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'{{Short description|Traditional Chinese herbal therapy}}[[File:Xi'an traditionnal medecine market (20).JPG|thumb|right|Dried herbs and plant portions for Chinese herbology at a [[Xi'an]] market]] {{History of science and technology in China}} {{Alternative medicine sidebar}} '''Chinese herbology''' ({{zh|s=中药学|t=中藥學|p=zhōngyào xué}}) is the theory of traditional Chinese herbal therapy, which accounts for the majority of treatments in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM). A ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' editorial described TCM as "fraught with [[pseudoscience]]", and said that the most obvious reason why it has not delivered many cures is that the majority of its treatments have no logical [[mechanism of action]].<ref name=swallow/> The term [[herbology]] is misleading in the sense that, while plant elements are by far the most commonly used substances, animal, human, and mineral products are also utilized, among which some are poisonous. In the ''[[Huangdi Neijing]]'' they are referred to as {{lang|zh|毒藥}} [duyao] which means toxin, poison, or medicine. Unschuld points out that this is similar etymology to the Greek ''pharmakon'' and so he uses the term "pharmaceutic".<ref>Unschuld Paul U., Medicine in China: A History of Pharmaceutics, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 1986</ref> Thus, the term "medicinal" (instead of [[herb]]) is usually preferred as a translation for {{lang|zh|药}} ({{zh|p=yào}}).<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/?id=uRdIuISvjo4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=wiseman+chinese#v=onepage&q=medicinal&f=false |title=Introduction to English Terminology of Chinese Medicine |author1=Nigel Wiseman |author2=Ye Feng |accessdate=10 June 2011|isbn= 9780912111643|date= 2002-08-01}}</ref> Research into the effectiveness of traditional Chinese herbal therapy is of poor quality and often tainted by bias,<ref name="Shang-2007"/> with little or no rigorous evidence of efficacy.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=23498035|year=2012|last1=Siegfried|first1=N. L|title=Herbal medicine, randomised controlled trials and global core competencies|journal=South African Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=912–3|last2=Hughes|first2=G|doi=10.7196/samj.6392|doi-access=free}}</ref> There are concerns over a number of potentially toxic Chinese herbs.<ref name="Shaw-2012"/> ==History== {{refimprove section|date=October 2013}} [[File:Zh pharmacopoeia 1.JPG|thumb|right|150px|Chinese pharmacopoeia]] Chinese herbs have been used for centuries. Among the earliest literature are lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by the manuscript "Recipes for 52 Ailments", found in the [[Mawangdui]] which were sealed in 168&nbsp;BC. The first traditionally recognized herbalist is [[Shennong|Shénnóng]] ({{lang|zh|神农}}, lit. "Divine Farmer"), a mythical god-like figure, who is said to have lived around 2800&nbsp;BC.<ref name="Shennong">{{cite web|url=http://kaleidoscope.cultural-china.com/en/196Kaleidoscope8524.html|title=Shennong |script-title=zh:神农|publisher=cultural-china.com|accessdate=24 February 2011|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129060838/http://kaleidoscope.cultural-china.com/en/196Kaleidoscope8524.html|archivedate=29 January 2011}}</ref> He allegedly tasted hundreds of herbs and imparted his knowledge of medicinal and poisonous plants to farmers. His ''[[Shennong Ben Cao Jing|Shénnóng Běn Cǎo Jīng]]'' ({{lang|zh|神农本草经}}, ''Shennong's [[Materia Medica]]'') is considered as the oldest book on Chinese herbal medicine. It classifies 365 species of roots, grass, woods, furs, animals and stones into three categories of herbal medicine:<ref name="Unschuld, Paul Ulrich 1986">Unschuld, Paul Ulrich (1986), Medicine in China, A History of Pharmaceutics, {{lang|zh|本草}}, University of California Press.</ref> # The "superior" category, which includes herbs effective for multiple diseases and are mostly responsible for maintaining and restoring the body balance. They have almost no unfavorable side-effects.<ref name="Unschuld, Paul Ulrich 1986"/> # A category comprising tonics and boosters, whose consumption must not be prolonged.<ref name="Unschuld, Paul Ulrich 1986"/> # A category of substances which must usually be taken in small doses, and for the treatment of specific diseases only.<ref name="Unschuld, Paul Ulrich 1986"/> The original text of Shennong's Materia Medica has been lost; however, there are extant translations.<ref>Du Halde J-B (1736): Description géographique, historique etc. de la Chine, Paris</ref> The true date of origin is believed to fall into the late Western Han dynasty<ref name="Shennong"/> (i.e., the first century BC). The ''[[Shanghan lun|Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders and Miscellaneous Illnesses]]'' was collated by [[Zhang Zhongjing]], also sometime at the end of the [[Han Dynasty|Han dynasty]], between 196 and 220 CE. Focusing on drug prescriptions,<ref>{{Harvnb|Sivin|1987|p=179}}; {{harvnb|Ergil|2009|p=30}}</ref> it was the first medical work to combine [[Yin and yang|Yinyang]] and the [[Wu Xing|Five Phases]] with drug therapy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Unschuld|1985|p=169}}</ref> This [[Formulary (pharmacy)|formulary]] was also the earliest Chinese medical text to group symptoms into clinically useful "patterns" (''zheng'' {{lang|zh|證}}) that could serve as targets for therapy. Having gone through numerous changes over time, it now circulates as two distinct books: the ''[[Shang Han Lun|Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders]]'' and the ''[[Jingui Yaolue|Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Casket]]'', which were edited separately in the eleventh century, under the [[Song Dynasty|Song dynasty]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Goldschmidt|2009}}, pp. 100–101.</ref> Succeeding generations augmented these works, as in the ''[[Yaoxing Lun]]'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=药性论|t=藥性論|l=Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs}}), a 7th-century [[Tang dynasty]] Chinese treatise on herbal medicine. There was a shift in emphasis in treatment over several centuries. A section of the [[Neijing]] Suwen including Chapter 74 was added by Wang Bing [{{lang|zh|王冰}} Wáng Bīng] in his 765 edition. In which it says: {{lang|zh|主病之謂君，佐君之謂臣，應臣之謂使，非上下三品之謂也。}} "Ruler of disease it called Sovereign, aid to Sovereign it called Minister, comply with Minister it called Envoy (Assistant), not upper lower three classes (qualities) it called." The last part is interpreted as stating that these three rulers are not the three classes of [[Shennong|Shénnóng]] mentioned previously. This chapter in particular outlines a more forceful approach. Later on Zhang Zihe [{{lang|zh|張子和}} Zhāng Zĭ-hé, aka Zhang Cong-zhen] (1156-1228) is credited with founding the 'Attacking School' which criticized the overus of tonics. Arguably the most important of these later works is the ''[[Compendium of Materia Medica]]'' (''Bencao Gangmu'':{{lang|zh|本草綱目}}) compiled during the [[Ming dynasty]] by [[Li Shizhen]], which is still used today for consultation and reference. The use of Chinese herbs was popular during the [[medieval age]] in western Asian and Islamic countries. They were traded through the Silk Road from the East to the West. [[Cinnamon]], [[ginger]], [[rhubarb]], [[nutmeg]] and [[cubeb]] are mentioned as Chinese herbs by medieval Islamic medical scholars Such as [[Rhazes]] (854– 925 CE), [[Haly Abbas]] (930-994 CE) and [[Avicenna]] (980-1037 CE). There were also multiple similarities between the clinical uses of these herbs in Chinese and Islamic medicine.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The use of Chinese herbal drugs in Islamic medicine |journal=Journal of Integrative Medicine |doi=10.1016/S2095-4964(15)60205-9 |pmid=26559361 |url=http://www.jcimjournal.com/jim/showAbstrPage.aspx?articleID=S2095-4964(15)60205-9 |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=363–367 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925190817/http://www.jcimjournal.com/jim/showAbstrPage.aspx?articleID=S2095-4964%2815%2960205-9 |archivedate=2015-09-25 |year=2015 |last1=Heyadri |first1=Mojtaba |last2=Hashempur |first2=Mohammad Hashem |last3=Ayati |first3=Mohammad Hosein |last4=Quintern |first4=Detlev |last5=Nimrouzi |first5=Majid |last6=Mosavat |first6=Seyed Hamdollah }}</ref> ==Raw materials== There are roughly 13,000 medicinals used in China and over 100,000 medicinal recipes recorded in the ancient literature.<ref name="Certainprogress">{{cite journal |pmid=11717980 |url=http://wenku.baidu.com/view/dfc192a0b0717fd5360cdc44.html |year=1999 |last1=Chen |first1=K |last2=Yu |first2=B |title=Certain progress of clinical research on Chinese integrative medicine |volume=112 |issue=10 |pages=934–7 |journal=Chinese Medical Journal}}</ref> Plant elements and extracts are by far the most common elements used.<ref name="Foster">{{harvnb|Foster|Yue|1992|p=11}}</ref> In the classic ''Handbook of Traditional Drugs'' from 1941, 517 drugs were listed – out of these, only 45 were animal parts, and 30 were minerals.<ref name="Foster" /> For many plants used as medicinals, detailed instructions have been handed down not only regarding the locations and areas where they grow best, but also regarding the best timing of planting and harvesting them.<ref name=IOA>{{cite web|url=http://www.classicalchinesemedicine.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/fruehauf_fuziinterview1.pdf |title=The Importance of Aconite (fuzi) |accessdate=2011-05-17 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725175628/http://www.classicalchinesemedicine.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/fruehauf_fuziinterview1.pdf |archivedate=2011-07-25 }}</ref> Some animal parts used as medicinals can be considered rather strange such as cows' gallstones.<ref name=Hesketh1997>{{cite journal |pmid=9240055 |ref=harv |year=1997 |last1=Hesketh |first1=T |last2=Zhu |first2=WX |title=Health in China. Traditional Chinese medicine: One country, two systems |volume=315 |issue=7100 |pages=115–7 |pmc=2127090 |journal=BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) |doi=10.1136/bmj.315.7100.115}}</ref> Furthermore, the classic [[materia medica]] ''[[Bencao Gangmu]]'' describes the use of 35 [[traditional Chinese medicines derived from the human body]], including bones, fingernail, hairs, dandruff, earwax, impurities on the teeth, feces, urine, sweat, and organs, but most are no longer in use.<ref name=HDCM>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/0-306-46867-0_7 |chapter='Human Drugs' in Chinese Medicine and the Confucian View: An Interpretive Study |title=Confucian Bioethics |series=Philosophy and Medicine |year=2002 |last1=Nie |first1=Jing-Bao |isbn=978-0-7923-5723-0 |volume=61 |pages=167–206}}</ref><ref name=HBNC>{{cite journal |title=The Human Body as a New Commodity |first1=Tsuyoshi |last1=Awaya |journal=The Review of Tokuyama University |date=June 1999}}</ref><ref name=CBSH>{{cite book |editor1-first=Nancy |editor1-last=Scheper-Hughes |editor2-first=Loïc J. D. |editor2-last=Wacquant |year=2002 |title=Commodifying Bodies |publisher=Sage |location=Thousand Oaks |isbn=978-0-7619-4034-0}}{{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref> ==Preparation== ===Decoction=== Typically, one batch of medicinals is prepared as a [[decoction]] of about 9 to 18 substances.<ref>"{{lang|de|Nach der Erfahrung des Verfassers bewegen sich in der VR China 99% der Rezepturen in einem Bereich zwischen 6 und 20 Kräutern; meist sind es aber zwischen 9 und 18,...}}"; "According to the experience of the author, 99% of prescriptions in the PR of China range from 6 to 20 herbs; in the majority, however, it is 9 to 12,..." From {{harvp|Kiessler|2005|p=24}}.</ref> Some of these are considered as main herbs, some as ancillary herbs; within the ancillary herbs, up to three categories can be distinguished.<ref>"{{lang|de|Innerhalb einer Rezeptur wird grob zwischen Haupt- und Nebenkräuter unterschieden. Bei klassischen Rezepturen existieren sehr genaue Analysen zur Funktion jeder einzelnen Zutat, die bis zu drei Kategorien}} (Chen, Zun {{lang|de|und}} Chi) {{lang|de|von Nebenkräutern differenzieren.}}"; "Regarding the content of the prescription, one can differentiate between main herbs and ancillary herbs. For classical prescriptions, detailed analyses exist for each single ingredient which discriminate between up to three categories (''Chen'', ''Zun'', and ''Chi'') of ancillary herbs." From {{harvp|Kiessler|2005|p=25}}.</ref> Some ingredients are added in order to cancel out toxicity or side-effects of the main ingredients; on top of that, some medicinals require the use of other substances as [[catalysts]]. ===Chinese patent medicine=== {{main|Chinese patent medicine}} '''Chinese patent medicine''' ({{zh|t=中成藥|s=中成药|p=zhōngchéng yào|labels=no}}) is a kind of [[traditional Chinese medicine]]. They are standardized [[Herbalism|herbal]] formulas. From ancient times, pills were formed by combining several herbs and other ingredients, which were dried and ground into a powder. They were then mixed with a binder and formed into pills by hand. The [[Binder (material)|binder]] was traditionally honey. Modern teapills, however, are extracted in stainless steel extractors to create either a water decoction or water-alcohol decoction, depending on the herbs used. They are extracted at a low temperature (below 100 degrees Celsius) to preserve essential ingredients. The extracted liquid is then further condensed, and some raw herb powder from one of the herbal ingredients is mixed in to form an herbal dough. This dough is then machine cut into tiny pieces, a small amount of excipients are added for a smooth and consistent exterior, and they are spun into pills.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} These medicines are not [[patent]]ed in the traditional sense of the word. No one has [[exclusive right]]s to the formula. Instead, "patent" refers to the [[standardization]] of the formula. In China, all Chinese patent medicines of the same name will have the same proportions of ingredients, and manufactured in accordance with the PRC Pharmacopoeia, which is mandated by law. However, in western countries there may be variations in the proportions of ingredients in patent medicines of the same name, and even different ingredients altogether.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} Several producers of Chinese herbal medicines are pursuing FDA clinical trials to market their products as drugs in U.S. and European markets.<ref>Chinese Herbal Medicine Passes FDA Phase II Clinical Trials http://www.suntenglobal.com/news/show.php?ID=218&page= {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402133628/http://www.suntenglobal.com/news/show.php?ID=218&page= |date=2012-04-02 }}</ref> ===Chinese herbal extracts=== Chinese herbal extracts are herbal decoctions that have been condensed into a granular or powdered form. Herbal extracts, similar to patent medicines, are easier and more convenient for patients to take. The industry extraction standard is 5:1, meaning for every five pounds of raw materials, one pound of herbal extract is derived.<ref>Chinese Herbal Extract FAQs https://yinsclinic.com/chinese-herbal-extract-faqs/</ref>{{better source|reason= Fringe / spam source with little, if any, scientific backing. |date=July 2018}} ==Categorization== There are several different methods to classify traditional Chinese medicinals: * The Four Natures ({{zh|labels=no|t=四氣|s=四气|p=sìqì}}) * The Five Flavors ({{zh|labels=no|t=五味|s=五味|p=wǔwèi}}) * The [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] ({{zh|labels=no|t=經絡|s=经络|p=jīngluò}}) * The specific function. ===Four Natures=== The Four Natures are: hot ({{zh|labels=no|t=熱|s=热}}), warm ({{zh|labels=no|t=溫|s=温}}), cool ({{lang|zh|凉}}), cold ({{lang|zh|寒}}) or neutral ({{lang|zh|平}}), in terms of temperature.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{harvnb|Ergil|2009|p=232}}</ref> Hot and warm herbs are used to treat [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Basic principles of pattern discrimination|cold]] diseases, while cool and cold herbs are used to treat [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Basic principles of pattern discrimination|heat]] diseases.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> ===Five Flavors=== {{anchor|Five Tastes}} [[File:Wuxing en.svg|thumb|right|200px|The Five Phases, which correspond to the Five Flavors]] The Five Flavors, sometimes also translated as ''Five Tastes'', are: acrid/pungent ({{lang|zh|辛}}), sweet ({{lang|zh|甘}}), bitter ({{lang|zh|苦}}), sour ({{lang|zh|酸}}), and salty ({{zh|labels=no|t=鹹|s=咸}}).<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Substances may also have more than one flavor, or none (i.e., a bland ({{lang|zh|淡}}) flavor).<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Each of the Five Flavors corresponds to one of the [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Zang-fu|zàng organs]], which in turn corresponds to one of the [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Five Phases theory|Five Phases]]:<ref>{{harvnb|Ergil|2009|p=61}}</ref> A flavor implies certain properties and presumed therapeutic "actions" of a substance: saltiness "drains downward and softens hard masses";<ref name=autogenerated1 /> sweetness is "supplementing, harmonizing, and moistening";<ref name=autogenerated1 /> pungent substances are thought to induce sweat and act on [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Qi|qi]] and [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Xue|blood]]; sourness tends to be astringent ({{zh|labels=no|t=澀|s=涩}}) in nature; bitterness "drains [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Six Excesses|heat]], purges the bowels, and eliminates [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Six Excesses|dampness]]". ===Specific function=== These categories mainly include: * [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Basic principles of pattern discrimination|exterior]]-releasing<ref name="autogenerated4">Xu & Wang 2002, Summary of Contents</ref> or exterior-resolving<ref name="autogenerated3">{{harvnb|Ergil|2009|p=239}}</ref> * [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Six Excesses|heat]]-clearing<ref name=autogenerated4 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> * downward-draining<ref name=autogenerated4 /> or precipitating<ref name=autogenerated3 /> * [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Six Excesses|wind-damp]]-dispelling<ref name=autogenerated4 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> * [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Six Excesses|dampness]]-transforming<ref name=autogenerated4 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> * promoting the movement of water and percolating dampness<ref name=autogenerated4 /> or dampness-percolating<ref name=autogenerated3 /> * [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Basic principles of pattern discrimination|interior]]-warming<ref name=autogenerated4 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> * [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Qi|qi]]-regulating<ref name=autogenerated4 /> or qi-rectifying<ref name=autogenerated3 /> * dispersing food accumulation<ref name=autogenerated4 /> or food-dispersing<ref name=autogenerated3 /> * worm-expelling<ref name=autogenerated4 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> * stopping bleeding<ref name=autogenerated4 /> or blood-stanching<ref name=autogenerated3 /> * quickening the [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Xue|Blood]] and dispelling stasis<ref name=autogenerated4 /> or [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Xue|blood]]-quickening<ref name=autogenerated3 /> or Blood-moving.<ref name=:0/> * transforming phlegm, stopping coughing and calming wheezing<ref name=autogenerated4 /> or phlegm-transforming and cough- and panting-suppressing<ref name=autogenerated3 /> * Spirit-quieting<ref name=autogenerated4 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> or [[Heart (Chinese medicine)|Shen]]-calming.<ref name=:0/> * calming the [[Liver (Chinese medicine)|Liver]] and expelling [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Six Excesses|wind]]<ref name=autogenerated4 /> or Liver-calming and wind-extinguishing<ref name=autogenerated3 /> * orifice-opening<ref name=autogenerated4 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> * supplementing<ref name=autogenerated4 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> or tonifying:<ref name=:0/> this includes [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Qi|qi]]-supplementing, [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Xue|blood]]-nourishing, [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Yin and yang|yin]]-enriching, and [[Traditional Chinese medicine#Yin and yang|yang]]-fortifying.<ref name=autogenerated3 /> * astriction-promoting<ref name=autogenerated4 /> or securing and astringing<ref name=autogenerated3 /> * vomiting-inducing<ref name=autogenerated4 /> * substances for external application<ref name=autogenerated4 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> ==Nomenclature== Many herbs earn their names from their unique physical appearance. Examples of such names include ''Niu Xi'' (Radix cyathulae seu achyranthis), "cow's knees," which has big joints that might look like cow knees; ''Bai Mu Er'' (Fructificatio tremellae fuciformis), white wood ear,' which is white and resembles an ear; ''Gou Ji'' (Rhizoma cibotii), 'dog spine,' which resembles the spine of a dog.<ref name="ChenJohn">{{harvp|Chen|Chen|2004|pp=3–6}}</ref> ===Color=== Color is not only a valuable means of identifying herbs, but in many cases also provides information about the therapeutic attributes of the herb. For example, yellow herbs are referred to as ''huang'' (yellow) or ''jin'' (gold). Huang Bai (Cortex Phellodendri) means 'yellow fir," and ''Jin Yin Hua'' (Flos Lonicerae) has the label 'golden silver flower."<ref name="ChenJohn" /> ===Smell and taste=== Unique flavors define specific names for some substances. ''Gan'' means 'sweet,' so ''Gan Cao'' (Radix glycyrrhizae) is 'sweet herb," an adequate description for the licorice root. "Ku" means bitter, thus Ku Shen (Sophorae flavescentis) translates as 'bitter herb.'<ref name="ChenJohn" /> ===Geographic location=== The locations or provinces in which herbs are grown often figure into herb names. For example, ''Bei Sha Shen'' (Radix glehniae) is grown and harvested in northern China, whereas ''Nan Sha Shen'' (Radix adenophorae) originated in southern China. And the Chinese words for north and south are respectively ''bei'' and ''nan''.<ref name="ChenJohn" /> ''Chuan Bei Mu'' (Bulbus fritillariae cirrhosae) and ''Chuan Niu Xi'' (Radix cyathulae) are both found in Sichuan province, as the character "chuan" indicates in their names.<ref name="ChenJohn" /> ===Function=== Some herbs, like Fang Feng (Radix Saposhnikoviae), literally 'prevent wind," prevents or treats wind-related illnesses. Xu Duan (Radix Dipsaci), literally 'restore the broken,' effectively treats torn soft tissues and broken bones.<ref name="ChenJohn" /> ===Country of origin=== Many herbs indigenous to other countries have been incorporated into the Chinese materia medica. ''Xi Yang Shen'' (Radix panacis quinquefolii), imported from North American crops, translates as 'western ginseng," while ''Dong Yang Shen'' (Radix ginseng Japonica), grown in and imported from North Asian countries, is 'eastern ginseng.'<ref name="ChenJohn" /> ==Toxicity== From the earliest records regarding the use of medicinals to today, the toxicity of certain substances has been described in all Chinese [[materia medica]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ergil|2009|pp=234–236}}</ref> Since TCM has become more popular in the Western world, there are increasing concerns about the potential toxicity of many traditional Chinese medicinals including plants, animal parts and minerals.<ref name="Shaw-2012"/> For most medicinals, efficacy and toxicity testing are based on traditional knowledge rather than laboratory analysis.<ref name="Shaw-2012">{{cite journal|journal=Planta Medica|year=2012|volume=76|issue=17|pages=2012–8|title=Toxicological risks of Chinese herbs|author=Shaw D|pmid=21077025|doi=10.1055/s-0030-1250533|doi-access=free}}</ref> The toxicity in some cases could be confirmed by modern research (i.e., in [[scorpion]]); in some cases it could not (i.e., in ''[[Curculigo]]'').<ref name="autogenerated2">{{harvnb|Ergil|2009|p=236}}</ref> Further, ingredients may have different names in different locales or in historical texts, and different preparations may have similar names for the same reason, which can create inconsistencies and confusion in the creation of medicinals,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hkcccm.com/main.php?id1=164&id2=165 |script-title=zh:香港容易混淆中藥 |publisher=Hkcccm.com |accessdate=2009-12-07|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080119212113/http://www.hkcccm.com/main.php?id1=164&id2=165 |archivedate=January 19, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> with the possible danger of poisoning.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.news.gov.hk/ISD/ebulletin/tc/category/healthandcommunity/040503/html/040503tc05003.htm |script-title=zh:「芒硝」與「牙硝」勿混淆使用 |publisher=news.gov.hk |date=2004-05-03 |accessdate=2009-12-07|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090602215609/http://www3.news.gov.hk/ISD/ebulletin/tc/category/healthandcommunity/040503/html/040503tc05003.htm |archivedate = June 2, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200405/03/0503212.htm |title=Chinese medicine Natrii Sulfas not to be confused with chemical Sodium Nitrite |publisher=Info.gov.hk |date=2004-05-03 |accessdate=2009-12-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.100md.com/html/DirDu/2004/07/25/53/75/65.htm |script-title=zh:芒硝图谱-矿物类 |publisher=100md.com |date= |accessdate=2009-12-07}}{{Unreliable source?|what does this article say???|date=October 2011}}</ref> [[Edzard Ernst]] "concluded that adverse effects of herbal medicines are an important albeit neglected subject in dermatology, which deserves further systematic investigation."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ernst|first1=E|title=Adverse effects of herbal drugs in dermatology.|journal=The British Journal of Dermatology|date=November 2000|volume=143|issue=5|pages=923–9|pmid=11069498|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2133.2000.03822.x}}</ref> Research suggests that the toxic heavy metals and undeclared drugs found in Chinese herbal medicines might be a serious health issue.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ernst|first1=E|title=Toxic heavy metals and undeclared drugs in Asian herbal medicines.|journal=Trends in Pharmacological Sciences|date=March 2002|volume=23|issue=3|pages=136–9|pmid=11879681|doi=10.1016/s0165-6147(00)01972-6}}</ref> Substances known to be potentially dangerous include [[aconitine|aconite]],<ref name=autogenerated2 /> secretions from the [[Asiatic toad]],<ref name=LICHT>{{cite journal |pmid=8779214 |year=1996 |last1=Ko |first1=RJ |last2=Greenwald |first2=MS |last3=Loscutoff |first3=SM |last4=Au |first4=AM |last5=Appel |first5=BR |last6=Kreutzer |first6=RA |last7=Haddon |first7=WF |last8=Jackson |first8=TY |last9=Boo |first9=FO |title=Lethal ingestion of Chinese herbal tea containing ch'an su |volume=164 |issue=1 |pages=71–5 |pmc=1303306 |journal=The Western Journal of Medicine |ref=harv |last10=Presicek |first10=G}}</ref> powdered centipede,<ref name=CAT>{{cite web|url=http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/herbcentral/centipede.php |title=Centipede, Acupuncture Today |publisher=Acupuncturetoday.com |date= |accessdate=2011-05-17}}</ref> the Chinese beetle (''[[Mylabris phalerata]]'', Ban mao),<ref name=IDCD>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0378-8741(88)90157-2 |title=Insect derived crude drugs in the chinese song dynasty |year=1988 |last1=Tsuneo |first1=N |last2=Ma |first2=M |last3=Inagaki |first3=I |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=24 |issue=2–3 |pages=247–85 |pmid=3075674 |ref=harv}}</ref> and certain fungi.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1159/000073056 |title=Movement Disorders Possibly Induced by Traditional Chinese Herbs |year=2003 |last1=Wang |first1=X.P. |last2=Yang |first2=R.M. |journal=European Neurology |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=153–9 |pmid=14530621 |ref=harv}}</ref> There are health problems associated with ''[[Aristolochia]]''.<ref name="Shaw-2012"/> Toxic effects are also frequent with ''[[Aconitum]]''.<ref name="Shaw-2012"/> To avoid its toxic adverse effects ''[[Xanthium sibiricum]]'' must be processed.<ref name="Shaw-2012"/> [[Hepatotoxicity]] has been reported with products containing ''[[Reynoutria multiflora]]'' ([[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] ''Polygonum multiflorum''), [[glycyrrhizin]], ''[[Senecio]]'' and ''[[Symphytum]]''.<ref name="Shaw-2012"/> The evidence suggests that hepatotoxic herbs also include ''[[Dictamnus dasycarpus]]'', ''[[Astragalus membranaceous]]'', and ''[[Paeonia lactiflora]]''; although there is no evidence that they cause liver damage.<ref name="Shaw-2012"/>{{Clarification needed|date=June 2019}} Contrary to popular belief, ''[[Ganoderma lucidum]]'' mushroom extract, as an adjuvant for cancer immunotherapy, appears to have the potential for toxicity.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Gill | first1 = S. K. | last2 = Rieder | first2 = M. J. | title = Toxicity of a traditional Chinese medicine, Ganoderma lucidum, in children with cancer | journal = Canadian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology | volume = 15 | issue = 2 | pages = e275–e285 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18603664}}</ref> Also, adulteration of some herbal medicine preparations with conventional drugs which may cause serious adverse effects, such as [[corticosteroid]]s, [[phenylbutazone]], [[phenytoin]], and [[glibenclamide]], has been reported.<ref name=EfferthKaina2011>{{cite journal| author=Efferth T, Kaina B| title=Toxicities by herbal medicines with emphasis to traditional Chinese medicine | journal=Curr Drug Metab | year= 2011 | volume= 12 | issue= 10 | pages= 989–96 | pmid=21892916 | doi= 10.2174/138920011798062328 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10657129 | type= Review }}{{open access}}</ref><ref name=Ernst2002>{{cite journal| author=Ernst E| title=Adulteration of Chinese herbal medicines with synthetic drugs: a systematic review. | journal=J Intern Med | year= 2002 | volume= 252 | issue= 2 | pages= 107–13 | pmid=12190885 | doi= 10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.00999.x | type= Systematic Review }}{{open access}}</ref> However, many adverse reactions are due to misuse or abuse of Chinese medicine.<ref name="Shaw-2012"/> For example, the misuse of the dietary supplement ''[[Ephedra]]'' (containing [[ephedrine]]) can lead to adverse events including gastrointestinal problems as well as sudden death from [[cardiomyopathy]].<ref name="Shaw-2012"/> Products adulterated with [[pharmaceutical]]s for weight loss or erectile dysfunction are one of the main concerns.<ref name="Shaw-2012"/> Chinese herbal medicine has been a major cause of [[acute liver failure]] in China.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Zhao | first1 = P. | last2 = Wang | first2 = C. | last3 = Liu | first3 = W. | last4 = Chen | first4 = G. | last5 = Liu | first5 = X. | last6 = Wang | first6 = X. | last7 = Wang | first7 = B. | last8 = Yu | first8 = L. | last9 = Sun | first9 = Y. | last10 = Liang | first10 = X. | last11 = Yang | first11 = H. | last12 = Zhang | first12 = F. | editor1-last = Avila | editor1-first = Matias A | title = Causes and Outcomes of Acute Liver Failure in China | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0080991 | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 11 | pages = e80991 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24278360 | pmc =3838343 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...880991Z }}</ref> Most Chinese herbs are safe but some have shown not to be. Reports have shown products being contaminated with drugs, toxins, or false reporting of ingredients. Some herbs used in TCM may also react with drugs, have side effects, or be dangerous to people with certain medical conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/whatiscam/chinesemed.htm |title=Traditional Chinese Medicine: In Depth |website=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health |publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]] |language=en |access-date=2017-11-27 |date=April 2009}}</ref> ==Efficacy== {{Further|Traditional Chinese medicine#Efficacy|Drug research}} Only a few trials exist that are considered to have adequate methodology by scientific standards. Proof of effectiveness is poorly documented or absent.<ref name="Shang-2007">{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/ije/dym119 |title=Placebo-controlled trials of Chinese herbal medicine and conventional medicine comparative study |year=2007 |last1=Shang |first1=A. |last2=Huwiler |first2=K. |last3=Nartey |first3=L. |last4=Jüni |first4=P. |last5=Egger |first5=M. |journal=International Journal of Epidemiology |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=1086–92 |pmid=17602184 |ref=harv|doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2016 [[Cochrane review]] found "insufficient evidence that Chinese Herbal Medicines were any more or less effective than placebo or Hormonal Therapy" for the relief of menopause related symptoms.<ref name="Cochrane review 2016 on Chinese herbal medicine for menopausal symptoms">{{cite journal|last1=Zhu|first1=X|last2=Liew|first2=Y|last3=Liu|first3=ZL|title=Chinese herbal medicine for menopausal symptoms|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=15 March 2016|volume=3|pages=CD009023|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009023.pub2|pmid=26976671|pmc=4951187}}</ref> A 2012 [[Cochrane review]] found no difference in decreased [[mortality rate|mortality]] when Chinese herbs were used alongside Western medicine versus Western medicine exclusively.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Liu | first1 = X. | last2 = Zhang | first2 = M. | last3 = He | first3 = L. | last4 = Li | first4 = Y. | editor1-last = Li | editor1-first = Youping | title = Chinese herbs combined with Western medicine for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004882.pub3 | journal = The Cochrane Library| volume = 10 | pages = CD004882 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23076910 | pmc =6993561 }}</ref> A 2010 Cochrane review found there is not enough robust evidence to support the effectiveness of traditional Chinese medicine herbs to stop the bleeding from [[haemorrhoids]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Gan | first1 = T. | last2 = Liu | first2 = Y. D. | last3 = Wang | first3 = Y. | last4 = Yang | first4 = J. | editor1-last = Gan | editor1-first = Tao | title = Traditional Chinese Medicine herbs for stopping bleeding from haemorrhoids | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD006791.pub2 | journal = The Cochrane Library| issue = 10 | pages = CD006791 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20927750 | pmc = }}</ref> A 2008 Cochrane review found promising evidence for the use of Chinese herbal medicine in relieving [[dysmenorrhea|painful menstruation]], compared to conventional medicine such as [[NSAID]]s and the oral contraceptive pill, but the findings are of low methodological quality.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Zhu | first1 = X. | last2 = Proctor | first2 = M. | last3 = Bensoussan | first3 = A. | last4 = Wu | first4 = E. | last5 = Smith | first5 = C. A. | editor1-last = Zhu | editor1-first = Xiaoshu | title = Chinese herbal medicine for primary dysmenorrhoea | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD005288.pub3 | journal = The Cochrane Library| issue = 2 | pages = CD005288 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18425916 | pmc = }}</ref> A 2012 Cochrane review found weak evidence suggesting that some Chinese medicinal herbs have a similar effect at preventing and treating [[influenza]] as [[Antiviral drug|antiviral]] medication.<ref name=Jiang2013>{{Cite journal|last=Jiang|first=Lanhui|last2=Deng|first2=Linyu|last3=Wu|first3=Taixiang|date=2013-03-28|title=Chinese medicinal herbs for influenza|url=|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=|issue=3|pages=CD004559|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004559.pub4|issn=1469-493X|pmid=23543533}}</ref> Due to the poor quality of these medical studies, there is insufficient evidence to support or dismiss the use of Chinese medicinal herbs for the treatment of influenza.<ref name=Jiang2013 /> There is a need for larger and higher quality randomized clinical trials to determine how effective Chinese herbal medicine is for treating people with influenza.<ref name=Jiang2013 /> A 2005 Cochrane review found that although the evidence was weak for the use of any single herb, there was low quality evidence that some Chinese medicinal herbs may be effective for the treatment of acute [[pancreatitis]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wang | first1 = Q. | last2 = Yiping | first2 = Z. | last3 = Jinlin | first3 = P. | last4 = Tao | first4 = Y. | last5 = Zhen | first5 = T. | last6 = Pengcheng | first6 = J. | editor1-last = Wang | editor1-first = Qiong | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003631.pub2 | title = Chinese herbal medicines for acute pancreatitis | journal = The Cochrane Library| issue = 1 | pages = CD003631 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15674909 | pmc = }}</ref> Successful results have been scarce: [[artemisinin]] is one of few examples. An effective treatment for [[malaria]], it was derived from ''Artemisia annua'' which is traditionally used to treat fever.<ref name=swallow/> Chinese herbology is largely [[pseudoscience]], with no valid [[mechanism of action]] for the majority of its treatments.<ref name=swallow>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/448106a|title=Hard to swallow|year=2007|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=448|issue=7150|pages=105–6|pmid=17625521|bibcode=2007Natur.448S.105.|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==Ecological impacts== [[File:Seahorse Skeleton Macro 8 - edit.jpg|thumb|upright|Dried [[seahorse]]s like these are extensively used in [[traditional medicine]] in China and elsewhere.]] The traditional practice of using (by now) [[endangered species]] is controversial within TCM. Modern Materia Medicas such as Bensky, Clavey and Stoger's comprehensive Chinese herbal text discuss substances derived from endangered species in an appendix, emphasizing alternatives.<ref name=Bensky_Clavey_Stoger>{{Cite book|title=Chinese Herbal Medicine Material Medica (3rd Edition)|last=Bensky, Clavey and Stoger|publisher=Eastland Press|year=2004}}{{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref> Parts of endangered species used as TCM drugs include tiger bones<ref>{{cite book|author1=Nigel Wiseman |author2=Ye Feng |title=A Practical Dictionary of Chinese Medicine|publisher=Paradigm Publications|edition=2|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_FyGk5QnjhAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=wiseman+medicine+dictionary#v=onepage&q=tiger%20bone&f=false|page=904|isbn=9780912111544}}</ref> and [[rhinoceros horn]].<ref name=FTCMRH>''Facts about traditional Chinese medicine (TCM): rhinoceros horn'', Encyclopædia Britannica, [http://www.britannica.com/facts/5/1035448/traditional-Chinese-medicine-TCM-as-discussed-in-rhinoceros-mammal Facts about traditional Chinese medicine (TCM): rhinoceros horn, as discussed in rhinoceros (mammal): – Britannica Online Encyclopedia]</ref> Poachers supply the [[black market]] with such substances,<ref name="Brian K. Weirum, Special to the Chronicle">{{cite news|author=Brian K. Weirum, Special to the Chronicle |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/11/11/TR10T8RBN.DTL |title=Will traditional Chinese medicine mean the end of the wild tiger?|publisher=Sfgate.com |date=2007-11-11 |accessdate=2009-12-07}}</ref><ref name="Newscientist.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/endangered-species/dn3376 |title=Rhino rescue plan decimates Asian antelopes |publisher=Newscientist.com |date= |accessdate=2009-12-07}}</ref> and the black market in rhinoceros horn, for example, has reduced the world's rhino population by more than 90 percent over the past 40 years.<ref name=RH>''"Rhino horn: All myth, no medicine"'', ''National Geographic'', Rhishja Larson</ref> Concerns have also arisen over the use of [[turtle]] [[plastron]]<ref name=guiban>{{Cite journal |doi=10.2744/CCB-0747.1 |title=Unregulated Trade in Turtle Shells for Chinese Traditional Medicine in East and Southeast Asia: The Case of Taiwan |year=2009 |last1=Chen |first1=Tien-Hsi |last2=Chang |first2=Hsien-Cheh |last3=Lue |first3=Kuang-Yang |journal=Chelonian Conservation and Biology |volume=8 |pages=11–18 |ref=harv}}</ref> and [[seahorse]]s.<ref name="Pbs.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/seahorse/vincent.html |title=NOVA Online &#124; Kingdom of the Seahorse &#124; Amanda Vincent |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2009-12-07}}</ref> TCM recognizes [[bear bile]] as a medicinal. In 1988, the Chinese Ministry of Health started controlling bile production, which previously used bears killed before winter. Now bears are fitted with a sort of permanent [[catheter]], which is more profitable than killing the bears.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{lang|zh|"治人病还是救熊命——对养熊"引流熊胆"的思考"南风窗.}} November 12, 2002{{Verify source|date=October 2011}}</ref> More than 12,000 [[asiatic black bears]] are held in "bear farms", where they suffer cruel conditions while being held in tiny cages. The catheter leads through a permanent hole in the abdomen directly to the [[gall bladder]], which can cause severe pain. Increased international attention has mostly stopped the use of bile outside of China; gallbladders from butchered cattle ({{zh|labels=no|t=牛膽|s=牛胆 |p=niú dǎn}}) are recommended as a substitute for this ingredient.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} Collecting [[American ginseng]] to assist the Asian traditional medicine trade has made ginseng the most harvested wild plant in North America for the last two centuries, which eventually led to a listing on [[CITES Appendix II]].<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 23398402| year = 2013| last1 = McGraw| first1 = J. B.| title = Ecology and conservation of ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in a changing world| journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences| volume = 1286| issue = 1| pages = 62–91| last2 = Lubbers| first2 = A. E.| last3 = Van Der Voort| first3 = M| last4 = Mooney| first4 = E. H.| last5 = Furedi| first5 = M. A.| last6 = Souther| first6 = S| last7 = Turner| first7 = J. B.| last8 = Chandler| first8 = J| doi = 10.1111/nyas.12032| bibcode = 2013NYASA1286...62M}}</ref> ==Herbs in use== {{See also|List of medicines in traditional Chinese medicine}} Chinese herbology is a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] practice with potentially unreliable product quality, safety hazards or misleading health advice.<ref name="quackwatch">{{cite web|url=https://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/herbs.html|title=The herbal minefield|author=Barrett, Stephen|publisher=Quackwatch|date=23 November 2013|accessdate=1 December 2017}}</ref><ref name="who">{{cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/92455/1/9789241506090_eng.pdf?ua=1|publisher=World Health Organization|title=WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy, 2014-2023; page 41|date=2013|accessdate=1 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=22305255|year=2012|last1=Zhang|first1=J|title=Quality of herbal medicines: Challenges and solutions|journal=Complementary Therapies in Medicine|volume=20|issue=1–2|pages=100–6|last2=Wider|first2=B|last3=Shang|first3=H|last4=Li|first4=X|last5=Ernst|first5=E|doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2011.09.004}}</ref> There are regulatory bodies, such as China GMP (Good Manufacturing Process) of herbal products.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=He|first1=Tian-Tian|last2=Lam Ung|first2=Carolina Oi|last3=Hu|first3=Hao|last4=Wang|first4=Yi-Tao|title=Good manufacturing practice (GMP) regulation of herbal medicine in comparative research: China GMP, cGMP, WHO-GMP, PIC/S and EU-GMP|journal=European Journal of Integrative Medicine|date=February 2015|volume=7|issue=1|pages=55–56|doi=10.1016/j.eujim.2014.11.007}}</ref> However, there have been notable cases of an absence of [[quality control]] during herbal product preparation.<ref name="bmc2013">{{cite journal|pmc=3851815|year=2013|last1=Newmaster|first1=S. G.|title=DNA barcoding detects contamination and substitution in North American herbal products|journal=BMC Medicine|volume=11|pages=222|last2=Grguric|first2=M|last3=Shanmughanandhan|first3=D|last4=Ramalingam|first4=S|last5=Ragupathy|first5=S|doi=10.1186/1741-7015-11-222|pmid=24120035}}</ref> There is a lack of high-quality scientific research on herbology practices and product effectiveness for anti-disease activity.<ref name=quackwatch/><ref name=who/> In the herbal sources listed below, there is little or no evidence for efficacy or proof of safety across consumer age groups and disease conditions for which they are intended.<ref name=quackwatch/><ref name=who/> There are over 300 herbs in common use. Some of the most commonly used herbs are [[Ginseng]] ({{zh|labels=no|s=人参|t=人參|p=rénshēn}}), [[wolfberry]] ({{zh|labels=no|c={{linktext|枸杞子}}|p=gǒuqǐzǐ), [[dong quai]]}} (''[[Angelica sinensis]]'', {{zh|labels=no|s=当归|t=當歸|p=dāngguī}}), [[astragalus]] ({{zh|labels=no|s=黄耆|t=黃耆|p=huángqí}}), atractylodes ({{zh|labels=no|s=白术|t=白朮|p=báizhú}}), bupleurum ({{zh|labels=no|c=柴胡|p=cháihú}}), [[cinnamon]] (cinnamon twigs ({{zh|labels=no|c=桂枝|p=guìzhī}}) and cinnamon bark ({{zh|labels=no|c=肉桂|p=ròuguì}})), [[coptis]] ({{zh|labels=no|s=黄连|t=黃連|p=huánglián}}), ginger ({{zh|labels=no|s=姜|t=薑|p=jiāng}}), hoelen ({{zh|labels=no|c=茯苓|p=fúlíng}}), [[licorice]] ({{zh|labels=no|c=甘草|p=gāncǎo}}), ''[[ephedra sinica]]'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=麻黄|t=麻黃|p=máhuáng}}), [[peony]] (white: {{zh|labels=no|c=白芍|p=báisháo}} and reddish: {{zh|labels=no|c=赤芍|p=chìsháo}}), [[rehmannia]] ({{zh|labels=no|s=地黄|t=地黃|p=dìhuáng}}), [[rhubarb]] ({{zh|labels=no|s=大黄|t=大黃|p=dàhuáng}}), and salvia ({{zh|labels=no|s=丹参|t=丹參|p=dānshēn}}). ===Chinese ginseng=== [[File:Red ginseng.JPG|thumb|right|235px|Chinese red ginseng roots]] :See: ''[[Panax notoginseng]]'' The use of Chinese ginseng ({{zh|labels=no|s=人參|t=人参}}) is well over 2,000 years old in Chinese medicine. The constituents include [[steroid]] [[saponin]]s known as [[ginsenoside]]s,<ref name="Attele">{{cite journal|last1=Attele|first1=AS|last2=Wu|first2=J.A.|last3=Yuan|first3=C.S.|year=1999|title=Ginseng pharmacology: multiple constituents and multiple actions.|journal=Biochemical Pharmacology|volume=58|issue=11|pages=1685–1693|doi=10.1016/s0006-2952(99)00212-9|pmid=10571242}}</ref> The amount of ginsenosides in Chinese ginseng depends on how the plant was cultivated and the age of the root.<ref name="Attele"/> Wild Chinese ginseng, believed to be of highest TCM quality, has become rare in its natural habitat, so natural fostering efforts are utilized to emulate the wild variety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Xiwen|last2=Chen|first2=Yuning|last3=Lai|first3=Yunfeng|last4=Yang|first4=Qing|last5=Hu|first5=Hao|last6=Wang|first6=Yitao|title=Sustainable utilization of traditional chinese medicine resources: systematic evaluation on different production modes|journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine|date=October 31, 2014|volume=2015|pages=218901|doi=10.1155/2015/218901|pmid=26074987|pmc=4449915}}</ref> Chinese ginseng can be white or red, depending on how it is processed.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title=Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica |publisher=Eastland Press |edition=Third |first1=Dan |last1=Bensky |first2=Steven |last2=Clavey |first3=Erich |last3=Stonger |first4=Andrew |last4=Gamble |year=2004}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref> White Chinese ginseng is unprocessed and dried naturally.<ref name=:0/> Red Chinese ginseng is processed with steam and, in TCM, is believed to be more potent.<ref name=:0/> <br> :TCM Lore: :Properties: Sweet, Bitter, Warm.<ref name=:0/> :Channels: Lung, Spleen, Heart.<ref name=:0/> ===American ginseng=== :See: ''[[Panax quinquefolius]]'' Wild American ginseng populations are thought to be less abundant than they were in the 18th and early 19th centuries, due to habitat loss, harvest pressures and excessive deer browse.<ref name="vce">{{cite journal|title=Growing American Ginseng (''Panax quinquefolius'') in Forestlands|journal=Virginia Cooperative Extension|date=January 13, 2011|volume=354-313|url=https://pubs.ext.vt.edu/354/354-313/354-313.html}}</ref> Current American ginseng products are commonly sourced from naturally fostered varieties, to emulate the wild variety.<ref name=vce/> :TCM Lore: :Properties: Sweet, Slightly Bitter, Cold.<ref name=:0/> :Channels: Heart, Kidney, Lung.<ref name=:0/> ===Siberian ginseng=== :See: ''[[Eleutherococcus senticosus]]'' :TCM Lore: :Properties: Pungent, Acrid, Slightly Bitter, Warm.<ref name=:0/> :Channels: Spleen, Heart, Kidney.<ref name=:0/> ===Ginkgo=== ===Mushrooms=== {{Main|Medicinal mushrooms}} Mushrooms have long been used as a medicinal food and as a tea in Chinese herbology. ===Wolfberry=== [[File:Wolfberries China 7-05.JPG|thumb|right|''Lycium barbarum'', [[Wolfberry]] ({{linktext|lang=zh|枸杞子}})]] [[Wolfberry]] ({{linktext|lang=zh|枸杞子}}) is grown in [[Ningxia]] from shrubs with long vines. The shrubs are covered with small trumpet-shaped flowers, which turn into small, bright red berries. The berries are usually consumed fresh and sometimes when dried.<ref name="benzie">{{cite book|last1=Benzie|first1=Iris F. F.|title=Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects, Second Edition|date=2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781439807163|page=292}}</ref> <br> :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''Lycium barbarum''. :'''Pinyin''': Gou Qi Zi. ({{lang|zh|枸杞子}}) :'''Common Name''': Chinese Wolfberry. :'''Quality''': Sweet, Neutral. :'''Meridians''': Liver, Lung, Kidney.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tcm.health-info.org/Herbology.Materia.Medica/gouqizi-properties.htm |title=Traditional Chinese Medicine-Acupuncture-Herbs-Formulas |accessdate=2011-04-26 |date=2002 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913031449/http://tcm.health-info.org/Herbology.Materia.Medica/gouqizi-properties.htm |archivedate=2011-09-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.tcm-china.info/materia/single/single/75756.shtml |title=Beijing Digital Museum of TCM |date=2007 |accessdate=2011-04-26 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110704103904/http://en.tcm-china.info/materia/single/single/75756.shtml |archivedate=2011-07-04 }}</ref> ===Dang Gui=== [[Dang Gui]] ({{zh|labels=no|t=當歸|s=当归}}, ''Angelica sinensis'' or "female ginseng") is an aromatic herb that grows in China, Korea, and Japan.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} <br> :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''Angelica sinensis''. :'''[[Pinyin]]''': Dang Gui. :'''Common Name''': Chinese Angelica Root. :'''Quality''': Sweet, Pungent (Acrid), Warm. :'''Meridians''': Liver, Heart, Spleen. ===Astragalus=== [[Astragalus]] ({{lang|zh|黄芪}}) is a root. <br> :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''Astragalus membranaceus''. :'''Pinyin''': Huang Qi. :'''Common Name''': Astragalus Root, Milkvetch Root. :'''Quality''': Sweet, Slightly warm. :'''Meridians''': Lung, Spleen. ===Atractylodes=== :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''Atractylodes lancea''. :'''Pinyin''': Cang Zhu. ({{lang|zh|苍术}}) :'''Common Name''': Atractylodes Rhizome. :'''Quality''': Pungent (Acrid), Bitter, Warm. :'''Meridians''': Spleen, Stomach. ===Bupleurum=== :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''[[Bupleurum chinense]]''. :'''Pinyin''': Chai Hu. ({{lang|zh|柴胡}}) :'''Common Name''': [[Bupleurum|Hare's Ear]] Root. :'''Quality''': Bitter, Pungent (Acrid), Cool. :'''Meridians''': Gallbladder, Liver, Pericardium, [[San Jiao]]. ===Cinnamon=== Cinnamon ({{zh|labels=no|t=桂枝|s=肉桂}}), mostly ''gui zhi'' and ''rou gui'', is the twigs and bark from a species of large tropical tree.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} <br> :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''Cinnamomum cassia''. :'''Pinyin''': Gui Zhi. （{{lang|zh|桂枝}}） :'''Common Name''': Cinnamon Twig. :'''Quality''': Pungent (Acrid), Sweet, Warm. :'''Meridians''': Heart, Lung, Bladder. :'''Species''': ''Cinnamomum cassia''. :'''Pinyin''': Rou Gui. (肉桂}}) :'''Common Name''': Cinnamon Bark. :'''Quality''': Pungent (Acrid), Sweet, Hot. :'''Meridians''': Heart, Kidney, Liver, Spleen. ===''Coptis chinensis''=== The rhizome of ''[[Coptis chinensis]]'' is one of the bitterest herbs used in Chinese medicine.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} <br> :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''Coptis chinensis''. :'''Pinyin''': Huang Lian. ({{lang|zh|黄連}}) :'''Common Name''': Coptis Rhizome. :'''Qualities''': Bitter, Cold. :'''Meridians''': Heart, Large Intestine, Liver, Stomach. ===Ginger=== [[File:Gingembre.jpg|thumb | 250px | [[Ginger]] is consumed in [[China]] as food and as medicine.]] [[Ginger]] ({{lang|zh|薑}}) is a herb and a spice that is used in Chinese cuisine. There are four main kinds of preparations in Chinese herbology: fresh ginger, dried ginger, roasted ginger, and ginger charcoal, all made of the rhizomes. <br> :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''Zingiber officinalis''. :'''Pinyin''': Sheng Jiang ({{lang|zh|生薑}}). :'''Common Name''': Fresh Ginger Rhizome. :'''Quality''': Pungent (Acrid), Slightly warm. :'''Meridians''': Lung, Spleen, Stomach. :'''Species''': ''Zingiber officinalis''. :'''Pinyin''': Gan Jiang ({{lang|zh|乾薑}}). :'''Common Name''': Dried Ginger Rhizome. :'''Quality''': Pungent (Acrid), Hot. :'''Meridians''': Heart, Lung, Spleen, Stomach. ===Licorice=== :TCM Information: :'''Species:''' ''Glycyrrhiza inflata'' or ''Glycyrrhiza glabra''. :'''Pinyin:''' Gan Cao. ({{lang|zh|甘草}}) :'''Common Name:''' Licorice Root. :'''Quality:''' Sweet, Neutral. :'''Meridians:''' All 12 channels, but mainly Heart, Lung, Spleen, Stomach. ===Ephedra=== :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''[[Ephedra sinica]]'' or ''[[Ephedra intermedia]]''. :'''Pinyin''': Ma Huang. ({{lang|zh|麻黄}}) :'''Common Name''': [[Ephedra]] Stem. :'''Quality''': Pungent (Acrid), Slightly Bitter, Warm. :'''Meridians''': Lung, Bladder. ===Peony=== [[Peony]] comes in two varieties: bai shao (“bai”=white) and chi shao (“chi”=red). the root of the plant is used in both varieties.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} <br> :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''Paeonia lactiflora''. :'''Pinyin''': Bai Shao. ({{lang|zh|白芍}}) :'''Common Name''': White Peony Root. :'''Quality''': Bitter, Sour, Cool. :'''Meridians''': Liver, Spleen. :'''Species''': ''Paeonia lactiflora'' or ''Paeonia veitchii''. :'''Pinyin''': Chi Shao. ({{lang|zh|赤芍}}) :'''Common Name''': Red Peony Root. :'''Quality''': Sour, Bitter, Cool. :'''Meridians''': Liver, Spleen. ===''Rehmannia''=== ''[[Rehmannia]]'' ({{lang|zh|地黄}}) is a root where the dark, moist part of the herb is used.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} <br> :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''[[Rehmannia glutinosa]]''. :'''Pinyin''': Sheng Di Huang. ({{lang|zh|生地黄}}) :'''Common Name''': Raw Chinese Foxglove Root. :'''Qualities''': Sweet, Bitter, Cold. :'''Meridians''': Heart, Kidney, Liver. :'''Species''': ''Rehmannia glutinosa''. :'''Pinyin''': Shu Di Huang. ({{lang|zh|熟地黄}}) :'''Common Name''': Chinese Foxglove Root Prepared with Wine. :'''Qualities''': Sweet, Slightly warm. :'''Meridians''': Heart, Kidney, Liver. ===Rhubarb=== [[File:Flora Sinensis - Rhabarbarum.JPG|thumb|Chinese rhubarb depicted by [[Michał Boym]] (1655)]] [[Rhubarb]] ({{lang|zh|大黄}}), used medicinally for its root, was one of the first herbs to be exported from China.<ref>[https://www.lib.umn.edu/bell/tradeproducts/rhubarb?elq=0a6c15a4c0c04c1e9a780f5e6a87beab&elqCampaignId=11009 Rhubarb] James Ford Bell Library University of Minnesota (accessed January 12, 2015)</ref> <br> :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''[[Rheum palmatum]]'', ''Rheum ranguticum'', or ''[[Rheum officinale]]''. :'''Pinyin''': Da Huang. :'''Common Name''': Rhubarb Root and Rhizome. :'''Quality''': Bitter, Cold. :'''Meridians''': Heart, Large Intestine, Liver, Stomach. ===Salvia=== [[Salvia]] ({{lang|zh|丹參}}) are the deep roots of the Chinese sage plant.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} <br> :TCM Information: :'''Species''': ''Salvia miltiorrhiza''. :'''Pinyin''': Dan Shen. :'''Common Name''': Salvia Root. :'''Qualities''': Bitter, Cool. :'''Meridians''': Heart, Pericardium, Liver. ==50 fundamental herbs== In Chinese herbology, there are 50 "fundamental" herbs, as given in the reference text,<ref>Wong, Ming (1976). ''La Médecine chinoise par les plantes''. Le Corps a Vivre series. Éditions Tchou.</ref> although these herbs are not universally recognized as such in other texts. The herbs are: {| class="wikitable" |- ![[Binomial nomenclature]] !Chinese name !English common name (when available) |- ||''[[Agastache rugosa]]'', ''[[Pogostemon cablin]]''<ref name="pfafagast">{{cite web|url=http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Agastache+rugosa |title=Agastache rugosa &#124; Plants For A Future database report |accessdate=2008-02-14 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060412081255/http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Agastache+rugosa |archivedate = April 12, 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> || huò xiāng ({{linktext|lang=zh|藿|香}})<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200019465 |title=Agastache rugosa in Flora of China @ efloras.org |accessdate=2008-02-19 }}</ref>||Korean mint, Patchouli |- ||''[[Alangium chinense]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Alangium+chinense |title=Alangium chinense &#124; Plants For A Future database report |accessdate=2008-02-05 |date=June 2004 |publisher=Plants for a Future |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100506020647/http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Alangium+chinense |archivedate = May 6, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> || bā jiǎo fēng ({{linktext|lang=zh|八|角|枫}})<ref name="alangium-efloras"/>||Chinese Alangium root |- ||''[[Anemone chinensis]]'' (syn. ''Pulsatilla chinensis'')<ref name=taxon404160>{{cite web |url=http://mbbs.cucas.edu.cn/mbbschina/2012-01-07/2015_top_mbbs_programs_in_China.shtml |title=2015 Top MBBS Programs in China |accessdate=2008-02-05 |publisher=CUCAS}}</ref> || bái tóu weng <!--need tone for third syllable-->({{linktext|lang=zh|白|头|翁}})<ref name="alangium-efloras">{{cite web|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200014707 |title=Alangium chinense in Flora of China @ efloras.org |accessdate=2008-02-14 }}</ref><ref name=taxon404160/><!--THIS APPEARS TO BE THE WRONG PLANT-->||Chinese anemone |- ||''[[Anisodus tanguticus]]'' || shān làng dàng ({{linktext|lang=zh|山|莨|菪}})<ref name="efloras">{{cite web|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200020508|title=Anisodus tanguticus in Flora of China @efloras.org|accessdate=2008-02-05 }}</ref><!--check this; is there a fourth character 属?-->|| |- ||''[[Ardisia japonica]]'' || zǐ jīn niú ({{linktext|lang=zh|紫|金|牛}})<ref name=foc>Flora of China: [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200016777 ''Ardisia japonica'']</ref>||Marlberry |- ||''[[Aster tataricus]]'' || zǐ wǎn ({{linktext|lang=zh|紫|菀}})||Tatar aster, Tartar aster |- ||''[[Astragalus propinquus]]'' (syn. ''Astragalus membranaceus'')<ref name="ildis">{{cite web|url=http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb/?version~10.01&LegumeWeb&tno~16104 |title=Astragalus propinquus |accessdate=25 October 2019 |date=16 June 2018 |work=ILDIS LegumeWeb |publisher=International Legume Database & Information Service }}</ref> || huáng qí ({{linktext|lang=zh|黄|芪}})<ref name="althealing-huang-qi">{{cite web|url=http://alternativehealing.org/huang_qi.htm |title=Huang qi, Complementary and Alternative Healing University |accessdate=2008-02-19 }}</ref> or běi qí ({{linktext|lang=zh|北|芪}})<ref name="althealing-huang-qi"/>||Mongolian milkvetch |- ||''[[Camellia sinensis]]'' || chá shù ({{linktext|lang=zh|茶|树}}) or chá yè ({{linktext|lang=zh|茶|叶}})<!--former genus name:''Thea''-->||Tea plant |- ||''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' || dà má ({{linktext|lang=zh|大|麻}})||Cannabis |- ||''[[Carthamus tinctorius]]'' || hóng huā ({{linktext|lang=zh|红|花}})<!--check tone for "hong"-->||Safflower |- ||''[[Cinnamomum aromaticum|Cinnamomum cassia]]'' || ròu gùi ({{linktext|lang=zh|肉|桂}})||Cassia, Chinese cinnamon |- ||''[[Cissampelos pareira]]'' || xí shēng téng ({{linktext|lang=zh|锡|生|藤}}) or ({{linktext|lang=zh|亞|乎|奴}})<!--get pinyin for second set of characters-->||Velvet leaf |- ||''[[Coptis chinensis]]'' || duǎn è huáng lián ({{linktext|lang=zh|短|萼|黄|连}})<!--other species: ''teeta''?-->||Chinese goldthread |- ||''[[Corydalis yanhusuo]]'' || yán hú suǒ ({{linktext|lang=zh|延|胡|索}})<!--also add variety name?-->||Chinese poppy of Yan Hu Sou |- ||''[[Croton tiglium]]'' || bā dòu ({{linktext|lang=zh|巴|豆}})<!--need to check-->||Purging croton |- ||''[[Daphne genkwa]]'' || yuán huā ({{linktext|lang=zh|芫|花}})||Lilac daphne |- ||''[[Datura metel]]'' || yáng jīn huā<!--check pinyin--> ({{linktext|lang=zh|洋|金|花}})<!--also add other Chinese names-->||Devil's trumpet |- ||''[[Datura stramonium]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ars%7Cgrin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?13323 |title=Datura stramonium information from NPGS/GRIN |accessdate=2008-02-05 }} {{dead link|date=July 2011}}</ref> || zǐ huā màn tuó luó ({{linktext|lang=zh|紫|花|曼|陀|萝}})||Jimson weed |- ||''[[Dendrobium nobile]]'' || shí hú ({{linktext|lang=zh|石|斛}}) or shí hú lán ({{linktext|lang=zh|石|斛|兰}})||Noble dendrobium |- ||''[[Dichroa febrifuga]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Dichroa+febrifuga |title=Dichroa febrifuga &#124; Plants For A Future database report |accessdate=2008-02-05 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090117143642/http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Dichroa+febrifuga |archivedate = January 17, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> || cháng shān ({{linktext|常山}})||Blue evergreen hydrangea, Chinese quinine |- ||''[[Ephedra sinica]]'' || cǎo má huáng ({{linktext|lang=zh|草|麻|黄}})<!--can someone check the pinyin and tones?-->||Chinese ephedra |- ||''[[Eucommia ulmoides]]'' || dù zhòng ({{linktext|lang=zh|杜|仲}})||Hardy rubber tree |- ||''[[Euphorbia pekinensis]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Euphorbia+pekinensis |title=Euphorbia pekinensis &#124; Plants For A Future database report |accessdate=2008-02-05 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090116001358/http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Euphorbia+pekinensis |archivedate = January 16, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> || dà jǐ ({{linktext|lang=zh|大|戟}})||Peking spurge |- ||''[[Flueggea suffruticosa]]'' (formerly ''[[Securinega]] suffruticosa'') || yī yè qiū ({{linktext|lang=zh|一|叶|秋}})<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Securinega+suffruticosa |title=Securinega suffruticosa – Plants For A Future database report |accessdate=2008-02-06 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090117174920/http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Securinega+suffruticosa |archivedate = January 17, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>|| |- ||''[[Forsythia suspensa]]'' || liánqiáo<ref>Xiandai Hanyu Cidian. Commercial Press, fifth Edition, p. 844.</ref> ({{linktext|lang=zh|连|翘}})<!--maybe qiáo? check tone of second syllable-->||Weeping forsythia |- ||''[[Gentiana loureiroi]]'' || dì dīng ({{linktext|lang=zh|地|丁}})<!--Or loureirii?-->|| |- ||''[[Gleditsia sinensis]]'' || zào jiá ({{linktext|lang=zh|皂|荚}})<!--Chinese name needs to be checked-->||Chinese honeylocust |- ||''[[Glycyrrhiza uralensis]]'' || gān cǎo ({{linktext|lang=zh|甘|草}})<ref name="pfaf">{{cite web|url=http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Glycyrrhiza+uralensis |title=Glycyrrhiza uralensis – Plants For A Future database report |accessdate=2008-02-08 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090115192919/http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Glycyrrhiza+uralensis |archivedate = January 15, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>|| Licorice |- ||''[[Hydnocarpus anthelminticus]]'' (syn. ''H. anthelminthica'') || dà fēng zǐ ({{linktext|lang=zh|大|风|子}})||Chaulmoogra tree |- ||''[[Ilex purpurea]]'' || dōngqīng ({{linktext|lang=zh|冬|青}})<!--or Ilex chinensis?-->||Purple holly |- ||''[[Leonurus japonicus]]'' || yì mǔ cǎo ({{linktext|lang=zh|益|母|草}})<!--also species ''sibiricus''?-->||Chinese motherwort |- ||''[[Ligusticum wallichii]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Ligusticum+wallichii |title=Ligusticum wallichii &#124; Plants For A Future database report |accessdate=2008-02-21 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080303144528/http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Ligusticum+wallichii |archivedate = March 3, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> || chuān xiōng ({{linktext|川|芎}})|| Szechwan lovage |- ||''[[Lobelia chinensis]]'' || bàn biān lián ({{linktext|lang=zh|半|边|莲}})||Creeping lobelia |- ||''[[Phellodendron amurense]]'' || [[huáng bǎi]] ({{linktext|lang=zh|黄|柏}})||Amur cork tree |- ||''[[Platycladus orientalis]]'' (formerly ''Thuja orientalis'') || cè bǎi ({{linktext|lang=zh|侧|柏}})|| Chinese arborvitae |- ||''[[Pseudolarix amabilis]]'' || jīn qián sōng ({{linktext|lang=zh|金|钱|松}})|| Golden larch |- ||''[[Psilopeganum sinense]]'' || shān má huáng ({{linktext|lang=zh|山|麻|黄}})||Naked rue |- ||''[[Pueraria lobata]]'' || gé gēn ({{linktext|lang=zh|葛|根}})||Kudzu |- ||''[[Rauvolfia serpentina]]'' || shégēnmù ({{linktext|lang=zh|蛇|根|木}}), cóng shégēnmù ({{linktext|lang=zh|從|蛇|根|木}}) or yìndù shé mù ({{linktext|lang=zh|印|度|蛇|木}}) || Sarpagandha, Indian snakeroot |- ||''[[Rehmannia glutinosa]]'' || dìhuáng ({{linktext|lang=zh|地|黄}})<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Rehmannia+glutinosa |title=Rehmannia glutinosa |date= |accessdate=2012-11-04}}</ref>||Chinese foxglove |- ||''[[Rheum officinale]]'' || yào yòng dà huáng ({{linktext|lang=zh|药|用|大|黄}})||Chinese or Eastern rhubarb |- ||''[[Rhododendron qinghaiense]]'' || Qīng hǎi dù juān<!--check pinyin--> ({{linktext|lang=zh|青|海|杜|鹃}})<!--need to check-->|| |- ||''[[Saussurea costus]]'' || yún mù xiāng ({{linktext|lang=zh|云|木|香}})||Costus root |- ||''[[Schisandra chinensis]]'' || wǔ wèi zi ({{linktext|lang=zh|五|味|子}}) ||Chinese magnolia vine |- ||''[[Scutellaria baicalensis]]'' || huáng qín ({{linktext|lang=zh|黄|芩}})|| Baikal skullcap |- ||''[[Stemona tuberosa]]'' || bǎi bù ({{linktext|lang=zh|百|部}})|| |- ||''[[Stephania tetrandra]]'' || fáng jǐ ({{linktext|lang=zh|防|己}})<!--find alternate names-->||Stephania root |- ||''[[Styphnolobium japonicum]]'' (formerly ''Sophora japonica'') || huái ({{linktext|lang=zh|槐}}), huái shù ({{linktext|lang=zh|槐|树}}), or huái huā ({{linktext|lang=zh|槐|花}})<!--need to check-->|| Pagoda tree |- ||''[[Trichosanthes kirilowii]]'' || guā lóu ({{linktext|lang=zh|栝|楼}})|| Chinese cucumber |- ||''[[Wikstroemia indica]]'' || liāo gē wáng ({{linktext|lang=zh|了|哥|王}})|| Indian stringbush |} ==Other Chinese herbs== <!--Please only use species names; a lot of these are informal/outmoded Latin terms--> {{unreferenced section |date= April 2017}} In addition to the above, many other Chinese herbs and other substances are in common use, and these include: {{Div col|colwidth=20em}} * ''[[Akebia quinata]]'' ({{lang|zh|木通}}) * ''[[Arisaema heterophyllum]]''<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:天南星 |title=Tiannanxing |url=http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/was40/detail?channelid=47953&searchword=pid=B00106 |website=Hong Kong Baptist University |language=zh |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019004937/http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/was40/detail?channelid=47953&searchword=pid%3DB00106 |archivedate=2015-10-19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_ind.nsf/d2769881999f47b3482564840019d2f9/75693bae1ea33cd3482567fa00292a6a?OpenDocument |title=Cap 549 Sched 2 CHINESE HERBAL MEDICINES (CHINESE MEDICINE ORDINANCE) |publisher=Legislation.gov.hk |date= |accessdate=2012-11-04}}</ref> ({{lang|zh|胆南星}}) * ''[[Arsenic trioxide]]'' ({{lang|zh|砒霜}}) * ''[[Arsenolite]]'' ({{lang|zh|砒石}}) * ''[[Aspongopus]]'' ({{lang|zh|九香虫}}) * ''[[Asteriscus pseudosciaenae]]'' ({{lang|zh|鱼脑石}}) * ''[[Benzoinum]]'' ({{lang|zh|安息香}}) * ''[[Bombyx batryticatus]]'' ({{lang|zh|僵蚕}}) * ''[[Bulbus fritillariae cirrhosae]]'' ({{lang|zh|川贝母}}) * ''[[Bulbus fritillariae hupehensis]]'' ({{lang|zh|湖北贝母}}) * ''[[Bulbus fritillariae pallidiflorae]]'' ({{lang|zh|伊贝母}}) * ''[[Bulbus fritillariae thunbergii]]'' ({{lang|zh|浙贝母}}) * ''[[Bulbus fritillariae ussuriensis]]'' ({{lang|zh|平贝母}}) * ''[[Bulbus lycoridis radiatae]]'' ({{lang|zh|石蒜}}) * ''[[Cacumen securinegae suffruticosae]]'' ({{lang|zh|叶底珠}}) * ''[[Cacumen tamaricis]]'' ({{lang|zh|西河柳}}) * ''[[Calamine]]'' ({{lang|zh|炉甘石}}) * ''[[Calculus bovis]]'' ({{lang|zh|牛黄}}) * ''[[Calculus equi]]'' ({{lang|zh|马宝}}) * ''[[Calomelas]]'' ({{lang|zh|轻粉}}) * ''[[Calyx seu fructus physalis]]'' ({{lang|zh|锦灯笼}}) * ''[[Caulis ampelopsis brevipedunculae]]'' ({{lang|zh|山葡萄}}) * ''[[Caulis aristolochiae manshuriensis]]'' ({{lang|zh|关木通}}) * ''[[Caulis bambusae]]'' in taeniam ({{lang|zh|竹茹}}) * ''[[Caulis clematidis armandii]]'' ({{lang|zh|川木通}}) * ''[[Caulis entadae]]'' ({{lang|zh|过江龙}}) * ''[[Caulis erycibes]]'' ({{lang|zh|丁公藤}}) * ''[[Caulis et folium piperis hancei]]'' ({{lang|zh|山蒟}}) * ''[[Caulis et folium schefflerae arboricolae]]'' ({{lang|zh|七叶莲}}) * ''[[Caulis euphorbiae antiquori]]'' ({{lang|zh|火殃勒}}) * ''[[Caulis fibraureae]]'' ({{lang|zh|黄藤}}) * ''[[Caulis gneti]]'' ({{lang|zh|买麻藤}}) * ''[[Caulis hederae sinensis]]'' ({{lang|zh|常春藤}}) * ''[[Caulis impatientis]]'' ({{lang|zh|透骨草}}) * ''[[Caulis lonicerae]]'' ({{lang|zh|忍冬藤}}) * ''[[Caulis mahoniae]]'' ({{lang|zh|功劳木}}) * ''[[Caulis perillae]]'' ({{lang|zh|紫苏梗}}) * ''[[Caulis piperis kadsurae]]'' ({{lang|zh|海风藤}}) * ''[[Caulis polygoni multiflori]]'' ({{lang|zh|首乌藤}}) * ''[[Caulis sargentodoxae]]'' ({{lang|zh|大血藤}}) * ''[[Caulis sinomenii]]'' ({{lang|zh|青风藤}}) * ''[[Caulis spatholobi]]'' ({{lang|zh|鸡血藤}}) * ''[[Caulis tinosporae]]'' ({{lang|zh|宽根藤}}) * ''[[Caulis trachelospermi]]'' ({{lang|zh|络石藤}}) * ''[[Cera chinensis]]'' ({{lang|zh|虫白蜡}}) * ''[[Chenpi]]'' (sun-dried tangerine (mandarin) peel) ({{lang|zh|陳皮}}) * ''[[Cinnabaris]]'' ({{lang|zh|朱砂}}) * ''[[Clematis]]'' ({{lang|zh|威灵仙}}) * ''[[Colla corii asini]]'' ({{lang|zh|阿胶}}) * ''[[Concha arcae]]'' ({{lang|zh|瓦楞子}}) * ''[[Concha haliotidis]]'' ({{lang|zh|石决明}}) * ''[[Concha margaritifera usta]]'' ({{lang|zh|珍珠母}}) * ''[[Concha mauritiae arabicae]]'' ({{lang|zh|紫贝齿}}) * ''[[Concha meretricis seu cyclinae]]'' ({{lang|zh|蛤壳}}) * ''[[Concretio silicea bambusae]]'' ({{lang|zh|天竺黄}}) * ''[[Caterpillar fungus|Cordyceps sinensis]]'' ({{lang|zh|冬虫夏草}}) * ''[[Corium erinacei seu hemiechianus]]'' ({{lang|zh|刺猬皮}}) * ''[[Cornu bubali]]'' ({{lang|zh|水牛角}}) * ''[[Cornu cervi]]'' ({{lang|zh|鹿角}}) * ''[[Cornu cervi degelatinatum]]'' ({{lang|zh|鹿角霜}}) * ''[[Cornu cervi pantotrichum]]'' ({{lang|zh|鹿茸}}) * ''[[Cornu saigae tataricae]]'' ({{lang|zh|羚羊角}}) * ''[[Cortex acanthopanacis]]'' ({{lang|zh|五加皮}}) * ''[[Cortex ailanthi]]'' ({{lang|zh|椿皮}}) * ''[[Cortex albiziae]]'' ({{lang|zh|合欢皮}}) * ''[[Cortex cinchonae]]'' ({{lang|zh|金鸡纳皮}}) * ''[[Cortex dictamni]]'' ({{lang|zh|白鲜皮}}) * ''[[Curcuma]]'' ({{lang|zh|郁金}}) * ''[[Dalbergia odorifera]]'' ({{lang|zh|降香}}) * ''[[Hirudo medicinalis]]'' ({{lang|zh|水蛭}}) * ''[[Myrrh]]'' ({{lang|zh|没药}}) * ''[[Olibanum]]'' ({{lang|zh|乳香}}) * ''[[Persicaria]]'' ({{lang|zh|桃仁}}) * "[[Pogostemon cablin]]" ({{lang|zh|广藿香}}) * ''[[Polygonum]]'' ({{lang|zh|虎杖}}) * ''[[Sparganium]]'' ({{lang|zh|三棱}}) * ''[[Zedoary]]'' (''Curcuma zedoaria'') ({{lang|zh|莪朮}}) {{div col end}} ==See also== {{Div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Chinese classic herbal formula]] * [[Chinese Ophthalmology|Chinese ophthalmology]] * ''[[Compendium of Materia Medica]]'' * [[Hallucinogenic plants in Chinese herbals]] * [[Herbalism]], for the use of medicinal herbs in other traditions. * [[Japanese star anise]] * ''[[Jiuhuang Bencao]]'' * [[Kampo]] (traditional Japanese medicine) * [[Li Shizhen]] * [[Pharmacognosy]] * [[Star anise]] * [[Traditional Chinese medicine]] * [[Traditional Korean medicine]] * [[Traditional Vietnamese medicine]] * ''[[Yaoxing Lun]]'' {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} * {{Cite book |first1=John K. |last=Chen |first2=Tina T. |last2=Chen |year=2004 |url=http://aompress.com/book_herbology/index.html |title=Chinese Medical Herbology and Pharmacology |isbn=0-9740635-0-9 |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |first1=John K. |last=Chen |first2=Tina T. |last2=Chen |year=2009 |url=http://aompress.com/book_formulas/index.html |title=Pocket Atlas of Chinese Medicine |isbn=978-0-9740635-7-7 |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Ergil |first=M. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=kdZ1rFKW-LEC&pg=PA146&dq=tcm+pattern+diagnosis#v=onepage&q=tcm%20pattern%20diagnosis&f=false |title=Pocket Atlas of Chinese Medicine |publisher=Thieme |isbn=978-3-13-141611-7 |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last1=Foster |first1=S. |last2=Yue |first2=C. |year=1992 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=y78zzxTN570C&printsec=frontcover&dq=herbal+emissaries#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Herbal emissaries: bringing Chinese herbs to the West |publisher=Healing Arts Press |isbn=978-0-89281-349-0 |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Kiessler |first=Malte |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Mmm-ZlIHrjwC&pg=PA14&dq=tcim+kiessler#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Traditionelle Chinesische Innere Medizin |publisher=Elsevier, Urban & Fischer |isbn=978-3-437-57220-3 |language=de |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book|last=Goldschmidt |first=Asaf |title=The Evolution of Chinese Medicine: Song Dynasty, 960-1200 |year=2009 |publisher=Routledge |location=London and New York |isbn=978-0-415-42655-8|ref=harv}} * {{Cite book|last=Sivin|first=Nathan|title=Traditional Medicine in Contemporary China|year=1987|publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan|location=Ann Arbor|isbn=978-0-89264-074-4|ref=harv}} * {{Cite book|last=Unschuld|first=Paul U.|title=Medicine in China: A History of Ideas|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-05023-5|ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last1=Xu |first1=L. |last2=Wang |first2=W. |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=36dhuXGm3OgC&pg=PA1&dq=traditional+chinese+medicine+herb#v=onepage&q=traditional%20chinese%20medicine%20herb&f=false|title=Chinese materia medica: combinations and applications |publisher=Donica Publishing |edition=1st |isbn=978-1-901149-02-9 |ref=harv}} == External links == * {{Wikiquote-inline|Traditional Chinese medicine}} {{Traditional Chinese medicine}} {{Medicinal herbs & fungi}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese Herbology}} [[Category:Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine| ]] [[Category:Pseudoscience]]'