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'{{slavery}} {{short description|Slavery during the medieval period in Europe}} Slavery became common within much of Europe during the [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]] and it continued into the [[Middle Ages]]. The [[Byzantine–Ottoman wars]] (1265–1479) and the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]] (14th to 20th centuries) resulted in the capture of large numbers of [[Christians|Christian]] slaves. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]], [[France|French]], [[Spain|Spanish]], [[Portugal|Portuguese]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]], [[Arabs]] and a number of [[West African]] kingdoms played a prominent role in the [[Atlantic slave trade]], especially after 1600. In the [[Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire]], slaves became quite rare by the first half of the 7th century<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qlU37xo9LeUC|quote=slavery.|title=Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries|first1=Aleksandr Petrovich|last1=Kazhdan|first2=Ann Wharton|last2=Epstein|first3=Annabel Jane|last3=Wharton|date=1 January 1985|publisher=University of California Press|accessdate=24 December 2019|via=Internet Archive|isbn=9780520051294}}</ref> A shift in the view of slavery is noticed, which by the 10th century transformed gradually a slave-object into a slave-subject.<ref>Youval Rotman, "Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World", transl. by Jane Marie Todd, Cambridge, Massachusetts – London, Harvard University Press 2009. Book presentation in a) [http://www.mediterraneanchronicle.org/datafiles/file/MC1_294.pdf Nikolaos Linardos (University of Athens), , ''Mediterranean Chronicle'' 1 (2011) pp. 281, 282], b) [https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/115/5/1513/42872 Alice Rio, ''American Historical Review'', Vol. 115, Issue 5, 2010, pp. 1513–1514]</ref> From 11th century, semi-feudal relations largely replaced slavery, seen as "an evil contrary to nature, created by man's selfishness", although slavery was permitted by the law.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZW9DjTAox6EC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=Orthodox&f=false|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|first=W. G.|last=Clarence-Smith|date=24 December 2006|publisher=C. Hurst & Company|accessdate=24 December 2019|via=Google Books|isbn=9781850657088}}</ref> The major European languages, including English, used variations of the word "[[:wikt:slave|slave]]", in references to [[Slavic people|Slavic]] laborers of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]].<ref>{{Citation|title=slave |encyclopedia=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=slave |accessdate=26 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Merriam-Webster's |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/slave |accessdate=18 August 2009}}</ref> ==Early Middle Ages== [[File:Costumes of Slaves or Serfs from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries.png|thumb|Costumes of slaves or serfs, from the sixth to the twelfth centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel, from original documents in the great libraries of Europe.]] The chaos following the [[barbarian invasions]] of the [[Roman Empire]] made the taking of slaves habitual throughout Europe in the early Middle Ages. Roman practices continued in many areas {{ndash}} the [[Welsh laws]] of [[Hywel the Good]] included provisions dealing with slaves {{ndash}} and Germanic laws provided for the enslavement of criminals, as when the [[Visigothic Code]] prescribed enslavement for those who could not pay the financial penalty for their crime<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg4-4.htm#l1 | title=Book IV, Title IV: The Visigothic Code: (Forum judicum)}}</ref> and as a punishment for certain other crimes.<ref>[http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-1.htm#l3], [http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-3.htm#l3], & [http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-4.htm#l1].</ref> Such criminals would become slaves to their victims, often with their property. As these peoples [[christianization of Europe|Christianized]], the church worked more actively to reduce the practice of holding coreligionists in bondage. [[St. Patrick]], who himself was captured and enslaved at one time, protested an attack that enslaved newly baptized Christians in his [[:q:Saint Patrick#Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus (c. 450)|letter to the soldiers of Coroticus]]. The restoration of order and the growing power of the church slowly transmuted the late Roman slave system of Diocletian into [[serfdom]].{{Citation Needed|date=November 2019}} Another major factor was the rise of [[Bathilde]], queen of the Franks, who had been enslaved before marrying [[Clovis II]]. When she became regent, her government outlawed slave-trading of Christians throughout the Merovingian empire.<ref>Paul Fouracre, Richard A. Gerberding (1996), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uifpAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA111 Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640-720]'', Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|0-7190-4791-9}}, p.&nbsp;97–99 & 111.</ref> About 10% of [[England]]'s population entered in the [[Domesday Book]] (1086) were slaves,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.domesdaybook.net/helpfiles/hs2970.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227083435/http://www.domesdaybook.net/helpfiles/hs2970.htm|url-status=dead|title=Domesday Book Slave|archivedate=27 February 2009|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> despite [[chattel slavery]] of English Christians being nominally discontinued after the [[Norman conquest of England|1066 conquest]]. It is difficult to be certain about slave numbers, however, since the old Roman word for slave (''servus'') continued to be applied to people with a status that was later to be called "serf".<ref name="PAF">Perry Anderson, ''Passages from antiquity to feudalism'' (1996) p 141</ref> ==Slave trade== <!-- Demand !--> Demand from the Islamic world dominated the slave trade in medieval Europe.<ref name="dictslave">''Slavery, Slave Trade.'' ed. Strayer, Joseph R. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Volume 11. New York: Scribner, 1982. {{ISBN|978-0684190730}}</ref><ref name="britannicasurvey">{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey The international slave trade|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Arabs and Slave Trade">{{Cite web|url=https://www.answering-islam.org/ReachOut/slavetrade.html|title=Arabs and Slave Trade|website=www.answering-islam.org|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="battuta">{{Cite web|url=http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/5anatolia.html|title=Battuta's Trip: Anatolia (Turkey) 1330–1331|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> For most of that time, however, sale of Christian slaves to non-Christians was banned.{{Citation needed|date=February 2018}} In the ''[[pactum Lotharii]]'' of 840 between [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] and the [[Carolingian Empire]], Venice promised not to buy Christian slaves in the Empire, and not to sell Christian slaves to Muslims.<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="lotharii">Il ''pactum Lotharii'' del 840 Cessi, Roberto. (1939 - 1940) - In: Atti. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Classe di Scienze Morali e Lettere Ser. 2, vol. 99 (1939-40) p. 11–49</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arielcaliban.org/PX_pacta_veneta.pdf|title=Pacta Veneta. A chronology in four steps. PAX TIBI MARCE Venice: government, law, jurisprudence Venezia: istituzioni, diritto, giurisprudenza|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> The Church prohibited the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands, for example in the Council of Koblenz in 922, the [[Council of London (1102)|Council of London]] in 1102, and the Council of Armagh in 1171.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1171latrsale.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> As a result, most Christian slave merchants focused on moving slaves from non-Christian areas to Muslim Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East, and most non-Christian merchants, although not bound by the Church's rules, focused on Muslim markets as well.<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="britannicasurvey"/><ref name="Arabs and Slave Trade"/><ref name="battuta"/> Arabic silver [[dirham]]s, presumably exchanged for slaves, are plentiful in eastern Europe and Southern Sweden, indicating trade routes from Slavic to Muslim territory.<ref name="dirhams">Jankowiak, Marek. Dirhams for slaves. Investigating the Slavic slave trade in the tenth century.[https://www.academia.edu/1764468/Dirhams_for_slaves._Investigating_the_Slavic_slave_trade_in_the_tenth_century]</ref> === Italian merchants === By the reign of [[Pope Zachary]] (741–752), [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] had established a thriving slave trade, buying in Italy, amongst other places, and selling to the Moors in Northern Africa (Zacharias himself reportedly forbade such traffic out of Rome).<ref>Duchesne, Louis Marie Olivier. ''XCIII Zacharias (741–752).'' Le Liber pontificalis; texte, introduction et commentaire par L. Duchesne (Volume 1). 1886. p. 426–439. [https://archive.org/details/duchesne01 Available on archive.org]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15743b.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Zachary|website=www.newadvent.org|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>Reverend Alban Butler. "St. Zachary, Pope and Confessor". ''The Lives of the Saints'', Volume 3. 1866. [http://www.bartleby.com/210/3/152.html]</ref> When the sale of Christians to Muslims was banned (''[[pactum Lotharii]]''<ref name="lotharii"/>), the Venetians began to sell Slavs and other Eastern European non-Christian slaves in greater numbers. Caravans of slaves traveled from Eastern Europe, through Alpine passes in Austria, to reach Venice. [[Raffelstetten customs regulations|A record of tolls paid in Raffelstetten (903–906)]], near St. Florian on the Danube, describes such merchants. Some are Slavic themselves, from Bohemia and the Kievan Rus'. They had come from [[Kiev]] through [[Przemyśl]], [[Kraków]], [[Prague]], and [[Bohemia]]. The same record values [[Ancillae| female slaves]] at a ''[[Tremissis|tremissa]]'' (about 1.5 grams of gold or roughly {{frac|1|3}} of a [[dinar]]) and male slaves, who were more numerous, at a ''saiga'' (which is much less).<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="rafftolls">MGH, Leges, Capitularia regum Francorum, II, ed. by A. Boretius, Hanovre, 1890, p. 250–252 [https://archive.org/details/capitulariaregum01bore (available on-line)].</ref> Eunuchs were especially valuable, and "castration houses" arose in Venice, as well as other prominent slave markets, to meet this demand.<ref name="dirhams"/><ref name="valante">Mary A. Valante, "Castrating Monks: Vikings, the Slave Trade, and the Value of Eunuchs", in ''Castration and Culture in the Middle Ages'', ed. Larissa Tracy [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr]</ref> Venice was far from the only slave trading hub in Italy. Southern Italy boasted slaves from distant regions, including Greece, Bulgaria, Armenia, and Slavic regions. During the 9th and 10th centuries, [[Amalfi]] was a major exporter of slaves to North Africa.<ref name="dictslave"/> [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], along with Venice, dominated the trade in the Eastern Mediterranean beginning in the 12th century, and in the Black Sea beginning in the 13th century. They sold both [[Balts|Baltic]] and [[Slavs|Slavic]] slaves, as well as [[Armenians]], [[Circassians]], [[Georgians]], [[Turkish people|Turks]] and other ethnic groups of the Black Sea and [[Caucasus]], to the Muslim nations of the Middle East.<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PA45&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800]''. Robert Davis (2004). p.45. {{ISBN|1-4039-4551-9}}.</ref> Genoa primarily managed the slave trade from Crimea to Mamluk [[Egypt]], until the 13th century, when increasing Venetian control over the Eastern Mediterranean allowed Venice to dominate that market.<ref name="lughod">Janet L. Abu-Lughod, ''Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350'' Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0195067746}}</ref> Between 1414 and 1423 alone, at least 10,000 slaves were sold in Venice.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081223185836/http://www.roxie.org/books/shoulders/ch02-labor.html Rawlins, Gregory J.E. Rebooting Reality — Chapter 2, Labor (archive from December 23, 2008)]</ref> === Jewish merchants === {{seealso|Jewish views on slavery#Post-Talmud to 1800s}}<!--don't remove on title alone, this section discusses relevant content--> Records of long-distance Jewish slave merchants date at least as far back as 492, when [[Pope Gelasius I|Pope Gelasius]] permitted [[Jew]]s to import non-Christian slaves into Italy, at the request of a Jewish friend from [[Telesina]].<ref>Graetz, H. History of the Jews, volume 3: Chapter 2, Jews in Europe, Philadelphia, The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1894 [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43337/43337-h/43337-h.htm#CHAPTER_II]</ref><ref>Abrahams, Israel. Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. New York. The Macmillan Company, 1919. pp. 98–100 [https://archive.org/details/jewishlifeinthem008412mbp]</ref><ref name="jewencyclopedia">{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13798-slave-trade|title=SLAVE-TRADE - JewishEncyclopedia.com|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> By the turn of the 6th to the 7th century, Jews had become the chief slave traders in Italy, and were active in [[Frankish Gaul|Gallic]] territories. Pope Gregory the Great issued a ban on Jews possessing Christian slaves, lest the slaves convert to Judaism.<ref name="jewencyclopedia"/><ref>''Epistles of Saint Gregory the Great'', Book IX 109–110, Book IV 21, Book IX 36 [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3602.htm]</ref> By the 9th and 10th centuries, Jewish merchants, sometimes called [[Radhanites]], were a major force in the slave trade continent-wide.<ref name="dictslave"/><ref>[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=849&letter=S "Slave Trade"]. ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''</ref><ref name="radhanites">Olivia Remie Constable (1996). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M-CVlhPb21MC&pg=PA203&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f= Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500]''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–204. {{ISBN|0521565030}}</ref> Jews were one of the few groups who could move and trade between the Christian and Islamic worlds.<ref name="radhanites"/> Ibn Khordadbeh observed and recorded routes of Jewish merchants in his [[Book of Roads and Kingdoms (ibn Khordadbeh)|Book of Roads and Kingdoms]] from the South of France to Spain, carrying (amongst other things) female slaves, eunuch slaves, and young slave boys. He also notes Jews purchasing Slavic slaves in Prague.<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="jewencyclopedia"/><ref name="khordadbeh">{{Cite web|url=http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/AlwaraqSrv/bookpage?book=54&session=ABBBVFAGFGFHAAWER&fkey=2&page=1&option=1|title=المسالك والممالك - resource for arabic books|website=www.alwaraq.net|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> Letters of [[Agobard]], archbishop of Lyons (816–840),<ref>Anna Beth Langenwalter, AGOBARD OF LYON: AN EXPLORATION OF CAROLINGIAN JEWISH-CHRISTIAN RELATIONS. Ph.D. Thesis, Page 28 [https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/19051/1/Langenwalter_Anna_B_200911_PhD_thesis.pdf]</ref><ref>Radl, Karl. An English Translation of Agobard of Lyon 'De Baptismo Judaicorum Mancipiorum' 24 March 2013 [http://semiticcontroversies.blogspot.com/2013/03/an-english-translation-of-agobard-of.html?view=snapshot]</ref><ref>North, W.L. Medieval Sourcebook: Agobard of Lyon: On the Insolence of the Jews To Louis the Pious (826/827) [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/agobard-insolence.asp]</ref><ref>North, W.L. ''Medieval Sourcebook: Agobard of Lyon: On the Baptism of Slaves Belonging to Jews (to Adalard, Wala, and Helisachar)'' [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/agobard-baptism.asp]</ref> acts of the emperor [[Louis the Pious]],<ref>[[Thegan of Trier]], ''[[Gesta Hludowici imperatoris]]'', tr. Ernst Tremp [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00000712/image_12]</ref><ref>[[Vita Hludovici]] [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0459/_INDEX.HTM]</ref> and the seventy-fifth canon of the Council of Meaux of 845 confirms the existence of a route used by Jewish traders with Slavic slaves through the Alps to Lyon, to Southern France, to Spain.<ref name="dictslave"/> Toll records from [[Walenstadt]] in 842–843 indicate another trade route, through Switzerland, the [[Septimer Pass|Septimer]] and [[Splügen Pass|Splügen]] passes, to Venice, and from there to North Africa.<ref name="dictslave"/> As German rulers of Saxon dynasties took over the enslavement (and slave trade) of Slavs in the 10th century, Jewish merchants bought slaves at the Elbe, sending caravans into the valley of the Rhine. Many of these slaves were taken to Verdun, which had close trade relations with Spain. Many would be castrated and sold as eunuchs as well.<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="valante"/> The Jewish population of Crimea was a very important factor in the trade in slaves and captives of the Crimean Khanate (Tatars) in the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.<ref>[https://is.muni.cz/el/1421/podzim2013/AEB_37/um/44673887/Kizilov_JJS.pdf Mikhail Kizilov, "Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards: The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captives in the Crimean Khanate", ''J.of Jewish Studies'', vol. lviii, no. 2, 2007, pp 18, 19]</ref> Jews [[Jewish views on slavery#Modern era|would later become highly influential in the European slave trade]], reaching their apex from the 16th to 19th centuries.<ref name="dictslave"/> === Iberia === A ready market, especially for men of fighting age, could be found in [[Umayyad Spain]], with its need for supplies of new [[mamelukes]]. <blockquote>[[Al-Hakam I|Al-Hakam]] was the first monarch of this family who surrounded his throne with a certain splendour and magnificence. He increased the number of mamelukes (slave soldiers) until they amounted to 5,000 horse and 1,000 foot. ... he increased the number of his slaves, eunuchs and servants; had a bodyguard of cavalry always stationed at the gate of his palace and surrounded his person with a guard of mamelukes .... these mamelukes were called Al-l;Iaras (the Guard) owing to their all being Christians or foreigners. They occupied two large barracks, with stables for their horses.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book|title=Early Medieval Spain - Springer|last=Collins|first=Roger|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24135-4|year = 1995|isbn = 978-0-333-64171-2}}</ref></blockquote> According to [[Roger Collins]] although the role of the Vikings in the slave trade in Iberia remains largely hypothetical, their depredations are clearly recorded. Raids on [[Al-Andalus|AlAndalus]] by Vikings are reported in the years 844, 859, 966 and 971, conforming to the general pattern of such activity concentrating in the mid ninth and late tenth centuries.<ref name="auto1"/> [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]] imported an enormous number{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=May 2016}} of slaves, as well as serving as a staging point for Muslim and Jewish merchants to market slaves to the rest of the Islamic world.<ref name="radhanites" /> During the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] (912–961), there were at first 3,750, then 6,087, and finally 13,750 [[Saqaliba]], or Slavic slaves, at [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], capital of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. [[Ibn Hawqal]], Ibrahim al-Qarawi, and Bishop [[Liutprand of Cremona]] note that the Jewish merchants of Verdun specialized in castrating slaves, to be sold as eunuch saqaliba, which were enormously popular{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=May 2016}} in Muslim Spain.<ref name="dictslave" /> <ref name="valante" /> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://apps.brepolis.net/LTool/Entrance.aspx?w=12&a=%2fllta%2fpages%2fToc.aspx|title=BREPOLiS - Login|website=apps.brepolis.net|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> === Vikings === During the [[Vikings|Viking]] age (793 – approximately 1100), the [[Norsemen|Norse]] raiders often captured and enslaved militarily weaker peoples they encountered. The [[Nordic countries]] called their slaves ''[[thrall]]s'' ([[Old Norse]]: ''Þræll'').<ref name="vikings">{{cite book|author=Junius P Rodriguez, Ph.D.|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. vol 1. A – K|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA674|year=1997|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=674|isbn=9780874368857}}</ref> The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many [[Franks]], [[Anglo-Saxons]], and [[Celts]]. Many Irish slaves travelled in expeditions for the colonization of [[Iceland]].<ref>See [http://www.mnh.si.edu/vikings/voyage/subset/iceland/history.html Iceland History]</ref> Raids on monasteries provided a source of young, educated slaves who could be sold in Venice or Byzantium for high prices. Scandinavian trade centers stretched eastwards from [[Hedeby]] in Denmark and [[Birka]] in Sweden to [[Staraya Ladoga]] in northern Russia before the end of the 8th century.<ref name="valante"/> This traffic continued into the 9th century as Scandinavians founded more trade centers at Kaupang in southwestern Norway and Novgorod, farther south than Staraya Ladoga, and Kiev, farther south still and closer to Byzantium. Dublin and other northwestern European Viking settlements were established as gateways through which captives were traded northwards. In the [[Laxdæla saga]], for example, a Rus merchant attends a fair in the Brenn Isles in Sweden selling female slaves from northwestern Europe.<ref name="valante"/> The Norse also took German, Baltic, Slavic and Latin slaves. The 10th-century Persian traveller [[Ibn Rustah]] described how Swedish Vikings, the [[Varangians]] or [[Rus' Khaganate|Rus]], terrorized and enslaved the [[East Slavs|Slavs]] taken in their raids along the Volga River.<ref>Niels Skyum-Nielsen, "Nordic Slavery in an International Context," ''Medieval Scandinavia'' 11 (1978–79) 126–48</ref> Slaves were often sold south, to Byzantine or Muslim buyers, via paths such as the [[Volga trade route]]. [[Ahmad ibn Fadlan]] of Baghdad provides an account of the other end of this trade route, namely of [[Volga Vikings]] selling Slavic Slaves to middle-eastern merchants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uib.no/jais/v003ht/03-001-025Montgom1.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001082748/http://www.uib.no/jais/v003ht/03-001-025Montgom1.htm|url-status=dead|title=James E. Montgomery, IBN FAḌLĀN AND THE RŪSIYYAH|archivedate=1 October 2013|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> Finland proved another source for Viking slave raids.<ref>[http://www.medievalists.net/2014/04/17/medieval-slave-traders-go-finland/ Why did Medieval Slave Traders go to Finland?]</ref> Slaves from Finland or Baltic states were traded as far as central Asia.<ref>Medieval slave trade routes in Eastern Europe extended from Finland and the Baltic Countries to Central Asia [http://www.uef.fi/en/-/ita-euroopan-orjakaupan-reitit-ulottuivat-keskiajalla-suomesta-ja-baltiasta-keski-aasiaan]</ref><ref>Korpela, Jukka. The Baltic Finnic People in the Medieval and Pre-Modern Eastern European Slave Trade, in 'Russian History, Volume 41, Issue 1' p. 85-117 [http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/18763316-04101006]</ref> === Mongols === The [[Mongol invasions]] and conquests in the 13th century added a new force in the slave trade. The Mongols enslaved skilled individuals, [[women]] and children and marched them to [[Karakorum]] or [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]], whence they were sold throughout [[Eurasia]]. Many of these slaves were shipped to the slave market in [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/rubruck.html|title=William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols|website=depts.washington.edu|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://geocities.com/medievalnovgorod/nov10.html|title=Life in 13th Century Novgorod -- Women and Class Structure|date=26 October 2009|accessdate=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026193520/http://geocities.com/medievalnovgorod/nov10.html|archive-date=26 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sras.org/news2.phtml?m=477|title=The Effects of the Mongol Empire on Russia|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] merchants in Crimea were involved in the slave trade with the [[Golden Horde]].<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="lughod"/> In 1441, [[Haci I Giray]] declared independence from the Golden Horde and established the [[Crimean Khanate]]. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=May 2016}} slave trade with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the Middle East. In a process called the "harvesting of the [[steppe]]", they enslaved many Slavic peasants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.avalanchepress.com/Soldier_Khan.php|title=Avalanche Press|website=www.avalanchepress.com|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> === British Isles === As a commonly traded commodity in the British Isles, like cattle, slaves could become a form of internal or trans-border currency.<ref> {{cite book |last1 = Campbelly |first1 = Jamesetta |chapter = Part I: The Romans to the Norman Conquest, 500 BC – AD 1066 |editor1-last = Clark |editor1-first = Jonathan |editor1-link = J. C. D. Clark |title = A World by Itself: A History of the British Isles |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UN8CAR5EEmgC |publisher = Random House |date = 2011 |page = [https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/23 23] |isbn = 9780712664967 |accessdate = 2014-02-23 |quote = Whatever currency was in use [in Ireland in antiquity], it was not coin — as in other pre-coin economies, there was a system of conventional valuations in which female slaves, for example, were important units. |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/23 }} </ref><ref> {{cite book | last1 = Keenan | first1 = Desmond | title = The True Origins of Irish Society | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=k2Ol_XFFH_oC | publisher = Xlibris Corporation | date = 2004 | page = 152 | isbn = 9781465318695 | accessdate = 2014-02-23 | quote = For the slave raiders, slaves were a valuable currency. You could sell them to buy wine and other luxury goods. There was always a market for them. There was always an unending supply of them, if only you were stronger than your neighbour. [...] For the Irish, slave-raiding was a lucrative extension to the cattle-raiding. }} </ref> [[William the Conqueror]] banned the exporting of slaves from England, limiting the nation's participation in the slave trade.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/will1-lawsb.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> === Christians holding Muslim slaves === Although the primary flow of slaves was toward Muslim countries,{{Elucidate|date=January 2017|reason=How can one come to such conclusion and present it as benign intuitive matter?}} Christians did acquire Muslim slaves; in Southern France, in the 13th century, "the enslavement of Muslim captives was still fairly common".<ref>{{cite book|title=Aucassin and Nicolette|first=Robert S. |last=Sturges|publisher=Michigan State UP|isbn=9781611861570|year=2015|location=East Lansing|page=xv}}</ref> There are records, for example, of Saracen slave girls sold in [[Marseilles]] in 1248,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1248serfs5.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> a date which coincided with the fall of [[Seville]] and its surrounding area, to raiding Christian crusaders, an event during which a large number of Muslim women from this area, were enslaved as war booty, as it has been recorded in some Arabic poetry, notably by the poet [[Salih ben Sharif al-Rundi|al-Rundi]], who was contemporary to the events. Christians also sold [[Islam by country|Muslim]] slaves captured in war. The Order of the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]] attacked pirates and Muslim shipping, and their base became a center for slave trading, selling captured [[North Africans]] and [[Turkish people|Turks]]. [[Malta]] remained a slave market until well into the late 18th century. One thousand slaves were required to man the galleys (ships) of the Order.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A medical service for slaves in Malta during the rule of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem.|first=P|last=Cassar|date=24 July 1968|journal=Medical History|volume=12|issue=3|pages=270–277|pmid=4875614|pmc=1033829|doi = 10.1017/s0025727300013314}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html |title=Brief History of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem |publisher=Hmml.org |date=23 September 2010 |accessdate=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112130548/http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html |archivedate=12 January 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> === Slave trade at the close of the Middle Ages === As more and more of Europe [[Christianization|Christianized]], and open hostilities between Christian and Muslim nations intensified, large-scale slave trade moved to more distant sources. Sending slaves to Egypt, for example, was forbidden by the papacy in 1317, 1323, 1329, 1338, and, finally, 1425, as slaves sent to Egypt would often become soldiers, and end up fighting their former Christian owners. Although the repeated bans indicate that such trade still occurred, they also indicate that it became less desirable.<ref name="dictslave"/> In the 16th century, African slaves replaced almost all other ethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe.<ref>Klein, Herbert. ''The Atlantic Slave Trade''.</ref> ==Slavery in law== {{refimprove section|date=April 2013}} ===Secular law=== Slavery was heavily regulated in [[Roman law]], which was reorganized in the [[Byzantine Empire]] by [[Justinian I]] as the [[Corpus Iuris Civilis]]. Although the Corpus was lost to the West for centuries, it was rediscovered in the 11th and 12th centuries, and led to the foundation of law schools in Italy and France. According to the Corpus, the natural state of humanity is freedom, but the "law of nations" may supersede natural law and reduce certain people to slavery. The basic definition of slave in Romano-Byzantine law was:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/535institutes.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> *anyone whose mother was a slave *anyone who has been captured in battle *anyone who has sold himself to pay a debt It was, however, possible to become a freedman or a full citizen; the Corpus, like Roman law, had extensive and complicated rules for [[manumission]] of slaves. The slave trade in England was officially abolished in 1102.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britsattheirbest.com/freedom/f_time_12th_century.htm|title=BRITISH HISTORY THE STORY of FREEDOM LIBERTY! THE TIMELINE Freedom & justice go hand in hand|website=www.britsattheirbest.com|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> In [[Poland]] slavery was forbidden in the 15th century; it was replaced by the second enserfment. In [[Lithuania]], slavery was formally abolished in 1588.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> ===Canon law=== In fact, there was an explicit legal justification given for the enslavement of Muslims, found in the [[Decretum Gratiani]] and later expanded upon by the 14th century jurist [[Oldradus de Ponte]]: the Bible states that [[Hagar (Bible)|Hagar]], the slave girl of [[Abraham]], was beaten and cast out by Abraham's wife [[Sarah]]. The Decretum, like the Corpus, defined a slave as anyone whose mother was a slave. Otherwise, the canons were concerned with slavery only in ecclesiastical contexts: slaves were not permitted to marry or to be ordained as clergy. ==Slavery in the Byzantine Empire== {{main article|Slavery in the Byzantine Empire}} ==Slavery in the Crusader states== In the [[crusade]]r [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], founded in 1099, at most 120,000 Franks ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians.<ref>Benjamin Z. Kedar, "The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant", in ''The Crusades: The Essential Readings'', ed. [[Thomas F. Madden]], Blackwell, 2002, p. 244. Originally published in ''Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100–1300'', ed. James M. Powell, Princeton University Press, 1990. Kedar quotes his numbers from [[Joshua Prawer]], ''Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem'', tr. G. Nahon, Paris, 1969, vol. 1, pp. 498, 568-72.</ref> Following the initial invasion and conquest, sometimes accompanied by massacres or expulsions of Jews and Muslims, a peaceable co-existence between followers of the three religions prevailed.<ref>[[Christopher Tyerman]], ''God's War, A new History of the Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;226–228. quote = "Just as non-muslim communities survived under Islam, so non-Christians lived unfree but largely unmolested in Frankish outremer. After the early massacres, displacements and expulsions of Muslims and Jews from conquered cities, coexistence, rather than integration or persecution prevailed&nbsp;... At Acre, where the two faiths shared a converted mosque as well as a suburban shrine, Muslim visitors were treated fairly and efficiently. Mosques still operated openly in Tyre and elsewhere."</ref> The Crusader states inherited many slaves. To this may have been added some Muslims taken as captives of war. The Kingdom's largest city, [[Akko|Acre]], had a large slave market; however, the vast majority of Muslims and Jews remained free. The laws of Jerusalem declared that former Muslim slaves, if genuine converts to Christianity, must be freed.<ref>Christopher Tyerman, ''God's War, A new History of the Crusades,'' p. 230.</ref> In 1120, the [[Council of Nablus]] forbade sexual relations between crusaders and their female Muslim slaves:<ref name="Hans E. Mayer 1982 pp. 531-533">Hans E. Mayer, "The Concordat of Nablus" ([[Journal of Ecclesiastical History]] 33 (October 1982)), pp. 531-533.</ref> if a man raped his own slave, he would be castrated, but if he raped someone else's slave, he would be castrated and exiled from the kingdom.<ref name="Hans E. Mayer 1982 pp. 531-533"/> But Benjamin Z. Kedar argued that the canons of the Council of Nablus were in force in the 12th century but had fallen out of use by the thirteenth. Marwan Nader questions this and suggests that the canons may not have applied to the whole kingdom at all times.<ref>Benjamin Z. Kedar, ''On the origins of the earliest laws of Frankish Jerusalem: The canons of the Council of Nablus, 1120'' (''[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]]'' 74, 1999), pp. 330–331; Marwan Nader, ''Burgesses and Burgess Law in the Latin Kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus (1099–1325) (Ashgate: 2006), pg. 45.</ref> No Christian, whether Western or Eastern, was permitted by law to be sold into slavery, but this fate was as common for Muslim prisoners of war as it was for Christian prisoners taken by the Muslims. The 13th-century [[Assizes of Jerusalem]] dealt more with fugitive slaves and the punishments ascribed to them, the prohibition of slaves testifying in court, and manumission of slaves, which could be accomplished, for example, through a will, or by conversion to Christianity. Conversion was apparently used as an excuse to escape slavery by Muslims who would then continue to practise Islam; crusader lords often refused to allow them to convert, and [[Pope Gregory IX]], contrary to both the laws of Jerusalem and the canon laws that he himself was partially responsible for compiling, allowed for Muslim slaves to remain enslaved even if they had converted. ==Slavery in Iberia== ===Slavery in Al-Andalus=== {{main article|Arab slave trade}} An early economic pillar of the Islamic empire in Iberia ([[Al-Andalus]]) during the eighth century was the slave trade. Forming relations between the Umayyads, Khārijites and ‘Abbāsids, the flow of trafficked people from the main routes of the Sahara towards [[Al-Andalus]] <ref>Gaiser, A. (2014) “Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa” in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 42. </ref> served as a highly lucrative trade configuration. The archaeological evidence of human trafficking and proliferation of early trade in this case follows numismatics and materiality of text <ref>Gaiser, A. (2014) “Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa” in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 44. </ref>. This monetary structure of consistent gold influx proved to be a tenet in the development of Islamic commerce <ref>Gutierrez, J. and Valor, M. (2014) “Trade, Transport and Travel” in Valor, M. and Gutierrez, A. (eds.) The Archaeology of Medieval Spain 1100-1500, Sheffield: Equinox, pp. 124.</ref>. In this regard, the slave trade outperformed and was the most commercially successful venture for maximizing capital <ref>Gaiser, A. (2014) “Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa” in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 45. </ref>. This major change in the form of numismatics serves as a paradigm shift from the previous Visigothic economic arrangement. Additionally, it demonstrates profound change from one regional entity to another, the direct transfer of people and pure coinage from one religiously similar semi-autonomous province to another. The medieval [[Iberian Peninsula]] was the scene of episodic [[warfare]] among Muslims and Christians (although sometimes Muslims and Christians were allies). Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from [[Al-Andalus]] to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and people. For example, in a raid on [[Lisbon]] in 1189 the [[Almohad]] caliph [[Yaqub al-Mansur]] took 3,000 female and child captives, and his governor of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] took 3,000 Christian slaves in a subsequent attack upon [[Silves Municipality, Portugal|Silves]] in 1191; an offensive by [[Alfonso VIII of Castile]] in 1182 brought him over two-thousand Muslim slaves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://libro.uca.edu/rc/rc1.htm|title=Ransoming Captives, Chapter One|website=libro.uca.edu|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> ===Slavery in Christian Iberia=== Contrary to suppositions of historians such as [[Marc Bloch]], slavery thrived as an institution in medieval Christian Iberia.{{Citation needed|date=January 2016}} Slavery existed in the region under the Romans, and continued to do so under the [[Visigoths]]. From the fifth to the early 8th century, large portions of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by [[Visigothic Kingdom|Christian Visigothic Kingdoms]], whose rulers worked to codify human bondage. In the 7th century, [[Chindasuinth|King Chindasuinth]] issued the [[Visigothic Code]] (Liber Iudiciorum), to which subsequent Visigothic kings added new legislation. Although the Visigothic Kingdom collapsed in the early 8th century, portions of the Visigothic Code were still observed in parts of Spain in the following centuries. The Code, with its pronounced and frequent attention to the legal status of slaves, reveals the continuation of slavery as an institution in post-Roman Spain. The Code regulated the social conditions, behavior, and punishments of slaves in early medieval Spain. The marriage of slaves and free or freed people was prohibited. Book III, title II, iii ("Where a Freeborn Woman Marries the Slave of Another or a Freeborn Man the Female Slave of Another") stipulates that if a free woman marries another person's slave, the couple is to be separated and given 100 lashes. Furthermore, if the woman refuses to leave the slave, then she becomes the property of the slave's master. Likewise, any children born to the couple would follow the father's condition and be slaves.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Scott|first1=S.P.|title=The Visigothic Code|url=http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-2.pdf|website=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|location=Book III, Title II, Section III}}</ref> Unlike [[Roman law]], in which only slaves were liable to corporal punishment,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kamen|first=Deborah|date=2010|title=A Corpus of Inscriptions: representing slave marks in Antiquity.|journal=University of Michigan Press|volume=55|pages=95–110|jstor=41419689}}</ref> under Visigothic law, people of any social status were subject to corporal punishment. However, the physical punishment, typically beatings, administered to slaves was consistently harsher than that administered to freed or free people. Slaves could also be compelled to give testimony under torture. For example, slaves could be tortured to reveal the adultery of their masters, and it was illegal to free a slave for fear of what he or she might reveal under torture.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Scott|first1=S.P.|title=The Visigothic Code|url=http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-4.pdf|website=The Library of Iberian References Online|location=Book III, Title IV, Section VI}}</ref> Slaves' greater liability to physical punishment and judicial torture suggests their inferior social status in the eyes of Visigothic lawmakers. Slavery remained persistent in Christian Iberia after the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Umayyad invasions]] in the 8th century, and the Visigothic law codes continued to control slave ownership. However, as William Phillips notes, medieval Iberia should not be thought of as a slave society, but rather as a society that owned slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Phillips|first1=William|title=Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia|date=2014|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|page=10}}</ref> Slaves accounted for a relatively small percentage of the population, and did not make up a significant portion of the labor pool. Furthermore, while the existence of slavery continued from the earlier period, the use of slaves in post-Visigothic Christian Iberia differed from early periods. Ian Wood has suggests that, under the Visigoths, the majority of the slave population lived and worked on rural estates.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=Ian|chapter=Social Relations in the Visigothic Kingdom from the Fifth to the Seventh Century|title=The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective|date=1999|publisher=Boydell Press|location=Woodbridge|page=195}}</ref> After the Muslim invasions, slave owners (especially in the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] and [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]]) moved away from using slaves as field laborers or in work gangs, and did not press slaves into military service.<ref name="Phillips 19">Phillips p.19</ref> Slaves tended to be owned singly rather than in large groups. There appear to have been many more female than male slaves, and they were most often used as domestic servants, or to supplement free labor.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saunders|first1=A.C. de C.M.|title=A Social History of Black Slaves and Feedmen in Portugal: 1441–1555|date=1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|pages=84–85}}</ref><ref name="Phillips 19" /> In this respect, slave institutions in Aragon, especially, closely resembled those of other Mediterranean Christian kingdoms in France and Italy.<ref>Phiilps pages 14–15, 19</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Blumenthal|first1=Debra|title=Enemies and Familiars: Slavery and Mastery in Fifteenth-Century Valencia|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=2009|pages=2–3}}</ref> In the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Leon|León]] and [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], slavery followed the Visigothic model more closely than in the littoral kingdoms. Slaves in León and Castile were more likely to be employed as field laborers, supplanting free labor to support an aristocratic estate society.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barton|first1=Simon|title=The Aristocracy of Twelfth-Century Leon and Castile|date=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=83}}</ref> These trends in slave populations and use changed in the wake of the Black Death in 1348, which significantly increased the demand for slaves across the whole of the peninsula.<ref>Phillips p.21</ref> Christians were not the only slaveholders in Christian Iberia. Both Jews and Muslims living under Christian rule owned slaves, though more commonly in Aragon and Valencia than in Castile.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roth|first1=Norman|title=Jews, Visigoths & Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict|date=1994|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|pages=160–161}}</ref><ref>Phillips pp.20–21</ref> After the conquest of Valencia in 1245, the Kingdom of Aragon prohibited the possession of Christian slaves by Jews, though they were still permitted to hold Muslim or pagan slaves.<ref>Roth pp.156, 160</ref> The main role of Iberian Jews in the slave trade came as facilitators: Jews acted as slave brokers and agents of transfer between the Christian and Muslim kingdoms.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> This role caused some degree of fear among Christian populations. A letter from [[Pope Gregory XI]] to the Bishop of [[Cordoba, Andalusia|Cordoba]] in 1239 addressed rumors that the Jews were involved in kidnapping and selling Christian women and children into slavery while their husbands were away fighting the Muslims.<ref name="ReferenceA">Roth p.160</ref> Despite these worries, the primary role of Jewish slave traders lay in facilitating the exchange of captives between Muslim and Christian rulers, one of the primary threads of economic and political connectivity between Christian and Muslim Iberia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Broadman|first1=James William|title=Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier|date=1986|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|page=passim}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Kathryn|editor1-last=Trivellato|editor1-first=Francesca|editor2-last=Halevi|editor2-first=Leor|editor3-last=Antunes|editor3-first=Catia|title=Religion and Trade: Cross Cultural Exchanges in World History, 1000-1900|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|pages=131–159|chapter="Reflections on Reciprocity: A Late Medieval Islamic Perspective on Christian-Muslim Commitment to Captive Exchange."}}</ref> In the early period after the fall of the Visigothic kingdom in the 8th century, slaves primarily came into Christian Iberia through trade with the Muslim kingdoms of the south.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Constable|first1=Olivia|title=Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=47}}</ref> Most were Eastern European, captured in battles and raids, with the heavy majority being [[Slavs]].<ref>Phillips p.17</ref> However, the ethnic composition of slaves in Christian Iberia shifted over the course of the Middle Ages. Slaveholders in the Christian kingdoms gradually moved away from owning Christians, in accordance with Church proscriptions. In the middle of the medieval period most slaves in Christian Iberia were Muslim, either captured in battle with the Islamic states from the southern part of the peninsula, or taken from the eastern Mediterranean and imported into Iberia by merchants from cities such as [[Genoa]].<ref>Phillips p.61</ref> The Christian kingdoms of Iberia frequently traded their Muslim captives back across the border for payments of money or kind. Indeed, historian James Broadman writes that this type of redemption offered the best chance for captives and slaves to regain their freedom.<ref>Broadman p.6</ref> The sale of Muslim captives, either back to the Islamic southern states or to third-party slave brokers, supplied one of the means by which Aragon and Castile financed the [[Reconquista]]. Battles and sieges provided large numbers of captives; after the siege of [[Almeria]] in 1147, sources report that [[Alfonso VII of León]] sent almost 10,000 of the city's Muslim women and children to Genoa to be sold into slavery as partial repayment of Genoese assistance in the campaign.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Phillips|first1=Jonathan|title=The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom|date=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|page=260}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=O'Callaghan|first1=Joseph F.|title=Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain|date=2003|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|page=140}}</ref> Towards the end of the Reconquista, however, this source of slaves became increasingly exhausted. Muslim rulers were increasingly unable to pay ransoms, and the Christian capture of large centers of population in the south made wholesale enslavement of Muslim populations impractical.<ref>Phillips pp.60–61</ref> The loss of an Iberian Muslim source of slaves further encouraged Christians to look to other sources of manpower. Beginning with the first Portuguese slave raid in sub-Saharan Africa in 1411, the focus of slave importation began to shift from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic World, and the racial composition of slaves in Christian Iberia began to include an increasing number of black Africans.<ref>Blumenthal p.20</ref><ref>Saunders pp.5–7</ref> Between 1489 and 1497 almost 2,100 black slaves were shipped from Portugal to Valencia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lawrance|first1=Jeremey|authorlink1=Black Africans in Renaissance Spanish Literature|editor1-last=Earle|editor1-first=T.F.|editor2-last=Lowe|editor2-first=K.J.P.|title=Black Africans in Renaissance Europe|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=70|chapter=Black Africans in Renaissance Spanish Literature}}</ref><ref>Saunders p.29</ref> By the end of the 15th century, Spain held the largest population of black Africans in Europe, with a small, but growing community of black ex-slaves.<ref name="ReferenceB">Lawrance p.70}}</ref> In the mid 16th century Spain imported up to 2,000 black African slaves annually through Portugal, and by 1565 most of [[Seville|Seville's]] 6,327 slaves (out of a total population of 85,538) were black Africans.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>Saunders p.29</ref> ==Slavery in Moldavia and Wallachia== {{main article|Slavery in Romania}} Slavery ({{lang-ro|robie, from Slavic rob, slave}}) existed on the territory of present-day [[Romania]] from before the founding of the principalities of [[Moldavia]] and [[Wallachia]] in the 13th&ndash;14th centuries, until it was [[Abolitionism|abolished]] in stages during the 1840s and 1850s. Most of the slaves were of [[Roma minority in Romania|Roma]] (Gypsy) ethnicity. Particularly in Moldavia there were also slaves of [[Tatars|Tatar]] ethnicity, probably prisoners captured from the wars with the [[Nogai Tatars|Nogai]] and [[Crimean Tatars]]. The exact origins of slavery in the [[Danubian Principalities]] are not known. There is some debate over whether the Romani people came to Wallachia and Moldavia as free men or as slaves. In the [[Byzantine Empire]], they were slaves of the state and it seems the situation was the same in [[Bulgaria]] and [[Serbia]] until their social organization was destroyed by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] conquest, which would suggest that they came as slaves who had a change of 'ownership'. Historian [[Nicolae Iorga]] associated the Roma people's arrival with the 1241 [[Mongol invasion of Europe]] and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era, the Romanians taking the Roma from the [[Mongols]] as slaves and preserving their status. Other historians consider that they were enslaved while captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the Mongols. The ethnic identity of the "Tatar slaves" is unknown, they could have been captured Tatars of the [[Golden Horde]], [[Cumans]], or the slaves of Tatars and Cumans.<ref>Viorel Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, [[Central European University Press]], Budapest, 2004, {{ISBN|963-9241-84-9}}</ref> While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars, the bulk of them came from south of the [[Danube]] at the end of the 14th century, some time after the [[foundation of Wallachia]]. By then, the institution of slavery was already established in Moldavia and possibly in both principalities, but the arrival of the Roma made slavery a widespread practice. The Tatar slaves, smaller in numbers, were eventually merged into the Roma population.<ref>Ştefan Ştefănescu, ''Istoria medie a României'', Vol. I, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, Bucharest, 1991 {{in lang|ro}}</ref> ==Slavery in the Medieval Near East== The ancient and medieval [[Near East]] includes modern day Turkey, the Levant and Egypt, with strong connections to the rest of the north African coastline. All of these areas were ruled by either the Byzantines or the Persians at the beginning of late antiquity. Pre-existing Byzantine (i.e. Roman) and Persian institutions of slavery may have influenced the development of institutions of slavery in Islamic law and jurisprudence. <ref>Crone, Patricia. Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate. Cambridge University Press, 1987.</ref> Likewise, some scholars have argued for the influence of Rabbinic tradition on the development of Islamic legal thought. <ref>Wegner, J. R. "Islamic and Talmudic Jurisprudence: The Four Roots of Islamic Law and their Talmudic Counterparts," The American Journal of Legal History, 26, 1 (1982): p. 25-71.</ref> Whatever the relationship between these different legal traditions, many similarities exist between the practice of Islamic slavery in the early Middle Ages and the practices of early medieval Byzantines and western Europeans. The status of freed slaves under Islamic rule, who continued to owe services to their former masters, bears a strong similarity to ancient Roman and Greek institutions. However, the practice of slavery in the early medieval Near East also grew out of slavery practices in currency among pre-Islamic Arabs.<ref>Lewis, Bernard, Race and Slavery In the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 4.</ref> Like the Old and New Testaments and Greek and Roman law codes, the Quran takes the institution of slavery for granted, though it urges kindness toward slaves and eventual manumission, especially for slaves who convert to Islam.<ref>Lewis, 1990, p. 5.</ref> In early Middle Ages, many slaves in Islamic society served as such for only a short period of time—perhaps an average of seven years.<ref>Wright, John, ''The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade''. Routledge, 2007, p. 2.</ref> Like their European counterparts, early medieval Islamic slave traders preferred slaves who were not co-religionists and hence focused on "pagans" from inner Asia, Europe, and especially from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="Wright, 2007, p. 3">Wright, 2007, p. 3.</ref> The practice of manumission may have contributed to the integration of former slaves into the wider society. However, under [[sharia]] law, conversion to Islam did not necessitate manumission.<ref>Wright, 2007, p. 4.</ref> Slaves were employed in heavy labor as well as in domestic contexts. Because of Quranic sanction of concubinage,<ref>IV:3, XXIII:6; XXXIII:50-52; LXX:30</ref> early Islamic traders, in contrast to Byzantine and early modern slave traders, imported large numbers of female slaves.<ref>Ali, Kecia. Marriage and Slavery In Early Islam. Harvard University Press, 2010; Wright, 2007, p. 3.</ref> The very earliest Islamic states did not create corps of slave soldiers (a practice familiar from later contexts) but did integrate freedmen into armies, which may have contributed to the rapid expansion of early Islamic conquest.<ref>Lewis, 1990, p. 62.</ref> By the 9th century, use of slaves in Islamic armies, particularly Turks in cavalry units and Africans in infantry units, was a relatively common practice.<ref>Bacharach, Jere L., "African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East: The Cases of Iraq (869–955) and Egypt (868–1171)." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Nov., 1981) 471–495.</ref><ref>Savage, E., "Berbers and Blacks: Ibadi Slave Traffic in Eighth-Century North Africa", ''The Journal of African History'', Vol. 33, No. 3 (1992), 351–368.</ref> In Egypt, [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]] imported thousands of black slaves to wrestle independence from the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in Iraq in 868.<ref>Yaacov Lev, David Ayalon (1914–1998) and the history of Black Military Slavery in medieval Islam, Der Islam 90.1 (January 2013): Accessed 22 November 2014, doi: [http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?action=interpret&id=GALE%7CA330005344&v=2.1&u=nysl_sc_cornl&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&authCount=1]</ref> The [[Ikhshidid dynasty]] used black slave units to liberate itself from Abbasid rule after the Abbasids destroyed ibn Tulun's autonomous empire in 935.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon">Lev, David Ayalon</ref> Black professional soldiers were most associated with the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid dynasty]], which incorporated more professional black soldiers than the previous two dynasties.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/> It was the Fatimids who first incorporated black professional slave soldiers into the cavalry, despite massive opposition from Central Asian Turkish [[Mamluk]]s, who saw the African contingent as a threat to their role as the leading military unit in the Egyptian army.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/> In the later half of the Middle Ages, the expansion of Islamic rule further into the Mediterranean, the Persian Gulf, and Arabian Peninsula established the Saharan-Indian Ocean slave trade.<ref>Jere L. Bacharach, African Military Slaves in the Muslim Middle East. BlackPast.org. Accessed 20 November 2014. [http://www.blackpast.org/perspectives/african-military-slaves-muslim-middle-east]</ref> This network was a large market for African slaves, transporting approximately four million African slaves from its 7th century inception to its 20th century demise. <ref>Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East. (Oxford University Press, 1994). Accessed 19 November 2014. [http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.asp]</ref> Ironically, the consolidation of borders in the Islamic Near East changed the face of the slave trade.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery">Lewis, Race and Slavery</ref> A rigid Islamic code, coupled with crystallizing frontiers, favored slave purchase and tribute over capture as lucrative slave avenues. <ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery"/> Even the sources of slaves shifted from the Fertile Crescent and Central Asia to Indochina and the Byzantine Empire.<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 11</ref> Patterns of preference for slaves in the Near East, as well as patterns of use, continued into the later Middle Ages with only slight changes. Slaves were employed in many activities, including agriculture, industry, the military, and domestic labor. Women were prioritized over men, and usually served in the domestic sphere as menials, concubines, or wives.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 14">Lewis, ''Race and Slavery'', p. 14</ref> Domestic and commercial slaves were mostly better off than their agricultural counterparts, either becoming family members or business partners rather than condemned to a grueling life in a chain gang. There are references to gangs of slaves, mostly African, put to work in drainage projects in Iraq, salt and gold mines in the Sahara, and sugar and cotton plantations in North Africa and Spain. References to this latter type of slavery are rare, however.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 14"/> Eunuchs were the most prized and sought-after type of slave. The most fortunate slaves found employment in politics or the military. In the Ottoman Empire, the [[Devshirme|Devşrime system]] groomed young slave boys for civil or military service.<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, pp. 11-12</ref> Young Christian boys were uprooted from their conquered villages periodically as a levy, and were employed in government, entertainment, or the army, depending on their talents.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery"/> Slaves attained great success from this program, some winning the post of Grand Vizier to the Sultan and others positions in the [[Janissaries]].<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 12</ref> It is a bit of a misnomer to classify these men as "slaves", because in the Ottoman Empire, they were referred to as [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|kul]], or, slaves "of the Gate", or Sultanate.<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 71</ref> While not slaves per se under Islamic law, these Devşrime alumni remained under the Sultan's discretion. The Islamic Near East extensively relied upon professional slave soldiers, and was known for having them compose the core of armies.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery"/> The institution was conceived out of political predicaments and reflected the attitudes of the time, and was not indicative of political decline or financial bankruptcy.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/> Slave units were desired because of their unadulterated loyalty to the ruler, since they were imported and therefore could not threaten the throne with local loyalties or alliances. ===Slavery in the Ottoman Empire=== {{main article|Slavery (Ottoman Empire)}} {{see also|Arab slave trade|Janissary|Sultanate of Women}} Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society. The [[Byzantine-Ottoman wars]] and the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]] brought large numbers of Christian slaves into the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Phillips, Jr.|first=William D.|title=Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade|year=1985|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|isbn=978-0-7190-1825-1|url=https://books.google.com/?id=0B8NAQAAIAAJ&lpg=PA37&dq=Byzantine-Ottoman%20wars%20slavery&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=37}}</ref> In the middle of the 14th century, [[Murad I]] built his own personal slave army called the ''[[Kapıkulu]]''. The new force was based on the sultan's right to a fifth of the war booty, which he interpreted to include captives taken in battle. The captive slaves were converted to [[Islam]] and trained in the sultan's personal service.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=266205|title=Janissary - Everything2.com|website=www.everything2.com|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> In the ''[[devşirme]]'' (translated "blood tax" or "child collection"), young Christian boys from [[Anatolia]] and the [[Balkans]] were taken away from their homes and families, converted to Islam and enlisted into special soldier classes of the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman army]]. These soldier classes were named [[Janissary|Janissaries]], the most famous branch of the ''Kapıkulu''. The Janissaries eventually became a decisive factor in the Ottoman military conquests in Europe.<ref name="auto"/> Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and ''de facto'' rulers of the Ottoman Empire, such as [[Pargalı İbrahim Pasha]] and [[Sokollu Mehmet Paşa]], were recruited in this way.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/med/lewis1.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm|title=The Turks: History and Culture|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> By 1609 the Sultan's ''Kapıkulu'' forces increased to about 100,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html|title=In the Service of the State and Military Class|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> The [[Imperial Harem|concubines of the Ottoman Sultan]] consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan's concubines were generally of Christian origin. The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of ''Valide Sultan'', and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see [[Sultanate of women]]). One notable example was [[Kösem Sultan]], daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century.<ref>See generally Jay Winik (2007), ''The Great Upheaval''.</ref> Another notable example was [[Roxelana]], the favourite wife of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]. ==Slavery in Poland== {{main article|Slavery in Poland}} [[File:Lithuanian Statute I.jpg|thumb|205px|The first statute of the [[Statutes of Lithuania]] of 1529, officially banning slavery.]] Slavery in Poland existed on the territory of [[Kingdom of Poland (Piasts)|Kingdom of Poland]] during the times of the [[Piast dynasty]],<ref name="bardach40-41">Juliusz Bardach, Bogusław Lesnodorski, and Michał Pietrzak, ''Historia państwa i prawa polskiego'' (Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p.&nbsp;40–41</ref> however slavery was restricted to [[Prisoner of war|POWs]]. In some special cases and for limited periods [[serfdom]] was also applied to debtors. Slavery was banned officially in 1529 and prohibition on slavery was one of the most important of the [[Statutes of Lithuania]], which had to be implemented before the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] could join the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] in 1569. The First Statute was drafted in 1522 and came into power in 1529 by the initiative of the [[Lithuanian Council of Lords]]. It has been proposed that the codification was initiated by [[Grand Chancellor of Lithuania]] [[Mikołaj Radziwiłł (1470-1521)|Mikołaj Radziwiłł]] as a reworking and expansion of the 15th century [[Casimir's Code]].<ref>{{in lang|lt}} E. Gudavičius, [http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/09/09stat.html Stages of the Lithuanian Statute] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927164324/http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/09/09stat.html |date=27 September 2006 }}</ref> ==Slavery in Russia== {{main article|Slavery in Russia}} In [[Kievan Rus]] and [[Russia]], the slaves were usually classified as [[kholop]]s. A kholop's master had unlimited power over his life: he could kill him, sell him, or use him as payment upon a [[debt]]. The master, however, was responsible before the law for his kholop's actions. A person could become a kholop as a result of capture, selling himself or herself, being sold for debts or committed [[crime]]s, or marriage to a kholop. Until the late 10th century, the kholops represented a majority among the servants who worked lordly lands. By the 16th century, slavery in [[Russia]] consisted mostly of those who sold themselves into slavery owing to poverty.<ref name="Richard Hellie 1984">[[Richard Hellie]], ''Slavery in Russia, 1450–1725'' (1984)</ref> They worked predominantly as household servants, among the richest families, and indeed generally produced less than they consumed.<ref>Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, ''The [[Domostroy|Domostroi]]: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible'', p15 {{ISBN|0-8014-9689-6}}</ref> Laws forbade the freeing of slaves in times of famine, to avoid feeding them, and slaves generally remained with the family a long time; the ''[[Domostroy]]'', an advice book, speaks of the need to choose slaves of good character and to provide for them properly.<ref>Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, ''The Domostroi: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible'', p33 {{ISBN|0-8014-9689-6}}</ref> Slavery remained a major institution in [[Russia]] until 1723, when [[Peter the Great]] converted the household slaves into house [[serfs]]. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into [[Serfdom in Russia|serfs]] earlier in 1679.<ref name="Richard Hellie 1984"/> In 1382 the Golden Horde under Khan [[Tokhtamysh]] sacked [[Moscow]], burning the city and carrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. For years the [[Khanate of Kazan|Khanates of Kazan]] and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] routinely made raids on Russian principalities for slaves and to plunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raids of [[List of Kazan khans|Kazan Khans]] on the Russian territories in the first half of the 16th century.<ref>The Full Collection of the Russian Annals, vol.13, SPb, 1904</ref> In 1521, the combined forces of Crimean Khan [[Mehmed I Giray]] and his Kazan allies attacked Moscow and captured thousands of slaves.<ref>[http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Crimean_Khanate The Tatar Khanate of Crimea]</ref> About 30 major Tatar raids were recorded into [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovite]] territories between 1558 and 1596.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html|title=Supply of Slaves|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> In 1571, the Crimean Tatars attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin and taking thousands of captives as slaves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW|title=Gulliver|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> In [[Crimea]], about 75% of the population consisted of slaves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey > Slave societies (broken link)|accessdate=24 December 2019}}</ref> ==Slavery in Scandinavia== {{main article|Thrall}} The laws from 12th and 13th centuries describe the legal status of two categories. According to the Norwegian [[Gulating]] code (in about 1160), domestic slaves could not, unlike foreign slaves, be sold out of the country. This and other laws defined slaves as their master's property at the same level as cattle. It also described a procedure for giving a slave their freedom. A freed slave did not have full legal status; for example, the punishment for killing a former slave was low. A former slave's son also had a low status, but higher than that of his parents. The Norwegian law code from 1274, ''[[Landslov]]'' (Land's law), does not mention slaves, but former slaves. Thus it seems like slavery was abolished in Norway by this time. In Sweden, slavery was abolished in 1343. ==Slavery in the British Isles== {{main article|Slavery in the British Isles}} British [[medieval Wales|Wales]] and Gaelic [[medieval Ireland (disambiguation)|Ireland]] and [[medieval Scotland|Scotland]] were among the last areas of Christian Europe to give up their institution of slavery. Under Gaelic custom, prisoners of war were routinely taken as slaves. During the period that slavery was disappearing across most of western Europe, it was reaching its height in the British Isles: the Viking invasions and the subsequent warring between Scandinavians and the natives, the number of captives taken as slaves drastically increased. The Irish church was vehemently opposed to slavery and blamed the 1169 [[Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman invasion]] on divine punishment for the practice, along with local acceptance of [[polygyny]] and [[divorce]]. ==Serfdom versus slavery== In considering how serfdom evolved from slavery, historians who study the divide between slavery and serfdom encounter several issues of [[historiography]] and methodology. Some historians believe that slavery transitioned into serfdom (a view that has only been around for the last 200 years), though there is disagreement among them regarding how rapid this transition was.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=70–71}}</ref> Pierre Bonnassie, a medieval historian, thought that the chattel slavery of the ancient world ceased to exist in the Europe of the 10th century and was followed by [[Feudalism|feudal]] serfdom.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|page=68}}</ref> Jean-Pierre Devroey thinks that the shift from slavery to serfdom was gradual as well in some parts of the continent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Devroey|first1=Jean-Pierre|title=Men and Women in Early Medieval Serfdom: the Ninth-Century North Frankish Evidence|journal=Past and Present|volume=166|date=2007|page=17|doi=10.1093/past/166.1.3}}</ref> Other areas, though, did not have what he calls "western-style serfdom" after the end of slavery, such as the rural areas of the [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Iceland]], and [[Scandinavia]].<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal|last1=Devroey|first1=Jean-Pierre|title=Men and Women in Early Medieval Serfdom: The Ninth-Century North Frankish Evidence|journal=Past and Present|date=2000|volume=166|page=28|doi=10.1093/past/166.1.3}}</ref> Complicating this issue is that regions in Europe often had both serfs and slaves simultaneously. In northwestern Europe, a transition from slavery to serfdom happened by the 12th century. The Catholic Church promoted the transformation by giving the example. Enslavement of fellow Catholics was prohibited in 992 and manumission was declared to be a pious act. However it remained legal to enslave people of other religions and dogmas.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZW9DjTAox6EC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|first=W. G.|last=Clarence-Smith|date=24 December 2006|publisher=C. Hurst & Company|accessdate=24 December 2019|via=Google Books|isbn=9781850657088}}</ref> Generally speaking, regarding how slaves differed from serfs, the underpinnings of slavery and serfdom are debated as well. Dominique Barthélemy, among others, has questioned the very premises for neatly distinguishing serfdom from slavery, arguing that a binary classification masks the many shades of servitude.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|page=71}}</ref> Of particular interest to historians is the role of serfdom and slavery within the state, and the implications that held for both serf and slave. Some think that slavery was the exclusion of people from the public sphere and its institutions, whereas serfdom was a complex form of dependency that usually lacked a codified basis in the legal system.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|pages=68–69}}</ref> Wendy Davies argues that serfs, like slaves, also became excluded from the public judicial system and that judicial matters were attended to in the private courts of their respective lords.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davies|first1=Wendy|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|pages=236–238|chapter=On Servile Status in the Early Middle Ages}}</ref> Despite the scholarly disagreement, it is possible to piece together a general picture of slavery and serfdom. Slaves typically owned no property, and were in fact the property of their masters. Slaves worked full-time for their masters and operated under a negative [[Incentives|incentive structure]]; in other words, failure to work resulted in physical punishment.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Engerman|first1=Stanley|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|pages=31–32|chapter=Slavery, Serfdom, and Other Forms of Coerced Labour: Similarities and Differences}}</ref> Serfs held plots of land, which was essentially a form of "payment" that the lord offered in exchange for the serf's service.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bush|first1=Michael|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|pages=3|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> Serfs worked part-time for the masters and part-time for themselves and had opportunities to accumulate personal wealth that often did not exist for the slave.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Engerman|first1=Stanley|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|pages=31–32|chapter=Slavery, Serfdom, and Other Forms of Coerced Labour: Similarities and Differences}}</ref> Slaves were generally imported from foreign countries or continents, brought to Europe via the [[slave trade]]. Serfs were typically indigenous Europeans and were not subject to the same involuntary movements as slaves. Serfs worked in family units, whereas the concept of family was generally murkier for slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bush|first1=Michael|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=2|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> At any given moment, a slave's family could be torn apart via trade, and masters often used this threat to coerce compliant behavior from the slave.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Engerman|first1=Stanley|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|pages=24–26|chapter=Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences}}</ref> The end of serfdom is also debated, with Georges Duby pointing to the early 12th century as a rough end point for "serfdom in the strict sense of the term".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|page=79}}</ref> Other historians dispute this assertion, citing discussions and the mention of serfdom as an institution during later dates (such as in 13th century [[England]], or in Central Europe, where the rise of serfdom coincided with its decline in Western Europe). There are several approaches to get a time span for the transition, and [[lexicography]] is one such method. There is supposedly a clear shift in diction when referencing those who were either slaves or serfs at approximately 1000, though there is not a consensus on how significant this shift is, or if it even exists.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|page=69}}</ref> In addition, [[numismatists]] shed light on the decline of serfdom. There is a widespread theory that the introduction of currency hastened the decline of serfdom because it was preferable to pay for labor rather than depend on feudal obligations. Some historians argue that landlords began selling serfs their land – and hence, their freedom – during periods of [[economic inflation]] across Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bush|first1=Michael|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=12|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> Other historians argue that the end of slavery came from the royalty, who gave serfs freedom through edicts and legislation in an attempt to broaden their tax base.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Engerman|first1=Stanley|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=38|chapter=Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences}}</ref> The absence of serfdom in some parts of medieval Europe raises several questions. Devroey thinks it is because slavery was not born out of economic structures in these areas, but was rather a societal practice.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Heinrich Fichtenau points out that in Central Europe, there was not a labor market strong enough for slavery to become a necessity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fichtenau|first1=Heinrich|title=Living in the 10th century: Mentalities and Social Orders|date=1984|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|page=372}}</ref> ==Justifications for slavery== In late Rome, the official attitude toward slavery was ambivalent. According to [[Corpus Juris Civilis|Justinian's legal code]], slavery was defined as "an institution according to the law of nations whereby one person falls under the [[property rights]] of another, contrary to nature".<ref>David Graeber, ''Debt: The First 5000 Years'' (Brooklyn, New York: Melville House, 2011), ch. 7.</ref> Justifications for slavery throughout the medieval period were dominated by the perception of religious difference. Slaves were often outsiders taken in war. As such, Hebrew and Islamic thinking both conceived of the slave as an "enemy within".<ref>[[Orlando Patterson]], ''Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 40-41.</ref> In the Christian tradition, [[paganism|pagans]] and [[heretics]] were similarly considered enemies of the faith who could be justly enslaved. In theory, slaves who converted could embark on the path to freedom, but practices were inconsistent: masters were not obliged to [[manumission|manumit]] them and the practice of baptising slaves was often discouraged.<ref>Timothy Rayborn, ''The Violent Pilgrimage: Christians, Muslims and Holy Conflicts, 850–1150'', Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2013, p. 93.</ref> The enslavement of co-religionists was discouraged, if not forbidden, for Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike. Consequently, northern European pagans and black Africans were a target for all three religious groups. Ethnic and religious difference were conflated in the justification of slavery.<ref name="Rayborn, p.93">Rayborn, ''The Violent Pilgrimage'', p.93.</ref> A major Christian justification for the use of slavery, especially against those with dark skin, was the [[Curse of Ham]]. The Curse of Ham refers to a biblical parable ([https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%209:20-27 Gen. 9:20–27]) in which [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]], the son of [[Noah]], sins by seeing his father inebriated and naked, although scholars differ on the exact nature of Ham's transgression. Noah then curses Ham's offspring, [[Canaan]], with being a "servant of servants unto his brethren". Although race or skin color is not mentioned, many Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars began to interpret the passage as a curse of both slavery and black skin, in an attempt to justify the enslavement of people of color, specifically those of African descent.<ref>David M. Goldenberg, ''The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).</ref> In the medieval period, however, it was also used by some Christians as a justification for serfdom. Muslim sources in the 7th century allude to the Curse of Ham gaining relevance as a justifying myth for the Islamic world's longstanding enslavement of Africans. The apparent discrepancy between the notion of human liberty founded in [[natural law]] and the recognition of slavery by [[canon law]] was resolved by a legal "compromise": enslavement was allowable given a just cause, which could then be defined by papal authority.<ref>Walter Ullmann, ''Medieval Papalism'' (Routledge, 1949), p. 57.</ref> The state of slavery was thought to be closely tied to [[original sin]].<ref>David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966), pp. 92–94.</ref> Towards the middle of the 15th century, the [[Catholic Church and slavery|Catholic Church]], in particular the Papacy, took an active role in offering justifications for the enslavement of Saracens, pagans, Africans, and other "infidels". In 1452, a [[papal bull]] entitled [[Dum Diversas]] authorized [[Afonso V of Portugal|King Afonso V of Portugal]] to enslave any "Saracens" or "pagans" he encountered. The Pope, [[Pope Nicholas V]], recognized King Alfonso's military action as legitimate in the form of the papal bull, and declared the <blockquote>full and free power, through the Apostolic authority by this edict, to invade, conquer, fight, and subjugate the Saracens and pagans, and other infidels and other enemies of Christ, and ... to reduce their persons into perpetual servitude ...<ref>Pope Nicholas V, "Dum diversas" (1452), in ''Bullarium patronatus Portugalliae regum in ecclesiis Africae, Asiae atque Oceaniae'' (1868) [https://books.google.com/books?id=6NDmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22&dq=%22in%20perpetuam%20servitutem%22 p.&nbsp;22.]</ref><ref>Pope Nicholas V (1452), "Dum Diversas (English Translation)", ''Unam Sanctam Catholicam'', February 5, 2011. http://unamsanctamcatholicam.blogspot.com/2011/02/dum-diversas-english-translation.html.</ref></blockquote> In a follow-up bull, released in 1455 and entitled [[Romanus Pontifex]], Pope Nicholas V reiterated his support for the enslavement of infidels in the context of Portugal's monopoly on North African trade routes.<ref>Frances Gardiner Davenport, ''European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648'' (Washington, D.C.), pp. 20–26.</ref> Historians such as Timothy Rayborn have contended that religious justifications served to mask the economic necessities underlying the institution of slavery.<ref name="Rayborn, p.93"/> ==See also== * [[Arab slave trade]] * [[Christianity and slavery]] * [[Catholic Church and slavery]] * [[History of slavery]] * [[Islamic views on slavery]] * [[Slavery in ancient Greece]] * [[Slavery in ancient Rome]] * [[Slavery in antiquity]] * [[The Bible and slavery]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * Campbell, Gwyn ''et al.'' eds. ''Women and Slavery, Vol. 1: Africa, the Indian Ocean World, and the Medieval North Atlantic'' (2007) * Dockès, Pierre. ''Medieval Slavery and Liberation'' (1989) * Finkelman, Paul, and Joseph Miller, eds. ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery'' (2 vol., 1999) * Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moffat, eds. ''The Work of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England'' (1994) * Karras, Ruth Mazo. ''Slavery and Society in Medieval Scandinavia'' (Yale UP, 1988) * Phillips, William D. ''Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade'' (Manchester UP, 1985) * Wyatt David R. ''Slaves and warriors in medieval Britain and Ireland, 800-1200'' (2009) * Stark, Rodney ''The Truth About the Catholic Church and Slavery'' Christianity Today July 1, 2003 {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2011}} {{Europe topic|Slavery in|title=[[Slavery in Europe (disambiguation)|Slavery in Europe]]}} {{Middle Ages}} [[Category:Slavery in Europe]] [[Category:History of slavery]] [[Category:Medieval society]] Don't trust Wikipedia!'