The History of Somalia</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 29–34. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313378577" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313378577"><bdi>978-0313378577</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Somalia&rft.pages=29-34&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0313378577&rft.aulast=Njoku&rft.aufirst=Raphael+Chijioke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DFlL2vE_qRQ8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-SOMALIA-CONTACT-WITH-GREECE-ROME-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SOMALIA-CONTACT-WITH-GREECE-ROME_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/somalia/1994/dawn_of_civilization/chapter_5.htm"><i>Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times</i> Chapter 5: Puntland: Ancient Somali Contacts With Other Countries</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070315102918/http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/somalia/1994/dawn_of_civilization/chapter_5.htm">Archived</a> 15 March 2007 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> CivicsWeb</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Al-Ghwell, Hafed (12 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arabnews.com/node/1301391">"What ever happened to Somalia?"</a>. Arab News<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=What+ever+happened+to+Somalia%3F&rft.date=2018-05-12&rft.aulast=Al-Ghwell&rft.aufirst=Hafed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arabnews.com%2Fnode%2F1301391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Somaliland_Constitution-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Somaliland_Constitution_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Somaliland_Constitution/body_somaliland_constitution.htm#Chapter1">"Somaliland Constitution"</a>. <i>Somalilandlaw.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Somalilandlaw.com&rft.atitle=Somaliland+Constitution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.somalilandlaw.com%2FSomaliland_Constitution%2Fbody_somaliland_constitution.htm%23Chapter1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<ul><li><cite class="citation journal">Samatar (ed.), Said S. (9 November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sotoc.html">"Somalia Country Studies"</a>. <i>Federal Research Division of Library of Congress</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Federal+Research+Division+of+Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Somalia+Country+Studies&rft.date=2005-11-09&rft.aulast=Samatar+%28ed.%29&rft.aufirst=Said+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flcweb2.loc.gov%2Ffrd%2Fcs%2Fsotoc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: extra text: authors list">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Aidid, Mohamed Farrah</a>; Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Somalia.html?id=gaphQgAACAAJ"><i>Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times</i></a>. Civic Webs Virtual Library. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780706980042" title="Special:BookSources/9780706980042"><bdi>9780706980042</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somalia%3A+From+The+Dawn+of+Civilization+To+The+Modern+Times&rft.pub=Civic+Webs+Virtual+Library&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780706980042&rft.aulast=Aidid&rft.aufirst=Mohamed+Farrah&rft.au=Dr.+Satya+Pal+Ruhela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FSomalia.html%3Fid%3DgaphQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Aidid, Mohamed Farrah; Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela (1993). <i>Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times</i>. India: Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7069-8004-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7069-8004-2"><bdi>0-7069-8004-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somalia%3A+From+The+Dawn+of+Civilization+To+The+Modern+Times&rft.place=India&rft.pub=Vikas+Publishing+House+PVT+LTD&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-7069-8004-2&rft.aulast=Aidid&rft.aufirst=Mohamed+Farrah&rft.au=Dr.+Satya+Pal+Ruhela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Somalia" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Somalia_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Somalia_topics" title="Template:Somalia topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Somalia_topics" title="Template talk:Somalia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Somalia_topics&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Somalia_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_Somalia-related_articles" title="Index of Somalia-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laas_Geel" title="Laas Geel">Laas Geel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Walashma_dynasty" title="Walashma dynasty">Walashma dynasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_the_Geledi" title="Sultanate of the Geledi">Sultanate of the Geledi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Majeerteen_Sultanate" title="Majeerteen Sultanate">Majeerteen Sultanate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sultanate_of_Hobyo" title="Sultanate of Hobyo">Sultanate of Hobyo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dervish_movement_(Somali)" title="Dervish movement (Somali)">Dervish movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_Somaliland" title="Trust Territory of Somaliland">Trust Territory of Somaliland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Rebellion <span style="font-size:85%;">(1986–1992)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Somalia" title="Piracy off the coast of Somalia">Piracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Civil War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somalia_War_(2006%E2%80%932009)" title="Somalia War (2006–2009)"><span style="font-size:85%;">Ethiopian intervention (2006–2009)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Civil_War_(2009%E2%80%93present)" title="Somali Civil War (2009–present)"><span style="font-size:85%;">(2009–present)</span></a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Maritime</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_history_of_Somalia" title="Military history of Somalia">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Somalia" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Somalia">Postal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia" title="Coat of arms of Somalia"><img alt="Coat of arms of Somalia.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="81" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg/200px-Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geography_of_Somalia" title="Geography of Somalia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Somalia" title="List of cities in Somalia">Cities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate of Somalia">Climate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wildlife_of_Somalia" title="Wildlife of Somalia">Wildlife</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia">Greater Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guardafui_Channel" title="Guardafui Channel">Guardafui Channel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hafun" title="Hafun">Hafun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_Somalia" title="Category:Waterfalls of Somalia">Waterfalls</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iskushuban" title="Iskushuban">Iskushuban</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lamadaya" title="Lamadaya">Lamadaya</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_Somalia" title="Category:Mountain ranges of Somalia">Mountain ranges</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Golis_Mountains" title="Golis Mountains">Golis Mountains</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cal_Madow" title="Cal Madow">Cal Madow</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ogo_Mountains" title="Ogo Mountains">Ogo Mountains</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Somalia" title="Category:Mountains of Somalia">Mountains</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_Shimbiris" title="Mount Shimbiris">Shimbiris</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_Bahaya" title="Mount Bahaya">Bahaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dul_Madoba" title="Dul Madoba">Dul Madoba</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Islands_of_Somalia" title="Category:Islands of Somalia">Island</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sa%27ad_ad-Din_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'ad ad-Din Islands">Sa'ad ad-Din Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bajuni_Islands" title="Bajuni Islands">Bajuni Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Somalia" title="Administrative divisions of Somalia">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Awdal" title="Awdal">Awdal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bakool" title="Bakool">Bakool</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Banaadir" title="Banaadir">Banaadir</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bari,_Somalia" title="Bari, Somalia">Bari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bay,_Somalia" title="Bay, Somalia">Bay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galguduud" title="Galguduud">Galguduud</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gedo" title="Gedo">Gedo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hiran,_Somalia" title="Hiran, Somalia">Hiran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Juba" title="Middle Juba">Middle Juba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lower_Juba" title="Lower Juba">Lower Juba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mudug" title="Mudug">Mudug</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nugal,_Somalia" title="Nugal, Somalia">Nugal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanaag" title="Sanaag">Sanaag</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Shebelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Shebelle">Middle Shebelle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lower_Shebelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Shebelle">Lower Shebelle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sool,_Somalia" title="Sool, Somalia">Sool</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Togdheer" title="Togdheer">Togdheer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Woqooyi_Galbeed" title="Woqooyi Galbeed">Woqooyi Galbeed</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/States_and_regions_of_Somalia" title="States and regions of Somalia">States</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galmudug" title="Galmudug">Galmudug</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hirshabelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hirshabelle">Hirshabelle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jubaland" title="Jubaland">Jubaland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puntland" title="Puntland">Puntland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_West_State_of_Somalia" title="South West State of Somalia">South West Somalia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_Somalia" title="Politics of Somalia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cabinet_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet of Somalia">Cabinet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_Somalia" title="Constitution of Somalia">Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elections_in_Somalia" title="Elections in Somalia">Elections</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Somalia" title="Foreign relations of Somalia">Foreign relations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Government_of_Somalia" title="Federal Government of Somalia">Government</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_rights_in_Somalia" title="Human rights in Somalia">Human rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Somalia" title="LGBT rights in Somalia">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judiciary_of_Somalia" title="Judiciary of Somalia">Judiciary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Law <span style="font-size:85%;">(<i>Xeer</i>)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_Armed_Forces" title="Somali Armed Forces">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Somalia" title="Federal Parliament of Somalia">Parliament</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Somalia" title="List of political parties in Somalia">Political parties</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_Somalia" title="President of Somalia">President</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Somalia" title="List of presidents of Somalia">List</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">Prime Minister</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">List</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Somalia" title="Economy of Somalia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Somalia" title="Agriculture in Somalia">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Somalia" title="Central Bank of Somalia">Central Bank</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Somalia" title="List of companies of Somalia">Companies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_history_of_Somalia" title="Economic history of Somalia">Economic history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_Somalia" title="Exclusive economic zone of Somalia">EEZ</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mineral_industry_of_Somalia" title="Mineral industry of Somalia">Mineral industry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oil_exploration_in_Puntland" title="Oil exploration in Puntland">Oil industry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_shilling" title="Somali shilling">Shilling <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communications_in_Somalia" title="Communications in Somalia">Communications</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_Somalia" title="Tourism in Somalia">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transport_in_Somalia" title="Transport in Somalia">Transportation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Somali_society" title="Category:Somali society">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qolobaa_Calankeed" title="Qolobaa Calankeed">Anthem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Child_marriage_in_Somalia" title="Child marriage in Somalia">Child marriage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia" title="Coat of arms of Somalia">Coat of arms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_Somalia" title="Demographics of Somalia">Demographics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_diaspora" title="Somali diaspora">Diaspora</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education_in_Somalia" title="Education in Somalia">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_Somalia" title="Flag of Somalia">Flag</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polygamy_in_Somalia" title="Polygamy in Somalia">Polygamy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Somalia" title="Public holidays in Somalia">Public holidays</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women_in_Somalia" title="Women in Somalia">Women</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_Somalia" title="Culture of Somalia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_art" title="Somali art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinema_of_Somalia" title="Cinema of Somalia">Cinema</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somali_cuisine" title="Somali cuisine">Cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Somalian_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalian literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Media_of_Somalia" title="Media of Somalia">Media</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_of_Somalia" title="Music of Somalia">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sports_in_Somalia" title="Sports in Somalia">Sports</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Languages_of_Somalia" title="Languages of Somalia">Languages</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>
<ul><li><img alt="Wikipedia book" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/16px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Wikipedia book" width="16" height="16" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/23px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/31px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book:Somalia" title="Book:Somalia">Book</a></li>
<li><img alt="Category" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Somalia" title="Category:Somalia">Category</a></li>
<li><img alt="Portal" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Somalia" title="Portal:Somalia">Portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:History_of_Africa" title="Template:History of Africa"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Africa" title="Template talk:History of Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Africa&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">History of Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Algeria" title="History of Algeria">Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Angola" title="History of Angola">Angola</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Benin" title="History of Benin">Benin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Botswana" title="History of Botswana">Botswana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Burkina_Faso" title="History of Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Burundi" title="History of Burundi">Burundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Cameroon" title="History of Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Cape_Verde" title="History of Cape Verde">Cape Verde (Cabo Verde)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Central_African_Republic" title="History of the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Chad" title="History of Chad">Chad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Comoros" title="History of the Comoros">Comoros</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Djibouti" title="History of Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Equatorial_Guinea" title="History of Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Eritrea" title="History of Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Eswatini" title="History of Eswatini">Eswatini (Swaziland)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Ethiopia" title="History of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Gabon" title="History of Gabon">Gabon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Gambia" title="History of the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Ghana" title="History of Ghana">Ghana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Guinea" title="History of Guinea">Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Ivory_Coast" title="History of Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Kenya" title="History of Kenya">Kenya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Lesotho" title="History of Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Liberia" title="History of Liberia">Liberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Libya" title="History of Libya">Libya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Madagascar" title="History of Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Malawi" title="History of Malawi">Malawi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Mali" title="History of Mali">Mali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Mauritania" title="History of Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Mauritius" title="History of Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Morocco</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Mozambique" title="History of Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Namibia" title="History of Namibia">Namibia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Niger" title="History of Niger">Niger</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Nigeria" title="History of Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Rwanda" title="History of Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Senegal" title="History of Senegal">Senegal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Seychelles" title="History of Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Sierra_Leone" title="History of Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_South_Africa" title="History of South Africa">South Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_South_Sudan" title="History of South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Sudan" title="History of Sudan">Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Tanzania" title="History of Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Togo" title="History of Togo">Togo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Tunisia" title="History of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Uganda" title="History of Uganda">Uganda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Zambia" title="History of Zambia">Zambia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Zimbabwe" title="History of Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Somaliland" title="History of Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Canary_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Ceuta" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ceuta">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Melilla" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Melilla">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Madeira" title="History of Madeira">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Mayotte" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Mayotte">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_R%C3%A9union" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Réunion">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Saint_Helena" title="History of Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Ascension_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="History of Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Western_Sahara" title="History of Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li></ul>
</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1584116635 |
