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'{{short description|Offer of sexual services in exchange for money or other types of exchange}} '''Sex work''' is "the exchange of [[sexual services]], performances, or products for material compensation.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0968-8080(09)34469-9|pmid=19962636|title=Criminalization, legalization or decriminalization of sex work: What female sex workers say in San Francisco, USA|journal=Reproductive Health Matters|volume=17|issue=34|pages=38–46|date=November 2009|first1=Alexandra|last1=Lutnick|first2=Deborah|last2=Cohan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2003/0028/latest/whole.html|title=Prostitution Reform Act 2003 No 28 (as at 26 November 2018), Public Act – New Zealand Legislation|website=www.legislation.govt.nz|access-date=2019-01-28}}</ref> It includes activities of direct physical contact between buyers and sellers as well as indirect sexual stimulation".<ref name="Weitzer">{{cite book |editor1-last=Weitzer |editor1-first=Ronald John |title=Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry |date=2000 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415922944 |language=en}}</ref> Sex work only refers to voluntary sexual transactions; thus the term does not refer to [[human trafficking]] and other coerced or nonconsensual sexual transactions such as child prostitution. The transaction must take place between consenting adults who are of the legal age and mental capacity to consent and must take place without any methods of coercion.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/qa-policy-to-protect-the-human-rights-of-sex-workers/|title=Q&A: policy to protect the human rights of sex workers|website=www.amnesty.org|language=en|access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref><ref name="Trafficking">{{cite web|url=http://www.alternet.org/story/84987/sex_work_vs._trafficking%3A_understanding_the_difference|title=Sex Work vs. Trafficking: Understanding the Difference|last=Ditmore|first=Melissa|date=May 9, 2008|website=Alternet|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127064716/https://www.alternet.org/story/84987/sex_work_vs._trafficking%3A_understanding_the_difference|archive-date=November 27, 2018|access-date=}}</ref> The term emphasizes the labor and economic implications of this type of work. Furthermore, some prefer the use of the term because it seemingly grants more agency to the sellers of these services. [[File:Red Light District.jpg|thumb|The Red Light district in Amsterdam]] Due to the legal status of some forms of sex work and the [[social stigma|stigma]] associated with sex work, the population is difficult to access; thus there has been relatively little academic research done on the topic. Furthermore, the vast majority of academic literature on sex work focuses on [[prostitution]], and to a lesser extent, [[stripper|exotic dancing]]; there is little research on other forms of sex work. These findings cannot necessarily be generalized to other forms of sex work. Nonetheless, there is a long documented history of sex work and its personal and economic nature. ==Types== Types of sex work include, but are not limited to, street prostitution, indoor prostitution (escort services, [[brothel]] work, massage parlor-related prostitution, bar or casino prostitution), [[phone sex]] operation, exotic dancing, [[lap dancing]], [[webcam model]]ing, [[pornographic film]] performing, and nude [[peepshow]] performing. The list is sometimes expanded to include jobs in the [[sex industry]] that less directly involve the sexuality of the worker in the exchange of sexual performances, services, and products, such as the producers and directors of adult films, manufacturers and sellers of [[sex toy]]s, managers in exotic dance clubs, escort agents, bouncers, etc. In 2004, a Medline search and review of 681 "prostitution" articles was conducted in order to create a global typology of types of sex work using arbitrary categories. 25 types of sex work were identified in order to create a more systematic understanding of sex work as a whole. Prostitution varies by forms and social contexts including different types of direct and indirect prostitution. This study as conducted in order to work towards improving the health and safety of [[sex worker]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harcourt |first1=C |last2=Donovan |first2=B |title=The many faces of sex work |journal=Sexually Transmitted Infections |date=1 June 2005 |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=201–206 |doi=10.1136/sti.2004.012468|pmid=15923285 |pmc=1744977 }}</ref> == Legal Framework == '''Full criminalization''' of sex work is the most widely practiced legal strategy for regulating transactional sex.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://spl.ids.ac.uk/sexworklaw/about-map|title=About the map of Sex Work Law {{!}} Sexuality, Poverty and Law|website=spl.ids.ac.uk|access-date=2019-10-29}}</ref> Full criminalization is practiced in the United States, China, Russia and the majority of countries in Africa. Under this framework, the seller, buyer and any third party involved is subject to criminalization under the law. This includes anyone who profits from commercial sex in any location or physical setting. Criminalization has been linked to higher rates of STD infections, partner violence and police harassment. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hayes‐Smith|first=Rebecca|last2=Shekarkhar|first2=Zahra|date=2010-03-01|title=Why is prostitution criminalized? An alternative viewpoint on the construction of sex work|journal=Contemporary Justice Review|volume=13|issue=1|pages=43–55|doi=10.1080/10282580903549201|issn=1028-2580}}</ref> Fear of legal ramifications can deter sex workers from seeking proper sexual healthcare services as well as discourage them from reporting crimes that took place during the legal transaction of sex. According to research conducted by [[Human Rights Watch]], criminalization makes sex workers more vulnerable to instances of rape, murder and discrimination due to their marginalized position and ability to be prosecuted by the police even if they come forward as a victim.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/08/07/why-sex-work-should-be-decriminalized|title=Why Sex Work Should Be Decriminalized|last=Avenue|first=Human Rights Watch {{!}} 350 Fifth|last2=York|first2=34th Floor {{!}} New|date=2019-08-07|website=Human Rights Watch|language=en|access-date=2019-10-30|last3=t 1.212.290.4700|first3=NY 10118-3299 USA {{!}}}}</ref>[[File:Prostitution laws of the world.svg|thumb|352x352px|[[Decriminalizing sex work|Decriminalizing Sex Work]]]]'''Partial criminalization''' allows for the legalization of both the buying and selling of sex between two consenting parties but prohibits the commercial selling of sex within brothels or public settings such as street solicitation. This subsequently criminalizes the coalition of sex workers, forcing them to work alone and in less safe conditions. Partial criminalization ranges from a variety of legal models such as [[Decriminalizing sex work|abolitionism, neo-abolitionism]] and the [[Nordic Model approach to prostitution|Swedish-Nordic Model]]. [[File:SexWorkers2009Marcha2009.JPG|thumb|Sex workers demonstrating for better working conditions at the 2009 Marcha Gay in Mexico City.]] '''Legalization''' is currently practiced in parts of South America, Australia, Europe and in the state of [[Prostitution in Nevada|Nevada.]] The [[Red Light District, Amsterdam|Red Light District]] in Amsterdam, The Netherlands is an example of full legalization where all aspects of sex work are allowed as long as they are registered under the state. This process of legalization is often expensive and time-consuming, leading to instances of 'back-door criminalization' where the most marginalized sex workers have to remain illegal because they can't comply with the regulations. This is most common among minority groups, immigrants and low income workers.<ref name=":2">{{Citation|title=What do sex workers want? {{!}} Juno Mac {{!}} TEDxEastEnd|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VJRBx0JjM_M|language=en|access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref> '''Decriminalization''' is the most supported solution by sex workers themselves. <ref name=":2" /> Decriminalization is the only legal solution that offers no criminalization of any party involved in the sex work industry and additionally has no restrictions on who can legally participate in sex work. The decriminalization of sex work would not remove any legal penalties condemning human trafficking. There is no reliable evidence to suggest that decriminalization of sex work would encourage human trafficking.<ref name=":3" /> [[Prostitution in New Zealand|New Zealand]] was the first country to decriminalize sex work in 2003 with the passage of the Prostitution Reform Act. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/|title=New Zealand Parliament home page - New Zealand Parliament|website=www.parliament.nz|language=en|access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref> This is the most advocated for by sex workers because it allows them the most negotiating power with their clients. With full protection under the law they have the ability to determine their wages, method of protection, and protect themselves from violent offenders. ==History== Sex work, in many different forms, has been practiced since ancient times. It is reported that even in the most primitive societies, there was transactional sex. Prostitution was widespread in ancient Egypt and Greece, where it was practiced at various socioeconomic levels. [[Hetaera]] in Greece and [[geisha]] in Japan were seen as prestigious members of society for their high level of training in companionship. Attitudes towards prostitution have shifted through history. [[File:NAMA Courtisane & client.jpg|thumb|An Ancient Greek urn depicts a prostitute and her client]] During the [[Middle Ages]] prostitution was tolerated but not celebrated. It wasn't until the [[Renaissance]] and the [[Protestant Reformation]] in the 16th century that attitudes turned against prostitution on a large scale and bodies began to be regulated more heavily. These moral reforms were to a large extent directed towards the restriction of women's autonomy. Furthermore, enforcement of regulations regarding prostitution disproportionately impacted the poor.<ref name="Ditmore">{{cite book |editor1-last=Melissa Hope |editor1-first=Ditmore |title=Encyclopedia of prostitution and sex work Volumes 1 & 2 |date=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0313329685}}</ref> Sex work has a long history in the United States, yet laws regulating the sale of sex are relatively new. In the 18th century, prostitution was deeply rooted from Louisiana to San Francisco. Despite its prevalence, attitudes towards prostitutes were negative and many times hostile. Although the law did not directly address prostitution at this time, law enforcement often targeted prostitutes. Laws against lewdness and [[sodomy]] were used in an attempt to regulate sex work. [[Red-light district]]s formed in the 19th century in major cities across the country in an attempt by sex workers to find spaces where they could work, isolated from outside society and corresponding stigma. Ambiguity in the law allowed for prostitutes to challenge imprisonment in the courts. Through these cases prostitutes forced a popular recognition of their profession and defended their rights and property. Despite sex workers' efforts, social reformers looking to abolish prostitution outright began to gain traction in the early 20th century. New laws focused on the third-party businesses where prostitution took place, such as saloons and brothels, holding the owners culpable for the activities that happened within their premises. Red-light districts began to close. Finally, in 1910 the [[Mann Act]], or "White Slave Traffic Act" made illegal the act of coercing a person into prostitution or other immoral activity, the first federal law addressing prostitution. This act was created to address the trafficking of young, European girls who were thought to have been kidnapped and transported to the United States to work in brothels, but criminalized those participating in consensual sex work.<ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of American History: With the Complete Text of the Constitution of the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqG-B4jsMIAC|first1=Michael Rheta|last1=Martin|first2=Leonard|last2=Gelber|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=1978|isbn=9780822601241|page=393}}</ref> Subsequently, at the start of the First World War, a Navy decree forced the closure of sex-related businesses in close proximity to military bases. Restrictions and outright violence led to the loss of the little control workers had over their work. In addition to this, in 1918, the [[Chamberlain-Kahn Act]] made it so that any woman found to have a [[sexually transmitted disease]] (STD) would be quarantined by the government. The original purpose of this act was to stop the spread of venereal diseases among U.S. soldiers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ann|first1=Moseley|title=Cather Studies, Volume 11|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=9780803296992|pages=384|edition=11|date=August 2017}}</ref> By 1915 under this act, prostitutes, or those perceived to be prostitutes could be stopped, inspected, and detained or sent to a rehabilitation facility if they were found to test positive for any venereal disease. During the [[World War I]], an estimated 3,000 women were detained and examined. The state had made sex workers into legal outcasts.<ref name="Crime">{{cite web |last1=Grant |first1=Melissa Gira |title=When Prostitution Wasn't a Crime: The Fascinating History of Sex Work in America |url=https://www.alternet.org/news-amp-politics/when-prostitution-wasnt-crime-fascinating-history-sex-work-america |website=[[AlterNet]] |accessdate=31 May 2018 |date=18 February 2013| author-link=Melissa Gira Grant }}</ref> During the [[Great Depression]], black women in New York City accounted for more than 50 percent of arrests for prostitution.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Blanshard|first1=Paul|title=Negro Deliquency in New York|journal=The Journal of Educational Sociology|date=October 1942|volume=16|issue=2|pages=115–123|doi=10.2307/2262442|jstor=2262442}}</ref> Types of sex work expanded in the 21st century. Film and later the Internet provided new opportunities for sex work. In 1978, [[Carol Leigh]], a prostitute and activist, coined the term "sex work" as it is now used. She looked to combat the anti-porn movement by coining a term that reflected the labor and economic implications of the work. The term came into popular use in the 1980s. (bayswan). [[COYOTE]] (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) and other similar groups formed in the 1970s and 80s to push for women's sexual freedom and [[sex workers' rights]]. A rift formed within feminism that continues today, with some arguing for the abolishment of sex work and others working for acceptance and rights for sex works. The [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]] epidemic presented a new challenge to sex workers. The criminalization of exposing others to AIDS significantly impacted sex workers. Harm reduction strategies were organized providing testing, counseling, and supplies to stop the spread of the disease. This experience organizing helped facilitate future action for social justice. The threat of violence persists in many types of sex work. Unionization of legal types of sex work such as exotic dancers, lobbying of public health officials and labor officials, and human rights agencies has improved conditions for many sex workers. Nonetheless, the political ramifications of supporting a stigmatized population make organizing around sex work difficult. Despite these difficulties, actions against violence and for increased visibility and rights persist drawing hundreds of thousands of participants.<ref name="swaay">{{cite web|url=http://www.swaay.org/history.html|title=Sex Work Activists, Allies, and You History|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202021857/http://www.swaay.org/history.html|archive-date=February 6, 2016|access-date=}}</ref> ==Emotional labor== [[Emotional labor]] is an essential part of many service jobs, including many types of sex work. Through emotional labor sex workers engage in different levels of acting known as surface acting and deep acting. These levels reflect a sex worker's engagement with the emotional labor. Surface acting occurs when the sex worker is aware of the dissonance between their authentic experience of emotion and their managed emotional display. In contrast deep acting occurs when the sex worker can no longer differentiate between what is authentic and what is acting; acting becomes authentic.<ref name="Hochschild">{{cite book |last1=Hochschild |first1=Arlie Russell |title=The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520054547 |url=https://archive.org/details/managedheart00arli |url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Woman lying on bed, looking at mirror, Berlin 2001.jpg|thumb|A prostitute in Berlin in 2001]] Sex workers engage in emotional labor for many different reasons. First, sex workers often engage in emotional labor to construct performances of gender and sexuality.<ref name="Frank">{{cite book |last1=Frank |first1=Katherine |title=G-Strings and Sympathy: Strip Club Regulars and Male Desire |date=2002 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=9780822329725 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Sanders">{{cite journal|last=Sanders |first=T. |year=2005 |title='It's Just Acting': Sex Workers' Strategies for Capitalizing of Sexuality |journal=Gender, Work and Organization |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=319–342 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0432.2005.00276.x|citeseerx=10.1.1.622.3543 }}</ref><ref name="Trautner">{{cite journal|last=Trautner |first=M. |year=2005 |title=Doing Gender, Doing Class: the Performance of Sexuality in Exotic Dance Clubs |journal=Gender and Society |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=771–788 |doi=10.1177/0891243205277253|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/1246f751262e8736dcdd4df85d16176a777bbc7f }}</ref> These performances frequently reflect the desires of a clientele which is mostly composed of heterosexual men. In the majority of cases, clients value women who they perceive as normatively feminine. For women sex workers, achieving this perception necessitates a performance of gender and (hetero)sexuality that involves deference to clients and affirmation of their [[masculinity]], as well as physical embodiment of traditional femininity.<ref name="Frank" /><ref name="Brewis">{{cite book |last1=Brewis |first1=Joanna |last2=Linstead |first2=Stephen |title=Sex, Work and Sex Work: Eroticizing Organization |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134621774 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=v9KFAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Sex,+Work+and+Sex+Work#v=onepage&q=Sex%2C%20Work%20and%20Sex%20Work&f=false |language=en}}</ref> The emotional labor involved in sex work may be of a greater significance when race differences are involved. For instance Mistress Velvet, a black, femme [[dominatrix]] advertises herself using her most fetishized attributes. She makes her clients, who are mostly white cis males, read Black feminist theory before their sessions. This allows the clients to see why their participation, as white cis males, contributes to the fetishization of black women.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Duberman|first1=Amanda|title=Meet The Dominatrix Who Requires The Men Who Hire Her To Read Black Feminist Theory|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/mistress-velvet_us_5a822b50e4b00ecc923d4eba|newspaper=Huffington Post|accessdate=20 April 2018|date=2018-02-13}}</ref> Both within sex work and in other types of work, emotional labor is gendered in that women are expected to use it to construct performances of normative [[femininity]], whereas men are expected to use it to construct performances of normative masculinity.<ref name="Hochschild" /> In both cases, these expectations are often met because this labor is necessary to maximizing monetary gain and potentially to job retention. Indeed, emotional labor is often used as a means to maximize income. It fosters a better experience for the client and protects the worker thus enabling the worker to make the most profit.<ref name="Frank" /><ref name="Sanders" /><ref name="Sijuwade">{{cite journal|last=Sijuwade |first=P. |year=1996 |title=Counterfeit Intimacy: Dramaturgical Analysis of an Erotic Performance |journal=International Journal of Sociology of the Family |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=29–41|doi=10.1080/01639625.1988.9967792}}</ref> In addition, sex workers often engage in emotional labor as a self-protection strategy, distancing themselves from the sometimes emotionally volatile work.<ref name="Weitzer" /><ref name="Sanders" /> Finally, clients often value perceived authenticity in their transactions with sex workers; thus, sex workers may attempt to foster a sense of authentic intimacy.<ref name="Frank" /><ref name="Sijuwade" /> == Intimate relationships == A study in Melbourne, Australia found that sex workers typically experience relationship difficulties as a result of their line of work. This primarily stems from the issue of disclosure of their work in personal relationships. Some sex workers noted that dating ex-clients is helpful as they have had contact with sex workers and they are aware of their employment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellhouse |first1=Clare |last2=Crebbin |first2=Susan |last3=Fairley |first3=Christopher K. |last4=Bilardi |first4=Jade E. |title=The Impact of Sex Work on Women's Personal Romantic Relationships and the Mental Separation of Their Work and Personal Lives: A Mixed-Methods Study |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=e0141575 |language=en |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0141575 |pmid=26516765 |pmc=4627728 |date=30 October 2015|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1041575B }}</ref> There is very little empirical evidence characterizing clients of sex workers, but they may share an analogues problem. A Scientific American article on sex buyers summarises a limited field of research which indicates that Johns have a normal psychological profile matching the makeup of the wider male population, but view themselves as mentally unwell.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Why Do Men Buy Sex?|first=Nikolas|last=Westerhoff|date=1 October 2012|journal=Scientific American|volume=21|issue=2s|pages=60–65|doi=10.1038/scientificamericanbrain0512-60}}</ref> Qualitative studies indicate that repeat buyers become romantically attached and idealise sex workers of choice as their perfect partners. === Commodified intimacy === In clients' encounters with prostitutes or exotic dancers (and potentially other sex workers as well), many seek more than sexual satisfaction. They often seek, via their interactions with sex workers, an affirmation of their masculinity, which they may feel is lacking in other aspects of their lives.<ref name="Frank" /><ref name="Brewis" /> This affirmation comes in the form of (a simulation of) affection and sexual desire, and "smooth, intimate, affective space, wherein the way that time is managed is governed only by mutual desire and enjoyment."<ref name="Brewis" /> Partly because they are engaged in work during these interactions, prostitutes' experience and interpretation of time tends to be structured instead by desires to maximize income, avoid boredom, and/or avoid detriment to self-esteem.<ref name="Brewis" /> For sex workers, commodified intimacy provides different benefits. In Brazil, sex workers prioritize foreign men over local men in terms of forming intimate relationships with sex workers. This is a result of local men regarding sex workers as having no worth beyond their occupation. In contrast, foreign men are often accompanied by wealth and status, which are factors that can help a sex worker become independent. Hence sex workers in Brazil are more likely to seek out "ambiguous entanglements" with the foreign men they provide services for, rather than the local men.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Erica|title=Sex Tourism in Bahia: Ambiguous Entanglements|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0252079443|pages=224}}</ref> ==Gender differences== Interviews with men and women escorts illuminate gender differences in these escorts' experiences.<ref name="Weitzer" /> On average, women escorts charged much more than men.<ref name="Fogg">{{cite web | url=https://andrewfogg.com/2014/10/14/gender-differences-amongst-sex-workers-online/ | title=Gender differences amongst sex workers online | last=Fogg | first=A. | date=14 October 2014}}</ref>{{better source|date=September 2018}} Compared to traditional women escorts, women in niche markets charged lower rates. However, this disparity in rates did not exist for men escorts. Men escorts reported widespread acceptance in the gay community; they were much more likely than women to disclose their occupation.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} This community acceptance is fairly unusual to the gay community and not the experience of many women sex workers. Also, heterosexual men prostitutes are much more likely than heterosexual women prostitutes to entertain same-gender clients out of necessity, because the vast majority of clients are men.<ref name="Brewis" /> In general, there is a greater social expectation for women to engage in emotional labor than there is for men; there are also greater consequences if they do not.<ref name="Hochschild" /> ==Risks== The potential risks sex work poses to the worker vary greatly depending on the specific job they occupy. Compared to outdoor or street-based sex workers, indoor workers are less likely to face violence.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Krusi|first1=A|title=Negotiating safety and sexual risk reduction with clients in unsanctioned safer indoor sex work environments: a qualitative study|journal=Am J Public Health|date=Jun 2012|volume=102|issue=6|pages=1154–9|doi=10.2105/ajph.2011.300638|pmid=22571708|pmc=3484819}}</ref> Street sex workers may also more likely to use addictive drugs, to have unprotected sex, and to be the victim of sexual assault.<ref name="Weitzer" /> HIV affects large numbers of sex workers who engage in prostitution, of all genders, globally. Rape and violence, poverty, stigma, and social exclusion are all common risks faced by sex workers in many different occupations.<ref name="Ditmore" /> A study of violence against women engaged in street prostitution found that 68% reported having been raped.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1300/J012v11n04_04|title=Prostitution|journal=Women & Criminal Justice|volume=11|issue=4|pages=29|year=2008|last1=Farley|first1=Melissa|last2=Kelly|first2=Vanessa}}</ref> Sex workers are also in a high risk of murder. According to Salfati's study, sex workers are 60 to 120 times more likely to be murdered than nonprostitute females.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/0886260507312946|pmid=18319375|title=Prostitute Homicides: A Descriptive Study|journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|volume=23|issue=4|pages=505–43|year=2008|last1=Salfati|first1=C. G.|last2=James|first2=A. R.|last3=Ferguson|first3=L.}}</ref> Although these features tend to apply more to sex workers who engage in full service sex work, stigma and safety risks are pervasive for all types of sex work, albeit to different extents.<ref name="Weitzer" /><ref name="ReferenceA"/> Because of the varied legal status of some forms of sex work, sex workers in some countries also face the risk of incarceration, flogging and even the death penalty.<ref name= FRD306>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia A Country Study |last=Federal Research Division |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4191-4621-3 |page=304}}</ref> sex worker also face some problem<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.apsarayein.com/|title=Home|website=Mumbai Escorts {{!}} big boobs Mumbai Escort model service|language=English|access-date=2020-04-16}}</ref> ==Feminist/liberalist debate== Feminist debates on sex work (see [[Feminist views of pornography]] and [[Feminist views on prostitution|prostitution]]) focus primarily on pornography and prostitution. Feminist arguments against these occupations tend to be founded in the notion that these types of work are inherently degrading to women, perpetuate the sexual objectification of women, and/or perpetuate male supremacy.<ref name="Dworkin">{{cite web | url=http://www.nostatusquo.com/aclu/dworkin/michlawjouri.html | title=Prostitution and Male Supremacy | last=Dworkin | first=A.}}</ref> In response, proponents of sex work argue that these claims deny women sex workers' agency, and that choosing to engage in this work can be empowering. They contend that the perspectives of anti-sex work feminists are based on notions of sexuality constructed by the patriarchy to regulate women's expressions sexuality.<ref name="O'Connell">{{cite book |last1=Davidson |first1=Julia O'Connell |title=Prostitution, Power and Freedom |date=2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780745668093 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=b3ZnAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |language=en}}</ref> In fact, many feminists who support the sex industry claim that criminalizing sex work causes more harm to women and their sexual autonomy. An article in the Touro Law Review 2014, focuses on the challenges faced by prostitutes in the U.S and the need for prostitution reform. "[By criminalizing prostitution] women lose the choice to get paid for having consensual sex. A woman may have sex for free, but once she receives something of value for her services, the act becomes illegal".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carrasquillo |first1=Tesla |title=Understanding Prostitution and the Need for Reform |journal=Touro Law Review |date=October 2014 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=697–721 |url=https://digitalcommons.tourolaw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2551&context=lawreview}}</ref> Those who see this as an attack on a women's sexual autonomy also worry about the recent attacks on liberal social policy, such as same sex marriage and abortion on demand, in the U.S. Some liberals also argue that since a disproportionate share of those who choose sex work as a means of income are the poor and disadvantaged, public officials should focus on social policies improving the lives of those choosing to do so rather than condemnation of the "private" means which those victims of society employ.<ref name="Feministe">{{cite web | url=http://www.feministe.us/blog/archives/2009/07/29/7-key-american-sex-worker-activist-projects/ | title=Audacia Ray in Feministe "7 Key American Sex Worker Activist Projects"}}</ref> === Debates on sex worker agency === The topic of sexual labor is often contextualized within opposing abolitionist and sex-positive perspectives.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hakim|first=Catherine|year=2015|title=Economies of Desire: Sexuality and the Sex Industry in the 21st Century|url=http://www.catherinehakim.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/EconomicAffairs-2015-Economies-of-Desire.pdf|journal=Economic Affairs|volume=35|issue=3|pages=329–348|via=|doi=10.1111/ecaf.12134}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Temporarily Yours: Intimacy, Authenticity, and the Commerce of Sex|last=Bernstein|first=Elizabeth|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=|location=Chicago|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The abolitionist perspective typically defines sex work as an oppressive form of labor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Comte|first=Jacqueline|year=2013|title=Decriminalization of Sex Work: Feminist Discourses in Light of Research|url=|journal=Sexuality and Culture|volume=18|pages=196–217|doi= 10.1007/s12119-013-9174-5}}</ref> According to opponents of prostitution, it is not only the literal purchase of a person's body for sexual exploitation, it also constitutes exertion of power over women both symbolically and materially. This perspective views prostitution and trafficking as directly and intimately connected and therefore calls for the abolition of prostitution in efforts to eliminate the overall sexual exploitation of women and children.<ref name=":0" /> Opponents also refute the idea of consent among sex workers by claiming that such consent is merely a submissive acceptance of the traditional exploitation of women. For these reasons, opponents believe that [[decriminalizing sex work]] would utterly harm women as a class by maintaining their sexual and economic exploitation while "serving the interests of pimps, procurers and prostitutors".<ref name=":0" /> [[Sex-positive feminism|Sex-positive feminists]] recognize sex workers as situated within a modern Western sexual hierarchy where a married man and woman are respected while transsexuals, homosexuals, bisexuals, fetishists, and sex workers such as prostitutes and porn models are viewed as sexual deviants.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Rubin|first=Gayle|year=1984|title=Thinking Sex: Notes toward a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality|url=http://sites.middlebury.edu/sexandsociety/files/2015/01/Rubin-Thinking-Sex.pdf|journal=Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality|volume=|pages=275–284|via=}}</ref> According to sex positive feminists, sex law incorporates a prohibition against mixing sex and money in order to sustain this hierarchy. Therefore, the individuals who practice these "deviant" sexual acts are deemed as criminals and have limited institutional support and are subjected to economic sanctions.<ref name=":1" /> Sex-positive perspectives challenge this hierarchy by appreciating [[sexual diversity]] and rejecting any notion of "normal" sex.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sex Matters: Future Visions for a Sex-Positive Society|last=Windsor|first=Elroi|publisher=Norton|year=2014|isbn=978-0-393-93586-8|location=New York|pages=691–699|quote=|via=}}</ref> With this understanding, people who choose to engage in criminalized sex acts are seen as autonomous sexual beings rather than victims of the sex industry. For black women, agency is viewed as contextual due to historical considerations, and can be regarded as one facet of a complex system of ideals that encompass black women's sexuality over time. One result of this is the way that race relations impact the mobility of black people in the [[sex industry]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller-Young|first1=Mireille|title=A Taste for Brown Sugar, Black Women in Pornography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4_uBQAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Duke University Press Book|isbn=978-0822358282}}</ref> Liberal feminists believe that a "democratic morality" should judge sexual activity (as if the proclivities of the majority, as well as their proficiency in providing sexual pleasure(s), should determine the direction of a society's moral compass) "by the way partners treat one another, the presence or absence of coercion, and the quantity and quality of the pleasures they provide".<ref name=":1" /> They propound that it should not be an ethical concern whether sex acts are coupled or in groups, same or mixed sex, with or without consensual acts of violence or video, commercial or free.<ref name=":1" /> == Relevant television series and films == * [[The Client List]] * [[The Client List (TV series)]] *[[The Deuce (TV series)]] *[[The Girlfriend Experience (TV series)]] *[[Sand Dollars (film)|Sand Dollars]] *[[Nights of Cabiria]] *[[The Florida Project]] *[[Top of the Lake]] *[[Whores' Glory]] *[[Mamma Roma]] *Buying Sex<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3186984/|title=Buying Sex (2013)|website=IMDB}}</ref> *Meet the Fokkens<ref>{{cite web|title=Meet the Fokkens (2011)|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2062989/|website=IMDb}}</ref> == Relevant Advocacy Groups == * [[African Sex Workers Alliance]] * Kenya Sex Workers Alliance (KESWA) * Global Network Of Sex Work Projects * Sex Workers Outreach Project USA * [[EMPOWER]] * RedTraSex * Caribbean Sex Workers Coalition {{portal|Human sexuality|Organized labour|Sex work}} == See Also == * [[Sex worker]] * [[Sex workers' rights]] * [[Sex industry]] * [[Sex-positive feminism ]] * [[Decriminalizing sex work|Decriminalization of sex work]] * [[List of sex worker organizations]] * [[Prostitution]] * [[Migrant sex work]] * [[Transgender sex worker]] ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Prostitution]] [[Category:Human sexuality]] [[Category:Organized crime activity]] [[Category:Sex industry]] [[Category:Human trafficking]]'