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|conflict = Chinese Revolution of 1911<br />(Xinhai Revolution)
|conflict = Chinese Revolution of 1911<br />(Xinhai Revolution)
|partof = [[Anti-Qing sentiment|Anti-Qing Movements]]
|partof = [[Anti-Qing sentiment|Anti-Qing Movements]]
|image = Xinhai Revolution in Shanghai.jpg
|image = 1911 Revolution in Shanghai.jpg
|image_size = 300px
|image_size = 300px
|caption = '''Double Ten Revolution''' in Shanghai-'''[[Nanjing Road]]''' ('''Nanking Road''') after the '''[[#Shanghai Armed Uprising|Shanghai Uprising]]''', hung with the '''[[Five Races Under One Union]]''' flags then used by the revolutionaries in Shanghai and Northern China.
|caption = '''Double Ten Revolution''' in Shanghai-'''[[Nanjing Road]]''' ('''Nanking Road''') after the '''[[#Shanghai Armed Uprising|Shanghai Uprising]]''', hung with the '''[[Five Races Under One Union]]''' flags then used by the revolutionaries in Shanghai and Northern China.
}}
}}


The '''Xinhai Revolution''' ({{zh |c = {{linktext|辛亥革命}} |p = Xīnhài Gémìng }}), also known as the '''Chinese Revolution''' or the '''Revolution of 1911''', was a revolution that overthrew China's last [[Dynasties in Chinese history#Dynasties|imperial dynasty]] (the [[Qing dynasty]]) and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (ROC). The revolution was named Xinhai (Hsin-hai) because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai ({{zh|labels=no |c=辛亥 }}) stem-branch in the [[sexagenary cycle]] of the [[Chinese calendar]].<ref>Li Xing. [2010] (2010). The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|0-7546-7913-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-7913-4}}. p. 91.</ref>
The '''1911 Revolution''' ({{zh |c = {{linktext|辛亥革命}} |p = Xīnhài Gémìng }}), also known as the '''Chinese Revolution''' or the '''Xinhai Revolution''', was a revolution that overthrew China's last [[Dynasties in Chinese history#Dynasties|imperial dynasty]] (the [[Qing dynasty]]) and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (ROC). The revolution was named Xinhai (Hsin-hai) because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai ({{zh|labels=no |c=辛亥 }}) stem-branch in the [[sexagenary cycle]] of the [[Chinese calendar]].<ref>Li Xing. [2010] (2010). The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|0-7546-7913-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-7913-4}}. p. 91.</ref>


The revolution consisted of many revolts and uprisings. The turning point was the [[Wuchang uprising]] on 10 October 1911, which was the result of the mishandling of the [[Railway Protection Movement]]. The revolution ended with the abdication of the six-year-old [[Emperor of China|Last Emperor]], [[Puyi]], on 12 February 1912, that marked the end of 2,000 years of [[History of China#Imperial China|imperial rule]] and the beginning of China's [[History of the Republic of China#Early republic (1912–16)|early republican era]].<ref name="xb1">Li, Xiaobing. [2007] (2007). ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army''. University Press of Kentucky. {{ISBN|0-8131-2438-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8131-2438-4}}. pp. 13, 26–27.</ref>
The revolution consisted of many revolts and uprisings. The turning point was the [[Wuchang uprising]] on 10 October 1911, which was the result of the mishandling of the [[Railway Protection Movement]]. The revolution ended with the abdication of the six-year-old [[Emperor of China|Last Emperor]], [[Puyi]], on 12 February 1912, that marked the end of 2,000 years of [[History of China#Imperial China|imperial rule]] and the beginning of China's [[History of the Republic of China#Early republic (1912–16)|early republican era]].<ref name="xb1">Li, Xiaobing. [2007] (2007). ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army''. University Press of Kentucky. {{ISBN|0-8131-2438-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8131-2438-4}}. pp. 13, 26–27.</ref>
The revolution arose mainly in response to the [[Qing Dynasty#Rebellion, unrest and external pressure|decline of the Qing state]], which had proven ineffective in its efforts to modernize China and confront foreign aggression. Many underground [[Anti-Qing sentiment|anti-Qing groups]], with the support of Chinese revolutionaries in exile, tried to overthrow the Qing. The brief civil war that ensued was ended through a political compromise between [[Yuan Shikai]], the late Qing military strongman, and [[Sun Yat-sen]], the leader of the [[Tongmenghui|Tongmenghui (United League)]]. After the Qing court transferred power to the newly founded republic, a [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|provisional coalition government]] created along with the [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]]. However, political power of the [[Beiyang Government|new national government]] in Beijing was soon thereafter monopolized by Yuan and led to decades of political division and [[Warlord Era|warlordism]], including several attempts at imperial restoration.
The revolution arose mainly in response to the [[Qing Dynasty#Rebellion, unrest and external pressure|decline of the Qing state]], which had proven ineffective in its efforts to modernize China and confront foreign aggression. Many underground [[Anti-Qing sentiment|anti-Qing groups]], with the support of Chinese revolutionaries in exile, tried to overthrow the Qing. The brief civil war that ensued was ended through a political compromise between [[Yuan Shikai]], the late Qing military strongman, and [[Sun Yat-sen]], the leader of the [[Tongmenghui|Tongmenghui (United League)]]. After the Qing court transferred power to the newly founded republic, a [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|provisional coalition government]] created along with the [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]]. However, political power of the [[Beiyang Government|new national government]] in Beijing was soon thereafter monopolized by Yuan and led to decades of political division and [[Warlord Era|warlordism]], including several attempts at imperial restoration.


The [[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]] in [[Taiwan]] and the [[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] on the [[Mainland China|mainland]] both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the Xinhai Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including [[Chinese nationalism|nationalism]], [[republicanism]], modernization of China and [[Zhonghua minzu|national unity]]. 10 October is commemorated in [[Taiwan]] as [[Double Ten Day]], the National Day of the ROC. In mainland China, Hong Kong, and [[Macau]], the day is celebrated as the Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution.
The [[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]] in [[Taiwan]] and the [[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] on the [[Mainland China|mainland]] both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the 1911 Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including [[Chinese nationalism|nationalism]], [[republicanism]], modernization of China and [[Zhonghua minzu|national unity]]. 10 October is commemorated in [[Taiwan]] as [[Double Ten Day]], the National Day of the ROC. In mainland China, Hong Kong, and [[Macau]], the day is celebrated as the Anniversary of the 1911 Revolution.


== Background ==
== Background ==
| header_align = left/right/center
| header_align = left/right/center
| header_background =
| header_background =
| footer = After the failure of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] in 1898, Guangxu's advisors [[Kang Youwei]] (left, 1858–1927) and [[Liang Qichao]] (1873–1929) fled into exile, while [[Tan Sitong]] (right, 1865–1898) was executed. In Canada, Kang and Liang formed the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] to promote a [[constitutional monarchy]] for China. In 1900, they supported an unsuccessful uprising in central China to rescue Guangxu. After the Xinhai Revolution, Liang became a [[Minister of Justice of the Republic of China]]. Kang remained a royalist and supported [[Puyi#Brief restoration (1917)|restoring]] the last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] in 1917.
| footer = After the failure of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] in 1898, Guangxu's advisors [[Kang Youwei]] (left, 1858–1927) and [[Liang Qichao]] (1873–1929) fled into exile, while [[Tan Sitong]] (right, 1865–1898) was executed. In Canada, Kang and Liang formed the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] to promote a [[constitutional monarchy]] for China. In 1900, they supported an unsuccessful uprising in central China to rescue Guangxu. After the 1911 Revolution, Liang became a [[Minister of Justice of the Republic of China]]. Kang remained a royalist and supported [[Puyi#Brief restoration (1917)|restoring]] the last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] in 1917.
| footer_align = left/right/center
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| footer_background =
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==Strata and groups==
==Strata and groups==
The Xinhai Revolution was supported by many groups, including students and intellectuals who returned from abroad, as well as participants of the revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers and others.
The 1911 Revolution was supported by many groups, including students and intellectuals who returned from abroad, as well as participants of the revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers and others.


===Overseas Chinese===
===Overseas Chinese===
{{main|Chinese revolutionary activities in Malaya}}
{{main|Chinese revolutionary activities in Malaya}}
Assistance from [[overseas Chinese]] was important in the Xinhai Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.<ref>Lee, Khoon Choy Lee. [2005] (2005). ''Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese''. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-256-618-X}}, 9789812566188.</ref> Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in the funding of revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (Singapore and [[Malaysia]]).<ref name="Gao">Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). ''Historical Dictionary of Modern China'' (1800–1949). Issue 25 of "Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras". Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-4930-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4930-3}}. pg 156. pg 29.</ref> Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".<ref name="Gao" />
Assistance from [[overseas Chinese]] was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.<ref>Lee, Khoon Choy Lee. [2005] (2005). ''Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese''. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-256-618-X}}, 9789812566188.</ref> Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in the funding of revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (Singapore and [[Malaysia]]).<ref name="Gao">Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). ''Historical Dictionary of Modern China'' (1800–1949). Issue 25 of "Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras". Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-4930-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4930-3}}. pg 156. pg 29.</ref> Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".<ref name="Gao" />


=== Newly emerged intellectuals ===
=== Newly emerged intellectuals ===
In 1906, after the abolition of the [[imperial examinations]], the Qing government established many new schools and encouraged students to study abroad. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.<ref name="fenby">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 96. pg 106.</ref> A new class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the Xinhai Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, [[Song Jiaoren]], [[Hu Hanmin]], [[Liao Zhongkai]], [[Zhu Zhixin (revolutionary)|Zhu Zhixin]] and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like [[Zou Rong]], known for writing the book ''Revolutionary Army'', in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty and tyranny and turning the [[Descendants of Yan & Huang Emperors|sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor]] into [[George Washington]]s.<ref name="fenby109">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 109.</ref>
In 1906, after the abolition of the [[imperial examinations]], the Qing government established many new schools and encouraged students to study abroad. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.<ref name="fenby">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 96. pg 106.</ref> A new class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, [[Song Jiaoren]], [[Hu Hanmin]], [[Liao Zhongkai]], [[Zhu Zhixin (revolutionary)|Zhu Zhixin]] and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like [[Zou Rong]], known for writing the book ''Revolutionary Army'', in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty and tyranny and turning the [[Descendants of Yan & Huang Emperors|sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor]] into [[George Washington]]s.<ref name="fenby109">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 109.</ref>


Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings that these organizations would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the Xinhai Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like [[Tiandihui|Sanhehui]] were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."<ref>''Complete works of Sun Yat-sen'' 《總理全集》 First edition, page 920</ref>
Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings that these organizations would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like [[Tiandihui|Sanhehui]] were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."<ref>''Complete works of Sun Yat-sen'' 《總理全集》 First edition, page 920</ref>


===Gentry and businessmen===
===Gentry and businessmen===


===Foreigners===
===Foreigners===
Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some of the supporters and participants of the Xinhai Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. [[Miyazaki Touten]] was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and [[Ryōhei Uchida]]. [[Homer Lea]], an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.<ref>{{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Lawrence M. |year = 2010 |title = Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune |publisher = University Press of Kentucky |location = Lexington |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0813126173|ref = none }}</ref>
Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some of the supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. [[Miyazaki Touten]] was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and [[Ryōhei Uchida]]. [[Homer Lea]], an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.<ref>{{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Lawrence M. |year = 2010 |title = Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune |publisher = University Press of Kentucky |location = Lexington |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0813126173|ref = none }}</ref>
British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in the revolution.<ref name="Laukit">Lau, Kit-ching Chan. [1990] (1990). ''China, Britain and Hong Kong, 1895–1945''. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|962-201-409-7}}, {{ISBN|978-962-201-409-1}}. p. 37.</ref> Some foreigners, such as English explorer [[Arthur de Carle Sowerby]], led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912.<ref name="Borst-Smith 1912">{{cite book |last = Borst-Smith |first = Ernest F. |title = Caught in the Chinese Revolution |url = https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft |publisher = T Fisher Unwin |year = 1912 }}</ref>
British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in the revolution.<ref name="Laukit">Lau, Kit-ching Chan. [1990] (1990). ''China, Britain and Hong Kong, 1895–1945''. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|962-201-409-7}}, {{ISBN|978-962-201-409-1}}. p. 37.</ref> Some foreigners, such as English explorer [[Arthur de Carle Sowerby]], led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912.<ref name="Borst-Smith 1912">{{cite book |last = Borst-Smith |first = Ernest F. |title = Caught in the Chinese Revolution |url = https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft |publisher = T Fisher Unwin |year = 1912 }}</ref>
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== Provincial uprisings ==
== Provincial uprisings ==
[[File:Qing Dynasty Map durnig Xinhai Revolution.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Map of many of the uprisings during the Xinhai Revolution]]
[[File:Qing Dynasty Map at the time of the 1911 Revolution.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Map of uprisings during the 1911 Revolution]]


After the success of the Wuchang Uprising, many other protests occurred throughout the country for various reasons. Some of the uprisings declared restoration (光復) of the [[Han Chinese]] rule. Other uprisings were a step toward independence, and some were protests or rebellions against the local authorities.{{Citation needed|date=September 2014}} Regardless the reason for the uprising the outcome was that all provinces in the country renounced the Qing dynasty and joined the ROC.
After the success of the Wuchang Uprising, many other protests occurred throughout the country for various reasons. Some of the uprisings declared restoration (光復) of the [[Han Chinese]] rule. Other uprisings were a step toward independence, and some were protests or rebellions against the local authorities.{{Citation needed|date=September 2014}} Regardless the reason for the uprising the outcome was that all provinces in the country renounced the Qing dynasty and joined the ROC.
On 29 October, [[Yan Xishan]] of the New Army led an uprising in [[Taiyuan]], the capital city of the province of [[Shanxi]], along with Yao Yijie (姚以價), Huang Guoliang (黃國梁), Wen Shouquan (溫壽泉), Li Chenglin (李成林), Zhang Shuzhi (張樹幟) and Qiao Xi (喬煦).<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /><ref>蒋顺兴, 李良玉. [1990] (1990). 山西王阎锡山/中华民国史丛书. Edition reprint. 河南人民出版社, 1990.</ref>
On 29 October, [[Yan Xishan]] of the New Army led an uprising in [[Taiyuan]], the capital city of the province of [[Shanxi]], along with Yao Yijie (姚以價), Huang Guoliang (黃國梁), Wen Shouquan (溫壽泉), Li Chenglin (李成林), Zhang Shuzhi (張樹幟) and Qiao Xi (喬煦).<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /><ref>蒋顺兴, 李良玉. [1990] (1990). 山西王阎锡山/中华民国史丛书. Edition reprint. 河南人民出版社, 1990.</ref>


The Xinhai rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.<ref>{{cite book| title= Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907-1985 | page=102}}</ref> They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (陸鍾琦).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml |title=山西辛亥革命官僚階層——巡撫陸鍾琦之死_辛亥革命前奏_辛亥革命网 |publisher=Big5.xhgmw.org |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Yan Xishan would later become one of the warlords that plagued China during what was known as "the warlord era".
The rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where Banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.<ref>{{cite book| title= Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907-1985 | page=102}}</ref> They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (陸鍾琦).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml |title=山西辛亥革命官僚階層——巡撫陸鍾琦之死_辛亥革命前奏_辛亥革命网 |publisher=Big5.xhgmw.org |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Yan Xishan would later become one of the warlords that plagued China during what was known as "the warlord era".


===Kunming Double Ninth Uprising===
===Kunming Double Ninth Uprising===
===Mongolian independence===
===Mongolian independence===
{{main|Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia}}
{{main|Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia}}
At the end of 1911, the Mongols took action with an armed revolt against the Manchu authorities but were unsuccessful in the attempt.<ref name="Onon">Onon, Urgunge Onon. Pritchatt, Derrick. [1989] (1989). ''Asia's first modern revolution: Mongolia proclaims its independence in 1911''. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-08390-1}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08390-5}}. pg 38–40, 79.</ref> The independence movement that took place was not limited to just North (outer) Mongolia but was also a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.<ref name="Onon" /> On 29 December 1911, [[Bogd Khan]] became the leader of the Mongol empire. [[Inner Mongolia]] became a contested terrain between Khan and the Republic.<ref>Uradyn Erden Bulag. Hildegard Diemberger. International Association for Tibetan Studies. Seminar, Uradyn Erden Bulag. Brill's Tibetan studies library. [2007] (2007). "The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia": PIATS 2003: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-15521-X}}, {{ISBN|9789004155213}}.</ref> In general, Russia supported the [[Outer Mongolian revolution of 1911|Independence of Outer Mongolia]] (including [[Tannu Uriankhai]]) during the time of the Xinhai Revolution.<ref>Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). ''Chinese foreign policy: pragmatism and strategic behavior''. M.E. Sharpe publishing. {{ISBN|0-7656-1284-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7656-1284-7}}. pg 207.</ref>
At the end of 1911, the Mongols took action with an armed revolt against the Manchu authorities but were unsuccessful in the attempt.<ref name="Onon">Onon, Urgunge Onon. Pritchatt, Derrick. [1989] (1989). ''Asia's first modern revolution: Mongolia proclaims its independence in 1911''. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-08390-1}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08390-5}}. pg 38–40, 79.</ref> The independence movement that took place was not limited to just North (outer) Mongolia but was also a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.<ref name="Onon" /> On 29 December 1911, [[Bogd Khan]] became the leader of the Mongol empire. [[Inner Mongolia]] became a contested terrain between Khan and the Republic.<ref>Uradyn Erden Bulag. Hildegard Diemberger. International Association for Tibetan Studies. Seminar, Uradyn Erden Bulag. Brill's Tibetan studies library. [2007] (2007). "The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia": PIATS 2003: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-15521-X}}, {{ISBN|9789004155213}}.</ref> In general, Russia supported the [[Outer Mongolian revolution of 1911|Independence of Outer Mongolia]] (including [[Tannu Uriankhai]]) during the time of the 1911 Revolution.<ref>Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). ''Chinese foreign policy: pragmatism and strategic behavior''. M.E. Sharpe publishing. {{ISBN|0-7656-1284-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7656-1284-7}}. pg 207.</ref>
Tibet and Mongolia then recognized each other in a treaty.
Tibet and Mongolia then recognized each other in a treaty.


===Dihua and Yili Uprising===
===Dihua and Yili Uprising===
{{Main|Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang}}
{{Main|1911 Revolution in Xinjiang}}


In [[Xinjiang]] on 28 December, Liu Xianzun (劉先俊) and the revolutionaries started the [[Ürümqi|Dihua]] Uprising (迪化起義).<ref name="doizung">中央研究院. [1993] (1993). 近代中國歷史人物論文集. 中央研究院近代史研究所. {{ISBN|957-671-150-9}}, {{ISBN|978-957-671-150-3}}.</ref> This was led by more than 100 members of Geilaohui.<ref name="hkcna">{{cite web|url=http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml |title=新疆伊犁辛亥革命打破清王朝西遷夢 |publisher=Hkcna.hk |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref> This uprising failed. On 7 January 1912, the [[Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture|Yili]] Uprising (伊犁起義) with Feng Temin (馮特民) began.<ref name="doizung" /><ref name="hkcna" /> Qing governor Yuan Dahua (袁大化) fled and handed over his resignation to [[Yang Zengxin]], because he could not handle fighting the revolutionaries.<ref name="yz">Millward, James A. [2007] (2007). ''Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang''. Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-231-13924-1}} pg 168, 440.</ref>
In [[Xinjiang]] on 28 December, Liu Xianzun (劉先俊) and the revolutionaries started the [[Ürümqi|Dihua]] Uprising (迪化起義).<ref name="doizung">中央研究院. [1993] (1993). 近代中國歷史人物論文集. 中央研究院近代史研究所. {{ISBN|957-671-150-9}}, {{ISBN|978-957-671-150-3}}.</ref> This was led by more than 100 members of Geilaohui.<ref name="hkcna">{{cite web|url=http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml |title=新疆伊犁辛亥革命打破清王朝西遷夢 |publisher=Hkcna.hk |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref> This uprising failed. On 7 January 1912, the [[Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture|Yili]] Uprising (伊犁起義) with Feng Temin (馮特民) began.<ref name="doizung" /><ref name="hkcna" /> Qing governor Yuan Dahua (袁大化) fled and handed over his resignation to [[Yang Zengxin]], because he could not handle fighting the revolutionaries.<ref name="yz">Millward, James A. [2007] (2007). ''Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang''. Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-231-13924-1}} pg 168, 440.</ref>


===Taiwan Uprising===
===Taiwan Uprising===
In 1911 as part of the Xinhai Revolution, Tongmenghui sent Luo Fu-xing (羅福星) to the [[Taiwan island|island of Taiwan]] to free it from being [[Japanese rule in Taiwan|occupied by the Japanese]].<ref>[1981] (2007). Daily report: People's Republic of China, Issues 200–210. National Technical Information Service publishing. Digitized 2 March 2007 by University of Michigan. pg 50.</ref> The goal was to bring Taiwan island back to the Chinese Republic by inciting the Taiwan Uprising (台灣起義).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html |title=人民網-寶島英雄譜-苗栗事件：台灣光復先驅羅福星 |publisher=Tw.people.com.cn |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Luo was caught and killed on 3 March 1914.<ref name="Dellorto">Dell'Orto, Alessandro. [2002] (2002). ''Place and spirit in Taiwan: Tudi Gong in the stories, strategies, and memories of everyday life''. Psychology Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1568-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1568-8}}. pg 39.</ref> What was left was known as the "[[Miaoli County|Miaoli]] Incident", (苗栗事件) where more than 1,000 Taiwanese were executed by the Japanese police.<ref>Katz, Paul R. Rubinstein, Murray A. [2003] (2003). ''Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities''. Palgrave Macmillan Publishing. {{ISBN|0-312-23969-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-312-23969-5}}. pg 56.</ref> Luo's sacrifice is commemorated in Miaoli.<ref name="Dellorto" />
In 1911, the Tongmenghui sent Luo Fu-xing (羅福星) to the [[Taiwan island|island of Taiwan]] to wrest it from [[Japanese rule in Taiwan|Japanese control]].<ref>[1981] (2007). Daily report: People's Republic of China, Issues 200–210. National Technical Information Service publishing. Digitized 2 March 2007 by University of Michigan. pg 50.</ref> The goal was to bring Taiwan island into the Chinese Republic by inciting the Taiwan Uprising (台灣起義).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html |title=人民網-寶島英雄譜-苗栗事件：台灣光復先驅羅福星 |publisher=Tw.people.com.cn |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Luo was caught and killed on 3 March 1914.<ref name="Dellorto">Dell'Orto, Alessandro. [2002] (2002). ''Place and spirit in Taiwan: Tudi Gong in the stories, strategies, and memories of everyday life''. Psychology Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1568-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1568-8}}. pg 39.</ref> What was left was known as the "[[Miaoli County|Miaoli]] Incident", (苗栗事件) where more than 1,000 Taiwanese were executed by the Japanese police.<ref>Katz, Paul R. Rubinstein, Murray A. [2003] (2003). ''Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities''. Palgrave Macmillan Publishing. {{ISBN|0-312-23969-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-312-23969-5}}. pg 56.</ref> Luo's sacrifice is commemorated in Miaoli.<ref name="Dellorto" />


==Change of government==
==Change of government==
[[1911 Republic of China provisional presidential election|On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected]] as the first [[List of leaders of the Republic of China|provisional president]].<ref>Lane, Roger deWardt. [2008] (2008). ''Encyclopedia Small Silver Coins''. {{ISBN|0-615-24479-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-615-24479-2}}.</ref> 1 January 1912 was set as the [[Epoch (reference date)|first day]] of the First Year of the ROC.<ref name="Well">Welland, Sasah Su-ling. [2007] (2007). ''A Thousand miles of dreams: The journeys of two Chinese sisters''. Rowman Littlefield Publishing. {{ISBN|0-7425-5314-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7425-5314-9}}. pg 87.</ref> On 3 January, the representatives recommended Li Yuanhong as the provisional vice-president.<ref>Yu Weichao Yu. [1997] (1997). ''A Journey into China's Antiquity: Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty''. Volume 4. Morning Glory Publishers. {{ISBN|7-5054-0514-4}}, {{ISBN|978-7-5054-0514-1}}.</ref>
[[1911 Republic of China provisional presidential election|On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected]] as the first [[List of leaders of the Republic of China|provisional president]].<ref>Lane, Roger deWardt. [2008] (2008). ''Encyclopedia Small Silver Coins''. {{ISBN|0-615-24479-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-615-24479-2}}.</ref> 1 January 1912 was set as the [[Epoch (reference date)|first day]] of the First Year of the ROC.<ref name="Well">Welland, Sasah Su-ling. [2007] (2007). ''A Thousand miles of dreams: The journeys of two Chinese sisters''. Rowman Littlefield Publishing. {{ISBN|0-7425-5314-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7425-5314-9}}. pg 87.</ref> On 3 January, the representatives recommended Li Yuanhong as the provisional vice-president.<ref>Yu Weichao Yu. [1997] (1997). ''A Journey into China's Antiquity: Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty''. Volume 4. Morning Glory Publishers. {{ISBN|7-5054-0514-4}}, {{ISBN|978-7-5054-0514-1}}.</ref>


During and after the Xinhai Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with [[Taijitu]].<ref name="fitzj">Fitzgerald, John. [1998] (1998). ''Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-3337-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-3337-3}}. pg 180.</ref> Others in competition included [[Lu Haodong]]'s [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag. [[Huang Xing]] favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of [[Five Races Under One Union]].<ref name="fitzj" /> The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.<ref name="newlight10-92">劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. [2002] (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. {{ISBN|962-07-5316-X}}. pg 92–93</ref> The red represented [[Han Chinese|Han]], the yellow represented [[Manchu people|Manchus]], the blue for [[Mongols]], the white for [[Islam in China|Muslim]]s, and the black for [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]].<ref name="fitzj" /><ref name="newlight10-92" /> Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated [[racial integration]] to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.<ref>Hsiao-ting Lin. [2010] (2010). ''Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west''. Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-415-58264-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-58264-3}}. pg 7.</ref>
During and after the 1911 Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with [[Taijitu]].<ref name="fitzj">Fitzgerald, John. [1998] (1998). ''Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-3337-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-3337-3}}. pg 180.</ref> Others in competition included [[Lu Haodong]]'s [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag. [[Huang Xing]] favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of [[Five Races Under One Union]].<ref name="fitzj" /> The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.<ref name="newlight10-92">劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. [2002] (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. {{ISBN|962-07-5316-X}}. pg 92–93</ref> The red represented [[Han Chinese|Han]], the yellow represented [[Manchu people|Manchus]], the blue for [[Mongols]], the white for [[Islam in China|Muslim]]s, and the black for [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]].<ref name="fitzj" /><ref name="newlight10-92" /> Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated [[racial integration]] to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.<ref>Hsiao-ting Lin. [2010] (2010). ''Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west''. Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-415-58264-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-58264-3}}. pg 7.</ref>


===Donghuamen incident===
===Donghuamen incident===
==Legacy==
==Legacy==
===Social influence===
===Social influence===
After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, but particularly in Beijing where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence as imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled as Manchu imperial power crumbled.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution |title=Sun Yatsen and the Xinhai Revolution |publisher=Sinica |date=13 October 2011 |accessdate=14 March 2017}}</ref> Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like ''A Short History of [[Nucai|Slaves]]'' (奴才小史) and ''The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel'' (貪官污吏傳) by Laoli (老吏).<ref name="Rhoads266" /><ref name="ckd">{{cite web|author=Ulrich Theobald |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html |title=Chinese Literature&nbsp;– Man-Qing yeshi 滿淸野史 |publisher=www.chinaknowledge.de |date=28 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref>
After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, but particularly in Beijing where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence as imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled as Manchu imperial power crumbled.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution |title=Sun Yatsen and the 1911 Revolution |publisher=Sinica |date=13 October 2011 |accessdate=14 March 2017}}</ref> Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like ''A Short History of [[Nucai|Slaves]]'' (奴才小史) and ''The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel'' (貪官污吏傳) by Laoli (老吏).<ref name="Rhoads266" /><ref name="ckd">{{cite web|author=Ulrich Theobald |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html |title=Chinese Literature&nbsp;– Man-Qing yeshi 滿淸野史 |publisher=www.chinaknowledge.de |date=28 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref>


During the abdication of the last emperor, Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan Shikai and Sun Yat-sen both tried to adopt the concept of "Manchu and Han as one family" (滿漢一家).<ref name="Rhoads266">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. p. 266.</ref> People started exploring and debating with themselves on the root cause of their national weakness. This new search of identity was the [[New Culture Movement]].<ref>Tanner, Harold M. [2010] (2010). "China: From the Great Qing Empire through the People's Republic of China 1644–2009" Volume 2 of ''China: A History''. Hackett Publishing. {{ISBN|1-60384-204-7}}, {{ISBN|978-1-60384-204-4}}. pg 123.</ref> Manchu culture and [[Manchu language|language]], on the contrary, has become virtually extinct by 2007.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lague |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/world/asia/16iht-manchu.4935046.html |title=China's Manchu speakers struggle to save language |work=The New York Times |date=16 March 2007 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref>
During the abdication of the last emperor, Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan Shikai and Sun Yat-sen both tried to adopt the concept of "Manchu and Han as one family" (滿漢一家).<ref name="Rhoads266">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. p. 266.</ref> People started exploring and debating with themselves on the root cause of their national weakness. This new search of identity was the [[New Culture Movement]].<ref>Tanner, Harold M. [2010] (2010). "China: From the Great Qing Empire through the People's Republic of China 1644–2009" Volume 2 of ''China: A History''. Hackett Publishing. {{ISBN|1-60384-204-7}}, {{ISBN|978-1-60384-204-4}}. pg 123.</ref> Manchu culture and [[Manchu language|language]], on the contrary, has become virtually extinct by 2007.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lague |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/world/asia/16iht-manchu.4935046.html |title=China's Manchu speakers struggle to save language |work=The New York Times |date=16 March 2007 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref>


Unlike revolutions in the West, the Xinhai Revolution did not restructure society. The participants of the Xinhai Revolution were mostly military personnel, old-type bureaucrats, and local gentries. These people still held regional power after the Xinhai Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the [[standard of living]]. Writer [[Lu Xun]] commented in 1921 during the publishing of ''[[The True Story of Ah Q]]'', ten years after the Xinhai Revolution, that basically nothing changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".<ref>Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 143.</ref> The economic problems were not addressed until the governance of [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] in Taiwan and [[Deng Xiaoping]] on the mainland.<ref name="scmpjul4" />
Unlike revolutions in the West, the 1911 Revolution did not restructure society. The participants in the 1911 Revolution were mostly military personnel, old-type bureaucrats, and local gentries. These people still held regional power after the 1911 Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the [[standard of living]]. The writer [[Lu Xun]] commented in 1921 during the publishing of ''[[The True Story of Ah Q]]'', ten years after the 1911 Revolution, that basically nothing changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".<ref>Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 143.</ref> The economic problems were not addressed until the governance of [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] in Taiwan and [[Deng Xiaoping]] on the mainland.<ref name="scmpjul4" />


The Xinhai Revolution mainly got rid of [[feudalism]] ([[fengjian]]) from [[Late Imperial China]]. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]].<ref name="Yanjia">Yan, Jiaqi Yan. Hong, David S. K. Mair, Denis C. [1992] (1992). Toward a democratic China: the intellectual autobiography of Yan Jiaqi. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-1501-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-1501-1}}. pg 189, 251.</ref> Both were unsuccessful, but the "feudal remnants" returned to China with the [[Cultural Revolution]] in a concept called [[guanxi]], where people relied not on feudal relationships, but personal relationships, for survival.<ref name="yangm">[[Mayfair Yang|Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui]]. [1994] (1994). ''Gifts, favors, and banquets: the art of social relationships in China''. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8014-9592-X}}, 9780801495922. Pg 146–147.</ref> While guanxi is helpful in Taiwan, on the mainland, guanxi is necessary to get anything done.<ref name="Luoy">Luo, Yadong. [2007] (2007). ''Guanxi and business''. Volume 5 of Asia-Pacific business series. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-270-046-3}}, {{ISBN|978-981-270-046-9}}. pg 26.</ref>
The 1911 Revolution mainly got rid of [[feudalism]] ([[fengjian]]) from [[Late Imperial China]]. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]].<ref name="Yanjia">Yan, Jiaqi Yan. Hong, David S. K. Mair, Denis C. [1992] (1992). Toward a democratic China: the intellectual autobiography of Yan Jiaqi. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-1501-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-1501-1}}. pg 189, 251.</ref> Both were unsuccessful, but the "feudal remnants" returned to China with the [[Cultural Revolution]] in a concept called [[guanxi]], where people relied not on feudal relationships, but personal relationships, for survival.<ref name="yangm">[[Mayfair Yang|Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui]]. [1994] (1994). ''Gifts, favors, and banquets: the art of social relationships in China''. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8014-9592-X}}, 9780801495922. Pg 146–147.</ref> While guanxi is helpful in Taiwan, on the mainland, guanxi is necessary to get anything done.<ref name="Luoy">Luo, Yadong. [2007] (2007). ''Guanxi and business''. Volume 5 of Asia-Pacific business series. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-270-046-3}}, {{ISBN|978-981-270-046-9}}. pg 26.</ref>


Due to the effects of anti-Manchu sentiment after the revolution, the Manchus of the Metropolitan Banners were driven into deep poverty, with Manchu men too impoverished to marry so Han men married Manchu women, Manchus stopped dressing in Manchu clothing and stopped practicing Manchu traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhoads |first1=Edward J. M. |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295980400 |page=270 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA270}}</ref>
Due to the effects of anti-Manchu sentiment after the revolution, the Manchus of the Metropolitan Banners were driven into deep poverty, with Manchu men too impoverished to marry so Han men married Manchu women, Manchus stopped dressing in Manchu clothing and stopped practicing Manchu traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhoads |first1=Edward J. M. |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295980400 |page=270 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA270}}</ref>


===Historical significance===
===Historical significance===
The Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing government and two thousand years of monarchy.<ref name="xb1" /> Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The Xinhai Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. Though in 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the [[comrade]]s still need to strive for the future." ({{zh|labels=no|c=革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力}}).<ref>陸韻葭. [2006] (2006). 上海玩全指南. Travelcom press. {{ISBN|986-7143-13-2}}, {{ISBN|978-986-7143-13-6}}. pg 49.</ref>
The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government and two thousand years of monarchy.<ref name="xb1" /> Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The 1911 Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. Though in 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the [[comrade]]s still need to strive for the future." ({{zh|labels=no|c=革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力}}).<ref>陸韻葭. [2006] (2006). 上海玩全指南. Travelcom press. {{ISBN|986-7143-13-2}}, {{ISBN|978-986-7143-13-6}}. pg 49.</ref>


Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties–the ROC and PRC–see the Xinhai Revolution quite differently.<ref name="scmpr">South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Replacing chairman Mao with Sun Yat-sen.</ref> Both sides recognize Sun Yat-sen as the [[Father of the Nation]], but in Taiwan, they mean "Father of the Republic of China".<ref name="scmpr" /> On the mainland, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a pre-condition for the Communist state founded in 1949.<ref name="scmpr" /> The PRC views Sun's work as the first step towards the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly independent state that expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power.<ref name="scmpr" /> The father of [[People's Republic of China|New China]] is seen as [[Mao Zedong]].<ref name="scmpr" /> In 1954, [[Liu Shaoqi]] was quoted as saying that the "Xinhai Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".<ref>{{cite web|author=Takungpao.com |url=http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 |title=1911 |publisher=Takungpao.com |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=1059 |url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html |title=劉少奇談辛亥革命（摘要）-中國共產黨新聞 |publisher=Dangshi.people.com.cn |date=19 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> [[Zhou Enlai]] pointed out that the "Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 2000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml |title=王志昆講重慶辛亥革命：為什麼兵不血刃，一次成功_重慶_重慶站_鳳凰網 |publisher=Big5.ifeng.com |date=30 December 2008 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref>
Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties–the ROC and PRC–see the 1911 Revolution quite differently.<ref name="scmpr">South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Replacing chairman Mao with Sun Yat-sen.</ref> Both sides recognize Sun Yat-sen as the [[Father of the Nation]], but in Taiwan, they mean "Father of the Republic of China".<ref name="scmpr" /> On the mainland, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a pre-condition for the Communist state founded in 1949.<ref name="scmpr" /> The PRC views Sun's work as the first step towards the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly independent state that expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power.<ref name="scmpr" /> The father of [[People's Republic of China|New China]] is seen as [[Mao Zedong]].<ref name="scmpr" /> In 1954, [[Liu Shaoqi]] was quoted as saying that the "1911 Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".<ref>{{cite web|author=Takungpao.com |url=http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 |title=1911 |publisher=Takungpao.com |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=1059 |url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html |title=劉少奇談辛亥革命（摘要）-中國共產黨新聞 |publisher=Dangshi.people.com.cn |date=19 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> [[Zhou Enlai]] pointed out that the "1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 2000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml |title=王志昆講重慶辛亥革命：為什麼兵不血刃，一次成功_重慶_重慶站_鳳凰網 |publisher=Big5.ifeng.com |date=30 December 2008 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref>


===Modern evaluation===
===Modern evaluation===
[[File:Taiw 100ann 10yuan.jpg|thumb|300px|Commemorative coin, minted in Taiwan in 2011]]
[[File:Taiw 100ann 10yuan.jpg|thumb|300px|Commemorative coin, minted in Taiwan in 2011]]


A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but [[Zhang Shizhao]] was quoted as arguing that "When talking about the Xinhai Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."<ref>{{cite book |last = 章 |first = 士釗 |year = 2000 |orig-year = 1962 |chapter = 孫、黃遺劄密詮 |title = 章士釗全集 |volume = 8 |location = 上海 |publisher = 文彙出版社 |page = 341 |isbn = 978-7805315430 }}</ref>
A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but [[Zhang Shizhao]] was quoted as arguing that "When talking about the 1911 Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."<ref>{{cite book |last = 章 |first = 士釗 |year = 2000 |orig-year = 1962 |chapter = 孫、黃遺劄密詮 |title = 章士釗全集 |volume = 8 |location = 上海 |publisher = 文彙出版社 |page = 341 |isbn = 978-7805315430 }}</ref>


The success of the democracy gained from the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, for sixty years, the KMT controlled all five branches of the government; none were independent.<ref name="scmpjul4">South China morning post. Sun Yat-sen and the centenary of the Xinhai revolution. 4 July 2010.</ref> [[Yan Jiaqi]], founder of the [[Federation for a Democratic China]], has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there now democratizing the region.<ref name="Yanjia" />
The success of the democracy gained from the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, for sixty years, the KMT controlled all five branches of the government; none were independent.<ref name="scmpjul4">South China morning post. Sun Yat-sen and the centenary of the 1911 Revolution. 4 July 2010.</ref> [[Yan Jiaqi]], founder of the [[Federation for a Democratic China]], has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there now democratizing the region.<ref name="Yanjia" />


Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised on the mainland. For example, former Chinese premier [[Wen Jiabao]] once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights; but he led a [[2011 crackdown on dissidents in the People's Republic of China|2011 crackdown]] against the peaceful [[2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests|Chinese jasmine protests]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Pomfret |first=James |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627 |title=China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms |publisher=Reuters |date= 27 June 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> [[Liu Xiaobo]], a pro-democracy activist who received the global [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize]], died in prison.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Yomiuri Shimbun |url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm |title=100 years on, China far from democracy: Editorial: DAILY YOMIURI ONLINE (The Daily Yomiuri) |publisher=Yomiuri.co.jp |date=14 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> Others, such as Qin Yongmin (秦永敏) of the [[Democracy Party of China]], who was only released from prison after twelve years, do not praise the Xinhai Revolution.<ref name="geo">{{cite web |url = http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |publisher=GEO.tv |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref name="hrichina">{{cite web |url = http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879 |title=Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence &#124; Human Rights in China 中国人权 |publisher=Hrichina.org |date=29 November 2010 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Qin Yongmin said the revolution only replaced one dictator with another, that [[Mao Zedong]] was not an emperor, but he is worse than the emperor.<ref name="geo" /><ref name="hrichina" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on/ |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |work= The West Australian |publisher=Au.news.yahoo.com |date=9 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref>
Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised on the mainland. For example, former Chinese premier [[Wen Jiabao]] once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights; but he led a [[2011 crackdown on dissidents in the People's Republic of China|2011 crackdown]] against the peaceful [[2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests|Chinese jasmine protests]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Pomfret |first=James |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627 |title=China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms |publisher=Reuters |date= 27 June 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> [[Liu Xiaobo]], a pro-democracy activist who received the global [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize]], died in prison.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Yomiuri Shimbun |url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm |title=100 years on, China far from democracy: Editorial: DAILY YOMIURI ONLINE (The Daily Yomiuri) |publisher=Yomiuri.co.jp |date=14 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> Others, such as Qin Yongmin (秦永敏) of the [[Democracy Party of China]], who was only released from prison after twelve years, do not praise the 1911 Revolution.<ref name="geo">{{cite web |url = http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |publisher=GEO.tv |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref name="hrichina">{{cite web |url = http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879 |title=Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence &#124; Human Rights in China 中国人权 |publisher=Hrichina.org |date=29 November 2010 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Qin Yongmin said the revolution only replaced one dictator with another, that [[Mao Zedong]] was not an emperor, but he is worse than the emperor.<ref name="geo" /><ref name="hrichina" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on/ |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |work= The West Australian |publisher=Au.news.yahoo.com |date=9 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

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'{{redirect|Xinhai}} {{short description|Revolution in China that overthrew the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China}} {{use dmy dates|date=December 2017}} {{Infobox military conflict |conflict = Chinese Revolution of 1911<br />(Xinhai Revolution) |partof = [[Anti-Qing sentiment|Anti-Qing Movements]] |image = Xinhai Revolution in Shanghai.jpg |image_size = 300px |caption = '''Double Ten Revolution''' in Shanghai-'''[[Nanjing Road]]''' ('''Nanking Road''') after the '''[[#Shanghai Armed Uprising|Shanghai Uprising]]''', hung with the '''[[Five Races Under One Union]]''' flags then used by the revolutionaries in Shanghai and Northern China. |date = [[Wuchang Uprising|{{start date|df=y|1911|10|10}}]]&nbsp;– {{end date|df=y|1912|2|12}}<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=10|day1=10|year1=1911|month2=02|day2=12|year2=1912}}) |place = [[Qing dynasty|China]] |casus = [[Wuchang uprising]] |result = '''[[Tongmenghui|Chinese Revolutionary Alliance]]''' victory * Abdication of '''[[Puyi]]''' * Fall of the '''[[Qing dynasty]]''' * End of '''[[History of China#Imperial China|Imperial China]]''' * Establishment of the '''[[Republic of China (1912-1949)|Republic of China]]''' * Destabilization of '''China''' |combatant1 = {{flag|Qing dynasty}} * [[Royalist Party]]{{sfnp|Kit-ching|1978|pp=49–52}} |combatant2 = {{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Tongmenghui]]<br />{{flagicon|China|1912}} [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|Provisional Government of the Republic of China]]<br />{{flagicon image|Chinese-army Wuhan flag (1911-1928) 18 dots.svg}} [[Hubei]] [[Wuchang Uprising|Military Government]]<br />[[Gelaohui]]<br />[[Tiandihui]]<br />Various other revolutionary groups and forces<br />Regional officials and warlords |commander1 = '''{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Empress Dowager Longyu|Dowager Longyu]]'''<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Zaifeng, Prince Chun|Zaifeng]], [[Prince Chun (醇)|Prince Chun]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Yuan Shikai]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Feng Guozhang]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing Dynasty}} [[Ma Anliang]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Duan Qirui]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Zhang Zuolin]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Yang Zengxin]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing Dynasty}} [[Zhao Erfeng]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Ma Qi]]<br />Various other [[nobility|nobles]] of the [[Qing dynasty]] |commander2 = '''{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Sun Yat-sen]]'''<br>{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Chiang Kai-shek]]<br />{{flagicon|China|1912}} [[Li Yuanhong]]<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Jiang (rank)|General]] [[Huang Xing]]<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Song Jiaoren]]<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Chen Qimei]]<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Cai E|Cai Genyin]]<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Hu Hanmin]] |strength1 = 200,000 |strength2 = 100,000 |casualties1 = ~170,000 |casualties2 = ~50,000 }} {{Infobox Chinese |pic = Xinhai Revolution (Chinese characters).svg |piccap = "Xinhai Revolution" in Chinese characters |picupright = 0.8 |c = 辛亥革命 |p = Xīnhài gémìng |w = Hsin<sup>1</sup>-hai<sup>4</sup> kê<sup>2</sup>-ming<sup>4</sup> |mi = {{IPAc-cmn|x|in|1|.|h|ai|4|-|g|e|2|.|m|ing|4}} |j = San1-hoi6 gaak3-ming6 |y = Sān-hoih gaak-mihng |ci = {{IPAc-yue|s|an|1|.|h|oi|6|-|g|aak|3|m|ing|6}} |poj = Sen-hāi kek-bēng |l = "Xinhai ([[sexagenary cycle|stem-branch]]) revolution" |image2 =Yuan Shikai sworn in as Provisional President - 10 March 1912.jpg |caption2 = [[Yuan Shikai]] sworn in as Provisional President of the Republic of China, in Beijing }} The '''Xinhai Revolution''' ({{zh |c = {{linktext|辛亥革命}} |p = Xīnhài Gémìng }}), also known as the '''Chinese Revolution''' or the '''Revolution of 1911''', was a revolution that overthrew China's last [[Dynasties in Chinese history#Dynasties|imperial dynasty]] (the [[Qing dynasty]]) and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (ROC). The revolution was named Xinhai (Hsin-hai) because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai ({{zh|labels=no |c=辛亥 }}) stem-branch in the [[sexagenary cycle]] of the [[Chinese calendar]].<ref>Li Xing. [2010] (2010). The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|0-7546-7913-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-7913-4}}. p. 91.</ref> The revolution consisted of many revolts and uprisings. The turning point was the [[Wuchang uprising]] on 10 October 1911, which was the result of the mishandling of the [[Railway Protection Movement]]. The revolution ended with the abdication of the six-year-old [[Emperor of China|Last Emperor]], [[Puyi]], on 12 February 1912, that marked the end of 2,000 years of [[History of China#Imperial China|imperial rule]] and the beginning of China's [[History of the Republic of China#Early republic (1912–16)|early republican era]].<ref name="xb1">Li, Xiaobing. [2007] (2007). ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army''. University Press of Kentucky. {{ISBN|0-8131-2438-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8131-2438-4}}. pp. 13, 26–27.</ref> {{Revolution sidebar}} The revolution arose mainly in response to the [[Qing Dynasty#Rebellion, unrest and external pressure|decline of the Qing state]], which had proven ineffective in its efforts to modernize China and confront foreign aggression. Many underground [[Anti-Qing sentiment|anti-Qing groups]], with the support of Chinese revolutionaries in exile, tried to overthrow the Qing. The brief civil war that ensued was ended through a political compromise between [[Yuan Shikai]], the late Qing military strongman, and [[Sun Yat-sen]], the leader of the [[Tongmenghui|Tongmenghui (United League)]]. After the Qing court transferred power to the newly founded republic, a [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|provisional coalition government]] created along with the [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]]. However, political power of the [[Beiyang Government|new national government]] in Beijing was soon thereafter monopolized by Yuan and led to decades of political division and [[Warlord Era|warlordism]], including several attempts at imperial restoration. The [[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]] in [[Taiwan]] and the [[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] on the [[Mainland China|mainland]] both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the Xinhai Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including [[Chinese nationalism|nationalism]], [[republicanism]], modernization of China and [[Zhonghua minzu|national unity]]. 10 October is commemorated in [[Taiwan]] as [[Double Ten Day]], the National Day of the ROC. In mainland China, Hong Kong, and [[Macau]], the day is celebrated as the Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution. == Background == {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | header_background = | footer = [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] (1835–1908), who personified the conservative Qing court and controlled court politics for 47 years, halted the attempt of her nephew, the [[Guangxu Emperor]] (1871–1908), the penultimate Qing emperor, to institute [[Hundred Days' Reform|reforms in 1898]]. | footer_align = left/right/center | footer_background = | image1 = Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg | width1 = 140 | caption1 = | image2 = Postcard of Emperor Guangxu.jpg | width2 = 142 | caption2 = | image3 = | width3 = | caption3 = }}{{See also|Great Qing Famine}}{{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | header_background = | footer = After the failure of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] in 1898, Guangxu's advisors [[Kang Youwei]] (left, 1858–1927) and [[Liang Qichao]] (1873–1929) fled into exile, while [[Tan Sitong]] (right, 1865–1898) was executed. In Canada, Kang and Liang formed the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] to promote a [[constitutional monarchy]] for China. In 1900, they supported an unsuccessful uprising in central China to rescue Guangxu. After the Xinhai Revolution, Liang became a [[Minister of Justice of the Republic of China]]. Kang remained a royalist and supported [[Puyi#Brief restoration (1917)|restoring]] the last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] in 1917. | footer_align = left/right/center | footer_background = | image1 = Kang Youwei circa 1920.jpg | width1 = 125 | caption1 = | image2 =MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg | width2 = 122 | caption2 = | image3 = Tansitong.jpg | width3 = 91 | caption3 = }} After suffering its first defeat to the West in the [[First Opium War]] in 1842, the Qing imperial court struggled to contain foreign intrusions into China. Efforts to adjust and reform the traditional methods of governance were constrained by a deeply conservative court culture that did not want to give away too much authority to reform. Following defeat in the [[Second Opium War]] in 1860, the Qing tried to modernize by adopting certain Western technologies through the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]] from 1861.<ref>Wang, Gabe T. [2006] (2006). ''China and the Taiwan Issue: Impending War at Taiwan Strait''. University Press of America. {{ISBN|0-7618-3434-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7618-3434-2}}. pg 91.</ref> In the wars against the [[Taiping Rebellion|Taiping (1851–64)]], [[Nian Rebellion|Nian (1851–68)]], [[Panthay Rebellion|Yunnan (1856–68)]] and [[Dungan revolt (1862–77)|the Northwest (1862–77)]], the traditional imperial troops proved themselves incompetent and the court came to rely on local armies.<ref name="Wangke106">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism''. Taylor & Francis publishing. {{ISBN|0-8153-0720-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0720-4}}. pg 106. pg 344.</ref> In 1895, China suffered another defeat during the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].<ref name="Bevir">Bevir, Mark. [2010] (2010). ''Encyclopedia of Political Theory''. Sage Publishing. {{ISBN|1-4129-5865-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-4129-5865-3}}. pg 168.</ref> This demonstrated that traditional Chinese feudal society also needed to be modernized if the technological and commercial advancements were to succeed. In 1898 the [[Guangxu Emperor]] was guided by reformers like [[Kang Youwei]] and [[Liang Qichao]] for a drastic reform in education, military and economy under the [[Hundred Days' Reform]].<ref name="Bevir" /> The reform was abruptly cancelled by a [[Wuxu Coup|conservative coup]] led by [[Empress Dowager Cixi]].<ref>[[Chang, Kang-i Sun]], [[Stephen Owen (academic)|Owen, Stephen]] (2010). ''The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 2''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-11677-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-11677-0}}. pg 441.</ref> The [[Guangxu Emperor]], who had always been a puppet dependent on Cixi, was put under house arrest in June 1898.<ref name="Wangke106" /> Reformers Kang and Liang would be exiled. While in Canada, in June 1899, they tried to form the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] in an attempt to restore the emperor.<ref name="Wangke106" /> Empress Dowager Cixi mainly controlled the [[Qing dynasty]] from this point on. The [[Boxer Rebellion]] prompted another foreign invasion of Beijing in 1900 and the imposition of [[unequal treaty]] terms, which carved away territories, created extraterritorial concessions and gave away trade privileges. Under internal and external pressure, the Qing court began to adopt some of the reforms. The Qing managed to maintain its monopoly on political power by suppressing, often with great brutality, all domestic rebellions. Dissidents could operate only in secret societies and underground organizations, in foreign concessions or in exile overseas. {{History of the Republic of China}} ==Organization for revolution== <!-- [[WP:NFCC]] violation: [[File:Leaders of Revive China Party.jpg|thumb|right|From left to right: [[Tse Tsan-tai]], [[Yeung Ku-wan]] (President), Sun Yat-sen, three of the earliest revolutionaries]] --> ===Earliest groups=== There were many revolutionaries and groups that wanted to overthrow the Qing government to re-establish Han-led government. The earliest revolutionary organizations were founded outside of China, such as [[Yeung Ku-wan]]'s [[Furen Literary Society]], created in Hong Kong in 1890. There were 15 members, including [[Tse Tsan-tai]], who did political satire such as "The Situation in the Far East", one of the first ever Chinese [[manhua]], and who later became one of the core founders of the ''[[South China Morning Post]]''.<ref>South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Hong Kong played a key role in the life of Sun Yat-sen.</ref> [[File:Dr. Sun in London.jpg|thumb|left|Dr. Sun Yat-sen in London]] [[Sun Yat-sen]]'s [[Revive China Society|Xingzhonghui (Revive China Society)]] was established in [[Honolulu]] in 1894 with the main purpose of raising funds for revolutions.<ref>Lum, Yansheng Ma. Lum, Raymond Mun Kong. [1999] (1999). ''Sun Yat-sen in Hawaii: Activities and Supporters''. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-2179-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-2179-1}}. pg 6–7</ref> The two organizations were merged in 1894.<ref>Curthoys, Ann. Lake, Marilyn. [2005] (2005). ''Connected Worlds: History in Transnational Perspective''. ANU Publishing. {{ISBN|1-920942-44-0}}, {{ISBN|978-1-920942-44-1}}. pg 101.</ref> ===Smaller groups=== The [[Huaxinghui|Huaxinghui (China Revival Society)]] was founded in 1904 with notables like [[Huang Xing]], [[Zhang Shizhao]], [[Chen Tianhua]] and [[Song Jiaoren]], along with 100 others. Their motto was "Take one province by force, and inspire the other provinces to rise up".<ref>Platt, Stephen R. [2007] (2007). ''Provincial Patriots: The Hunanese and Modern China''. Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0-674-02665-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-674-02665-0}}. pg 128.</ref> The [[Guangfuhui|Guangfuhui (Restoration Society)]] was also founded in 1904, in Shanghai, by [[Cai Yuanpei]]. Other notable members include [[Zhang Binglin]] and Tao Chengzhang.<ref>Goossaert, Vincent. Palmer, David A. [2011] (2011). ''The Religious Question in Modern China''. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-30416-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-226-30416-8}}.</ref> Despite professing the anti-Qing cause, the Guangfuhui was highly critical of Sun Yat-sen.<ref name="Wangke287">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism''. Taylor & Francis Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8153-0720-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0720-4}}. pg 287.</ref> One of the most famous female revolutionaries was [[Qiu Jin]], who fought for [[women's rights]] and was also from Guangfuhui.<ref name="Wangke287" /> There were also many other minor revolutionary organizations, such as Lizhi Xuehui (勵志學會) in [[Jiangsu]], Gongqianghui (公強會) in [[Sichuan]], Yiwenhui (益聞會) and Hanzudulihui (漢族獨立會) in [[Fujian]], Yizhishe (易知社) in [[Jiangxi]], Yuewanghui (岳王會) in [[Anhui]] and Qunzhihui (群智會/群智社) in Guangzhou.<ref>中国人民大学. 书报资料中心. [1982] (1982). 中国近代史, Issues 1–6. 中国人民大学书报资料社 publishing. University of California Press.</ref> There were also criminal organizations that were anti-Manchu, including the [[Green Gang]] and [[Hongmen]] Zhigongtang (致公堂).<ref>Chen, Lifu. Chang, Hsu-hsin. Myers, Ramon Hawley. [1994] (1994). ''The Storm Clouds Clear Over China: The Memoir of Chʻen Li-fu, 1900–1993''. Hoover Press. {{ISBN|0-8179-9272-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8179-9272-9}}.</ref> Sun Yat-sen himself came in contact with the Hongmen, also known as [[Tiandihui|Tiandihui (Heaven and Earth society)]].<ref>João de Pina-Cabral. [2002] (2002). ''Between China and Europe: Person, Culture and Emotion in Macao''. Berg Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8264-5749-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8264-5749-3}}. pg 209.</ref><ref>陳民, 中國社會科學院. 中華民國史研究室. [1981] (1981). 中國致公黨. 文史資料出版社. Digitized University of California 10 December 2007.</ref> [[Gelaohui|Gelaohui (Elder Brother society)]] was another group, with [[Zhu De]], [[Wu Yuzhang]], Liu Zhidan (劉志丹) and [[He Long]]. This is the revolutionary group that would eventually develop a strong link with the later [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]]. [[File:Sun Yat Sen together with the members of the Singapore Branch of Tongmen Hui.png|thumb|right|250px|Sun Yat-sen with members of the [[Tongmenghui]]]] ===Tongmenghui=== Sun Yat-sen successfully united the Revive China Society, Huaxinghui and Guangfuhui in the summer of 1905, thereby establishing the unified [[Tongmenghui|Tongmenghui (United League)]] in August 1905 in Tokyo.<ref name="chinahistvol1"/> While it started in Tokyo, it had loose organizations distributed across and outside the country. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of this unified group. Other revolutionaries who worked with the Tongmenghui include [[Wang Jingwei]] and [[Hu Hanmin]]. When the Tongmenhui was established, more than 90% of the Tongmenhui members were between 17–26 years of age.<ref>Etō, Shinkichi. Schiffrin, Harold Z. [2008] (2008). ''China's Republican Revolution''. University of Tokyo Press. Digitized 10 September 2008. {{ISBN|4-13-027030-3}}, {{ISBN|978-4-13-027030-4}}.</ref> Some of the work in the era includes manhua publications, such as the ''[[Journal of Current Pictorial]]''.<ref>Wong, Wendy Siuyi. [2002] (2001) ''Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua''. Princeton Architectural Press. New York. {{ISBN|1-56898-269-0}}</ref> ===Later groups=== In February 1906 Rizhihui (日知會) also had many revolutionaries, including Sun Wu (孫武), Zhang Nanxian (張難先), He Jiwei and Feng Mumin.<ref>为君丘, 張運宗. [2003] (2003). 走入近代中國. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. {{ISBN|957-11-3175-X}}, 9789571131757.</ref><ref>蔣緯國. [1981] (1981). 建立民國, Volume 2. 國民革命戰史: 第1部. 黎明文化事業公司. University of California. Digitized 14 February 2011.</ref> A nucleus of attendees of this conference evolved into the Tongmenhui's establishment in Hubei. In July 1907 several members of Tongmenhui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of the [[Yangtze River]]. Liu Quiyi (劉揆一), Jiao Dafeng (焦達峰), Zhang Boxiang (張伯祥) and Sun Wu (孫武) established Gongjinhui (Progressive Association) (共進會).<ref>饒懷民. [2006] (2006). 辛亥革命與清末民初社會/中國近代史事論叢. 中華書局 publishing. {{ISBN|7-101-05156-1}}, {{ISBN|978-7-101-05156-8}}.</ref><ref name="Wang390">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism''. Taylor & Francis Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8153-0720-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0720-4}}. pp. 390–391.</ref> In January 1911, the revolutionary group Zhengwu Xueshe (振武學社) was renamed as Wenxueshe (Literary society) (文學社).<ref name="mz">張豈之, 陳振江, 江沛. [2002] (2002). 晚淸民國史. Volume 5 of 中國歷史, 張 豈之. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. {{ISBN|957-11-2898-8}}, {{ISBN|978-957-11-2898-6}}. pg 178–186</ref> Jiang Yiwu (蔣翊武) was chosen as the leader.<ref>蔡登山. 繁華落盡──洋場才子與小報文人. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司. {{ISBN|986-221-826-6}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-826-6}}. pg 42.</ref> These two organizations would play a big role in the Wuchang Uprising. Many young revolutionaries adopted the [[Anarchism in China|radical programs of the anarchists]]. In Tokyo [[Liu Shipei]] proposed the overthrow of the Manchus and a return to Chinese classical values. In Paris Li Shizhen, [[Wu Zhihui]] and [[Zhang Renjie]] agreed with Sun on the necessity of revolution and joined the Tongmenghui, but argued that a political replacement of one government with another government would not be progress; revolution in family, gender and social values would remove the need for government and coercion. [[Zhang Ji (Republic of China)|Zhang Ji]] was among the anarchists who defended assassination and terrorism as means toward revolution, but others insisted that only education was justifiable. Important anarchists included Cai Yuanpei, Wang Jingwei and Zhang Renjie, who gave Sun major financial help. Many of these anarchists would later assume high positions in the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT).<ref>{{cite book |last = Scalapino|first = Robert A. and George T. Yu |year = 1961 |title = The Chinese Anarchist Movement |publisher = Center for Chinese Studies, Institute of International Studies, University of California| location = Berkeley|url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/robert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement#fn5 |isbn = |ref = none}} At The Anarchist Library ([http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/robert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement#fn5 Free Download]). The online version is unpaginated.</ref> ===Views=== {{Main|Anti-Qing sentiment}} Many revolutionaries promoted anti-Qing/anti-Manchu sentiments and revived memories of conflict between the ethnic minority [[Manchu people|Manchu]] and the ethnic majority [[Han Chinese]] from the late [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644). Leading intellectuals were influenced by books that had survived from the last years of the Ming dynasty, the last dynasty of Han Chinese. In 1904, Sun Yat-sen announced that his organization's goal was "to expel the [[Manchu people|Tatar barbarians]], to revive [[Names of China#Zhongguo and Zhonghua|Zhonghua]], to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people." (驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權).<ref name="chinahistvol1">計秋楓, 朱慶葆. [2001] (2001). 中國近代史, V. 1. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|962-201-987-0}}, {{ISBN|978-962-201-987-4}}. pg 468.</ref> Many of the underground groups promoted the ideas of "Resist Qing and restore Ming" (反清復明) that had been around since the days of the [[Taiping Rebellion]].<ref>楊碧玉. 洪秀全政治人格之研究. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 Publishing. {{ISBN|986-221-141-5}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-141-0}}.</ref> Others, such as [[Zhang Binglin]], supported straight-up lines like "slay the manchus" and concepts like "Anti-Manchuism" (興漢滅胡 / 排滿主義).<ref>Crossley, Pamela Kyle. [1991] (1991). ''Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World''. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-00877-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-691-00877-6}}. pg180-181.</ref> ==Strata and groups== The Xinhai Revolution was supported by many groups, including students and intellectuals who returned from abroad, as well as participants of the revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers and others. ===Overseas Chinese=== {{main|Chinese revolutionary activities in Malaya}} Assistance from [[overseas Chinese]] was important in the Xinhai Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.<ref>Lee, Khoon Choy Lee. [2005] (2005). ''Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese''. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-256-618-X}}, 9789812566188.</ref> Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in the funding of revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (Singapore and [[Malaysia]]).<ref name="Gao">Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). ''Historical Dictionary of Modern China'' (1800–1949). Issue 25 of "Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras". Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-4930-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4930-3}}. pg 156. pg 29.</ref> Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".<ref name="Gao" /> === Newly emerged intellectuals === In 1906, after the abolition of the [[imperial examinations]], the Qing government established many new schools and encouraged students to study abroad. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.<ref name="fenby">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 96. pg 106.</ref> A new class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the Xinhai Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, [[Song Jiaoren]], [[Hu Hanmin]], [[Liao Zhongkai]], [[Zhu Zhixin (revolutionary)|Zhu Zhixin]] and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like [[Zou Rong]], known for writing the book ''Revolutionary Army'', in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty and tyranny and turning the [[Descendants of Yan & Huang Emperors|sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor]] into [[George Washington]]s.<ref name="fenby109">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 109.</ref> Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings that these organizations would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the Xinhai Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like [[Tiandihui|Sanhehui]] were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."<ref>''Complete works of Sun Yat-sen'' 《總理全集》 First edition, page 920</ref> ===Gentry and businessmen=== [[File:皇族內閣.png|thumb|left|[[Yikuang|Prince Qing]] with some [[Prince Qing's Cabinet|royal cabinet]] members]] The strength of the gentry in local politics had become apparent. From December 1908, the Qing government created some apparatus to allow the gentry and businessmen to participate in politics. These middle-class people were originally supporters of constitutionalism. However, they became disenchanted when the Qing government created a [[Prince Qing's Cabinet|cabinet]] with [[Yikuang|Prince Qing]] as [[Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet|prime minister]].<ref>Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington Press. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg21.</ref> By early 1911, an experimental cabinet had thirteen members, nine of whom were Manchus selected from the imperial family.<ref name="Wangke76">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism''. Taylor & Francis Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8153-0720-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0720-4}}. Pg 76.</ref> ===Foreigners=== Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some of the supporters and participants of the Xinhai Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. [[Miyazaki Touten]] was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and [[Ryōhei Uchida]]. [[Homer Lea]], an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.<ref>{{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Lawrence M. |year = 2010 |title = Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune |publisher = University Press of Kentucky |location = Lexington |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0813126173|ref = none }}</ref> British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in the revolution.<ref name="Laukit">Lau, Kit-ching Chan. [1990] (1990). ''China, Britain and Hong Kong, 1895–1945''. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|962-201-409-7}}, {{ISBN|978-962-201-409-1}}. p. 37.</ref> Some foreigners, such as English explorer [[Arthur de Carle Sowerby]], led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912.<ref name="Borst-Smith 1912">{{cite book |last = Borst-Smith |first = Ernest F. |title = Caught in the Chinese Revolution |url = https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft |publisher = T Fisher Unwin |year = 1912 }}</ref> {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | header_background = | footer = Yuan rose to power in north China and built the [[Beiyang Army]]. | footer_align = left/right/center | footer_background = | image1 = Yuan Shikai as governor of shandong.jpg | width1 = 110 | caption1 = [[Yuan Shikai]] (1859–1916) | image2 = Beiyang Army.jpg | width2 = 230 | caption2 = }} The far right wing Japanese ultra-nationalist [[Black Dragon Society]] supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Manchus, believing that overthrowing the Qing would help the Japanese take over the Manchu homeland and that Han Chinese would not oppose the take over. Toyama believed that the Japanese could easily take over Manchuria and Sun Yat-sen and other anti-Qing revolutionaries would not resist and help the Japanese take over and enlargen the opium trade in China while the Qing was trying to destroy the opium trade. The Japanese Black Dragons supported Sun Yat-sen and anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing collapsed.<ref name="Nash1997">{{cite book|author=Jay Robert Nash|title=Spies: A Narrative Encyclopedia of Dirty Tricks and Double Dealing from Biblical Times to Today|url=https://books.google.com/?id=0FIWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun#v=onepage&q=Black%20Dragon%20Society%20sun&f=false|date=1997-10-28|publisher=M. Evans|isbn=978-1-4617-4770-3|pages=99–}}</ref> The far right wing Japanese ultranationalist [[Gen'yōsha]] leader [[Tōyama Mitsuru]] supported anti-Manchu, anti-Qing revolutionary activities including the ones organised by Sun Yat-sen and supported Japanese taking over Manchuria. The anti-Qing [[Tongmenghui]] was founded and based in exile in Japan where many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered. The Japanese had been trying to unite anti-Manchu groups made out of Han people to take down the Qing. Japanese were the ones who helped Sun Yat-sen unite all anti-Qing, anti-Manchu revolutionary groups together and there were Japanese like [[Tōten Miyazaki]] inside of the anti-Manchu Tongmenghui revolutionary alliance. The Black Dragon Society hosted the Tongmenghui in its first meeting.<ref name="BergèreLloyd1998">{{cite book|author1=Marie-Claire Bergère|author2=Janet Lloyd|title=Sun Yat-sen|url=https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg|url-access=registration|quote=Black Dragon Society sun.|year=1998|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4011-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg/page/132 132]–}}</ref> The Black Dragon Society had very intimate relations with Sun Yat-sen and promoted pan-Asianism and Sun sometimes passed himself off as Japanese<ref name="Horne2005">{{cite book|author=Gerald Horne|title=Race War!: White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire|url=https://books.google.com/?id=vQsVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA252&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun|date=November 2005|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3641-8|pages=252–}}</ref> and they had connections with Sun for a long time.<ref name="Chung2000">{{cite book|author=Dooeum Chung|title=Élitist fascism: Chiang Kaishek's Blueshirts in 1930s China|url=https://books.google.com/?id=XfkvAQAAIAAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun|year=2000|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-1166-0|pages=61}}</ref> Japanese groups like the Black Dragon Society had a large impact on Sun Yat-sen.<ref name="Chung1997">{{cite book|author=Dooeum Chung|title=A re-evaluation of Chiang Kaishek's blueshirts: Chinese fascism in the 1930s|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_OY-AQAAIAAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun|year=1997|publisher=University of London|pages=78}}</ref> According to an American military historian, Japanese military officers were part of the Black Dragon Society. The Yakuza and Black Dragon Society helped arrange in Tokyo for Sun Yat-sen to hold the first Kuomintang meetings, and were hoping to flood China with opium and overthrow the Qing and deceive Chinese into overthrowing the Qing to Japan's benefit. After the revolution was successful, the Japanese Black Dragons started infiltrating China and spreading opium. The Black Dragons pushed for the takeover of Manchuria by Japan in 1932.<ref name="Carlisle2015">{{cite book|author=Rodney Carlisle|title=Encyclopedia of Intelligence and Counterintelligence|url=https://books.google.com/?id=oXysBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun#v=onepage&q=Black%20Dragon%20Society%20sun&f=false|date=2015-03-26|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-47177-6|pages=71–}}</ref> Sun Yat-sen was married to a Japanese, [[Kaoru Otsuki]]. === Soldiers of the new armies === The [[New Army]] was formed in 1901 after the defeat of the Qings in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].<ref name="fenby" /> They were launched by a decree from eight provinces.<ref name="fenby" /> New Army troops were by far the best trained and equipped.<ref name="fenby" /> The recruits were of a higher quality than the old army and received regular promotions.<ref name="fenby" /> Beginning in 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift their call to the new armies. Sun Yat-sen and the revolutionaries infiltrated the New Army.<ref>Spence, Jonathan D. [1990] (1990). ''The Search for Modern China''. W. W. Norton & Company Publishing. {{ISBN|0-393-30780-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-393-30780-1}}. pp. 250–256.</ref> == Uprisings and incidents == The central focus of the uprisings were mostly connected with the [[Tongmenghui]] and Sun Yat-sen, including subgroups. Some uprisings involved groups that never merged with the Tongmenghui. Sun Yat-sen may have participated in 8–10 uprisings; all uprisings failed prior to the Wuchang Uprising. [[File:Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg|thumb|right|200px|Flag of the First Guangzhou Uprising]] ===First Guangzhou Uprising=== In the spring of 1895, the [[Revive China Society]], which was based in Hong Kong, planned the First Guangzhou Uprising (廣州起義). [[Lu Haodong]] was tasked with designing the revolutionaries' [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag.<ref name="Gao" /> On 26 October 1895, [[Yeung Ku-wan]] and Sun Yat-sen led [[Zheng Shiliang]] and Lu Haodong to Guangzhou, preparing to capture Guangzhou in one strike. However, the details of their plans were leaked to the Qing government.<ref name="z1">計秋楓, 朱慶葆. [2001] (2001). 中國近代史, Volume 1. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|962-201-987-0}}, {{ISBN|978-962-201-987-4}}. p. 464.</ref> The government began to arrest revolutionaries, including Lu Haodong, who was later executed.<ref name="z1" /> The First Guangzhou Uprising was a failure. Under pressure from the Qing government, the government of Hong Kong forbade these two men to enter the territory for five years. Sun Yat-sen went into exile, promoting the Chinese revolution and raising funds in Japan, the United States, Canada and Britain. In 1901, following the Huizhou Uprising, Yeung Ku-wan was assassinated by Qing agents in Hong Kong.<ref name="scmpYkw">South China morning post. 6 April 2011. Waiting may be over at grave of an unsung hero.</ref> After his death, his family protected his identity by not putting his name on his tomb, just a number: 6348.<ref name="scmpYkw" /> === Independence Army Uprising === In 1901, after the [[Boxer Rebellion]] started, Tang Caichang (唐才常) and [[Tan Sitong]] of the previous [[Foot Emancipation Society]] organised the Independence Army. The Independence Army Uprising (自立軍起義) was planned to occur on 23 August 1900.<ref name="Wang424">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). ''Modern China: an encyclopedia of history, culture, and nationalism''. Taylor & Francis Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8153-0720-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0720-4}}. p. 424.</ref> Their goal was to overthrow [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] to establish a constitutional monarchy under the Guangxu Emperor. Their plot was discovered by the governor-generals of Hunan and Hubei. About twenty conspirators were arrested and executed.<ref name="Wang424" /> === Huizhou Uprising === On 8 October 1900, Sun Yat-sen ordered the launch of the [[Huizhou]] Uprising (惠州起義).<ref>Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). ''Historical dictionary of modern China (1800–1949)''. Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-4930-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4930-3}}. Chronology section.</ref> The revolutionary army was led by Zheng Shiliang and initially included 20,000 men, who fought for half a month. However, after the [[Hirobumi Ito|Japanese Prime Minister]] prohibited Sun Yat-sen from carrying out revolutionary activities on Taiwan, Zheng Shiliang had no choice but to order the army to disperse. This uprising therefore also failed. British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern participated in this uprising.<ref name="Laukit" /> {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = right | header_background = | footer = Two important Qing figures at the time | footer_align = left | footer_background = | width = | image1 = Zhang Zhitong-1.jpg | width1 = 110 | alt1 = | caption1 = [[Zhang Zhidong]] | image2 = Li Hung-Chang, c. 1896.jpg | width2 = 118 | alt2 = | caption2 = [[Li Hongzhang]] }} === Great Ming Uprising === A very short uprising occurred from 25 to 28 January 1903, to establish a "Great Ming Heavenly Kingdom" (大明順天國).<ref>陳錫祺. [1991] (1991). 孫中山年谱長編 volume 1. 中华书局. {{ISBN|7-101-00685-X}}, {{ISBN|9787101006858}}.</ref> This involved [[Tse Tsan-tai]], Li Jitang (李紀堂), Liang Muguang (梁慕光) and Hong Quanfu (洪全福), who formerly took part in the [[Jintian uprising]] during the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] era.<ref>申友良. [2002] (2002). 报王黃世仲. 中囯社会科学出版社 publishing. {{ISBN|7-5004-3309-3}}, {{ISBN|978-7-5004-3309-5}}.</ref> ===Ping-liu-li Uprising=== Ma Fuyi (馬福益) and [[Huaxinghui]] was involved in an uprising in the three areas of [[Pingxiang]], [[Liuyang]] and [[Liling]], called "Ping-liu-li Uprising", (萍瀏醴起義) in 1905.<ref name="Joan1">Joan Judge. [1996] (1996). Print and politics: 'Shibao' and the culture of reform in late Qing China. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-2741-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-2741-9}}. p. 214.</ref> The uprising recruited miners as early as 1903 to rise against the Qing ruling class. After the uprising failed, Ma Fuyi was executed.<ref name="Joan1" /> === Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway assassination attempt === Wu Yue (吳樾) of [[Guangfuhui]] carried out an assassination attempt at the Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway station (正陽門車站) in an attack on five Qing officials on 24 September 1905.<ref name="Wangke287" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.china.com/gate/big5/news.china.com/focus/xhgm100/11106309/20111009/16801100.html |script-title = zh:清宮藏辛亥革命檔案公佈 清廷密追孫中山(圖)-新聞中心_中華網 |language = zh-hant |website = China.com |accessdate = 2011-10-16 }}</ref> === Huanggang Uprising === The Huanggang Uprising (黃岡起義) was launched on 22 May 1907, in [[Chaozhou]].<ref name="Zga1">張家鳳. [2010] (2010). 中山先生與國際人士. Volume 1. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司. {{ISBN|986-221-510-0}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-510-4}}. p. 195.</ref> The revolutionary party, along with Xu Xueqiu (許雪秋), Chen Yongpo (陳湧波) and Yu Tongshi (余通實), launched the uprising and captured Huanggang city.<ref name="Zga1" /> Other Japanese that followed include 萱野長知 and 池亨吉.<ref name="Zga1" /> After the uprising began, the Qing government quickly and forcefully suppressed it. Around 200 revolutionaries were killed.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.baojinews.com/_info/content_190080.htm |title = 宝鸡新闻网——荟集宝鸡新闻 |website = Baojinews.com |date = 27 May 2011 |accessdate = 2011-10-16 }}</ref> === Huizhou Qinühu Uprising === In the same year, Sun Yat-sen sent more revolutionaries to [[Huizhou]] to launch the "Huizhou Qinühu Uprising" ({{lang|zh-hant|惠州七女湖起義}}). <ref name="zz1">{{lang|zh-hant|張豈之, 陳振江, 江沛}}. [2002] (2002). {{lang|zh-hant|晚淸民國史}}. Volume 5 of {{lang|zh-hant|中國歷史}}. {{lang|zh-hant|五南圖書出版股份有限公司}} publishing. {{ISBN|957-11-2898-8}}, {{ISBN|978-957-11-2898-6}}. p. 177.</ref> On 2 June, Deng Zhiyu ({{lang|zh-hant|鄧子瑜}}) and Chen Chuan ({{lang|zh-hant|陳純}}) gathered some followers, and together, they seized Qing arms in the lake, {{convert|20|km|abbr=on}} from Huizhou.<ref name="z3">{{lang|zh-hant|中国二十世紀通鉴编辑委员会}}. [2002] (2002). {{lang|zh-hant|中国二十世紀通鉴}}, 1901–2000, Volume 1. {{lang|zh-hant|线装書局}}.</ref> They killed several Qing soldiers and attacked Taiwei ({{lang|zh|泰尾}}) on 5 June.<ref name="z3" /> The Qing army fled in disorder, and the revolutionaries exploited the opportunity, capturing several towns. They defeated the Qing army once again in Bazhiyie. Many organizations voiced their support after the uprising, and the number of revolutionary forces increased to two hundred men at its height. The uprising, however, ultimately failed. === Anqing Uprising === [[File:QiuJin feminist revolutionary.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A statue to honor revolutionary [[Qiu Jin]]]] On 6 July 1907, [[Xu Xilin]] of [[Guangfuhui]] led an uprising in [[Anqing]], Anhui, which became known as the Anqing Uprising (安慶起義).<ref name="mz" /> Xu Xilin at the time was the police commissioner as well as the supervisor of the police academy. He led an uprising that was to assassinate the provincial governor of Anhui, En Ming (恩銘).<ref name="ln1">Lu Xun. Nadolny, Kevin John. [2009] (2009). Capturing Chinese: Short Stories from Lu Xun's Nahan. Capturing Chinese publishing. {{ISBN|0-9842762-0-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-9842762-0-2}}. p. 51.</ref> They were defeated after four hours of fighting. Xu was captured, and En Ming's bodyguards cut out his heart and liver and ate them.<ref name="ln1" /> His cousin [[Qiu Jin]] was executed a few days later.<ref name="ln1" /> ===Qinzhou Uprising=== From August to September 1907, the [[Qinzhou]] Uprising occurred (欽州防城起義),<ref>鄭連根. [2009] (2009). 故紙眉批── 一個傳媒人的讀史心得. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. {{ISBN|986-221-190-3}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-190-8}}. p. 135.</ref> to protest against heavy taxation from the government. Sun Yat-sen sent Wang Heshun (王和順) there to assist the revolutionary army and captured the county in September.<ref name="xn1">辛亥革命武昌起義紀念館. [1991] (1991). 辛亥革命史地圖集. 中國地圖出版社 publishing.</ref> After that, they attempted to besiege and capture Qinzhou, but they were unsuccessful. They eventually retreated to the area of Shiwandashan, while Wang Heshun returned to [[Vietnam]]. === Zhennanguan Uprising === On 1 December 1907, the Zhennanguan Uprising (鎮南關起事) took place at [[Friendship Pass|Zhennanguan]], a pass on the Chinese-Vietnamese border. Sun Yat-sen sent Huang Mintang (黃明堂) to monitor the pass, which was guarded by a fort.<ref name="xn1" /> With the assistance of supporters among the fort's defenders, the revolutionaries captured the cannon tower in Zhennanguan. Sun Yat-sen, [[Huang Xing]] and [[Hu Hanmin]] personally went to the tower to command the battle.<ref>中華民國史硏究室. [1986] (1986). 中華民國史資料叢稿: 譯稿. Volumes 1–2 of 中華民國史資料叢稿. published by 中華書局.</ref> The Qing government sent troops led by [[Long Jiguang]] and [[Lu Rongting]] to counterattack, and the revolutionaries were forced to retreat into the mountainous areas. After the failure of this uprising, Sun was forced to move to Singapore due to [[Sun Yat-sen#Anti-Sun movements|anti-Sun sentiments]] within the revolutionary groups.<ref>Yan, Qinghuang. [2008] (2008). ''The Chinese in Southeast Asia and Beyond: Socioeconomic and Political Dimensions''. World Scientific Publishing. {{ISBN|981-279-047-0}}, {{ISBN|978-981-279-047-7}}. pp. 182–187.</ref> He would not return to the mainland until after the Wuchang Uprising. === Qin-lian Uprising === On 27 March 1908, Huang Xing launched a raid, later known as the Qin-lian Uprising (欽廉上思起義), from a base in Vietnam and attacked the cities of [[Qinzhou]] and [[Lianzhou]] in Guangdong. The struggle continued for fourteen days but was forced to terminate after the revolutionaries ran out of supplies.<ref>廣西壯族自治區地方誌編纂委員會. [1994] (1994). 廣西通志: 軍事志. 廣西人民出版社 publishing. Digitized University of Michigan. 26 October 2009.</ref> === Hekou Uprising === In April 1908, another uprising was launched in [[Yunnan]], Hekou, called the Hekou Uprising (雲南河口起義). Huang Mingtang (黃明堂) led two hundred men from Vietnam and attacked Hekou on 30 April. Other revolutionaries who participated include Wang Heshun (王和順) and Guan Renfu (關仁甫). They were outnumbered and defeated by government troops, however, and the uprising failed.<ref>中国百科年鉴. [1982] (1982). 中国大百科全书出版社. University of California. Digitized 18 December 2008.</ref> === Mapaoying Uprising === On 19 November 1908, the Mapaoying Uprising (馬炮營起義) was launched by revolutionary group Yuewanghui (岳王會) member Xiong Chenggei (熊成基) at [[Anhui]].<ref>汪贵胜, 许祖范. Compiled by 程必定. [1989] (1989). 安徽近代经济史. 黄山书社. Digitized by the University of Michigan. 31 October 2007.</ref> Yuewanghui, at this time, was a subset of [[Tongmenghui]]. This uprising also failed. === Gengxu New Army Uprising === In February 1910, the Gengxu New Army Uprising (庚戌新軍起義), also known as the Guangzhou New Army Uprising (廣州新軍起義), took place.<ref name="yq">张新民. [1993] (1993). 中国人权辞书. 海南出版社 publishing. Digitized by University of Michigan. 9 October 2009.</ref> This involved a conflict between the citizens and local police against the New Army. After revolutionary leader Ni Yingdian was killed by Qing forces, the remaining revolutionaries were quickly defeated, causing the uprising to fail. === Second Guangzhou Uprising === {{Main|Second Guangzhou Uprising}} [[File:Huanghuagang Mausoleum of 72 Martyrs.jpg|thumb|right|The memorial for the 72 martyrs]] On 27 April 1911, an uprising occurred in [[Guangzhou]], known as the Second Guangzhou Uprising (辛亥廣州起義) or Yellow Flower Mound Revolt (黃花岡之役). It ended in disaster, as 86 bodies were found (only 72 could be identified).<ref name="gongtong1">王恆偉. (2005) (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No.&nbsp;5 清. 中華書局. {{ISBN|962-8885-28-6}}. p 195-198.</ref> The 72 revolutionaries were remembered as [[Martyrdom in Chinese culture|martyrs]].<ref name="gongtong1" /> Revolutionary [[Lin Juemin]] (林覺民) was one of the 72. On the eve of battle, he wrote the legendary "A Letter to My Wife" (與妻訣別書), later to be considered as a masterpiece in Chinese literature.<ref name="Langmead">Langmead, Donald. [2011] (2011). ''Maya Lin: A Biography''. ABC-CLIO Publishing. {{ISBN|0-313-37853-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-313-37853-9}}. pp. 5–6.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://freudianslumber.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/lin-jue-mins-letter-of-farewell-to-my-wife-my-translation/|title=Lin Jue Min's "Letter of Farewell to My Wife" — My translation|date=15 November 2009|publisher=}}</ref> === Wuchang Uprising === [[File:Chinese-Army-Wuhan-Flag-1911-1928 dots18.svg|right|thumb|200px|The Iron Blood 18-star flag]] [[File:武昌起义.png|thumb|right|100px|Paths of the uprising]] {{Main|Wuchang Uprising|Battle of Yangxia}} The Literary Society (文學社) and the Progressive Association (共進會) were revolutionary organizations involved in the uprising that mainly began with a [[Railway Protection Movement]] protest.<ref name="Wang390" /> In the late summer, some Hubei New Army units were ordered to neighboring Sichuan to quell the Railway Protection Movement, a mass protest against the Qing government's seizure and handover of local railway development ventures to foreign powers.<ref name="reillyt">Reilly, Thomas. [1997] (1997). ''Science and Football III'', Volume 3. Taylor & Francis publishing. {{ISBN|0-419-22160-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-419-22160-9}}. pp. 105–106, 277–278.</ref> [[Eight Banner|Banner]] officers like [[Duanfang]], the railroad superintendent,<ref>{{cite book |year = 1979 |publisher = University of Iowa |quote = The railway company's chief officer at Yichang was no longer listening to company directives and had turned company accounts over to Duanfang, Superintendent of the Chuan Han and Yue Han railroads. The situation of the Sichuanese |location = |url = https://books.google.com/?id=EsO3AAAAIAAJ&dq=The+railway+company%27s+chief+officer+at+Yichang+was+no+longer+listening+to+company+directives+and+had+turned+company+accounts+over+to+Duanfang%2C+Superintendent+of+the+Chuan+Han+and+Yue+Han+railroads.+The+situation+of+the+Sichuanese&q=Duanfang |page = 156 |title = The heritage of Han: the Gelaohui and the 1911 revolution in Sichuan |edition = |author = Robert H. Felsing |accessdate = 2012-03-02 }}</ref> and [[Zhao Erfeng]] led the New Army against the Railway Protection Movement. The New Army units of Hubei had originally been the Hubei Army, which had been trained by Qing official [[Zhang Zhidong]].<ref name="xb1" /> On 24 September, the Literary Society and Progressive Association convened a conference in Wuchang, along with sixty representatives from local New Army units. During the conference, they established a headquarters for the uprising. The leaders of the two organizations, Jiang Yiwu (蔣翊武) and Sun Wu (孫武), were elected as commander and chief of staff. Initially, the date of the uprising was to be 6 October 1911.<ref name="gongtong2">王恆偉. (2005) (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No.&nbsp;6 民國. 中華書局. {{ISBN|962-8885-29-4}}. pp. 3–7.</ref> It was postponed to a later date due to insufficient preparations. Revolutionaries intent on overthrowing the Qing dynasty had built bombs, and on 9 October, one accidentally exploded.<ref name="gongtong2" /> Sun Yat-sen himself had no direct part in the uprising and was traveling in the United States at the time in an effort to recruit more support from among overseas Chinese. The Qing [[Viceroy of Huguang]], Rui Cheng (瑞澂), tried to track down and arrest the revolutionaries.<ref name="tonsi1">戴逸, 龔書鐸. [2002] (2003) 中國通史. 清. Intelligence Press. {{ISBN|962-8792-89-X}}. pp. 86–89.</ref> Squad leader Xiong Bingkun (熊秉坤) and others decided not to delay the uprising any longer and launched the revolt on 10 October 1911, at 7&nbsp;pm.<ref name="tonsi1" /> The revolt was a success; the entire city of Wuchang was captured by the revolutionaries on the morning of 11 October. That evening, they established a tactical headquarters and announced the establishment of the "Military Government of Hubei of Republic of China".<ref name="tonsi1" /> The conference chose [[Li Yuanhong]] as the governor of the temporary government.<ref name="tonsi1" /> Qing officers like the bannermen Duanfang and Zhao Erfeng were killed by the revolutionary forces. == Provincial uprisings == [[File:Qing Dynasty Map durnig Xinhai Revolution.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Map of many of the uprisings during the Xinhai Revolution]] After the success of the Wuchang Uprising, many other protests occurred throughout the country for various reasons. Some of the uprisings declared restoration (光復) of the [[Han Chinese]] rule. Other uprisings were a step toward independence, and some were protests or rebellions against the local authorities.{{Citation needed|date=September 2014}} Regardless the reason for the uprising the outcome was that all provinces in the country renounced the Qing dynasty and joined the ROC. === Changsha restoration === {{Main|Battle of Changsha (1911)}} On 22 October 1911, the [[Hunan]] Tongmenghui were led by Jiao Dafeng (焦達嶧) and Chen Zuoxin (陳作新).<ref name="zhanged2">张创新. [2005] (2005). 中国政治制度史. 2nd Edition. Tsinghua University Press. {{ISBN|7-302-10146-9}}, {{ISBN|978-7-302-10146-8}}. p. 377.</ref> They headed an armed group, consisting partly of revolutionaries from [[Hongjiang]] and partly of defecting New Army units, in a campaign to extend the uprising into [[Changsha]].<ref name="zhanged2" /> They captured the city and killed the local Imperial general. Then they announced the establishment of the Hunan Military Government of the Republic of China and announced their opposition to the Qing Empire.<ref name="zhanged2" /> === Shaanxi Uprising === On the same day, [[Shaanxi]]'s Tongmenghui, led by Jing Dingcheng (景定成) and Qian Ding (錢鼎) as well as Jing Wumu (井勿幕) and others including [[Gelaohui]], launched an uprising and captured [[Xi'an]] after two days of struggle.<ref name="bigxz13">{{cite web |url = http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/www.hb.xinhuanet.com/zhuanti/2011-01/13/content_21859416.htm |title = 武昌起義之後各省響應與國際調停 _新華網湖北頻道 |website = xinhuanet.com |accessdate = 2011-10-16 }}</ref> The Hui Muslim community was divided in its support for the revolution. The Hui Muslims of Shaanxi supported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims of Gansu supported the Qing. The native Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) of Xi'an (Shaanxi province) joined the Han Chinese revolutionaries in slaughtering the Manchus.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Backhouse |first1=Sir Edmund |last2=Otway |first2=John |last3=Bland |first3=Percy |title=Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking: (from the 16th to the 20th Century) |date=1914 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |page=[https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp/page/n241 209] |edition=reprint |url=https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Atlantic, Volume 112 |date=1913 |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Company |page=779 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj4wAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA779}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 112 |date=1913 |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Company |page=779 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA779}}</ref> The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general [[Ma Anliang]] led more than twenty battalions of [[Hui people|Hui]] Muslim troops to defend the Qing imperials and attacked Shaanxi, held by revolutionary Zhang Fenghui (張鳳翽).<ref name="fsh" /> The attack was successful, and after news arrived that Puyi was about to abdicate, Ma agreed to join the new Republic.<ref name="fsh">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA168&dq=ma+anliang's+brother+ma+guoliang&cd=1#v=snippet&q=twenty%20battalions%20of%20loyal%20muslim%20braves&f=false|title=Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China|author=Jonathan Neaman Lipman|year=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|page=170|isbn=978-0-295-97644-0|accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> The revolutionaries established the "Qinlong Fuhan Military Government" and elected Zhang Fenghui, a member of the Yuanrizhi Society (原日知會), as new governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> After the Xi'an Manchu quarter fell on 24 October, Xinhai forces killed all of the Manchus in the city, about 20,000 Manchus were killed in the massacre.<ref name="Rhoads192">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg 192.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA190 | title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 | author=Edward J. M. Rhoads | page=190 | publisher=University of Washington | year=2000| isbn=9780295980409 }}</ref> Many of its Manchu defenders committed suicide, including Qing general Wenrui (文瑞), who threw himself down a well.<ref name="Rhoads192" /> Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhoads |first1=Edward J. M. |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295980400 |page=192 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA192}}</ref> and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhoads |first1=Edward J. M. |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295980400 |page=193 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA193}}</ref> Young Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fitzgerald |first1=Charles Patrick |last2=Kotker |first2=Norman |editor1-last=Kotker |editor1-first=Norman |title=The Horizon history of China |date=1969 |publisher=American Heritage Pub. Co. |page=365 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPRxAAAAMAAJ&q=manchu+girls&dq=manchu+girls&hl=en&ei=LUmxTNbbJMG78gb8kfmhCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAg}}</ref> ===Jiujiang Uprising=== On 23 October, [[Lin Sen]], Jiang Qun (蔣群), Cai Hui (蔡蕙) and other members of the Tongmenghui in the province of [[Jiangxi]] plotted a revolt of New Army units.<ref name="zhanged2" /><ref name="zhong1911-ch12">伍立杨. [2011] (2011). 中国1911 (辛亥年). {{ISBN|978-7-5313-3869-7}}, {{ISBN|7-5313-3869-6}}. Chapter 连锁反应 各省独立.</ref> After they achieved victory, they announced their independence. The Jiujiang Military Government was then established.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> ===Shanxi Taiyuan Uprising=== On 29 October, [[Yan Xishan]] of the New Army led an uprising in [[Taiyuan]], the capital city of the province of [[Shanxi]], along with Yao Yijie (姚以價), Huang Guoliang (黃國梁), Wen Shouquan (溫壽泉), Li Chenglin (李成林), Zhang Shuzhi (張樹幟) and Qiao Xi (喬煦).<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /><ref>蒋顺兴, 李良玉. [1990] (1990). 山西王阎锡山/中华民国史丛书. Edition reprint. 河南人民出版社, 1990.</ref> The Xinhai rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.<ref>{{cite book| title= Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907-1985 | page=102}}</ref> They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (陸鍾琦).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml |title=山西辛亥革命官僚階層——巡撫陸鍾琦之死_辛亥革命前奏_辛亥革命网 |publisher=Big5.xhgmw.org |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Yan Xishan would later become one of the warlords that plagued China during what was known as "the warlord era". ===Kunming Double Ninth Uprising=== On 30 October, Li Genyuan (李根源) of the Tongmenghui in [[Yunnan]] joined with [[Cai E]], Luo Peijin (羅佩金), [[Tang Jiyao]], and other officers of the New Army to launch the [[Double Ninth Festival|Double Ninth]] Uprising (重九起義).<ref>中共湖南省委員會. [1981] (1981). 新湘評論, Issues 7–12. 新湘評論雜誌社.</ref> They captured [[Kunming]] the next day and established the Yunnan Military Government, electing [[Cai E]] as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> ===Nanchang restoration=== On 31 October, the [[Nanchang]] branch of the Tongmenghui led New Army units in a successful uprising. They established the Jiangxi Military Government.<ref name="zhanged2"/> [[Li Liejun]] was elected as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Li declared [[Jiangxi]] as independent and launched an expedition against Qing official Yuan Shikai.<ref name="Langmead" /> ===Shanghai Armed Uprising=== [[File:Chen Qi-mei.png|thumb|right|150px|[[Chen Qimei]], military governor of Shanghai]] On 3 November, Shanghai's Tongmenghui, Guangfuhui and merchants led by [[Chen Qimei]] (陳其美), Li Pingsu (李平書), Zhang Chengyou (張承槱), Li Yingshi (李英石), Li Xiehe (李燮和) and [[Song Jiaoren]] organized an armed rebellion in Shanghai.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> They received the support of local police officers.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> The rebels captured the Jiangnan Workshop on the 4th and captured Shanghai soon after. On 8 November, they established the Shanghai Military Government and elected Chen Qimei as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> He would eventually become one of the founders of the [[Four big families of the Republic of China|ROC four big families]], along with some of the most well-known families of the era.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinanews.com.cn/cul/news/2007/12-11/1101653.shtml |title="四大家族"后人:蒋家凋零落寞 宋、孔、陈家低调 |publisher=Chinanews.com.cn |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> ===Guizhou Uprising=== On 4 November, Zhang Bailin (張百麟) of the revolutionary party in [[Guizhou]] led an uprising along with New Army units and students from the military academy. They immediately captured [[Guiyang]] and established the Great Han Guizhou Military Government, electing Yang Jincheng (楊藎誠) and Zhao Dequan (趙德全) as the chief and vice governor respectively.<ref>张玉法, 中央硏究院. 近代史硏究所. [1985] (1985). 民国初年的政党. 中央硏究院近代史硏究所 Publishing.</ref> ===Zhejiang Uprising=== Also on 4 November, revolutionaries in [[Zhejiang]] urged the New Army units in [[Hangzhou]] to launch an uprising.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Zhu Rui (朱瑞), Wu Siyu (吳思豫), Lu Gongwang (吕公望) and others of the New Army captured the military supplies workshop.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Other units, led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] and Yin Zhirei (尹銳志), captured most of the government offices.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Eventually, Hangzhou was under the control of the revolutionaries, and the constitutionalist Tang Shouqian (湯壽潛) was elected as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> ===Jiangsu restoration=== On 5 November, [[Jiangsu]] constitutionalists and gentry urged Qing governor Cheng Dequan (程德全) to announce independence and established the Jiangsu Revolutionary Military Government with Cheng himself as the governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/sz.xinhuanet.com/2011-10/10/content_23855051.htm |title=辛亥百年蘇州光復 一根竹竿挑瓦革命 |publisher=Big5.xinhuanet.com |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> Unlike some of the other cities, anti-Manchu violence began after the restoration on 7 November in [[Zhenjiang]].<ref name="Rhoads194">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington Press. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg 194.</ref> Qing general Zaimu (載穆) agreed to surrender, but because of a misunderstanding, the revolutionaries were unaware that their safety was guaranteed.<ref name="Rhoads194" /> The Manchu quarters were ransacked, and an unknown number of Manchus were killed.<ref name="Rhoads194" /> Zaimu, feeling betrayed, committed suicide.<ref name="Rhoads194" /> This is regarded as the Zhenjiang Uprising (鎮江起義).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2011-04/20/c_121987093.htm |title=辛亥革命大事記_時政頻道_新華網 |publisher=Big5.xinhuanet.com |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref>http://www.xinhai.org/shi/191107129.htm</ref> ===Anhui Uprising=== Members of [[Anhui]]'s Tongmenghui also launched an uprising on that day and laid siege to the provincial capital. The constitutionalists persuaded [[Zhu Jiabao]] (朱家寶), the Qing Governor of Anhui, to announce independence.<ref>國立臺灣師範大學. 歷史學系. [2003] (2003). Bulletin of historical research, Issue 31. 國立臺灣師範大學歷史學系 publishing.</ref> ===Guangxi Uprising=== On 7 November, the [[Guangxi]] politics department decided to secede from the Qing government, announcing Guangxi's independence. Qing Governor Shen Bingkun (沈秉堃) was allowed to remain governor, but [[Lu Rongting]] would soon become the new governor.<ref name="xn1" /> Lu Rongting would later rise to prominence during the "warlord era" as one of the warlords, and his bandits controlled Guangxi for more than a decade.<ref>Lary, Diana. [2010] (2010). ''Warlord Soldiers: Chinese Common Soldiers 1911–1937''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-13629-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-13629-7}}. pg 64.</ref> Under the leadership of [[Huang Shaohong]], the Muslim law student [[Bai Chongxi]] was enlisted into a Dare to Die unit to fight as a revolutionary.<ref name="BoormanHoward1967">{{cite book|author1=Howard L. Boorman|author2=Richard C. Howard|author3=Joseph K. H. Cheng|title=Biographical Dictionary of Republican China|url=https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor|url-access=registration|quote=pai ch'ung-hsi dare to die.|year=1967|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-08957-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor/page/51 51]–}}</ref> ===Fujian independence=== [[File:连江光复会旧址.jpg|thumb|right|One of the old buildings occupied by the [[Guangfuhui]] in [[Lianjiang County]], Fujian]] In November, members of [[Fujian]]'s branch of the Tongmenghui, along with Sun Daoren (孫道仁) of the New Army, launched an uprising against the Qing army.<ref name="gli">国祁李. [1990] (1990). 民国史论集, Volume 2. 南天書局 publishing.</ref><ref>[1979] (1979). 傳記文學, Volume 34. 傳記文學雜誌社 Publishing. University of Wisconsin&nbsp;– Madison. Digitized 11 April 2011.</ref> The Qing viceroy, Song Shou (松壽), committed suicide.<ref>鄧之誠. [1983] (1983). 中華二千年史, Volume 5, Part 3, Issue 1. 中華書局. {{ISBN|7-101-00390-7}}, {{ISBN|978-7-101-00390-1}}.</ref> On 11 November, the entire Fujian province declared independence.<ref name="gli" /> The Fujian Military Government was established, and Sun Daoren was elected as the military governor.<ref name="gli" /> ===Guangdong independence=== Near the end of October, [[Chen Jiongming]], Deng Keng (鄧鏗), Peng Reihai (彭瑞海) and other members of Guangdong's Tongmenghui organized local militias to launch the uprising in [[Huazhou, Guangdong|Huazhou]], [[Nanhai District|Nanhai]], [[Shunde District|Sunde]] and [[Sanshui District|Sanshui]] in Guangdong Province.<ref name="bigxz13" /><ref>广东省中山图书馆. [2002] (2002). 民国广东大事记. 羊城晚报出版社 Publishing. {{ISBN|7-80651-206-3}}, {{ISBN|978-7-80651-206-7}}.</ref> On 8 November, after being persuaded by [[Hu Hanmin]], General Li Zhun (李準) and Long Jiguang (龍濟光) of the Guangdong Navy agreed to support the revolution.<ref name="bigxz13" /> The Qing [[viceroy of Liangguang]], Zhang Mingqi (張鳴岐), was forced to discuss with the local representatives a proposal for Guangdong's independence.<ref name="bigxz13" /> They decided to announce it the next day. Chen Jiongming then captured [[Huizhou]]. On 9 November, Guangdong announced its independence and established a military government.<ref name="qiuf">徐博东, 黄志萍. [1987] (1987). 丘逢甲傳. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. {{ISBN|986-221-636-0}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-636-1}}. pg 175.</ref> They elected Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming as the chief and vice-governor.<ref>居正, 羅福惠, 蕭怡. [1989] (1989). 居正文集, Volume 1. 華中師範大學出版社 publishing. Digitized by University of California. 15 December 2008.</ref> [[Qiu Fengjia]] is known to have helped make the independence declaration more peaceful.<ref name="qiuf" /> It was unknown at the time if representatives from the European colonies of [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] and [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]] would be ceded to the new government.{{clarify|date=August 2017}} ===Shandong independence=== On 13 November, after being persuaded by revolutionary Din Weifen (丁惟汾) and several other officers of the New Army, the Qing governor of [[Shandong]], [[Sun Baoqi]], agreed to secede from the Qing government and announced Shandong's independence.<ref name="bigxz13" /> ===Ningxia Uprising=== On 17 November, [[Ningxia]] Tongmenghui launched the Ningxia Uprising (寧夏會黨起義). The revolutionaries sent [[Yu Youren]] to [[Zhangjiachuan County|Zhangjiachuan]] to meet [[Dungan people|Dungan]] [[Sufi]] master [[Ma Yuanzhang]] to persuade him not to support the Qing. However, Ma did not want to endanger his relationship with the Qings. He sent the eastern [[Gansu]] Muslim militia under the command of one of his sons to help [[Ma Qi]] crush the Ningxia Gelaohui.<ref name="CUP Archive">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft|quote=ma fu hsiang mongol an-liang.|title=Travels of a Consular Officer in North-West China|year=1921|publisher=CUP Archive|page=[https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft/page/188 188]|isbn=|accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA182&dq=ma+fuxiang+gelaohui#v=onepage&q=ma%20fuxiang%20gelaohui&f=false|title=Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China|author=Jonathan Neaman Lipman|year=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|pages=182, 183|isbn=978-0-295-97644-0|accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> However,the Ningxia Revolutionary Military Government was established on 23 November.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Some of the revolutionaries involved included Huang Yue (黃鉞) and Xiang Shen (向燊), who gathered New Army forces at Qinzhou (秦州).<ref>粟戡时, 同明, 志盛, 雪云. [1981] (1981). 湖南反正追记. 湖南人民出版社.</ref><ref>辛亥革命史地圖集. [1991] (1991). 辛亥革命武昌起義紀念館. 中國地圖出版社.</ref> ===Sichuan independence=== On 21 November, [[Guang'an]] organized the Great Han [[Shu Han|Shu]] Northern Military Government.<ref name="bigxz13" /><ref>中國地圖出版社. [1991] (1991). 辛亥革命史地圖集. 中國地圖出版社 publishing.</ref> On 22 November, [[Chengdu]] and [[Sichuan]] began to declare independence. By the 27th, the Great Han Sichuan Military Government was established, headed by revolutionary Pu Dianzun (蒲殿俊).<ref name="bigxz13" /> Qing official [[Duan Fang]] (端方) would also be killed.<ref name="bigxz13" /> ===Nanking Uprising=== [[File:An episode in the revolutionary war in China, 1911 - the battle at the Ta-ping gate at Nanking. Wellcome L0040002.jpg|thumb|1911 battle at Ta-ping gate, Nanking. Painting by T. Miyano.]] On 8 November, supported by the Tongmenghui, Xu Shaozhen (徐紹楨) of the New Army announced an uprising in Molin Pass (秣陵關), {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} away from [[Nanjing City|Nanking City]].<ref name="bigxz13" /> Xu Shaozhen, Chen Qimei and other generals decided to form a united army under Xu to strike Nanking together. On 11 November, the united army headquarters was established in Zhenjiang. Between 24 November and 1 December, under the command of Xu Shaozhen, the united army captured Wulongshan (烏龍山), Mufushan (幕府山), Yuhuatai (雨花臺), Tianbao City (天保城) and many other strongholds of the Qing army.<ref name="bigxz13" /> On 2 December, Nanking City was captured by the revolutionaries after the Battle of Nanking, 1911.<ref name="bigxz13" /> On 3 December, revolutionary Su Liangbi led troops in a massacre of a large number of Manchus (the exact number is not known).<ref name="Rhoads198">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington Publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg 198.</ref> He was shortly afterward arrested, and his troops disbanded.<ref name="Rhoads198" /> ===Tibetan independence=== {{main|Xinhai Lhasa turmoil|Tibet (1912–1951)}} In 1905, the Qing sent [[Zhao Erfeng]] to Tibet to retaliate against [[1905 Tibetan Rebellion|rebellions]].<ref name="Blondeau">Blondeau, Anne-Marie. Buffetrille, Katia. Jing, Wei. [2008] (2008). ''Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions''. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-24464-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-520-24464-1}}. pg 230.</ref> By 1908, Zhao was appointed [[List of Qing imperial residents in Tibet|imperial resident]] in [[Lhasa]].<ref name="Blondeau" /> Zhao was beheaded in December 1911 by pro-[[Republic of China|Republican]] forces.<ref>Grunfeld, A. Tom. [1996] (1996). ''The Making of Modern Tibet'' Edition 2. M.E. Sharpe Publishing. {{ISBN|1-56324-714-3}}, {{ISBN|978-1-56324-714-9}}. pg 63.</ref> The bulk of the area that was historically known as [[Kham]] was now claimed to be the [[Xikang|Xikang Administrative District]], created by the Republican revolutionaries.<ref>Rong, Ma. [2010] (2010). ''Population and Society in Tibet''. Hong Kong University Press. {{ISBN|962-209-202-0}}, {{ISBN|978-962-209-202-0}}. pg 48.</ref> By the end of 1912, the last Manchu troops were forced out of Tibet through India. [[Thubten Gyatso]], the 13th [[Dalai Lama]], returned to Tibet in January 1913 from [[Sikkim]], where he had been residing.<ref name="Mayhew">Mayhew, Bradley and Michael Kohn. (2005). ''Tibet'', p. 32. Lonely Planet Publications. {{ISBN|1-74059-523-8}}.</ref> When the new ROC government apologised for the actions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama to his former position, he replied that he was not interested in Chinese ranks, that Tibet had never been subordinated to China, that Tibet was an independent country, and that he was assuming the spiritual and political leadership of Tibet.<ref name="Mayhew" /> Because of this, many have read this reply as a formal declaration of independence. The Chinese side ignored the response, and Tibet had thirty years free of interference from China.<ref name="Mayhew" /> ===Mongolian independence=== {{main|Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia}} At the end of 1911, the Mongols took action with an armed revolt against the Manchu authorities but were unsuccessful in the attempt.<ref name="Onon">Onon, Urgunge Onon. Pritchatt, Derrick. [1989] (1989). ''Asia's first modern revolution: Mongolia proclaims its independence in 1911''. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-08390-1}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08390-5}}. pg 38–40, 79.</ref> The independence movement that took place was not limited to just North (outer) Mongolia but was also a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.<ref name="Onon" /> On 29 December 1911, [[Bogd Khan]] became the leader of the Mongol empire. [[Inner Mongolia]] became a contested terrain between Khan and the Republic.<ref>Uradyn Erden Bulag. Hildegard Diemberger. International Association for Tibetan Studies. Seminar, Uradyn Erden Bulag. Brill's Tibetan studies library. [2007] (2007). "The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia": PIATS 2003: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-15521-X}}, {{ISBN|9789004155213}}.</ref> In general, Russia supported the [[Outer Mongolian revolution of 1911|Independence of Outer Mongolia]] (including [[Tannu Uriankhai]]) during the time of the Xinhai Revolution.<ref>Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). ''Chinese foreign policy: pragmatism and strategic behavior''. M.E. Sharpe publishing. {{ISBN|0-7656-1284-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7656-1284-7}}. pg 207.</ref> Tibet and Mongolia then recognized each other in a treaty. ===Dihua and Yili Uprising=== {{Main|Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang}} In [[Xinjiang]] on 28 December, Liu Xianzun (劉先俊) and the revolutionaries started the [[Ürümqi|Dihua]] Uprising (迪化起義).<ref name="doizung">中央研究院. [1993] (1993). 近代中國歷史人物論文集. 中央研究院近代史研究所. {{ISBN|957-671-150-9}}, {{ISBN|978-957-671-150-3}}.</ref> This was led by more than 100 members of Geilaohui.<ref name="hkcna">{{cite web|url=http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml |title=新疆伊犁辛亥革命打破清王朝西遷夢 |publisher=Hkcna.hk |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref> This uprising failed. On 7 January 1912, the [[Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture|Yili]] Uprising (伊犁起義) with Feng Temin (馮特民) began.<ref name="doizung" /><ref name="hkcna" /> Qing governor Yuan Dahua (袁大化) fled and handed over his resignation to [[Yang Zengxin]], because he could not handle fighting the revolutionaries.<ref name="yz">Millward, James A. [2007] (2007). ''Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang''. Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-231-13924-1}} pg 168, 440.</ref> In the morning of 8 January, a new Yili government was established for the revolutionaries,<ref name="hkcna" /> but the revolutionaries would be defeated at [[Jinghe County|Jinghe]] in January and February.<ref name="yz" /><ref name="wamu">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA139&lpg=PA139&dq=ma+shao-wu+assassination+attempt#v=onepage&q=yuan%20ta-hua%20time&f=false|title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949|author=Andrew D. W. Forbes|year=1986|publisher=CUP Archive|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=978-0-521-25514-1|page=376|accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> Eventually because of the abdication to come, Yuan Shikai recognized Yang Zengxin's rule, appointed him Governor of Xinjiang and had the province join the Republic.<ref name="yz" /> Eleven more former Qing officials would be assassinated in [[Barköl Kazakh Autonomous County|Zhenxi]], [[Karashahr]], [[Aksu, Xinjiang|Aksu]], [[Kucha]], [[Luntai]] and [[Kashgar]] in April and May 1912.<ref name="yz" /> The revolutionaries printed a new multi-lingual media.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ondřej Klimeš|title=Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949|url=https://books.google.com/?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83&lpg=PA83&dq=%E6%BC%A2%E8%92%99%E5%9B%9E%E7%BA%8F%E5%93%88#v=onepage&q=%E6%BC%A2%E8%92%99%E5%9B%9E%E7%BA%8F%E5%93%88&f=false|date=8 January 2015|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-28809-6|pages=83–}}</ref> ===Taiwan Uprising=== In 1911 as part of the Xinhai Revolution, Tongmenghui sent Luo Fu-xing (羅福星) to the [[Taiwan island|island of Taiwan]] to free it from being [[Japanese rule in Taiwan|occupied by the Japanese]].<ref>[1981] (2007). Daily report: People's Republic of China, Issues 200–210. National Technical Information Service publishing. Digitized 2 March 2007 by University of Michigan. pg 50.</ref> The goal was to bring Taiwan island back to the Chinese Republic by inciting the Taiwan Uprising (台灣起義).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html |title=人民網-寶島英雄譜-苗栗事件：台灣光復先驅羅福星 |publisher=Tw.people.com.cn |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Luo was caught and killed on 3 March 1914.<ref name="Dellorto">Dell'Orto, Alessandro. [2002] (2002). ''Place and spirit in Taiwan: Tudi Gong in the stories, strategies, and memories of everyday life''. Psychology Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1568-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1568-8}}. pg 39.</ref> What was left was known as the "[[Miaoli County|Miaoli]] Incident", (苗栗事件) where more than 1,000 Taiwanese were executed by the Japanese police.<ref>Katz, Paul R. Rubinstein, Murray A. [2003] (2003). ''Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities''. Palgrave Macmillan Publishing. {{ISBN|0-312-23969-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-312-23969-5}}. pg 56.</ref> Luo's sacrifice is commemorated in Miaoli.<ref name="Dellorto" /> ==Change of government== [[File:Seal for the provisional government president of Republic of China 20050807.jpg|thumb|right|Seal of the President of Provisional Government of Republic of China]] ===North: Qing court last transformation attempt=== On 1 November 1911, the Qing government appointed Yuan Shikai as the prime minister of the imperial cabinet, replacing [[Yikuang|Prince Qing]].<ref>Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus and Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington Press. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg 183.</ref> On 3 November, after a proposition by [[Cen Chunxuan]] from the Constitutional Monarchy Movement (立憲運動), in 1903, the Qing court passed the Nineteen Articles (憲法重大信條十九條), which turned the Qing from an [[autocratic]] system with the emperor having unlimited power to a [[constitutional monarchy]].<ref>Tung, William L. [1968] (1968). ''The political institutions of modern China''. Springer Publishing. {{ISBN|90-247-0552-5}}, {{ISBN|978-90-247-0552-8}}. pg 18.</ref><ref name="Rhoads228">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg 228.</ref> On 9 November, [[Huang Xing]] even cabled Yuan Shikai and invited him to join the Republic.<ref name="pompl">Pomerantz-Zhang, Linda. [1992] (1992). ''Wu Tingfang (1842–1922): reform and modernization in modern Chinese history''. Hong Kong University Press. {{ISBN|962-209-287-X}}, 9789622092877. pg 207- 209.</ref> The court changes were too late, and the emperor was about to have to step down. ===South: Government in Nanking=== {{Main|Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)}} On 28 November 1911, Wuchang and [[Hanyang District|Hanyang]] had fallen back to the Qing army. So for safety, the revolutionaries convened their first conference at the British concession in [[Hankou]] on 30 November.<ref name="ksliew">K. S. Liew. [1971] (1971). ''Struggle for democracy: Sung Chiao-jen and the 1911 Chinese revolution''. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-01760-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-520-01760-3}}. pg 131–136.</ref> By 2 December, the revolutionary forces were able to [[#Nanking Uprising|capture Nanking in the uprising]]; and the revolutionaries decided to make it the site of the new provisional government.<ref>Wu Yuzhang. [2001] (2001). ''Recollections of the Revolution of 1911: A Great Democratic Revolution of China''. The Minerva Group Publishing. {{ISBN|0-89875-531-X}}, 9780898755312. pg 132.</ref> At the time, Beijing was still the Qing capital. ===North–South Conference=== [[File:Nanbeihetan 1911.png|thumb|right|[[Tang Shaoyi]], left. Edward Selby Little, middle. [[Wu Tingfang]], right.]] On 18 December, the North–South Conference (南北議和) was held in Shanghai to discuss the north and south issues.<ref name="liwanhon">李雲漢. [1996] (1996). 中國近代史. 三民書局 publishing. {{ISBN|957-14-0669-4}}, {{ISBN|978-957-14-0669-5}}.</ref> Yuan Shikai selected [[Tang Shaoyi]] as his representative.<ref name="liwanhon" /> Tang left Beijing for Wuhan to negotiate with the revolutionaries.<ref name="liwanhon" /> The revolutionaries chose [[Wu Tingfang]].<ref name="liwanhon" /> With the intervention of six foreign powers, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, [[Russian Empire|Russia]], Japan, and France, Tang Shaoyi and Wu Tingfang began to negotiate a settlement at the British [[Concession (territory)|concession]].<ref>中央硏究院近代史硏究所. [1971] (1971). 中央硏究院近代史硏究所集刊, Volume 2. Digitized on 2 August 2007 from the University of California.</ref> Foreign businessman Edward Selby Little (李德立) acted as the negotiator and facilitated the peace agreement.<ref>存萃學社. 周康燮. [1971] (1971). 辛亥革命研究論集: 1895–1929, Volume 1. 崇文書店 publishing. Digitized on 16 August 2007 by University of Michigan.</ref> They agreed that Yuan Shikai would force the Qing emperor to abdicate in exchange for the southern provinces' support of Yuan as the president of the Republic. After considering the possibility that the new republic might be defeated in a civil war or by foreign invasion, Sun Yat-sen agreed to Yuan's proposal to unify China under Yuan Shikai's Beijing government. Further decisions were made to let the emperor rule over his little court in the [[New Summer Palace]]. He would be treated as a ruler of a separate country and have expenses of several million [[taels]] in silver.<ref>Feng, Youlan Feng. Mair, Denis C. [2000] (2000). The hall of three pines: an account of my life. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-2220-X}}, 9780824822200. pg 45.</ref> ==Establishment of the Republic== [[File:1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg|thumb|right|Sun Yat-sen in 1912 at one of the historic crossroads with the [[Five Races Under One Union]] flag and the Iron Blood 18-star flag]] ===Republic of China declared and national flag issue=== [[1911 Republic of China provisional presidential election|On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected]] as the first [[List of leaders of the Republic of China|provisional president]].<ref>Lane, Roger deWardt. [2008] (2008). ''Encyclopedia Small Silver Coins''. {{ISBN|0-615-24479-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-615-24479-2}}.</ref> 1 January 1912 was set as the [[Epoch (reference date)|first day]] of the First Year of the ROC.<ref name="Well">Welland, Sasah Su-ling. [2007] (2007). ''A Thousand miles of dreams: The journeys of two Chinese sisters''. Rowman Littlefield Publishing. {{ISBN|0-7425-5314-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7425-5314-9}}. pg 87.</ref> On 3 January, the representatives recommended Li Yuanhong as the provisional vice-president.<ref>Yu Weichao Yu. [1997] (1997). ''A Journey into China's Antiquity: Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty''. Volume 4. Morning Glory Publishers. {{ISBN|7-5054-0514-4}}, {{ISBN|978-7-5054-0514-1}}.</ref> During and after the Xinhai Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with [[Taijitu]].<ref name="fitzj">Fitzgerald, John. [1998] (1998). ''Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-3337-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-3337-3}}. pg 180.</ref> Others in competition included [[Lu Haodong]]'s [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag. [[Huang Xing]] favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of [[Five Races Under One Union]].<ref name="fitzj" /> The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.<ref name="newlight10-92">劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. [2002] (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. {{ISBN|962-07-5316-X}}. pg 92–93</ref> The red represented [[Han Chinese|Han]], the yellow represented [[Manchu people|Manchus]], the blue for [[Mongols]], the white for [[Islam in China|Muslim]]s, and the black for [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]].<ref name="fitzj" /><ref name="newlight10-92" /> Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated [[racial integration]] to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.<ref>Hsiao-ting Lin. [2010] (2010). ''Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west''. Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-415-58264-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-58264-3}}. pg 7.</ref> ===Donghuamen incident=== On 16 January, while returning to his residence, Yuan Shikai was ambushed in a bomb attack organized by the Tongmenghui in Donghuamen (東華門), Beijing.<ref name="gg">邵建. [2008] (2008). 胡適前傳. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. {{ISBN|986-221-008-7}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-008-6}}. pg 236.</ref> A total of eighteen revolutionaries were involved. About ten of the guards died, but Yuan himself was not seriously injured.<ref name="gg" /> He sent a message to the revolutionaries the next day pledging his loyalty and asking them not to organize any more assassination attempts against him. [[File:Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Imperial edict for abdication]] ===Abdication of the emperor=== {{Main|Puyi#Abdication}} [[Zhang Jian (politician)|Zhang Jian]] drafted an abdication proposal that was approved by the Provisional Senate. On 20 January, [[Wu Tingfang]] of the Nanking Provisional Government officially delivered the imperial edict of abdication to Yuan Shikai for the [[abdication]] of Puyi.<ref name="Rhoads228" /> On 22 January, Sun Yat-sen announced that he would resign the presidency in favor of Yuan Shikai if the latter supported the emperor's abdication.<ref>Boorman, Howard L. Howard, Richard C. Cheng, Joseph K. H. [1970] (1970). ''Biographical dictionary of Republican China'', V. 3. Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|0-231-08957-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-231-08957-9}}.</ref> Yuan then pressured [[Empress Dowager Longyu]] with the threat that the lives of the imperial family would not be spared if abdication did not come before the revolutionaries reached Beijing, but if they agreed to abdicate, the provisional government would honor the terms proposed by the imperial family. On 3 February, Empress Dowager Longyu gave Yuan full permission to negotiate the abdication terms of the Qing emperor. Yuan then drew up his own version and forwarded it to the revolutionaries on 3 February.<ref name="Rhoads228" /> His version consisted of three sections instead of two.<ref name="Rhoads228" /> On 12 February 1912, after being pressured by Yuan and other ministers, Puyi (age six) and Empress Dowager Longyu accepted Yuan's terms of abdication.<ref name="Well" /> ===Debate over the capital=== {{see also|History of Beijing}} As a condition for ceding leadership to Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen insisted that the provisional government remain in Nanjing. On 14 February, the Provisional Senate initially voted 20–5 in favor of making Beijing the capital over Nanjing, with two votes going for Wuhan and one for Tianjin.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.1">(Chinese) [http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189.htm 胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" ''民国档案'' p.1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606083901/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189.htm |date=6 June 2012 }} 2010-12-08</ref> The Senate majority wanted to secure the peace agreement by taking power in Beijing.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.1"/> Zhang Jian and others reasoned that having the capital in Beijing would check against Manchu restoration and [[Outer Mongolia (1911–19)|Mongol secession]]. But Sun and [[Huang Xing]] argued in favor of Nanjing to balance against Yuan's power base in the north.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.1"/> [[Li Yuanhong]] presented Wuhan as a compromise.<ref>(Chinese) [http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_2.htm 胡绳武 "民国元年定都之" ''民国档案'' p. 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032733/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_2.htm |date=15 September 2012 }} 2010-12-08</ref> The next day, the Provisional Senate voted again, this time, 19–6 in favor of Nanjing with two votes for Wuhan.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.1"/> Sun sent a delegation led by Cai Yuanpei and Wang Jingwei to persuade Yuan to move to Nanjing.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.3">(Chinese) [http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm 胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" ''民国档案'' p. 3] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032749/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm |date=15 September 2012 }} 2010-12-08</ref> Yuan welcomed the delegation and agreed to accompany the delegates back to the south.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.4">(Chinese) [http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_4.htm 胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" ''民国档案'' p. 4] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032803/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_4.htm |date=15 September 2012 }} 2010-12-08</ref> Then on the evening of 29 February, [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)#Northern transition#Dong'anmen Gate incident|riots and fires]] broke out all over the city.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.4"/> They were allegedly started by disobedient troops of [[Cao Kun]], a loyal officer of Yuan.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.4"/> The disorder gave Yuan the pretext to stay in the north to guard against unrest. On 10 March, Yuan was inaugurated in Beijing as the provisional president of the Republic of China.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.2">(Chinese) [http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm 胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" ''民国档案'' p. 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032749/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm |date=15 September 2012 }} 2010-12-08</ref> On 5 April, the Provisional Senate in Nanjing voted to make Beijing the capital of the Republic and convened in Beijing at the end of the month. ==Republican government in Beijing== {{main|Beiyang Government}} [[File:Yuan Shikai sworn in as Provisional President - 10 March 1912.jpg|thumb|right|Yuan Shikai swearing in as the Provisional President in Beijing]] On 10 March 1912, Yuan Shikai was sworn as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China in Beijing.<ref>Fu, Zhengyuan. [1993] (1993). ''Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics: Zhengyuan Fu''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-44228-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-44228-2}}. pg 154.</ref> The government based in Beijing, called the Beiyang Government, was not internationally recognized as the legitimate government of the Republic of China until 1928, so the period from 1912 until 1928 was known simply as the "Beiyang Period". The [[1912 Republic of China National Assembly elections|first National Assembly election]] took place according to the [[Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China|Provisional Constitution]]. While in Beijing, the Kuomintang was formed on 25 August 1912.<ref>Hsueh, Chun-tu. Xue, Jundu. [1961] (1961). ''Huang Hsing and the Chinese revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-0031-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-0031-3}}.</ref> The KMT held the majority of seats after the election. [[Song Jiaoren]] was elected as premier. However, Song was assassinated in Shanghai on 20 March 1913, under the secret order of Yuan Shikai.<ref>Fu, Zhengyuan. [1993] (1993). ''Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-44228-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-44228-2}}. pp 153–154.</ref> ==Proposed Han monarchs and retention of aristocratic noble titles== Some advocated that a Han be installed as Emperor, either the descendant of Confucius, who was the [[Duke Yansheng]],<ref name="Woodhouse2004">{{cite book|author=Eiko Woodhouse|title=The Chinese Hsinhai Revolution: G. E. Morrison and Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1897–1920|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4TfPJpJRV_0C&pg=PA113 |date=2 August 2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-35242-5|pages=113–}}</ref><ref name="Spence1982">{{cite book|author=Jonathan D. Spence|title=The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and Their Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DwgvjqO5ivUC&pg=PP84 |date=28 October 1982|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-101-17372-5|pages=84–}}</ref><ref name="HuLiu1983">{{cite book|author1=Shêng Hu|author2=Danian Liu|title=The 1911 Revolution: A Retrospective After 70 Years|url=https://books.google.com/?id=MmwKAQAAIAAJ&q=If+we+want+to+bring+order+and+peace+to+China,+we+should+follow+the+model+of+the+British+titular+monarchy;+nothing+seemed+more+reasonable+and+logical+than+to+make+the+present+monarch+the+titular+head+of+a+constitutional+monarchy.+This+was+the+reason+...+The+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke,+is+unparalleled+among+the+descendants+of+the+best+families+in+the+nation.+If+we+have+no+other+alternative,+let+us+promote+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke+two+ranks+and+make+him+emperor.&dq=If+we+want+to+bring+order+and+peace+to+China,+we+should+follow+the+model+of+the+British+titular+monarchy;+nothing+seemed+more+reasonable+and+logical+than+to+make+the+present+monarch+the+titular+head+of+a+constitutional+monarchy.+This+was+the+reason+...+The+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke,+is+unparalleled+among+the+descendants+of+the+best+families+in+the+nation.+If+we+have+no+other+alternative,+let+us+promote+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke+two+ranks+and+make+him+emperor.|year=1983|publisher=New World Press|page=55}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The National Review, China|url=https://books.google.com/?id=vyM-AQAAMAAJ&q=The+dificulty+lay+in+the+choice+of+a+suitable+monarch+upon+whom+to+exercise+the+curbing+influences+of+constitutional+limitation.+A+very+strong+element+proposed+that+Duke+Kung,+the+seventy-fifth+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+should+be+made+King+of+China;+and+the&dq=The+dificulty+lay+in+the+choice+of+a+suitable+monarch+upon+whom+to+exercise+the+curbing+influences+of+constitutional+limitation.+A+very+strong+element+proposed+that+Duke+Kung,+the+seventy-fifth+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+should+be+made+King+of+China;+and+the|year=1913|page=200}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Monumenta Serica|url=https://books.google.com/?id=xzRDAQAAIAAJ&q=That+being+the+case,+the+abdicated+Ch'ing+emperor+or+even+%22+the+Holy+Duke+%22+(Yen-sheng+kung+ft&dq=That+being+the+case,+the+abdicated+Ch'ing+emperor+or+even+%22+the+Holy+Duke+%22+(Yen-sheng+kung+ft|year=1967|publisher=H. Vetch|page=67}}</ref> or the Ming dynasty imperial family descendant, the [[Marquis of Extended Grace]].<ref name="Kent1912">{{cite book|author=Percy Horace Braund Kent|title=The Passing of the Manchus|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941|year=1912|publisher=E. Arnold|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941/page/n438 382]–}}</ref><ref name="Aldrich2008">{{cite book|author=M.A. Aldrich|title=The Search for a Vanishing Beijing: A Guide to China's Capital Through the Ages|url=https://books.google.com/?id=TMMvxX67FpIC&pg=PA176&dq=Marquis+of+Extended+Grace#v=onepage&q=Marquis%20of%20Extended%20Grace&f=false|date=1 March 2008|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=978-962-209-777-3|pages=176–}}</ref> The Duke Yansheng was proposed for replacing the Qing dynasty as Emperor by [[Liang Qichao]].<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |date=2014 |title=Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECJQBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |edition=revised |page=74 |isbn=978-1443867726 |author-link= }}</ref> The Han hereditary aristocratic nobility like the Duke Yansheng, Marquis of Extended Grace, and the title of the Wujing Boshi (changed to "Dacheng Zhisheng Xianshi Nanzong Fengsi Guan" 大成至聖先師南宗奉祀官) and the titles held by the descendants of [[Mencius]], [[Zengzi]], and [[Yan Hui]] were retained by the new Republic of China and the title holders continued to receive their pensions. ==Legacy== ===Social influence=== After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, but particularly in Beijing where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence as imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled as Manchu imperial power crumbled.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution |title=Sun Yatsen and the Xinhai Revolution |publisher=Sinica |date=13 October 2011 |accessdate=14 March 2017}}</ref> Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like ''A Short History of [[Nucai|Slaves]]'' (奴才小史) and ''The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel'' (貪官污吏傳) by Laoli (老吏).<ref name="Rhoads266" /><ref name="ckd">{{cite web|author=Ulrich Theobald |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html |title=Chinese Literature&nbsp;– Man-Qing yeshi 滿淸野史 |publisher=www.chinaknowledge.de |date=28 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> During the abdication of the last emperor, Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan Shikai and Sun Yat-sen both tried to adopt the concept of "Manchu and Han as one family" (滿漢一家).<ref name="Rhoads266">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. p. 266.</ref> People started exploring and debating with themselves on the root cause of their national weakness. This new search of identity was the [[New Culture Movement]].<ref>Tanner, Harold M. [2010] (2010). "China: From the Great Qing Empire through the People's Republic of China 1644–2009" Volume 2 of ''China: A History''. Hackett Publishing. {{ISBN|1-60384-204-7}}, {{ISBN|978-1-60384-204-4}}. pg 123.</ref> Manchu culture and [[Manchu language|language]], on the contrary, has become virtually extinct by 2007.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lague |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/world/asia/16iht-manchu.4935046.html |title=China's Manchu speakers struggle to save language |work=The New York Times |date=16 March 2007 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Unlike revolutions in the West, the Xinhai Revolution did not restructure society. The participants of the Xinhai Revolution were mostly military personnel, old-type bureaucrats, and local gentries. These people still held regional power after the Xinhai Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the [[standard of living]]. Writer [[Lu Xun]] commented in 1921 during the publishing of ''[[The True Story of Ah Q]]'', ten years after the Xinhai Revolution, that basically nothing changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".<ref>Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 143.</ref> The economic problems were not addressed until the governance of [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] in Taiwan and [[Deng Xiaoping]] on the mainland.<ref name="scmpjul4" /> The Xinhai Revolution mainly got rid of [[feudalism]] ([[fengjian]]) from [[Late Imperial China]]. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]].<ref name="Yanjia">Yan, Jiaqi Yan. Hong, David S. K. Mair, Denis C. [1992] (1992). Toward a democratic China: the intellectual autobiography of Yan Jiaqi. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-1501-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-1501-1}}. pg 189, 251.</ref> Both were unsuccessful, but the "feudal remnants" returned to China with the [[Cultural Revolution]] in a concept called [[guanxi]], where people relied not on feudal relationships, but personal relationships, for survival.<ref name="yangm">[[Mayfair Yang|Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui]]. [1994] (1994). ''Gifts, favors, and banquets: the art of social relationships in China''. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8014-9592-X}}, 9780801495922. Pg 146–147.</ref> While guanxi is helpful in Taiwan, on the mainland, guanxi is necessary to get anything done.<ref name="Luoy">Luo, Yadong. [2007] (2007). ''Guanxi and business''. Volume 5 of Asia-Pacific business series. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-270-046-3}}, {{ISBN|978-981-270-046-9}}. pg 26.</ref> Due to the effects of anti-Manchu sentiment after the revolution, the Manchus of the Metropolitan Banners were driven into deep poverty, with Manchu men too impoverished to marry so Han men married Manchu women, Manchus stopped dressing in Manchu clothing and stopped practicing Manchu traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhoads |first1=Edward J. M. |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295980400 |page=270 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA270}}</ref> ===Historical significance=== The Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing government and two thousand years of monarchy.<ref name="xb1" /> Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The Xinhai Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. Though in 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the [[comrade]]s still need to strive for the future." ({{zh|labels=no|c=革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力}}).<ref>陸韻葭. [2006] (2006). 上海玩全指南. Travelcom press. {{ISBN|986-7143-13-2}}, {{ISBN|978-986-7143-13-6}}. pg 49.</ref> Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties–the ROC and PRC–see the Xinhai Revolution quite differently.<ref name="scmpr">South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Replacing chairman Mao with Sun Yat-sen.</ref> Both sides recognize Sun Yat-sen as the [[Father of the Nation]], but in Taiwan, they mean "Father of the Republic of China".<ref name="scmpr" /> On the mainland, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a pre-condition for the Communist state founded in 1949.<ref name="scmpr" /> The PRC views Sun's work as the first step towards the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly independent state that expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power.<ref name="scmpr" /> The father of [[People's Republic of China|New China]] is seen as [[Mao Zedong]].<ref name="scmpr" /> In 1954, [[Liu Shaoqi]] was quoted as saying that the "Xinhai Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".<ref>{{cite web|author=Takungpao.com |url=http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 |title=1911 |publisher=Takungpao.com |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=1059 |url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html |title=劉少奇談辛亥革命（摘要）-中國共產黨新聞 |publisher=Dangshi.people.com.cn |date=19 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> [[Zhou Enlai]] pointed out that the "Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 2000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml |title=王志昆講重慶辛亥革命：為什麼兵不血刃，一次成功_重慶_重慶站_鳳凰網 |publisher=Big5.ifeng.com |date=30 December 2008 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> ===Modern evaluation=== [[File:Taiw 100ann 10yuan.jpg|thumb|300px|Commemorative coin, minted in Taiwan in 2011]] A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but [[Zhang Shizhao]] was quoted as arguing that "When talking about the Xinhai Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."<ref>{{cite book |last = 章 |first = 士釗 |year = 2000 |orig-year = 1962 |chapter = 孫、黃遺劄密詮 |title = 章士釗全集 |volume = 8 |location = 上海 |publisher = 文彙出版社 |page = 341 |isbn = 978-7805315430 }}</ref> The success of the democracy gained from the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, for sixty years, the KMT controlled all five branches of the government; none were independent.<ref name="scmpjul4">South China morning post. Sun Yat-sen and the centenary of the Xinhai revolution. 4 July 2010.</ref> [[Yan Jiaqi]], founder of the [[Federation for a Democratic China]], has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there now democratizing the region.<ref name="Yanjia" /> Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised on the mainland. For example, former Chinese premier [[Wen Jiabao]] once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights; but he led a [[2011 crackdown on dissidents in the People's Republic of China|2011 crackdown]] against the peaceful [[2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests|Chinese jasmine protests]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Pomfret |first=James |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627 |title=China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms |publisher=Reuters |date= 27 June 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> [[Liu Xiaobo]], a pro-democracy activist who received the global [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize]], died in prison.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Yomiuri Shimbun |url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm |title=100 years on, China far from democracy: Editorial: DAILY YOMIURI ONLINE (The Daily Yomiuri) |publisher=Yomiuri.co.jp |date=14 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> Others, such as Qin Yongmin (秦永敏) of the [[Democracy Party of China]], who was only released from prison after twelve years, do not praise the Xinhai Revolution.<ref name="geo">{{cite web |url = http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |publisher=GEO.tv |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref name="hrichina">{{cite web |url = http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879 |title=Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence &#124; Human Rights in China 中国人权 |publisher=Hrichina.org |date=29 November 2010 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Qin Yongmin said the revolution only replaced one dictator with another, that [[Mao Zedong]] was not an emperor, but he is worse than the emperor.<ref name="geo" /><ref name="hrichina" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on/ |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |work= The West Australian |publisher=Au.news.yahoo.com |date=9 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|China}} * [[1911 (film)|''1911'' (film)]] * [[Military of the Republic of China]] * [[National Revolutionary Army]] * [[Timeline of Late Anti-Qing Rebellions]] == Notes == {{NoteFoot}} {{refbegin}} {{Cnote|a|Many of the Qing soldiers with Han background turned to support the revolution during the uprisings, so the actual casualties are hard to trace.}} {{Cnote|b|Clipping from Min Bao (People's Papers). Originally the publishing of Hua Xin Hui and named ''China of the Twentieth Century'', it was renamed after the establishment of Tongmenhui.}} {{refend}} == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Further reading == ===Primary sources=== {{refbegin}} * Wu Xinghan ({{zh|吳醒漢}}), ''Three Day Journal of Wuchang Uprising'' ({{zh|武昌起義三日記}}). {{refend}} ===Contemporary accounts=== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Dingle|first=Edwin J.|title=China's Revolution: 1911–1912. A Historical and Political Record of the Civil War|year=1912|publisher=Commercial Press|location=Shanghai, China}} * {{cite book|last=Kent|first=P. H. B.|title=The Passing of the Manchus|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941|year=1912|publisher=E. Arnold|location=London}} {{refend}} === Scholarly secondary sources === ; English {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Esherick|first=Joseph W.|title=Reform and revolution in China: the 1911 revolution in Hunan and Hubei|year=1976|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-03084-8}} * {{cite book |last=Fung|first=Edmund S. K.|title=The military dimension of the Chinese revolution: The New Army and its role in the revolution of 1911|year=1980|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|location=Vancouver|isbn=978-0-7748-0129-4}} * {{cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Melvyn C.|title=A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist state|publisher=University of California Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-520-07590-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernt00melv}} * {{cite book|last=Hsieh|first=Winston|title=Chinese historiography on the Revolution of 1911: a critical survey and a selected bibliography|year=1975|publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0-8179-3341-8}} * {{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Lawrence M.|title=Homer Lea: American Soldier of Fortune|year=2010|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|location=Lexington.|isbn=978-0-8131-2616-6}} * {{cite book |last = Kit-ching |first = Chan Lau |title= Anglo-Chinese Diplomacy 1906-1920: In the Careers of Sir John Jordan and Yüan Shih-kai |language= de |url= https://books.google.de/books?id=NpBlT5nnKecC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |date= 1978 |publisher= [[Hong Kong University Press]] |location= [[Hong Kong]] |isbn= 962-209-010-9 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Ma|first=L. Eve Armentrout|title=Revolutionaries, monarchists, and Chinatowns: Chinese politics in the Americas and the 1911 revolution|year=1990|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-8248-1239-3}} * {{cite book|last=Rankin|first=Mary Backus|title=Elite activism and political transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911|year=1986|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0-8047-1321-4|url=https://archive.org/details/eliteactivismpol0000rank}} *Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2018). ''Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal'' (U of British Columbia Press). {{ISBN|9780774837781}}. * {{cite book|last=Shinkichi|first=/ edited Eto|title=China's republican revolution|year=1994|publisher=University of Tokyo Press|location=[Tokyo]|isbn=978-4-13-027030-4|author2=Schiffrin, Harold Z. }} * {{cite book|last=Wright|first=Mary Clabaugh|authorlink=Mary C. Wright|title=China in revolution: the first phase 1900–1913|year=1978|publisher=Yale UP|location=New Haven|isbn=978-0-300-01460-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/chinainrevolutio0000unse}} * {{cite book|last=Young|first=Ernest P.|title=The Presidency of Yuan Shih-K'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China|year=1977|publisher=University of Michigan Press, Michigan Studies on China|location=Ann Arbor}} * Yu, George T. "The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future," ''Asian Survey'', 31#10 (1991), pp.&nbsp;895–904, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645062 online] historiography {{refend}} ; Chinese {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Tang (唐)|first=Degang (德剛)|title=The Late 50 years of Qing: Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen and Xinhai Revolution| publisher=Taipei: Yuanliu (遠流)|year=1998|isbn=978-957-32-3513-2}} * {{cite book|last=Tang (唐)|first=Degang (德剛)|trans-title=The Rule of Yuan Shikai |script-title=zh:袁氏當國 |publisher=Taipei: Yuanliu (遠流)|year=2002|isbn=978-957-32-4680-0}} * {{cite book|last=Zhang (張)|first=Yufa (玉法)|trans-title=The History of the Republic of China |script-title=zh:中華民國史稿 |publisher=Taipei: Lianjin (聯經)|year=1998|isbn=978-957-08-1826-0}} * {{cite book|last=Lin (林)|first=Yusheng (毓生)|trans-title=The Anti-tradition Trends of May Forth Era and the Future of Libertarianism in China included in "Personage and their thoughts" |script-title=zh:<五四時代的激烈反傳統思想與中國自由主義的前途> 收入"思想與人物" |publisher=Taipei: Lianjin (聯經)|year=1983|isbn=978-957-08-0384-6}} * {{cite book |last1 = Zhou (周) |first1 = Weimin (伟民) |last2=Tang (唐) |first2 = Linlin (玲玲) |trans-title=The History of Cultural Interactions of China and Malaysia |script-title=zh:中国和马来西亚文化交流史 |publisher=[[Haikou]]: Hainan (海南) |year=2002 |isbn=978-7-5443-0682-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Li (李)|first=Zehou (澤厚) |author2=Liu (劉), Zhaifu (再復) |trans-title=A Farewell to the Revolutions: Records of Discussions in 20th century China |script-title=zh:告別革命－二十世紀中國對談錄 |publisher=Taipei: Maitian (麥田) |year=1999 |isbn=978-957-708-735-5 }} {{refend}} == External links == * {{Commons category-inline|Xinhai Revolution}} {{-}} {{China topics}} {{Qing dynasty topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Xinhai Revolution| ]] [[Category:1911 in China]] [[Category:1912 in China]] [[Category:20th-century revolutions]] [[Category:History of the Republic of China]] [[Category:Republic of China (1912–1949)]] [[Category:Revolutions in China]] [[Category:Eight Banners]]'
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'{{redirect|Xinhai}} {{short description|Revolution in China that overthrew the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China}} {{use dmy dates|date=December 2017}} {{Infobox military conflict |conflict = Chinese Revolution of 1911<br />(Xinhai Revolution) |partof = [[Anti-Qing sentiment|Anti-Qing Movements]] |image = 1911 Revolution in Shanghai.jpg |image_size = 300px |caption = '''Double Ten Revolution''' in Shanghai-'''[[Nanjing Road]]''' ('''Nanking Road''') after the '''[[#Shanghai Armed Uprising|Shanghai Uprising]]''', hung with the '''[[Five Races Under One Union]]''' flags then used by the revolutionaries in Shanghai and Northern China. |date = [[Wuchang Uprising|{{start date|df=y|1911|10|10}}]]&nbsp;– {{end date|df=y|1912|2|12}}<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=10|day1=10|year1=1911|month2=02|day2=12|year2=1912}}) |place = [[Qing dynasty|China]] |casus = [[Wuchang uprising]] |result = '''[[Tongmenghui|Chinese Revolutionary Alliance]]''' victory * Abdication of '''[[Puyi]]''' * Fall of the '''[[Qing dynasty]]''' * End of '''[[History of China#Imperial China|Imperial China]]''' * Establishment of the '''[[Republic of China (1912-1949)|Republic of China]]''' * Destabilization of '''China''' |combatant1 = {{flag|Qing dynasty}} * [[Royalist Party]]{{sfnp|Kit-ching|1978|pp=49–52}} |combatant2 = {{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Tongmenghui]]<br />{{flagicon|China|1912}} [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|Provisional Government of the Republic of China]]<br />{{flagicon image|Chinese-army Wuhan flag (1911-1928) 18 dots.svg}} [[Hubei]] [[Wuchang Uprising|Military Government]]<br />[[Gelaohui]]<br />[[Tiandihui]]<br />Various other revolutionary groups and forces<br />Regional officials and warlords |commander1 = '''{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Empress Dowager Longyu|Dowager Longyu]]'''<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Zaifeng, Prince Chun|Zaifeng]], [[Prince Chun (醇)|Prince Chun]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Yuan Shikai]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Feng Guozhang]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing Dynasty}} [[Ma Anliang]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Duan Qirui]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Zhang Zuolin]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Yang Zengxin]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing Dynasty}} [[Zhao Erfeng]]<br />{{Flagdeco|Qing dynasty}} [[Ma Qi]]<br />Various other [[nobility|nobles]] of the [[Qing dynasty]] |commander2 = '''{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Sun Yat-sen]]'''<br>{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Chiang Kai-shek]]<br />{{flagicon|China|1912}} [[Li Yuanhong]]<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Jiang (rank)|General]] [[Huang Xing]]<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Song Jiaoren]]<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Chen Qimei]]<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Cai E|Cai Genyin]]<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Hu Hanmin]] |strength1 = 200,000 |strength2 = 100,000 |casualties1 = ~170,000 |casualties2 = ~50,000 }} {{Infobox Chinese |pic = Xinhai Revolution (Chinese characters).svg |piccap = "Xinhai Revolution" in Chinese characters |picupright = 0.8 |c = 辛亥革命 |p = Xīnhài gémìng |w = Hsin<sup>1</sup>-hai<sup>4</sup> kê<sup>2</sup>-ming<sup>4</sup> |mi = {{IPAc-cmn|x|in|1|.|h|ai|4|-|g|e|2|.|m|ing|4}} |j = San1-hoi6 gaak3-ming6 |y = Sān-hoih gaak-mihng |ci = {{IPAc-yue|s|an|1|.|h|oi|6|-|g|aak|3|m|ing|6}} |poj = Sen-hāi kek-bēng |l = "Xinhai ([[sexagenary cycle|stem-branch]]) revolution" |image2 =Yuan Shikai sworn in as Provisional President - 10 March 1912.jpg |caption2 = [[Yuan Shikai]] sworn in as Provisional President of the Republic of China, in Beijing }} The '''1911 Revolution''' ({{zh |c = {{linktext|辛亥革命}} |p = Xīnhài Gémìng }}), also known as the '''Chinese Revolution''' or the '''Xinhai Revolution''', was a revolution that overthrew China's last [[Dynasties in Chinese history#Dynasties|imperial dynasty]] (the [[Qing dynasty]]) and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (ROC). The revolution was named Xinhai (Hsin-hai) because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai ({{zh|labels=no |c=辛亥 }}) stem-branch in the [[sexagenary cycle]] of the [[Chinese calendar]].<ref>Li Xing. [2010] (2010). The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|0-7546-7913-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-7913-4}}. p. 91.</ref> The revolution consisted of many revolts and uprisings. The turning point was the [[Wuchang uprising]] on 10 October 1911, which was the result of the mishandling of the [[Railway Protection Movement]]. The revolution ended with the abdication of the six-year-old [[Emperor of China|Last Emperor]], [[Puyi]], on 12 February 1912, that marked the end of 2,000 years of [[History of China#Imperial China|imperial rule]] and the beginning of China's [[History of the Republic of China#Early republic (1912–16)|early republican era]].<ref name="xb1">Li, Xiaobing. [2007] (2007). ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army''. University Press of Kentucky. {{ISBN|0-8131-2438-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8131-2438-4}}. pp. 13, 26–27.</ref> {{Revolution sidebar}} The revolution arose mainly in response to the [[Qing Dynasty#Rebellion, unrest and external pressure|decline of the Qing state]], which had proven ineffective in its efforts to modernize China and confront foreign aggression. Many underground [[Anti-Qing sentiment|anti-Qing groups]], with the support of Chinese revolutionaries in exile, tried to overthrow the Qing. The brief civil war that ensued was ended through a political compromise between [[Yuan Shikai]], the late Qing military strongman, and [[Sun Yat-sen]], the leader of the [[Tongmenghui|Tongmenghui (United League)]]. After the Qing court transferred power to the newly founded republic, a [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|provisional coalition government]] created along with the [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]]. However, political power of the [[Beiyang Government|new national government]] in Beijing was soon thereafter monopolized by Yuan and led to decades of political division and [[Warlord Era|warlordism]], including several attempts at imperial restoration. The [[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]] in [[Taiwan]] and the [[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] on the [[Mainland China|mainland]] both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the 1911 Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including [[Chinese nationalism|nationalism]], [[republicanism]], modernization of China and [[Zhonghua minzu|national unity]]. 10 October is commemorated in [[Taiwan]] as [[Double Ten Day]], the National Day of the ROC. In mainland China, Hong Kong, and [[Macau]], the day is celebrated as the Anniversary of the 1911 Revolution. == Background == {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | header_background = | footer = [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] (1835–1908), who personified the conservative Qing court and controlled court politics for 47 years, halted the attempt of her nephew, the [[Guangxu Emperor]] (1871–1908), the penultimate Qing emperor, to institute [[Hundred Days' Reform|reforms in 1898]]. | footer_align = left/right/center | footer_background = | image1 = Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg | width1 = 140 | caption1 = | image2 = Postcard of Emperor Guangxu.jpg | width2 = 142 | caption2 = | image3 = | width3 = | caption3 = }}{{See also|Great Qing Famine}}{{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | header_background = | footer = After the failure of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] in 1898, Guangxu's advisors [[Kang Youwei]] (left, 1858–1927) and [[Liang Qichao]] (1873–1929) fled into exile, while [[Tan Sitong]] (right, 1865–1898) was executed. In Canada, Kang and Liang formed the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] to promote a [[constitutional monarchy]] for China. In 1900, they supported an unsuccessful uprising in central China to rescue Guangxu. After the 1911 Revolution, Liang became a [[Minister of Justice of the Republic of China]]. Kang remained a royalist and supported [[Puyi#Brief restoration (1917)|restoring]] the last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] in 1917. | footer_align = left/right/center | footer_background = | image1 = Kang Youwei circa 1920.jpg | width1 = 125 | caption1 = | image2 =MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg | width2 = 122 | caption2 = | image3 = Tansitong.jpg | width3 = 91 | caption3 = }} After suffering its first defeat to the West in the [[First Opium War]] in 1842, the Qing imperial court struggled to contain foreign intrusions into China. Efforts to adjust and reform the traditional methods of governance were constrained by a deeply conservative court culture that did not want to give away too much authority to reform. Following defeat in the [[Second Opium War]] in 1860, the Qing tried to modernize by adopting certain Western technologies through the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]] from 1861.<ref>Wang, Gabe T. [2006] (2006). ''China and the Taiwan Issue: Impending War at Taiwan Strait''. University Press of America. {{ISBN|0-7618-3434-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7618-3434-2}}. pg 91.</ref> In the wars against the [[Taiping Rebellion|Taiping (1851–64)]], [[Nian Rebellion|Nian (1851–68)]], [[Panthay Rebellion|Yunnan (1856–68)]] and [[Dungan revolt (1862–77)|the Northwest (1862–77)]], the traditional imperial troops proved themselves incompetent and the court came to rely on local armies.<ref name="Wangke106">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism''. Taylor & Francis publishing. {{ISBN|0-8153-0720-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0720-4}}. pg 106. pg 344.</ref> In 1895, China suffered another defeat during the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].<ref name="Bevir">Bevir, Mark. [2010] (2010). ''Encyclopedia of Political Theory''. Sage Publishing. {{ISBN|1-4129-5865-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-4129-5865-3}}. pg 168.</ref> This demonstrated that traditional Chinese feudal society also needed to be modernized if the technological and commercial advancements were to succeed. In 1898 the [[Guangxu Emperor]] was guided by reformers like [[Kang Youwei]] and [[Liang Qichao]] for a drastic reform in education, military and economy under the [[Hundred Days' Reform]].<ref name="Bevir" /> The reform was abruptly cancelled by a [[Wuxu Coup|conservative coup]] led by [[Empress Dowager Cixi]].<ref>[[Chang, Kang-i Sun]], [[Stephen Owen (academic)|Owen, Stephen]] (2010). ''The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 2''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-11677-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-11677-0}}. pg 441.</ref> The [[Guangxu Emperor]], who had always been a puppet dependent on Cixi, was put under house arrest in June 1898.<ref name="Wangke106" /> Reformers Kang and Liang would be exiled. While in Canada, in June 1899, they tried to form the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] in an attempt to restore the emperor.<ref name="Wangke106" /> Empress Dowager Cixi mainly controlled the [[Qing dynasty]] from this point on. The [[Boxer Rebellion]] prompted another foreign invasion of Beijing in 1900 and the imposition of [[unequal treaty]] terms, which carved away territories, created extraterritorial concessions and gave away trade privileges. Under internal and external pressure, the Qing court began to adopt some of the reforms. The Qing managed to maintain its monopoly on political power by suppressing, often with great brutality, all domestic rebellions. Dissidents could operate only in secret societies and underground organizations, in foreign concessions or in exile overseas. {{History of the Republic of China}} ==Organization for revolution== <!-- [[WP:NFCC]] violation: [[File:Leaders of Revive China Party.jpg|thumb|right|From left to right: [[Tse Tsan-tai]], [[Yeung Ku-wan]] (President), Sun Yat-sen, three of the earliest revolutionaries]] --> ===Earliest groups=== There were many revolutionaries and groups that wanted to overthrow the Qing government to re-establish Han-led government. The earliest revolutionary organizations were founded outside of China, such as [[Yeung Ku-wan]]'s [[Furen Literary Society]], created in Hong Kong in 1890. There were 15 members, including [[Tse Tsan-tai]], who did political satire such as "The Situation in the Far East", one of the first ever Chinese [[manhua]], and who later became one of the core founders of the ''[[South China Morning Post]]''.<ref>South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Hong Kong played a key role in the life of Sun Yat-sen.</ref> [[File:Dr. Sun in London.jpg|thumb|left|Dr. Sun Yat-sen in London]] [[Sun Yat-sen]]'s [[Revive China Society|Xingzhonghui (Revive China Society)]] was established in [[Honolulu]] in 1894 with the main purpose of raising funds for revolutions.<ref>Lum, Yansheng Ma. Lum, Raymond Mun Kong. [1999] (1999). ''Sun Yat-sen in Hawaii: Activities and Supporters''. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-2179-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-2179-1}}. pg 6–7</ref> The two organizations were merged in 1894.<ref>Curthoys, Ann. Lake, Marilyn. [2005] (2005). ''Connected Worlds: History in Transnational Perspective''. ANU Publishing. {{ISBN|1-920942-44-0}}, {{ISBN|978-1-920942-44-1}}. pg 101.</ref> ===Smaller groups=== The [[Huaxinghui|Huaxinghui (China Revival Society)]] was founded in 1904 with notables like [[Huang Xing]], [[Zhang Shizhao]], [[Chen Tianhua]] and [[Song Jiaoren]], along with 100 others. Their motto was "Take one province by force, and inspire the other provinces to rise up".<ref>Platt, Stephen R. [2007] (2007). ''Provincial Patriots: The Hunanese and Modern China''. Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0-674-02665-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-674-02665-0}}. pg 128.</ref> The [[Guangfuhui|Guangfuhui (Restoration Society)]] was also founded in 1904, in Shanghai, by [[Cai Yuanpei]]. Other notable members include [[Zhang Binglin]] and Tao Chengzhang.<ref>Goossaert, Vincent. Palmer, David A. [2011] (2011). ''The Religious Question in Modern China''. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-30416-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-226-30416-8}}.</ref> Despite professing the anti-Qing cause, the Guangfuhui was highly critical of Sun Yat-sen.<ref name="Wangke287">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism''. Taylor & Francis Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8153-0720-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0720-4}}. pg 287.</ref> One of the most famous female revolutionaries was [[Qiu Jin]], who fought for [[women's rights]] and was also from Guangfuhui.<ref name="Wangke287" /> There were also many other minor revolutionary organizations, such as Lizhi Xuehui (勵志學會) in [[Jiangsu]], Gongqianghui (公強會) in [[Sichuan]], Yiwenhui (益聞會) and Hanzudulihui (漢族獨立會) in [[Fujian]], Yizhishe (易知社) in [[Jiangxi]], Yuewanghui (岳王會) in [[Anhui]] and Qunzhihui (群智會/群智社) in Guangzhou.<ref>中国人民大学. 书报资料中心. [1982] (1982). 中国近代史, Issues 1–6. 中国人民大学书报资料社 publishing. University of California Press.</ref> There were also criminal organizations that were anti-Manchu, including the [[Green Gang]] and [[Hongmen]] Zhigongtang (致公堂).<ref>Chen, Lifu. Chang, Hsu-hsin. Myers, Ramon Hawley. [1994] (1994). ''The Storm Clouds Clear Over China: The Memoir of Chʻen Li-fu, 1900–1993''. Hoover Press. {{ISBN|0-8179-9272-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8179-9272-9}}.</ref> Sun Yat-sen himself came in contact with the Hongmen, also known as [[Tiandihui|Tiandihui (Heaven and Earth society)]].<ref>João de Pina-Cabral. [2002] (2002). ''Between China and Europe: Person, Culture and Emotion in Macao''. Berg Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8264-5749-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8264-5749-3}}. pg 209.</ref><ref>陳民, 中國社會科學院. 中華民國史研究室. [1981] (1981). 中國致公黨. 文史資料出版社. Digitized University of California 10 December 2007.</ref> [[Gelaohui|Gelaohui (Elder Brother society)]] was another group, with [[Zhu De]], [[Wu Yuzhang]], Liu Zhidan (劉志丹) and [[He Long]]. This is the revolutionary group that would eventually develop a strong link with the later [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]]. [[File:Sun Yat Sen together with the members of the Singapore Branch of Tongmen Hui.png|thumb|right|250px|Sun Yat-sen with members of the [[Tongmenghui]]]] ===Tongmenghui=== Sun Yat-sen successfully united the Revive China Society, Huaxinghui and Guangfuhui in the summer of 1905, thereby establishing the unified [[Tongmenghui|Tongmenghui (United League)]] in August 1905 in Tokyo.<ref name="chinahistvol1"/> While it started in Tokyo, it had loose organizations distributed across and outside the country. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of this unified group. Other revolutionaries who worked with the Tongmenghui include [[Wang Jingwei]] and [[Hu Hanmin]]. When the Tongmenhui was established, more than 90% of the Tongmenhui members were between 17–26 years of age.<ref>Etō, Shinkichi. Schiffrin, Harold Z. [2008] (2008). ''China's Republican Revolution''. University of Tokyo Press. Digitized 10 September 2008. {{ISBN|4-13-027030-3}}, {{ISBN|978-4-13-027030-4}}.</ref> Some of the work in the era includes manhua publications, such as the ''[[Journal of Current Pictorial]]''.<ref>Wong, Wendy Siuyi. [2002] (2001) ''Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua''. Princeton Architectural Press. New York. {{ISBN|1-56898-269-0}}</ref> ===Later groups=== In February 1906 Rizhihui (日知會) also had many revolutionaries, including Sun Wu (孫武), Zhang Nanxian (張難先), He Jiwei and Feng Mumin.<ref>为君丘, 張運宗. [2003] (2003). 走入近代中國. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. {{ISBN|957-11-3175-X}}, 9789571131757.</ref><ref>蔣緯國. [1981] (1981). 建立民國, Volume 2. 國民革命戰史: 第1部. 黎明文化事業公司. University of California. Digitized 14 February 2011.</ref> A nucleus of attendees of this conference evolved into the Tongmenhui's establishment in Hubei. In July 1907 several members of Tongmenhui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of the [[Yangtze River]]. Liu Quiyi (劉揆一), Jiao Dafeng (焦達峰), Zhang Boxiang (張伯祥) and Sun Wu (孫武) established Gongjinhui (Progressive Association) (共進會).<ref>饒懷民. [2006] (2006). 辛亥革命與清末民初社會/中國近代史事論叢. 中華書局 publishing. {{ISBN|7-101-05156-1}}, {{ISBN|978-7-101-05156-8}}.</ref><ref name="Wang390">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism''. Taylor & Francis Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8153-0720-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0720-4}}. pp. 390–391.</ref> In January 1911, the revolutionary group Zhengwu Xueshe (振武學社) was renamed as Wenxueshe (Literary society) (文學社).<ref name="mz">張豈之, 陳振江, 江沛. [2002] (2002). 晚淸民國史. Volume 5 of 中國歷史, 張 豈之. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. {{ISBN|957-11-2898-8}}, {{ISBN|978-957-11-2898-6}}. pg 178–186</ref> Jiang Yiwu (蔣翊武) was chosen as the leader.<ref>蔡登山. 繁華落盡──洋場才子與小報文人. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司. {{ISBN|986-221-826-6}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-826-6}}. pg 42.</ref> These two organizations would play a big role in the Wuchang Uprising. Many young revolutionaries adopted the [[Anarchism in China|radical programs of the anarchists]]. In Tokyo [[Liu Shipei]] proposed the overthrow of the Manchus and a return to Chinese classical values. In Paris Li Shizhen, [[Wu Zhihui]] and [[Zhang Renjie]] agreed with Sun on the necessity of revolution and joined the Tongmenghui, but argued that a political replacement of one government with another government would not be progress; revolution in family, gender and social values would remove the need for government and coercion. [[Zhang Ji (Republic of China)|Zhang Ji]] was among the anarchists who defended assassination and terrorism as means toward revolution, but others insisted that only education was justifiable. Important anarchists included Cai Yuanpei, Wang Jingwei and Zhang Renjie, who gave Sun major financial help. Many of these anarchists would later assume high positions in the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT).<ref>{{cite book |last = Scalapino|first = Robert A. and George T. Yu |year = 1961 |title = The Chinese Anarchist Movement |publisher = Center for Chinese Studies, Institute of International Studies, University of California| location = Berkeley|url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/robert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement#fn5 |isbn = |ref = none}} At The Anarchist Library ([http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/robert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement#fn5 Free Download]). The online version is unpaginated.</ref> ===Views=== {{Main|Anti-Qing sentiment}} Many revolutionaries promoted anti-Qing/anti-Manchu sentiments and revived memories of conflict between the ethnic minority [[Manchu people|Manchu]] and the ethnic majority [[Han Chinese]] from the late [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644). Leading intellectuals were influenced by books that had survived from the last years of the Ming dynasty, the last dynasty of Han Chinese. In 1904, Sun Yat-sen announced that his organization's goal was "to expel the [[Manchu people|Tatar barbarians]], to revive [[Names of China#Zhongguo and Zhonghua|Zhonghua]], to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people." (驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權).<ref name="chinahistvol1">計秋楓, 朱慶葆. [2001] (2001). 中國近代史, V. 1. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|962-201-987-0}}, {{ISBN|978-962-201-987-4}}. pg 468.</ref> Many of the underground groups promoted the ideas of "Resist Qing and restore Ming" (反清復明) that had been around since the days of the [[Taiping Rebellion]].<ref>楊碧玉. 洪秀全政治人格之研究. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 Publishing. {{ISBN|986-221-141-5}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-141-0}}.</ref> Others, such as [[Zhang Binglin]], supported straight-up lines like "slay the manchus" and concepts like "Anti-Manchuism" (興漢滅胡 / 排滿主義).<ref>Crossley, Pamela Kyle. [1991] (1991). ''Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World''. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-00877-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-691-00877-6}}. pg180-181.</ref> ==Strata and groups== The 1911 Revolution was supported by many groups, including students and intellectuals who returned from abroad, as well as participants of the revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers and others. ===Overseas Chinese=== {{main|Chinese revolutionary activities in Malaya}} Assistance from [[overseas Chinese]] was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.<ref>Lee, Khoon Choy Lee. [2005] (2005). ''Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese''. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-256-618-X}}, 9789812566188.</ref> Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in the funding of revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (Singapore and [[Malaysia]]).<ref name="Gao">Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). ''Historical Dictionary of Modern China'' (1800–1949). Issue 25 of "Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras". Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-4930-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4930-3}}. pg 156. pg 29.</ref> Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".<ref name="Gao" /> === Newly emerged intellectuals === In 1906, after the abolition of the [[imperial examinations]], the Qing government established many new schools and encouraged students to study abroad. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.<ref name="fenby">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 96. pg 106.</ref> A new class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, [[Song Jiaoren]], [[Hu Hanmin]], [[Liao Zhongkai]], [[Zhu Zhixin (revolutionary)|Zhu Zhixin]] and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like [[Zou Rong]], known for writing the book ''Revolutionary Army'', in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty and tyranny and turning the [[Descendants of Yan & Huang Emperors|sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor]] into [[George Washington]]s.<ref name="fenby109">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 109.</ref> Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings that these organizations would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like [[Tiandihui|Sanhehui]] were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."<ref>''Complete works of Sun Yat-sen'' 《總理全集》 First edition, page 920</ref> ===Gentry and businessmen=== [[File:皇族內閣.png|thumb|left|[[Yikuang|Prince Qing]] with some [[Prince Qing's Cabinet|royal cabinet]] members]] The strength of the gentry in local politics had become apparent. From December 1908, the Qing government created some apparatus to allow the gentry and businessmen to participate in politics. These middle-class people were originally supporters of constitutionalism. However, they became disenchanted when the Qing government created a [[Prince Qing's Cabinet|cabinet]] with [[Yikuang|Prince Qing]] as [[Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet|prime minister]].<ref>Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington Press. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg21.</ref> By early 1911, an experimental cabinet had thirteen members, nine of whom were Manchus selected from the imperial family.<ref name="Wangke76">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism''. Taylor & Francis Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8153-0720-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0720-4}}. Pg 76.</ref> ===Foreigners=== Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some of the supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. [[Miyazaki Touten]] was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and [[Ryōhei Uchida]]. [[Homer Lea]], an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.<ref>{{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Lawrence M. |year = 2010 |title = Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune |publisher = University Press of Kentucky |location = Lexington |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0813126173|ref = none }}</ref> British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in the revolution.<ref name="Laukit">Lau, Kit-ching Chan. [1990] (1990). ''China, Britain and Hong Kong, 1895–1945''. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|962-201-409-7}}, {{ISBN|978-962-201-409-1}}. p. 37.</ref> Some foreigners, such as English explorer [[Arthur de Carle Sowerby]], led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912.<ref name="Borst-Smith 1912">{{cite book |last = Borst-Smith |first = Ernest F. |title = Caught in the Chinese Revolution |url = https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft |publisher = T Fisher Unwin |year = 1912 }}</ref> {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | header_background = | footer = Yuan rose to power in north China and built the [[Beiyang Army]]. | footer_align = left/right/center | footer_background = | image1 = Yuan Shikai as governor of shandong.jpg | width1 = 110 | caption1 = [[Yuan Shikai]] (1859–1916) | image2 = Beiyang Army.jpg | width2 = 230 | caption2 = }} The far right wing Japanese ultra-nationalist [[Black Dragon Society]] supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Manchus, believing that overthrowing the Qing would help the Japanese take over the Manchu homeland and that Han Chinese would not oppose the take over. Toyama believed that the Japanese could easily take over Manchuria and Sun Yat-sen and other anti-Qing revolutionaries would not resist and help the Japanese take over and enlargen the opium trade in China while the Qing was trying to destroy the opium trade. The Japanese Black Dragons supported Sun Yat-sen and anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing collapsed.<ref name="Nash1997">{{cite book|author=Jay Robert Nash|title=Spies: A Narrative Encyclopedia of Dirty Tricks and Double Dealing from Biblical Times to Today|url=https://books.google.com/?id=0FIWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun#v=onepage&q=Black%20Dragon%20Society%20sun&f=false|date=1997-10-28|publisher=M. Evans|isbn=978-1-4617-4770-3|pages=99–}}</ref> The far right wing Japanese ultranationalist [[Gen'yōsha]] leader [[Tōyama Mitsuru]] supported anti-Manchu, anti-Qing revolutionary activities including the ones organised by Sun Yat-sen and supported Japanese taking over Manchuria. The anti-Qing [[Tongmenghui]] was founded and based in exile in Japan where many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered. The Japanese had been trying to unite anti-Manchu groups made out of Han people to take down the Qing. Japanese were the ones who helped Sun Yat-sen unite all anti-Qing, anti-Manchu revolutionary groups together and there were Japanese like [[Tōten Miyazaki]] inside of the anti-Manchu Tongmenghui revolutionary alliance. The Black Dragon Society hosted the Tongmenghui in its first meeting.<ref name="BergèreLloyd1998">{{cite book|author1=Marie-Claire Bergère|author2=Janet Lloyd|title=Sun Yat-sen|url=https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg|url-access=registration|quote=Black Dragon Society sun.|year=1998|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4011-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg/page/132 132]–}}</ref> The Black Dragon Society had very intimate relations with Sun Yat-sen and promoted pan-Asianism and Sun sometimes passed himself off as Japanese<ref name="Horne2005">{{cite book|author=Gerald Horne|title=Race War!: White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire|url=https://books.google.com/?id=vQsVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA252&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun|date=November 2005|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3641-8|pages=252–}}</ref> and they had connections with Sun for a long time.<ref name="Chung2000">{{cite book|author=Dooeum Chung|title=Élitist fascism: Chiang Kaishek's Blueshirts in 1930s China|url=https://books.google.com/?id=XfkvAQAAIAAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun|year=2000|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-1166-0|pages=61}}</ref> Japanese groups like the Black Dragon Society had a large impact on Sun Yat-sen.<ref name="Chung1997">{{cite book|author=Dooeum Chung|title=A re-evaluation of Chiang Kaishek's blueshirts: Chinese fascism in the 1930s|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_OY-AQAAIAAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun|year=1997|publisher=University of London|pages=78}}</ref> According to an American military historian, Japanese military officers were part of the Black Dragon Society. The Yakuza and Black Dragon Society helped arrange in Tokyo for Sun Yat-sen to hold the first Kuomintang meetings, and were hoping to flood China with opium and overthrow the Qing and deceive Chinese into overthrowing the Qing to Japan's benefit. After the revolution was successful, the Japanese Black Dragons started infiltrating China and spreading opium. The Black Dragons pushed for the takeover of Manchuria by Japan in 1932.<ref name="Carlisle2015">{{cite book|author=Rodney Carlisle|title=Encyclopedia of Intelligence and Counterintelligence|url=https://books.google.com/?id=oXysBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun#v=onepage&q=Black%20Dragon%20Society%20sun&f=false|date=2015-03-26|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-47177-6|pages=71–}}</ref> Sun Yat-sen was married to a Japanese, [[Kaoru Otsuki]]. === Soldiers of the new armies === The [[New Army]] was formed in 1901 after the defeat of the Qings in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].<ref name="fenby" /> They were launched by a decree from eight provinces.<ref name="fenby" /> New Army troops were by far the best trained and equipped.<ref name="fenby" /> The recruits were of a higher quality than the old army and received regular promotions.<ref name="fenby" /> Beginning in 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift their call to the new armies. Sun Yat-sen and the revolutionaries infiltrated the New Army.<ref>Spence, Jonathan D. [1990] (1990). ''The Search for Modern China''. W. W. Norton & Company Publishing. {{ISBN|0-393-30780-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-393-30780-1}}. pp. 250–256.</ref> == Uprisings and incidents == The central focus of the uprisings were mostly connected with the [[Tongmenghui]] and Sun Yat-sen, including subgroups. Some uprisings involved groups that never merged with the Tongmenghui. Sun Yat-sen may have participated in 8–10 uprisings; all uprisings failed prior to the Wuchang Uprising. [[File:Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg|thumb|right|200px|Flag of the First Guangzhou Uprising]] ===First Guangzhou Uprising=== In the spring of 1895, the [[Revive China Society]], which was based in Hong Kong, planned the First Guangzhou Uprising (廣州起義). [[Lu Haodong]] was tasked with designing the revolutionaries' [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag.<ref name="Gao" /> On 26 October 1895, [[Yeung Ku-wan]] and Sun Yat-sen led [[Zheng Shiliang]] and Lu Haodong to Guangzhou, preparing to capture Guangzhou in one strike. However, the details of their plans were leaked to the Qing government.<ref name="z1">計秋楓, 朱慶葆. [2001] (2001). 中國近代史, Volume 1. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|962-201-987-0}}, {{ISBN|978-962-201-987-4}}. p. 464.</ref> The government began to arrest revolutionaries, including Lu Haodong, who was later executed.<ref name="z1" /> The First Guangzhou Uprising was a failure. Under pressure from the Qing government, the government of Hong Kong forbade these two men to enter the territory for five years. Sun Yat-sen went into exile, promoting the Chinese revolution and raising funds in Japan, the United States, Canada and Britain. In 1901, following the Huizhou Uprising, Yeung Ku-wan was assassinated by Qing agents in Hong Kong.<ref name="scmpYkw">South China morning post. 6 April 2011. Waiting may be over at grave of an unsung hero.</ref> After his death, his family protected his identity by not putting his name on his tomb, just a number: 6348.<ref name="scmpYkw" /> === Independence Army Uprising === In 1901, after the [[Boxer Rebellion]] started, Tang Caichang (唐才常) and [[Tan Sitong]] of the previous [[Foot Emancipation Society]] organised the Independence Army. The Independence Army Uprising (自立軍起義) was planned to occur on 23 August 1900.<ref name="Wang424">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). ''Modern China: an encyclopedia of history, culture, and nationalism''. Taylor & Francis Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8153-0720-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-0720-4}}. p. 424.</ref> Their goal was to overthrow [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] to establish a constitutional monarchy under the Guangxu Emperor. Their plot was discovered by the governor-generals of Hunan and Hubei. About twenty conspirators were arrested and executed.<ref name="Wang424" /> === Huizhou Uprising === On 8 October 1900, Sun Yat-sen ordered the launch of the [[Huizhou]] Uprising (惠州起義).<ref>Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). ''Historical dictionary of modern China (1800–1949)''. Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-4930-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4930-3}}. Chronology section.</ref> The revolutionary army was led by Zheng Shiliang and initially included 20,000 men, who fought for half a month. However, after the [[Hirobumi Ito|Japanese Prime Minister]] prohibited Sun Yat-sen from carrying out revolutionary activities on Taiwan, Zheng Shiliang had no choice but to order the army to disperse. This uprising therefore also failed. British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern participated in this uprising.<ref name="Laukit" /> {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = right | header_background = | footer = Two important Qing figures at the time | footer_align = left | footer_background = | width = | image1 = Zhang Zhitong-1.jpg | width1 = 110 | alt1 = | caption1 = [[Zhang Zhidong]] | image2 = Li Hung-Chang, c. 1896.jpg | width2 = 118 | alt2 = | caption2 = [[Li Hongzhang]] }} === Great Ming Uprising === A very short uprising occurred from 25 to 28 January 1903, to establish a "Great Ming Heavenly Kingdom" (大明順天國).<ref>陳錫祺. [1991] (1991). 孫中山年谱長編 volume 1. 中华书局. {{ISBN|7-101-00685-X}}, {{ISBN|9787101006858}}.</ref> This involved [[Tse Tsan-tai]], Li Jitang (李紀堂), Liang Muguang (梁慕光) and Hong Quanfu (洪全福), who formerly took part in the [[Jintian uprising]] during the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] era.<ref>申友良. [2002] (2002). 报王黃世仲. 中囯社会科学出版社 publishing. {{ISBN|7-5004-3309-3}}, {{ISBN|978-7-5004-3309-5}}.</ref> ===Ping-liu-li Uprising=== Ma Fuyi (馬福益) and [[Huaxinghui]] was involved in an uprising in the three areas of [[Pingxiang]], [[Liuyang]] and [[Liling]], called "Ping-liu-li Uprising", (萍瀏醴起義) in 1905.<ref name="Joan1">Joan Judge. [1996] (1996). Print and politics: 'Shibao' and the culture of reform in late Qing China. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-2741-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-2741-9}}. p. 214.</ref> The uprising recruited miners as early as 1903 to rise against the Qing ruling class. After the uprising failed, Ma Fuyi was executed.<ref name="Joan1" /> === Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway assassination attempt === Wu Yue (吳樾) of [[Guangfuhui]] carried out an assassination attempt at the Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway station (正陽門車站) in an attack on five Qing officials on 24 September 1905.<ref name="Wangke287" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.china.com/gate/big5/news.china.com/focus/xhgm100/11106309/20111009/16801100.html |script-title = zh:清宮藏辛亥革命檔案公佈 清廷密追孫中山(圖)-新聞中心_中華網 |language = zh-hant |website = China.com |accessdate = 2011-10-16 }}</ref> === Huanggang Uprising === The Huanggang Uprising (黃岡起義) was launched on 22 May 1907, in [[Chaozhou]].<ref name="Zga1">張家鳳. [2010] (2010). 中山先生與國際人士. Volume 1. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司. {{ISBN|986-221-510-0}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-510-4}}. p. 195.</ref> The revolutionary party, along with Xu Xueqiu (許雪秋), Chen Yongpo (陳湧波) and Yu Tongshi (余通實), launched the uprising and captured Huanggang city.<ref name="Zga1" /> Other Japanese that followed include 萱野長知 and 池亨吉.<ref name="Zga1" /> After the uprising began, the Qing government quickly and forcefully suppressed it. Around 200 revolutionaries were killed.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.baojinews.com/_info/content_190080.htm |title = 宝鸡新闻网——荟集宝鸡新闻 |website = Baojinews.com |date = 27 May 2011 |accessdate = 2011-10-16 }}</ref> === Huizhou Qinühu Uprising === In the same year, Sun Yat-sen sent more revolutionaries to [[Huizhou]] to launch the "Huizhou Qinühu Uprising" ({{lang|zh-hant|惠州七女湖起義}}). <ref name="zz1">{{lang|zh-hant|張豈之, 陳振江, 江沛}}. [2002] (2002). {{lang|zh-hant|晚淸民國史}}. Volume 5 of {{lang|zh-hant|中國歷史}}. {{lang|zh-hant|五南圖書出版股份有限公司}} publishing. {{ISBN|957-11-2898-8}}, {{ISBN|978-957-11-2898-6}}. p. 177.</ref> On 2 June, Deng Zhiyu ({{lang|zh-hant|鄧子瑜}}) and Chen Chuan ({{lang|zh-hant|陳純}}) gathered some followers, and together, they seized Qing arms in the lake, {{convert|20|km|abbr=on}} from Huizhou.<ref name="z3">{{lang|zh-hant|中国二十世紀通鉴编辑委员会}}. [2002] (2002). {{lang|zh-hant|中国二十世紀通鉴}}, 1901–2000, Volume 1. {{lang|zh-hant|线装書局}}.</ref> They killed several Qing soldiers and attacked Taiwei ({{lang|zh|泰尾}}) on 5 June.<ref name="z3" /> The Qing army fled in disorder, and the revolutionaries exploited the opportunity, capturing several towns. They defeated the Qing army once again in Bazhiyie. Many organizations voiced their support after the uprising, and the number of revolutionary forces increased to two hundred men at its height. The uprising, however, ultimately failed. === Anqing Uprising === [[File:QiuJin feminist revolutionary.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A statue to honor revolutionary [[Qiu Jin]]]] On 6 July 1907, [[Xu Xilin]] of [[Guangfuhui]] led an uprising in [[Anqing]], Anhui, which became known as the Anqing Uprising (安慶起義).<ref name="mz" /> Xu Xilin at the time was the police commissioner as well as the supervisor of the police academy. He led an uprising that was to assassinate the provincial governor of Anhui, En Ming (恩銘).<ref name="ln1">Lu Xun. Nadolny, Kevin John. [2009] (2009). Capturing Chinese: Short Stories from Lu Xun's Nahan. Capturing Chinese publishing. {{ISBN|0-9842762-0-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-9842762-0-2}}. p. 51.</ref> They were defeated after four hours of fighting. Xu was captured, and En Ming's bodyguards cut out his heart and liver and ate them.<ref name="ln1" /> His cousin [[Qiu Jin]] was executed a few days later.<ref name="ln1" /> ===Qinzhou Uprising=== From August to September 1907, the [[Qinzhou]] Uprising occurred (欽州防城起義),<ref>鄭連根. [2009] (2009). 故紙眉批── 一個傳媒人的讀史心得. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. {{ISBN|986-221-190-3}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-190-8}}. p. 135.</ref> to protest against heavy taxation from the government. Sun Yat-sen sent Wang Heshun (王和順) there to assist the revolutionary army and captured the county in September.<ref name="xn1">辛亥革命武昌起義紀念館. [1991] (1991). 辛亥革命史地圖集. 中國地圖出版社 publishing.</ref> After that, they attempted to besiege and capture Qinzhou, but they were unsuccessful. They eventually retreated to the area of Shiwandashan, while Wang Heshun returned to [[Vietnam]]. === Zhennanguan Uprising === On 1 December 1907, the Zhennanguan Uprising (鎮南關起事) took place at [[Friendship Pass|Zhennanguan]], a pass on the Chinese-Vietnamese border. Sun Yat-sen sent Huang Mintang (黃明堂) to monitor the pass, which was guarded by a fort.<ref name="xn1" /> With the assistance of supporters among the fort's defenders, the revolutionaries captured the cannon tower in Zhennanguan. Sun Yat-sen, [[Huang Xing]] and [[Hu Hanmin]] personally went to the tower to command the battle.<ref>中華民國史硏究室. [1986] (1986). 中華民國史資料叢稿: 譯稿. Volumes 1–2 of 中華民國史資料叢稿. published by 中華書局.</ref> The Qing government sent troops led by [[Long Jiguang]] and [[Lu Rongting]] to counterattack, and the revolutionaries were forced to retreat into the mountainous areas. After the failure of this uprising, Sun was forced to move to Singapore due to [[Sun Yat-sen#Anti-Sun movements|anti-Sun sentiments]] within the revolutionary groups.<ref>Yan, Qinghuang. [2008] (2008). ''The Chinese in Southeast Asia and Beyond: Socioeconomic and Political Dimensions''. World Scientific Publishing. {{ISBN|981-279-047-0}}, {{ISBN|978-981-279-047-7}}. pp. 182–187.</ref> He would not return to the mainland until after the Wuchang Uprising. === Qin-lian Uprising === On 27 March 1908, Huang Xing launched a raid, later known as the Qin-lian Uprising (欽廉上思起義), from a base in Vietnam and attacked the cities of [[Qinzhou]] and [[Lianzhou]] in Guangdong. The struggle continued for fourteen days but was forced to terminate after the revolutionaries ran out of supplies.<ref>廣西壯族自治區地方誌編纂委員會. [1994] (1994). 廣西通志: 軍事志. 廣西人民出版社 publishing. Digitized University of Michigan. 26 October 2009.</ref> === Hekou Uprising === In April 1908, another uprising was launched in [[Yunnan]], Hekou, called the Hekou Uprising (雲南河口起義). Huang Mingtang (黃明堂) led two hundred men from Vietnam and attacked Hekou on 30 April. Other revolutionaries who participated include Wang Heshun (王和順) and Guan Renfu (關仁甫). They were outnumbered and defeated by government troops, however, and the uprising failed.<ref>中国百科年鉴. [1982] (1982). 中国大百科全书出版社. University of California. Digitized 18 December 2008.</ref> === Mapaoying Uprising === On 19 November 1908, the Mapaoying Uprising (馬炮營起義) was launched by revolutionary group Yuewanghui (岳王會) member Xiong Chenggei (熊成基) at [[Anhui]].<ref>汪贵胜, 许祖范. Compiled by 程必定. [1989] (1989). 安徽近代经济史. 黄山书社. Digitized by the University of Michigan. 31 October 2007.</ref> Yuewanghui, at this time, was a subset of [[Tongmenghui]]. This uprising also failed. === Gengxu New Army Uprising === In February 1910, the Gengxu New Army Uprising (庚戌新軍起義), also known as the Guangzhou New Army Uprising (廣州新軍起義), took place.<ref name="yq">张新民. [1993] (1993). 中国人权辞书. 海南出版社 publishing. Digitized by University of Michigan. 9 October 2009.</ref> This involved a conflict between the citizens and local police against the New Army. After revolutionary leader Ni Yingdian was killed by Qing forces, the remaining revolutionaries were quickly defeated, causing the uprising to fail. === Second Guangzhou Uprising === {{Main|Second Guangzhou Uprising}} [[File:Huanghuagang Mausoleum of 72 Martyrs.jpg|thumb|right|The memorial for the 72 martyrs]] On 27 April 1911, an uprising occurred in [[Guangzhou]], known as the Second Guangzhou Uprising (辛亥廣州起義) or Yellow Flower Mound Revolt (黃花岡之役). It ended in disaster, as 86 bodies were found (only 72 could be identified).<ref name="gongtong1">王恆偉. (2005) (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No.&nbsp;5 清. 中華書局. {{ISBN|962-8885-28-6}}. p 195-198.</ref> The 72 revolutionaries were remembered as [[Martyrdom in Chinese culture|martyrs]].<ref name="gongtong1" /> Revolutionary [[Lin Juemin]] (林覺民) was one of the 72. On the eve of battle, he wrote the legendary "A Letter to My Wife" (與妻訣別書), later to be considered as a masterpiece in Chinese literature.<ref name="Langmead">Langmead, Donald. [2011] (2011). ''Maya Lin: A Biography''. ABC-CLIO Publishing. {{ISBN|0-313-37853-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-313-37853-9}}. pp. 5–6.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://freudianslumber.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/lin-jue-mins-letter-of-farewell-to-my-wife-my-translation/|title=Lin Jue Min's "Letter of Farewell to My Wife" — My translation|date=15 November 2009|publisher=}}</ref> === Wuchang Uprising === [[File:Chinese-Army-Wuhan-Flag-1911-1928 dots18.svg|right|thumb|200px|The Iron Blood 18-star flag]] [[File:武昌起义.png|thumb|right|100px|Paths of the uprising]] {{Main|Wuchang Uprising|Battle of Yangxia}} The Literary Society (文學社) and the Progressive Association (共進會) were revolutionary organizations involved in the uprising that mainly began with a [[Railway Protection Movement]] protest.<ref name="Wang390" /> In the late summer, some Hubei New Army units were ordered to neighboring Sichuan to quell the Railway Protection Movement, a mass protest against the Qing government's seizure and handover of local railway development ventures to foreign powers.<ref name="reillyt">Reilly, Thomas. [1997] (1997). ''Science and Football III'', Volume 3. Taylor & Francis publishing. {{ISBN|0-419-22160-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-419-22160-9}}. pp. 105–106, 277–278.</ref> [[Eight Banner|Banner]] officers like [[Duanfang]], the railroad superintendent,<ref>{{cite book |year = 1979 |publisher = University of Iowa |quote = The railway company's chief officer at Yichang was no longer listening to company directives and had turned company accounts over to Duanfang, Superintendent of the Chuan Han and Yue Han railroads. The situation of the Sichuanese |location = |url = https://books.google.com/?id=EsO3AAAAIAAJ&dq=The+railway+company%27s+chief+officer+at+Yichang+was+no+longer+listening+to+company+directives+and+had+turned+company+accounts+over+to+Duanfang%2C+Superintendent+of+the+Chuan+Han+and+Yue+Han+railroads.+The+situation+of+the+Sichuanese&q=Duanfang |page = 156 |title = The heritage of Han: the Gelaohui and the 1911 revolution in Sichuan |edition = |author = Robert H. Felsing |accessdate = 2012-03-02 }}</ref> and [[Zhao Erfeng]] led the New Army against the Railway Protection Movement. The New Army units of Hubei had originally been the Hubei Army, which had been trained by Qing official [[Zhang Zhidong]].<ref name="xb1" /> On 24 September, the Literary Society and Progressive Association convened a conference in Wuchang, along with sixty representatives from local New Army units. During the conference, they established a headquarters for the uprising. The leaders of the two organizations, Jiang Yiwu (蔣翊武) and Sun Wu (孫武), were elected as commander and chief of staff. Initially, the date of the uprising was to be 6 October 1911.<ref name="gongtong2">王恆偉. (2005) (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No.&nbsp;6 民國. 中華書局. {{ISBN|962-8885-29-4}}. pp. 3–7.</ref> It was postponed to a later date due to insufficient preparations. Revolutionaries intent on overthrowing the Qing dynasty had built bombs, and on 9 October, one accidentally exploded.<ref name="gongtong2" /> Sun Yat-sen himself had no direct part in the uprising and was traveling in the United States at the time in an effort to recruit more support from among overseas Chinese. The Qing [[Viceroy of Huguang]], Rui Cheng (瑞澂), tried to track down and arrest the revolutionaries.<ref name="tonsi1">戴逸, 龔書鐸. [2002] (2003) 中國通史. 清. Intelligence Press. {{ISBN|962-8792-89-X}}. pp. 86–89.</ref> Squad leader Xiong Bingkun (熊秉坤) and others decided not to delay the uprising any longer and launched the revolt on 10 October 1911, at 7&nbsp;pm.<ref name="tonsi1" /> The revolt was a success; the entire city of Wuchang was captured by the revolutionaries on the morning of 11 October. That evening, they established a tactical headquarters and announced the establishment of the "Military Government of Hubei of Republic of China".<ref name="tonsi1" /> The conference chose [[Li Yuanhong]] as the governor of the temporary government.<ref name="tonsi1" /> Qing officers like the bannermen Duanfang and Zhao Erfeng were killed by the revolutionary forces. == Provincial uprisings == [[File:Qing Dynasty Map at the time of the 1911 Revolution.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Map of uprisings during the 1911 Revolution]] After the success of the Wuchang Uprising, many other protests occurred throughout the country for various reasons. Some of the uprisings declared restoration (光復) of the [[Han Chinese]] rule. Other uprisings were a step toward independence, and some were protests or rebellions against the local authorities.{{Citation needed|date=September 2014}} Regardless the reason for the uprising the outcome was that all provinces in the country renounced the Qing dynasty and joined the ROC. === Changsha restoration === {{Main|Battle of Changsha (1911)}} On 22 October 1911, the [[Hunan]] Tongmenghui were led by Jiao Dafeng (焦達嶧) and Chen Zuoxin (陳作新).<ref name="zhanged2">张创新. [2005] (2005). 中国政治制度史. 2nd Edition. Tsinghua University Press. {{ISBN|7-302-10146-9}}, {{ISBN|978-7-302-10146-8}}. p. 377.</ref> They headed an armed group, consisting partly of revolutionaries from [[Hongjiang]] and partly of defecting New Army units, in a campaign to extend the uprising into [[Changsha]].<ref name="zhanged2" /> They captured the city and killed the local Imperial general. Then they announced the establishment of the Hunan Military Government of the Republic of China and announced their opposition to the Qing Empire.<ref name="zhanged2" /> === Shaanxi Uprising === On the same day, [[Shaanxi]]'s Tongmenghui, led by Jing Dingcheng (景定成) and Qian Ding (錢鼎) as well as Jing Wumu (井勿幕) and others including [[Gelaohui]], launched an uprising and captured [[Xi'an]] after two days of struggle.<ref name="bigxz13">{{cite web |url = http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/www.hb.xinhuanet.com/zhuanti/2011-01/13/content_21859416.htm |title = 武昌起義之後各省響應與國際調停 _新華網湖北頻道 |website = xinhuanet.com |accessdate = 2011-10-16 }}</ref> The Hui Muslim community was divided in its support for the revolution. The Hui Muslims of Shaanxi supported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims of Gansu supported the Qing. The native Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) of Xi'an (Shaanxi province) joined the Han Chinese revolutionaries in slaughtering the Manchus.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Backhouse |first1=Sir Edmund |last2=Otway |first2=John |last3=Bland |first3=Percy |title=Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking: (from the 16th to the 20th Century) |date=1914 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |page=[https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp/page/n241 209] |edition=reprint |url=https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Atlantic, Volume 112 |date=1913 |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Company |page=779 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj4wAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA779}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 112 |date=1913 |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Company |page=779 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA779}}</ref> The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general [[Ma Anliang]] led more than twenty battalions of [[Hui people|Hui]] Muslim troops to defend the Qing imperials and attacked Shaanxi, held by revolutionary Zhang Fenghui (張鳳翽).<ref name="fsh" /> The attack was successful, and after news arrived that Puyi was about to abdicate, Ma agreed to join the new Republic.<ref name="fsh">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA168&dq=ma+anliang's+brother+ma+guoliang&cd=1#v=snippet&q=twenty%20battalions%20of%20loyal%20muslim%20braves&f=false|title=Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China|author=Jonathan Neaman Lipman|year=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|page=170|isbn=978-0-295-97644-0|accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> The revolutionaries established the "Qinlong Fuhan Military Government" and elected Zhang Fenghui, a member of the Yuanrizhi Society (原日知會), as new governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> After the Xi'an Manchu quarter fell on 24 October, Xinhai forces killed all of the Manchus in the city, about 20,000 Manchus were killed in the massacre.<ref name="Rhoads192">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg 192.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA190 | title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 | author=Edward J. M. Rhoads | page=190 | publisher=University of Washington | year=2000| isbn=9780295980409 }}</ref> Many of its Manchu defenders committed suicide, including Qing general Wenrui (文瑞), who threw himself down a well.<ref name="Rhoads192" /> Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhoads |first1=Edward J. M. |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295980400 |page=192 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA192}}</ref> and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhoads |first1=Edward J. M. |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295980400 |page=193 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA193}}</ref> Young Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fitzgerald |first1=Charles Patrick |last2=Kotker |first2=Norman |editor1-last=Kotker |editor1-first=Norman |title=The Horizon history of China |date=1969 |publisher=American Heritage Pub. Co. |page=365 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPRxAAAAMAAJ&q=manchu+girls&dq=manchu+girls&hl=en&ei=LUmxTNbbJMG78gb8kfmhCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAg}}</ref> ===Jiujiang Uprising=== On 23 October, [[Lin Sen]], Jiang Qun (蔣群), Cai Hui (蔡蕙) and other members of the Tongmenghui in the province of [[Jiangxi]] plotted a revolt of New Army units.<ref name="zhanged2" /><ref name="zhong1911-ch12">伍立杨. [2011] (2011). 中国1911 (辛亥年). {{ISBN|978-7-5313-3869-7}}, {{ISBN|7-5313-3869-6}}. Chapter 连锁反应 各省独立.</ref> After they achieved victory, they announced their independence. The Jiujiang Military Government was then established.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> ===Shanxi Taiyuan Uprising=== On 29 October, [[Yan Xishan]] of the New Army led an uprising in [[Taiyuan]], the capital city of the province of [[Shanxi]], along with Yao Yijie (姚以價), Huang Guoliang (黃國梁), Wen Shouquan (溫壽泉), Li Chenglin (李成林), Zhang Shuzhi (張樹幟) and Qiao Xi (喬煦).<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /><ref>蒋顺兴, 李良玉. [1990] (1990). 山西王阎锡山/中华民国史丛书. Edition reprint. 河南人民出版社, 1990.</ref> The rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where Banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.<ref>{{cite book| title= Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907-1985 | page=102}}</ref> They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (陸鍾琦).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml |title=山西辛亥革命官僚階層——巡撫陸鍾琦之死_辛亥革命前奏_辛亥革命网 |publisher=Big5.xhgmw.org |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Yan Xishan would later become one of the warlords that plagued China during what was known as "the warlord era". ===Kunming Double Ninth Uprising=== On 30 October, Li Genyuan (李根源) of the Tongmenghui in [[Yunnan]] joined with [[Cai E]], Luo Peijin (羅佩金), [[Tang Jiyao]], and other officers of the New Army to launch the [[Double Ninth Festival|Double Ninth]] Uprising (重九起義).<ref>中共湖南省委員會. [1981] (1981). 新湘評論, Issues 7–12. 新湘評論雜誌社.</ref> They captured [[Kunming]] the next day and established the Yunnan Military Government, electing [[Cai E]] as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> ===Nanchang restoration=== On 31 October, the [[Nanchang]] branch of the Tongmenghui led New Army units in a successful uprising. They established the Jiangxi Military Government.<ref name="zhanged2"/> [[Li Liejun]] was elected as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Li declared [[Jiangxi]] as independent and launched an expedition against Qing official Yuan Shikai.<ref name="Langmead" /> ===Shanghai Armed Uprising=== [[File:Chen Qi-mei.png|thumb|right|150px|[[Chen Qimei]], military governor of Shanghai]] On 3 November, Shanghai's Tongmenghui, Guangfuhui and merchants led by [[Chen Qimei]] (陳其美), Li Pingsu (李平書), Zhang Chengyou (張承槱), Li Yingshi (李英石), Li Xiehe (李燮和) and [[Song Jiaoren]] organized an armed rebellion in Shanghai.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> They received the support of local police officers.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> The rebels captured the Jiangnan Workshop on the 4th and captured Shanghai soon after. On 8 November, they established the Shanghai Military Government and elected Chen Qimei as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> He would eventually become one of the founders of the [[Four big families of the Republic of China|ROC four big families]], along with some of the most well-known families of the era.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinanews.com.cn/cul/news/2007/12-11/1101653.shtml |title="四大家族"后人:蒋家凋零落寞 宋、孔、陈家低调 |publisher=Chinanews.com.cn |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> ===Guizhou Uprising=== On 4 November, Zhang Bailin (張百麟) of the revolutionary party in [[Guizhou]] led an uprising along with New Army units and students from the military academy. They immediately captured [[Guiyang]] and established the Great Han Guizhou Military Government, electing Yang Jincheng (楊藎誠) and Zhao Dequan (趙德全) as the chief and vice governor respectively.<ref>张玉法, 中央硏究院. 近代史硏究所. [1985] (1985). 民国初年的政党. 中央硏究院近代史硏究所 Publishing.</ref> ===Zhejiang Uprising=== Also on 4 November, revolutionaries in [[Zhejiang]] urged the New Army units in [[Hangzhou]] to launch an uprising.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Zhu Rui (朱瑞), Wu Siyu (吳思豫), Lu Gongwang (吕公望) and others of the New Army captured the military supplies workshop.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Other units, led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] and Yin Zhirei (尹銳志), captured most of the government offices.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Eventually, Hangzhou was under the control of the revolutionaries, and the constitutionalist Tang Shouqian (湯壽潛) was elected as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> ===Jiangsu restoration=== On 5 November, [[Jiangsu]] constitutionalists and gentry urged Qing governor Cheng Dequan (程德全) to announce independence and established the Jiangsu Revolutionary Military Government with Cheng himself as the governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/sz.xinhuanet.com/2011-10/10/content_23855051.htm |title=辛亥百年蘇州光復 一根竹竿挑瓦革命 |publisher=Big5.xinhuanet.com |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> Unlike some of the other cities, anti-Manchu violence began after the restoration on 7 November in [[Zhenjiang]].<ref name="Rhoads194">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington Press. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg 194.</ref> Qing general Zaimu (載穆) agreed to surrender, but because of a misunderstanding, the revolutionaries were unaware that their safety was guaranteed.<ref name="Rhoads194" /> The Manchu quarters were ransacked, and an unknown number of Manchus were killed.<ref name="Rhoads194" /> Zaimu, feeling betrayed, committed suicide.<ref name="Rhoads194" /> This is regarded as the Zhenjiang Uprising (鎮江起義).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2011-04/20/c_121987093.htm |title=辛亥革命大事記_時政頻道_新華網 |publisher=Big5.xinhuanet.com |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref>http://www.xinhai.org/shi/191107129.htm</ref> ===Anhui Uprising=== Members of [[Anhui]]'s Tongmenghui also launched an uprising on that day and laid siege to the provincial capital. The constitutionalists persuaded [[Zhu Jiabao]] (朱家寶), the Qing Governor of Anhui, to announce independence.<ref>國立臺灣師範大學. 歷史學系. [2003] (2003). Bulletin of historical research, Issue 31. 國立臺灣師範大學歷史學系 publishing.</ref> ===Guangxi Uprising=== On 7 November, the [[Guangxi]] politics department decided to secede from the Qing government, announcing Guangxi's independence. Qing Governor Shen Bingkun (沈秉堃) was allowed to remain governor, but [[Lu Rongting]] would soon become the new governor.<ref name="xn1" /> Lu Rongting would later rise to prominence during the "warlord era" as one of the warlords, and his bandits controlled Guangxi for more than a decade.<ref>Lary, Diana. [2010] (2010). ''Warlord Soldiers: Chinese Common Soldiers 1911–1937''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-13629-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-13629-7}}. pg 64.</ref> Under the leadership of [[Huang Shaohong]], the Muslim law student [[Bai Chongxi]] was enlisted into a Dare to Die unit to fight as a revolutionary.<ref name="BoormanHoward1967">{{cite book|author1=Howard L. Boorman|author2=Richard C. Howard|author3=Joseph K. H. Cheng|title=Biographical Dictionary of Republican China|url=https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor|url-access=registration|quote=pai ch'ung-hsi dare to die.|year=1967|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-08957-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor/page/51 51]–}}</ref> ===Fujian independence=== [[File:连江光复会旧址.jpg|thumb|right|One of the old buildings occupied by the [[Guangfuhui]] in [[Lianjiang County]], Fujian]] In November, members of [[Fujian]]'s branch of the Tongmenghui, along with Sun Daoren (孫道仁) of the New Army, launched an uprising against the Qing army.<ref name="gli">国祁李. [1990] (1990). 民国史论集, Volume 2. 南天書局 publishing.</ref><ref>[1979] (1979). 傳記文學, Volume 34. 傳記文學雜誌社 Publishing. University of Wisconsin&nbsp;– Madison. Digitized 11 April 2011.</ref> The Qing viceroy, Song Shou (松壽), committed suicide.<ref>鄧之誠. [1983] (1983). 中華二千年史, Volume 5, Part 3, Issue 1. 中華書局. {{ISBN|7-101-00390-7}}, {{ISBN|978-7-101-00390-1}}.</ref> On 11 November, the entire Fujian province declared independence.<ref name="gli" /> The Fujian Military Government was established, and Sun Daoren was elected as the military governor.<ref name="gli" /> ===Guangdong independence=== Near the end of October, [[Chen Jiongming]], Deng Keng (鄧鏗), Peng Reihai (彭瑞海) and other members of Guangdong's Tongmenghui organized local militias to launch the uprising in [[Huazhou, Guangdong|Huazhou]], [[Nanhai District|Nanhai]], [[Shunde District|Sunde]] and [[Sanshui District|Sanshui]] in Guangdong Province.<ref name="bigxz13" /><ref>广东省中山图书馆. [2002] (2002). 民国广东大事记. 羊城晚报出版社 Publishing. {{ISBN|7-80651-206-3}}, {{ISBN|978-7-80651-206-7}}.</ref> On 8 November, after being persuaded by [[Hu Hanmin]], General Li Zhun (李準) and Long Jiguang (龍濟光) of the Guangdong Navy agreed to support the revolution.<ref name="bigxz13" /> The Qing [[viceroy of Liangguang]], Zhang Mingqi (張鳴岐), was forced to discuss with the local representatives a proposal for Guangdong's independence.<ref name="bigxz13" /> They decided to announce it the next day. Chen Jiongming then captured [[Huizhou]]. On 9 November, Guangdong announced its independence and established a military government.<ref name="qiuf">徐博东, 黄志萍. [1987] (1987). 丘逢甲傳. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. {{ISBN|986-221-636-0}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-636-1}}. pg 175.</ref> They elected Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming as the chief and vice-governor.<ref>居正, 羅福惠, 蕭怡. [1989] (1989). 居正文集, Volume 1. 華中師範大學出版社 publishing. Digitized by University of California. 15 December 2008.</ref> [[Qiu Fengjia]] is known to have helped make the independence declaration more peaceful.<ref name="qiuf" /> It was unknown at the time if representatives from the European colonies of [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] and [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]] would be ceded to the new government.{{clarify|date=August 2017}} ===Shandong independence=== On 13 November, after being persuaded by revolutionary Din Weifen (丁惟汾) and several other officers of the New Army, the Qing governor of [[Shandong]], [[Sun Baoqi]], agreed to secede from the Qing government and announced Shandong's independence.<ref name="bigxz13" /> ===Ningxia Uprising=== On 17 November, [[Ningxia]] Tongmenghui launched the Ningxia Uprising (寧夏會黨起義). The revolutionaries sent [[Yu Youren]] to [[Zhangjiachuan County|Zhangjiachuan]] to meet [[Dungan people|Dungan]] [[Sufi]] master [[Ma Yuanzhang]] to persuade him not to support the Qing. However, Ma did not want to endanger his relationship with the Qings. He sent the eastern [[Gansu]] Muslim militia under the command of one of his sons to help [[Ma Qi]] crush the Ningxia Gelaohui.<ref name="CUP Archive">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft|quote=ma fu hsiang mongol an-liang.|title=Travels of a Consular Officer in North-West China|year=1921|publisher=CUP Archive|page=[https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft/page/188 188]|isbn=|accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA182&dq=ma+fuxiang+gelaohui#v=onepage&q=ma%20fuxiang%20gelaohui&f=false|title=Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China|author=Jonathan Neaman Lipman|year=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|pages=182, 183|isbn=978-0-295-97644-0|accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> However,the Ningxia Revolutionary Military Government was established on 23 November.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Some of the revolutionaries involved included Huang Yue (黃鉞) and Xiang Shen (向燊), who gathered New Army forces at Qinzhou (秦州).<ref>粟戡时, 同明, 志盛, 雪云. [1981] (1981). 湖南反正追记. 湖南人民出版社.</ref><ref>辛亥革命史地圖集. [1991] (1991). 辛亥革命武昌起義紀念館. 中國地圖出版社.</ref> ===Sichuan independence=== On 21 November, [[Guang'an]] organized the Great Han [[Shu Han|Shu]] Northern Military Government.<ref name="bigxz13" /><ref>中國地圖出版社. [1991] (1991). 辛亥革命史地圖集. 中國地圖出版社 publishing.</ref> On 22 November, [[Chengdu]] and [[Sichuan]] began to declare independence. By the 27th, the Great Han Sichuan Military Government was established, headed by revolutionary Pu Dianzun (蒲殿俊).<ref name="bigxz13" /> Qing official [[Duan Fang]] (端方) would also be killed.<ref name="bigxz13" /> ===Nanking Uprising=== [[File:An episode in the revolutionary war in China, 1911 - the battle at the Ta-ping gate at Nanking. Wellcome L0040002.jpg|thumb|1911 battle at Ta-ping gate, Nanking. Painting by T. Miyano.]] On 8 November, supported by the Tongmenghui, Xu Shaozhen (徐紹楨) of the New Army announced an uprising in Molin Pass (秣陵關), {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} away from [[Nanjing City|Nanking City]].<ref name="bigxz13" /> Xu Shaozhen, Chen Qimei and other generals decided to form a united army under Xu to strike Nanking together. On 11 November, the united army headquarters was established in Zhenjiang. Between 24 November and 1 December, under the command of Xu Shaozhen, the united army captured Wulongshan (烏龍山), Mufushan (幕府山), Yuhuatai (雨花臺), Tianbao City (天保城) and many other strongholds of the Qing army.<ref name="bigxz13" /> On 2 December, Nanking City was captured by the revolutionaries after the Battle of Nanking, 1911.<ref name="bigxz13" /> On 3 December, revolutionary Su Liangbi led troops in a massacre of a large number of Manchus (the exact number is not known).<ref name="Rhoads198">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington Publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg 198.</ref> He was shortly afterward arrested, and his troops disbanded.<ref name="Rhoads198" /> ===Tibetan independence=== {{main|Xinhai Lhasa turmoil|Tibet (1912–1951)}} In 1905, the Qing sent [[Zhao Erfeng]] to Tibet to retaliate against [[1905 Tibetan Rebellion|rebellions]].<ref name="Blondeau">Blondeau, Anne-Marie. Buffetrille, Katia. Jing, Wei. [2008] (2008). ''Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions''. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-24464-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-520-24464-1}}. pg 230.</ref> By 1908, Zhao was appointed [[List of Qing imperial residents in Tibet|imperial resident]] in [[Lhasa]].<ref name="Blondeau" /> Zhao was beheaded in December 1911 by pro-[[Republic of China|Republican]] forces.<ref>Grunfeld, A. Tom. [1996] (1996). ''The Making of Modern Tibet'' Edition 2. M.E. Sharpe Publishing. {{ISBN|1-56324-714-3}}, {{ISBN|978-1-56324-714-9}}. pg 63.</ref> The bulk of the area that was historically known as [[Kham]] was now claimed to be the [[Xikang|Xikang Administrative District]], created by the Republican revolutionaries.<ref>Rong, Ma. [2010] (2010). ''Population and Society in Tibet''. Hong Kong University Press. {{ISBN|962-209-202-0}}, {{ISBN|978-962-209-202-0}}. pg 48.</ref> By the end of 1912, the last Manchu troops were forced out of Tibet through India. [[Thubten Gyatso]], the 13th [[Dalai Lama]], returned to Tibet in January 1913 from [[Sikkim]], where he had been residing.<ref name="Mayhew">Mayhew, Bradley and Michael Kohn. (2005). ''Tibet'', p. 32. Lonely Planet Publications. {{ISBN|1-74059-523-8}}.</ref> When the new ROC government apologised for the actions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama to his former position, he replied that he was not interested in Chinese ranks, that Tibet had never been subordinated to China, that Tibet was an independent country, and that he was assuming the spiritual and political leadership of Tibet.<ref name="Mayhew" /> Because of this, many have read this reply as a formal declaration of independence. The Chinese side ignored the response, and Tibet had thirty years free of interference from China.<ref name="Mayhew" /> ===Mongolian independence=== {{main|Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia}} At the end of 1911, the Mongols took action with an armed revolt against the Manchu authorities but were unsuccessful in the attempt.<ref name="Onon">Onon, Urgunge Onon. Pritchatt, Derrick. [1989] (1989). ''Asia's first modern revolution: Mongolia proclaims its independence in 1911''. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-08390-1}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08390-5}}. pg 38–40, 79.</ref> The independence movement that took place was not limited to just North (outer) Mongolia but was also a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.<ref name="Onon" /> On 29 December 1911, [[Bogd Khan]] became the leader of the Mongol empire. [[Inner Mongolia]] became a contested terrain between Khan and the Republic.<ref>Uradyn Erden Bulag. Hildegard Diemberger. International Association for Tibetan Studies. Seminar, Uradyn Erden Bulag. Brill's Tibetan studies library. [2007] (2007). "The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia": PIATS 2003: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-15521-X}}, {{ISBN|9789004155213}}.</ref> In general, Russia supported the [[Outer Mongolian revolution of 1911|Independence of Outer Mongolia]] (including [[Tannu Uriankhai]]) during the time of the 1911 Revolution.<ref>Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). ''Chinese foreign policy: pragmatism and strategic behavior''. M.E. Sharpe publishing. {{ISBN|0-7656-1284-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7656-1284-7}}. pg 207.</ref> Tibet and Mongolia then recognized each other in a treaty. ===Dihua and Yili Uprising=== {{Main|1911 Revolution in Xinjiang}} In [[Xinjiang]] on 28 December, Liu Xianzun (劉先俊) and the revolutionaries started the [[Ürümqi|Dihua]] Uprising (迪化起義).<ref name="doizung">中央研究院. [1993] (1993). 近代中國歷史人物論文集. 中央研究院近代史研究所. {{ISBN|957-671-150-9}}, {{ISBN|978-957-671-150-3}}.</ref> This was led by more than 100 members of Geilaohui.<ref name="hkcna">{{cite web|url=http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml |title=新疆伊犁辛亥革命打破清王朝西遷夢 |publisher=Hkcna.hk |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref> This uprising failed. On 7 January 1912, the [[Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture|Yili]] Uprising (伊犁起義) with Feng Temin (馮特民) began.<ref name="doizung" /><ref name="hkcna" /> Qing governor Yuan Dahua (袁大化) fled and handed over his resignation to [[Yang Zengxin]], because he could not handle fighting the revolutionaries.<ref name="yz">Millward, James A. [2007] (2007). ''Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang''. Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-231-13924-1}} pg 168, 440.</ref> In the morning of 8 January, a new Yili government was established for the revolutionaries,<ref name="hkcna" /> but the revolutionaries would be defeated at [[Jinghe County|Jinghe]] in January and February.<ref name="yz" /><ref name="wamu">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA139&lpg=PA139&dq=ma+shao-wu+assassination+attempt#v=onepage&q=yuan%20ta-hua%20time&f=false|title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949|author=Andrew D. W. Forbes|year=1986|publisher=CUP Archive|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=978-0-521-25514-1|page=376|accessdate=28 June 2010}}</ref> Eventually because of the abdication to come, Yuan Shikai recognized Yang Zengxin's rule, appointed him Governor of Xinjiang and had the province join the Republic.<ref name="yz" /> Eleven more former Qing officials would be assassinated in [[Barköl Kazakh Autonomous County|Zhenxi]], [[Karashahr]], [[Aksu, Xinjiang|Aksu]], [[Kucha]], [[Luntai]] and [[Kashgar]] in April and May 1912.<ref name="yz" /> The revolutionaries printed a new multi-lingual media.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ondřej Klimeš|title=Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949|url=https://books.google.com/?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83&lpg=PA83&dq=%E6%BC%A2%E8%92%99%E5%9B%9E%E7%BA%8F%E5%93%88#v=onepage&q=%E6%BC%A2%E8%92%99%E5%9B%9E%E7%BA%8F%E5%93%88&f=false|date=8 January 2015|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-28809-6|pages=83–}}</ref> ===Taiwan Uprising=== In 1911, the Tongmenghui sent Luo Fu-xing (羅福星) to the [[Taiwan island|island of Taiwan]] to wrest it from [[Japanese rule in Taiwan|Japanese control]].<ref>[1981] (2007). Daily report: People's Republic of China, Issues 200–210. National Technical Information Service publishing. Digitized 2 March 2007 by University of Michigan. pg 50.</ref> The goal was to bring Taiwan island into the Chinese Republic by inciting the Taiwan Uprising (台灣起義).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html |title=人民網-寶島英雄譜-苗栗事件：台灣光復先驅羅福星 |publisher=Tw.people.com.cn |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Luo was caught and killed on 3 March 1914.<ref name="Dellorto">Dell'Orto, Alessandro. [2002] (2002). ''Place and spirit in Taiwan: Tudi Gong in the stories, strategies, and memories of everyday life''. Psychology Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1568-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1568-8}}. pg 39.</ref> What was left was known as the "[[Miaoli County|Miaoli]] Incident", (苗栗事件) where more than 1,000 Taiwanese were executed by the Japanese police.<ref>Katz, Paul R. Rubinstein, Murray A. [2003] (2003). ''Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities''. Palgrave Macmillan Publishing. {{ISBN|0-312-23969-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-312-23969-5}}. pg 56.</ref> Luo's sacrifice is commemorated in Miaoli.<ref name="Dellorto" /> ==Change of government== [[File:Seal for the provisional government president of Republic of China 20050807.jpg|thumb|right|Seal of the President of Provisional Government of Republic of China]] ===North: Qing court last transformation attempt=== On 1 November 1911, the Qing government appointed Yuan Shikai as the prime minister of the imperial cabinet, replacing [[Yikuang|Prince Qing]].<ref>Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus and Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington Press. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg 183.</ref> On 3 November, after a proposition by [[Cen Chunxuan]] from the Constitutional Monarchy Movement (立憲運動), in 1903, the Qing court passed the Nineteen Articles (憲法重大信條十九條), which turned the Qing from an [[autocratic]] system with the emperor having unlimited power to a [[constitutional monarchy]].<ref>Tung, William L. [1968] (1968). ''The political institutions of modern China''. Springer Publishing. {{ISBN|90-247-0552-5}}, {{ISBN|978-90-247-0552-8}}. pg 18.</ref><ref name="Rhoads228">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. pg 228.</ref> On 9 November, [[Huang Xing]] even cabled Yuan Shikai and invited him to join the Republic.<ref name="pompl">Pomerantz-Zhang, Linda. [1992] (1992). ''Wu Tingfang (1842–1922): reform and modernization in modern Chinese history''. Hong Kong University Press. {{ISBN|962-209-287-X}}, 9789622092877. pg 207- 209.</ref> The court changes were too late, and the emperor was about to have to step down. ===South: Government in Nanking=== {{Main|Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)}} On 28 November 1911, Wuchang and [[Hanyang District|Hanyang]] had fallen back to the Qing army. So for safety, the revolutionaries convened their first conference at the British concession in [[Hankou]] on 30 November.<ref name="ksliew">K. S. Liew. [1971] (1971). ''Struggle for democracy: Sung Chiao-jen and the 1911 Chinese revolution''. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-01760-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-520-01760-3}}. pg 131–136.</ref> By 2 December, the revolutionary forces were able to [[#Nanking Uprising|capture Nanking in the uprising]]; and the revolutionaries decided to make it the site of the new provisional government.<ref>Wu Yuzhang. [2001] (2001). ''Recollections of the Revolution of 1911: A Great Democratic Revolution of China''. The Minerva Group Publishing. {{ISBN|0-89875-531-X}}, 9780898755312. pg 132.</ref> At the time, Beijing was still the Qing capital. ===North–South Conference=== [[File:Nanbeihetan 1911.png|thumb|right|[[Tang Shaoyi]], left. Edward Selby Little, middle. [[Wu Tingfang]], right.]] On 18 December, the North–South Conference (南北議和) was held in Shanghai to discuss the north and south issues.<ref name="liwanhon">李雲漢. [1996] (1996). 中國近代史. 三民書局 publishing. {{ISBN|957-14-0669-4}}, {{ISBN|978-957-14-0669-5}}.</ref> Yuan Shikai selected [[Tang Shaoyi]] as his representative.<ref name="liwanhon" /> Tang left Beijing for Wuhan to negotiate with the revolutionaries.<ref name="liwanhon" /> The revolutionaries chose [[Wu Tingfang]].<ref name="liwanhon" /> With the intervention of six foreign powers, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, [[Russian Empire|Russia]], Japan, and France, Tang Shaoyi and Wu Tingfang began to negotiate a settlement at the British [[Concession (territory)|concession]].<ref>中央硏究院近代史硏究所. [1971] (1971). 中央硏究院近代史硏究所集刊, Volume 2. Digitized on 2 August 2007 from the University of California.</ref> Foreign businessman Edward Selby Little (李德立) acted as the negotiator and facilitated the peace agreement.<ref>存萃學社. 周康燮. [1971] (1971). 辛亥革命研究論集: 1895–1929, Volume 1. 崇文書店 publishing. Digitized on 16 August 2007 by University of Michigan.</ref> They agreed that Yuan Shikai would force the Qing emperor to abdicate in exchange for the southern provinces' support of Yuan as the president of the Republic. After considering the possibility that the new republic might be defeated in a civil war or by foreign invasion, Sun Yat-sen agreed to Yuan's proposal to unify China under Yuan Shikai's Beijing government. Further decisions were made to let the emperor rule over his little court in the [[New Summer Palace]]. He would be treated as a ruler of a separate country and have expenses of several million [[taels]] in silver.<ref>Feng, Youlan Feng. Mair, Denis C. [2000] (2000). The hall of three pines: an account of my life. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-2220-X}}, 9780824822200. pg 45.</ref> ==Establishment of the Republic== [[File:1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg|thumb|right|Sun Yat-sen in 1912 at one of the historic crossroads with the [[Five Races Under One Union]] flag and the Iron Blood 18-star flag]] ===Republic of China declared and national flag issue=== [[1911 Republic of China provisional presidential election|On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected]] as the first [[List of leaders of the Republic of China|provisional president]].<ref>Lane, Roger deWardt. [2008] (2008). ''Encyclopedia Small Silver Coins''. {{ISBN|0-615-24479-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-615-24479-2}}.</ref> 1 January 1912 was set as the [[Epoch (reference date)|first day]] of the First Year of the ROC.<ref name="Well">Welland, Sasah Su-ling. [2007] (2007). ''A Thousand miles of dreams: The journeys of two Chinese sisters''. Rowman Littlefield Publishing. {{ISBN|0-7425-5314-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7425-5314-9}}. pg 87.</ref> On 3 January, the representatives recommended Li Yuanhong as the provisional vice-president.<ref>Yu Weichao Yu. [1997] (1997). ''A Journey into China's Antiquity: Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty''. Volume 4. Morning Glory Publishers. {{ISBN|7-5054-0514-4}}, {{ISBN|978-7-5054-0514-1}}.</ref> During and after the 1911 Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with [[Taijitu]].<ref name="fitzj">Fitzgerald, John. [1998] (1998). ''Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-3337-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-3337-3}}. pg 180.</ref> Others in competition included [[Lu Haodong]]'s [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag. [[Huang Xing]] favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of [[Five Races Under One Union]].<ref name="fitzj" /> The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.<ref name="newlight10-92">劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. [2002] (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. {{ISBN|962-07-5316-X}}. pg 92–93</ref> The red represented [[Han Chinese|Han]], the yellow represented [[Manchu people|Manchus]], the blue for [[Mongols]], the white for [[Islam in China|Muslim]]s, and the black for [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]].<ref name="fitzj" /><ref name="newlight10-92" /> Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated [[racial integration]] to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.<ref>Hsiao-ting Lin. [2010] (2010). ''Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west''. Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-415-58264-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-58264-3}}. pg 7.</ref> ===Donghuamen incident=== On 16 January, while returning to his residence, Yuan Shikai was ambushed in a bomb attack organized by the Tongmenghui in Donghuamen (東華門), Beijing.<ref name="gg">邵建. [2008] (2008). 胡適前傳. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. {{ISBN|986-221-008-7}}, {{ISBN|978-986-221-008-6}}. pg 236.</ref> A total of eighteen revolutionaries were involved. About ten of the guards died, but Yuan himself was not seriously injured.<ref name="gg" /> He sent a message to the revolutionaries the next day pledging his loyalty and asking them not to organize any more assassination attempts against him. [[File:Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Imperial edict for abdication]] ===Abdication of the emperor=== {{Main|Puyi#Abdication}} [[Zhang Jian (politician)|Zhang Jian]] drafted an abdication proposal that was approved by the Provisional Senate. On 20 January, [[Wu Tingfang]] of the Nanking Provisional Government officially delivered the imperial edict of abdication to Yuan Shikai for the [[abdication]] of Puyi.<ref name="Rhoads228" /> On 22 January, Sun Yat-sen announced that he would resign the presidency in favor of Yuan Shikai if the latter supported the emperor's abdication.<ref>Boorman, Howard L. Howard, Richard C. Cheng, Joseph K. H. [1970] (1970). ''Biographical dictionary of Republican China'', V. 3. Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|0-231-08957-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-231-08957-9}}.</ref> Yuan then pressured [[Empress Dowager Longyu]] with the threat that the lives of the imperial family would not be spared if abdication did not come before the revolutionaries reached Beijing, but if they agreed to abdicate, the provisional government would honor the terms proposed by the imperial family. On 3 February, Empress Dowager Longyu gave Yuan full permission to negotiate the abdication terms of the Qing emperor. Yuan then drew up his own version and forwarded it to the revolutionaries on 3 February.<ref name="Rhoads228" /> His version consisted of three sections instead of two.<ref name="Rhoads228" /> On 12 February 1912, after being pressured by Yuan and other ministers, Puyi (age six) and Empress Dowager Longyu accepted Yuan's terms of abdication.<ref name="Well" /> ===Debate over the capital=== {{see also|History of Beijing}} As a condition for ceding leadership to Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen insisted that the provisional government remain in Nanjing. On 14 February, the Provisional Senate initially voted 20–5 in favor of making Beijing the capital over Nanjing, with two votes going for Wuhan and one for Tianjin.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.1">(Chinese) [http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189.htm 胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" ''民国档案'' p.1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606083901/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189.htm |date=6 June 2012 }} 2010-12-08</ref> The Senate majority wanted to secure the peace agreement by taking power in Beijing.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.1"/> Zhang Jian and others reasoned that having the capital in Beijing would check against Manchu restoration and [[Outer Mongolia (1911–19)|Mongol secession]]. But Sun and [[Huang Xing]] argued in favor of Nanjing to balance against Yuan's power base in the north.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.1"/> [[Li Yuanhong]] presented Wuhan as a compromise.<ref>(Chinese) [http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_2.htm 胡绳武 "民国元年定都之" ''民国档案'' p. 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032733/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_2.htm |date=15 September 2012 }} 2010-12-08</ref> The next day, the Provisional Senate voted again, this time, 19–6 in favor of Nanjing with two votes for Wuhan.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.1"/> Sun sent a delegation led by Cai Yuanpei and Wang Jingwei to persuade Yuan to move to Nanjing.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.3">(Chinese) [http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm 胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" ''民国档案'' p. 3] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032749/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm |date=15 September 2012 }} 2010-12-08</ref> Yuan welcomed the delegation and agreed to accompany the delegates back to the south.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.4">(Chinese) [http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_4.htm 胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" ''民国档案'' p. 4] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032803/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_4.htm |date=15 September 2012 }} 2010-12-08</ref> Then on the evening of 29 February, [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)#Northern transition#Dong'anmen Gate incident|riots and fires]] broke out all over the city.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.4"/> They were allegedly started by disobedient troops of [[Cao Kun]], a loyal officer of Yuan.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.4"/> The disorder gave Yuan the pretext to stay in the north to guard against unrest. On 10 March, Yuan was inaugurated in Beijing as the provisional president of the Republic of China.<ref name="Xinhai.org p.2">(Chinese) [http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm 胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" ''民国档案'' p. 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032749/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm |date=15 September 2012 }} 2010-12-08</ref> On 5 April, the Provisional Senate in Nanjing voted to make Beijing the capital of the Republic and convened in Beijing at the end of the month. ==Republican government in Beijing== {{main|Beiyang Government}} [[File:Yuan Shikai sworn in as Provisional President - 10 March 1912.jpg|thumb|right|Yuan Shikai swearing in as the Provisional President in Beijing]] On 10 March 1912, Yuan Shikai was sworn as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China in Beijing.<ref>Fu, Zhengyuan. [1993] (1993). ''Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics: Zhengyuan Fu''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-44228-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-44228-2}}. pg 154.</ref> The government based in Beijing, called the Beiyang Government, was not internationally recognized as the legitimate government of the Republic of China until 1928, so the period from 1912 until 1928 was known simply as the "Beiyang Period". The [[1912 Republic of China National Assembly elections|first National Assembly election]] took place according to the [[Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China|Provisional Constitution]]. While in Beijing, the Kuomintang was formed on 25 August 1912.<ref>Hsueh, Chun-tu. Xue, Jundu. [1961] (1961). ''Huang Hsing and the Chinese revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-0031-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-0031-3}}.</ref> The KMT held the majority of seats after the election. [[Song Jiaoren]] was elected as premier. However, Song was assassinated in Shanghai on 20 March 1913, under the secret order of Yuan Shikai.<ref>Fu, Zhengyuan. [1993] (1993). ''Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-44228-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-44228-2}}. pp 153–154.</ref> ==Proposed Han monarchs and retention of aristocratic noble titles== Some advocated that a Han be installed as Emperor, either the descendant of Confucius, who was the [[Duke Yansheng]],<ref name="Woodhouse2004">{{cite book|author=Eiko Woodhouse|title=The Chinese Hsinhai Revolution: G. E. Morrison and Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1897–1920|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4TfPJpJRV_0C&pg=PA113 |date=2 August 2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-35242-5|pages=113–}}</ref><ref name="Spence1982">{{cite book|author=Jonathan D. Spence|title=The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and Their Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DwgvjqO5ivUC&pg=PP84 |date=28 October 1982|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-101-17372-5|pages=84–}}</ref><ref name="HuLiu1983">{{cite book|author1=Shêng Hu|author2=Danian Liu|title=The 1911 Revolution: A Retrospective After 70 Years|url=https://books.google.com/?id=MmwKAQAAIAAJ&q=If+we+want+to+bring+order+and+peace+to+China,+we+should+follow+the+model+of+the+British+titular+monarchy;+nothing+seemed+more+reasonable+and+logical+than+to+make+the+present+monarch+the+titular+head+of+a+constitutional+monarchy.+This+was+the+reason+...+The+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke,+is+unparalleled+among+the+descendants+of+the+best+families+in+the+nation.+If+we+have+no+other+alternative,+let+us+promote+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke+two+ranks+and+make+him+emperor.&dq=If+we+want+to+bring+order+and+peace+to+China,+we+should+follow+the+model+of+the+British+titular+monarchy;+nothing+seemed+more+reasonable+and+logical+than+to+make+the+present+monarch+the+titular+head+of+a+constitutional+monarchy.+This+was+the+reason+...+The+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke,+is+unparalleled+among+the+descendants+of+the+best+families+in+the+nation.+If+we+have+no+other+alternative,+let+us+promote+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke+two+ranks+and+make+him+emperor.|year=1983|publisher=New World Press|page=55}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The National Review, China|url=https://books.google.com/?id=vyM-AQAAMAAJ&q=The+dificulty+lay+in+the+choice+of+a+suitable+monarch+upon+whom+to+exercise+the+curbing+influences+of+constitutional+limitation.+A+very+strong+element+proposed+that+Duke+Kung,+the+seventy-fifth+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+should+be+made+King+of+China;+and+the&dq=The+dificulty+lay+in+the+choice+of+a+suitable+monarch+upon+whom+to+exercise+the+curbing+influences+of+constitutional+limitation.+A+very+strong+element+proposed+that+Duke+Kung,+the+seventy-fifth+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+should+be+made+King+of+China;+and+the|year=1913|page=200}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Monumenta Serica|url=https://books.google.com/?id=xzRDAQAAIAAJ&q=That+being+the+case,+the+abdicated+Ch'ing+emperor+or+even+%22+the+Holy+Duke+%22+(Yen-sheng+kung+ft&dq=That+being+the+case,+the+abdicated+Ch'ing+emperor+or+even+%22+the+Holy+Duke+%22+(Yen-sheng+kung+ft|year=1967|publisher=H. Vetch|page=67}}</ref> or the Ming dynasty imperial family descendant, the [[Marquis of Extended Grace]].<ref name="Kent1912">{{cite book|author=Percy Horace Braund Kent|title=The Passing of the Manchus|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941|year=1912|publisher=E. Arnold|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941/page/n438 382]–}}</ref><ref name="Aldrich2008">{{cite book|author=M.A. Aldrich|title=The Search for a Vanishing Beijing: A Guide to China's Capital Through the Ages|url=https://books.google.com/?id=TMMvxX67FpIC&pg=PA176&dq=Marquis+of+Extended+Grace#v=onepage&q=Marquis%20of%20Extended%20Grace&f=false|date=1 March 2008|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=978-962-209-777-3|pages=176–}}</ref> The Duke Yansheng was proposed for replacing the Qing dynasty as Emperor by [[Liang Qichao]].<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |date=2014 |title=Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECJQBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false |location= |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |edition=revised |page=74 |isbn=978-1443867726 |author-link= }}</ref> The Han hereditary aristocratic nobility like the Duke Yansheng, Marquis of Extended Grace, and the title of the Wujing Boshi (changed to "Dacheng Zhisheng Xianshi Nanzong Fengsi Guan" 大成至聖先師南宗奉祀官) and the titles held by the descendants of [[Mencius]], [[Zengzi]], and [[Yan Hui]] were retained by the new Republic of China and the title holders continued to receive their pensions. ==Legacy== ===Social influence=== After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, but particularly in Beijing where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence as imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled as Manchu imperial power crumbled.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution |title=Sun Yatsen and the 1911 Revolution |publisher=Sinica |date=13 October 2011 |accessdate=14 March 2017}}</ref> Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like ''A Short History of [[Nucai|Slaves]]'' (奴才小史) and ''The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel'' (貪官污吏傳) by Laoli (老吏).<ref name="Rhoads266" /><ref name="ckd">{{cite web|author=Ulrich Theobald |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html |title=Chinese Literature&nbsp;– Man-Qing yeshi 滿淸野史 |publisher=www.chinaknowledge.de |date=28 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> During the abdication of the last emperor, Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan Shikai and Sun Yat-sen both tried to adopt the concept of "Manchu and Han as one family" (滿漢一家).<ref name="Rhoads266">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. p. 266.</ref> People started exploring and debating with themselves on the root cause of their national weakness. This new search of identity was the [[New Culture Movement]].<ref>Tanner, Harold M. [2010] (2010). "China: From the Great Qing Empire through the People's Republic of China 1644–2009" Volume 2 of ''China: A History''. Hackett Publishing. {{ISBN|1-60384-204-7}}, {{ISBN|978-1-60384-204-4}}. pg 123.</ref> Manchu culture and [[Manchu language|language]], on the contrary, has become virtually extinct by 2007.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lague |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/world/asia/16iht-manchu.4935046.html |title=China's Manchu speakers struggle to save language |work=The New York Times |date=16 March 2007 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Unlike revolutions in the West, the 1911 Revolution did not restructure society. The participants in the 1911 Revolution were mostly military personnel, old-type bureaucrats, and local gentries. These people still held regional power after the 1911 Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the [[standard of living]]. The writer [[Lu Xun]] commented in 1921 during the publishing of ''[[The True Story of Ah Q]]'', ten years after the 1911 Revolution, that basically nothing changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".<ref>Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 143.</ref> The economic problems were not addressed until the governance of [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] in Taiwan and [[Deng Xiaoping]] on the mainland.<ref name="scmpjul4" /> The 1911 Revolution mainly got rid of [[feudalism]] ([[fengjian]]) from [[Late Imperial China]]. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]].<ref name="Yanjia">Yan, Jiaqi Yan. Hong, David S. K. Mair, Denis C. [1992] (1992). Toward a democratic China: the intellectual autobiography of Yan Jiaqi. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-1501-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-1501-1}}. pg 189, 251.</ref> Both were unsuccessful, but the "feudal remnants" returned to China with the [[Cultural Revolution]] in a concept called [[guanxi]], where people relied not on feudal relationships, but personal relationships, for survival.<ref name="yangm">[[Mayfair Yang|Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui]]. [1994] (1994). ''Gifts, favors, and banquets: the art of social relationships in China''. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8014-9592-X}}, 9780801495922. Pg 146–147.</ref> While guanxi is helpful in Taiwan, on the mainland, guanxi is necessary to get anything done.<ref name="Luoy">Luo, Yadong. [2007] (2007). ''Guanxi and business''. Volume 5 of Asia-Pacific business series. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-270-046-3}}, {{ISBN|978-981-270-046-9}}. pg 26.</ref> Due to the effects of anti-Manchu sentiment after the revolution, the Manchus of the Metropolitan Banners were driven into deep poverty, with Manchu men too impoverished to marry so Han men married Manchu women, Manchus stopped dressing in Manchu clothing and stopped practicing Manchu traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhoads |first1=Edward J. M. |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295980400 |page=270 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA270}}</ref> ===Historical significance=== The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government and two thousand years of monarchy.<ref name="xb1" /> Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The 1911 Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. Though in 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the [[comrade]]s still need to strive for the future." ({{zh|labels=no|c=革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力}}).<ref>陸韻葭. [2006] (2006). 上海玩全指南. Travelcom press. {{ISBN|986-7143-13-2}}, {{ISBN|978-986-7143-13-6}}. pg 49.</ref> Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties–the ROC and PRC–see the 1911 Revolution quite differently.<ref name="scmpr">South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Replacing chairman Mao with Sun Yat-sen.</ref> Both sides recognize Sun Yat-sen as the [[Father of the Nation]], but in Taiwan, they mean "Father of the Republic of China".<ref name="scmpr" /> On the mainland, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a pre-condition for the Communist state founded in 1949.<ref name="scmpr" /> The PRC views Sun's work as the first step towards the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly independent state that expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power.<ref name="scmpr" /> The father of [[People's Republic of China|New China]] is seen as [[Mao Zedong]].<ref name="scmpr" /> In 1954, [[Liu Shaoqi]] was quoted as saying that the "1911 Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".<ref>{{cite web|author=Takungpao.com |url=http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 |title=1911 |publisher=Takungpao.com |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=1059 |url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html |title=劉少奇談辛亥革命（摘要）-中國共產黨新聞 |publisher=Dangshi.people.com.cn |date=19 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> [[Zhou Enlai]] pointed out that the "1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 2000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml |title=王志昆講重慶辛亥革命：為什麼兵不血刃，一次成功_重慶_重慶站_鳳凰網 |publisher=Big5.ifeng.com |date=30 December 2008 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> ===Modern evaluation=== [[File:Taiw 100ann 10yuan.jpg|thumb|300px|Commemorative coin, minted in Taiwan in 2011]] A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but [[Zhang Shizhao]] was quoted as arguing that "When talking about the 1911 Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."<ref>{{cite book |last = 章 |first = 士釗 |year = 2000 |orig-year = 1962 |chapter = 孫、黃遺劄密詮 |title = 章士釗全集 |volume = 8 |location = 上海 |publisher = 文彙出版社 |page = 341 |isbn = 978-7805315430 }}</ref> The success of the democracy gained from the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, for sixty years, the KMT controlled all five branches of the government; none were independent.<ref name="scmpjul4">South China morning post. Sun Yat-sen and the centenary of the 1911 Revolution. 4 July 2010.</ref> [[Yan Jiaqi]], founder of the [[Federation for a Democratic China]], has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there now democratizing the region.<ref name="Yanjia" /> Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised on the mainland. For example, former Chinese premier [[Wen Jiabao]] once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights; but he led a [[2011 crackdown on dissidents in the People's Republic of China|2011 crackdown]] against the peaceful [[2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests|Chinese jasmine protests]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Pomfret |first=James |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627 |title=China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms |publisher=Reuters |date= 27 June 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> [[Liu Xiaobo]], a pro-democracy activist who received the global [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize]], died in prison.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Yomiuri Shimbun |url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm |title=100 years on, China far from democracy: Editorial: DAILY YOMIURI ONLINE (The Daily Yomiuri) |publisher=Yomiuri.co.jp |date=14 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> Others, such as Qin Yongmin (秦永敏) of the [[Democracy Party of China]], who was only released from prison after twelve years, do not praise the 1911 Revolution.<ref name="geo">{{cite web |url = http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |publisher=GEO.tv |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref name="hrichina">{{cite web |url = http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879 |title=Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence &#124; Human Rights in China 中国人权 |publisher=Hrichina.org |date=29 November 2010 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Qin Yongmin said the revolution only replaced one dictator with another, that [[Mao Zedong]] was not an emperor, but he is worse than the emperor.<ref name="geo" /><ref name="hrichina" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on/ |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |work= The West Australian |publisher=Au.news.yahoo.com |date=9 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|China}} * [[1911 (film)|''1911'' (film)]] * [[Military of the Republic of China]] * [[National Revolutionary Army]] * [[Timeline of Late Anti-Qing Rebellions]] == Notes == {{NoteFoot}} {{refbegin}} {{Cnote|a|Many of the Qing soldiers with Han background turned to support the revolution during the uprisings, so the actual casualties are hard to trace.}} {{Cnote|b|Clipping from Min Bao (People's Papers). Originally the publishing of Hua Xin Hui and named ''China of the Twentieth Century'', it was renamed after the establishment of Tongmenhui.}} {{refend}} == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Further reading == ===Primary sources=== {{refbegin}} * Wu Xinghan ({{zh|吳醒漢}}), ''Three Day Journal of Wuchang Uprising'' ({{zh|武昌起義三日記}}). {{refend}} ===Contemporary accounts=== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Dingle|first=Edwin J.|title=China's Revolution: 1911–1912. A Historical and Political Record of the Civil War|year=1912|publisher=Commercial Press|location=Shanghai, China}} * {{cite book|last=Kent|first=P. H. B.|title=The Passing of the Manchus|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941|year=1912|publisher=E. Arnold|location=London}} {{refend}} === Scholarly secondary sources === ; English {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Esherick|first=Joseph W.|title=Reform and revolution in China: the 1911 revolution in Hunan and Hubei|year=1976|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-03084-8}} * {{cite book |last=Fung|first=Edmund S. K.|title=The military dimension of the Chinese revolution: The New Army and its role in the revolution of 1911|year=1980|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|location=Vancouver|isbn=978-0-7748-0129-4}} * {{cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Melvyn C.|title=A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist state|publisher=University of California Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-520-07590-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernt00melv}} * {{cite book|last=Hsieh|first=Winston|title=Chinese historiography on the Revolution of 1911: a critical survey and a selected bibliography|year=1975|publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0-8179-3341-8}} * {{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Lawrence M.|title=Homer Lea: American Soldier of Fortune|year=2010|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|location=Lexington.|isbn=978-0-8131-2616-6}} * {{cite book |last = Kit-ching |first = Chan Lau |title= Anglo-Chinese Diplomacy 1906-1920: In the Careers of Sir John Jordan and Yüan Shih-kai |language= de |url= https://books.google.de/books?id=NpBlT5nnKecC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |date= 1978 |publisher= [[Hong Kong University Press]] |location= [[Hong Kong]] |isbn= 962-209-010-9 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Ma|first=L. Eve Armentrout|title=Revolutionaries, monarchists, and Chinatowns: Chinese politics in the Americas and the 1911 revolution|year=1990|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-8248-1239-3}} * {{cite book|last=Rankin|first=Mary Backus|title=Elite activism and political transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911|year=1986|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0-8047-1321-4|url=https://archive.org/details/eliteactivismpol0000rank}} *Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2018). ''Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal'' (U of British Columbia Press). {{ISBN|9780774837781}}. * {{cite book|last=Shinkichi|first=/ edited Eto|title=China's republican revolution|year=1994|publisher=University of Tokyo Press|location=[Tokyo]|isbn=978-4-13-027030-4|author2=Schiffrin, Harold Z. }} * {{cite book|last=Wright|first=Mary Clabaugh|authorlink=Mary C. Wright|title=China in revolution: the first phase 1900–1913|year=1978|publisher=Yale UP|location=New Haven|isbn=978-0-300-01460-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/chinainrevolutio0000unse}} * {{cite book|last=Young|first=Ernest P.|title=The Presidency of Yuan Shih-K'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China|year=1977|publisher=University of Michigan Press, Michigan Studies on China|location=Ann Arbor}} * Yu, George T. "The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future," ''Asian Survey'', 31#10 (1991), pp.&nbsp;895–904, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645062 online] historiography {{refend}} ; Chinese {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Tang (唐)|first=Degang (德剛)|title=The Late 50 years of Qing: Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen and Xinhai Revolution| publisher=Taipei: Yuanliu (遠流)|year=1998|isbn=978-957-32-3513-2}} * {{cite book|last=Tang (唐)|first=Degang (德剛)|trans-title=The Rule of Yuan Shikai |script-title=zh:袁氏當國 |publisher=Taipei: Yuanliu (遠流)|year=2002|isbn=978-957-32-4680-0}} * {{cite book|last=Zhang (張)|first=Yufa (玉法)|trans-title=The History of the Republic of China |script-title=zh:中華民國史稿 |publisher=Taipei: Lianjin (聯經)|year=1998|isbn=978-957-08-1826-0}} * {{cite book|last=Lin (林)|first=Yusheng (毓生)|trans-title=The Anti-tradition Trends of May Forth Era and the Future of Libertarianism in China included in "Personage and their thoughts" |script-title=zh:<五四時代的激烈反傳統思想與中國自由主義的前途> 收入"思想與人物" |publisher=Taipei: Lianjin (聯經)|year=1983|isbn=978-957-08-0384-6}} * {{cite book |last1 = Zhou (周) |first1 = Weimin (伟民) |last2=Tang (唐) |first2 = Linlin (玲玲) |trans-title=The History of Cultural Interactions of China and Malaysia |script-title=zh:中国和马来西亚文化交流史 |publisher=[[Haikou]]: Hainan (海南) |year=2002 |isbn=978-7-5443-0682-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Li (李)|first=Zehou (澤厚) |author2=Liu (劉), Zhaifu (再復) |trans-title=A Farewell to the Revolutions: Records of Discussions in 20th century China |script-title=zh:告別革命－二十世紀中國對談錄 |publisher=Taipei: Maitian (麥田) |year=1999 |isbn=978-957-708-735-5 }} {{refend}} == External links == * {{Commons category-inline|Xinhai Revolution}} {{-}} {{China topics}} {{Qing dynasty topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Xinhai Revolution| ]] [[Category:1911 in China]] [[Category:1912 in China]] [[Category:20th-century revolutions]] [[Category:History of the Republic of China]] [[Category:Republic of China (1912–1949)]] [[Category:Revolutions in China]] [[Category:Eight Banners]]'
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff)
'@@ -7,5 +7,5 @@ |conflict = Chinese Revolution of 1911<br />(Xinhai Revolution) |partof = [[Anti-Qing sentiment|Anti-Qing Movements]] -|image = Xinhai Revolution in Shanghai.jpg +|image = 1911 Revolution in Shanghai.jpg |image_size = 300px |caption = '''Double Ten Revolution''' in Shanghai-'''[[Nanjing Road]]''' ('''Nanking Road''') after the '''[[#Shanghai Armed Uprising|Shanghai Uprising]]''', hung with the '''[[Five Races Under One Union]]''' flags then used by the revolutionaries in Shanghai and Northern China. @@ -46,5 +46,5 @@ }} -The '''Xinhai Revolution''' ({{zh |c = {{linktext|辛亥革命}} |p = Xīnhài Gémìng }}), also known as the '''Chinese Revolution''' or the '''Revolution of 1911''', was a revolution that overthrew China's last [[Dynasties in Chinese history#Dynasties|imperial dynasty]] (the [[Qing dynasty]]) and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (ROC). The revolution was named Xinhai (Hsin-hai) because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai ({{zh|labels=no |c=辛亥 }}) stem-branch in the [[sexagenary cycle]] of the [[Chinese calendar]].<ref>Li Xing. [2010] (2010). The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|0-7546-7913-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-7913-4}}. p. 91.</ref> +The '''1911 Revolution''' ({{zh |c = {{linktext|辛亥革命}} |p = Xīnhài Gémìng }}), also known as the '''Chinese Revolution''' or the '''Xinhai Revolution''', was a revolution that overthrew China's last [[Dynasties in Chinese history#Dynasties|imperial dynasty]] (the [[Qing dynasty]]) and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (ROC). The revolution was named Xinhai (Hsin-hai) because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai ({{zh|labels=no |c=辛亥 }}) stem-branch in the [[sexagenary cycle]] of the [[Chinese calendar]].<ref>Li Xing. [2010] (2010). The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|0-7546-7913-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-7913-4}}. p. 91.</ref> The revolution consisted of many revolts and uprisings. The turning point was the [[Wuchang uprising]] on 10 October 1911, which was the result of the mishandling of the [[Railway Protection Movement]]. The revolution ended with the abdication of the six-year-old [[Emperor of China|Last Emperor]], [[Puyi]], on 12 February 1912, that marked the end of 2,000 years of [[History of China#Imperial China|imperial rule]] and the beginning of China's [[History of the Republic of China#Early republic (1912–16)|early republican era]].<ref name="xb1">Li, Xiaobing. [2007] (2007). ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army''. University Press of Kentucky. {{ISBN|0-8131-2438-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8131-2438-4}}. pp. 13, 26–27.</ref> @@ -52,5 +52,5 @@ The revolution arose mainly in response to the [[Qing Dynasty#Rebellion, unrest and external pressure|decline of the Qing state]], which had proven ineffective in its efforts to modernize China and confront foreign aggression. Many underground [[Anti-Qing sentiment|anti-Qing groups]], with the support of Chinese revolutionaries in exile, tried to overthrow the Qing. The brief civil war that ensued was ended through a political compromise between [[Yuan Shikai]], the late Qing military strongman, and [[Sun Yat-sen]], the leader of the [[Tongmenghui|Tongmenghui (United League)]]. After the Qing court transferred power to the newly founded republic, a [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|provisional coalition government]] created along with the [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]]. However, political power of the [[Beiyang Government|new national government]] in Beijing was soon thereafter monopolized by Yuan and led to decades of political division and [[Warlord Era|warlordism]], including several attempts at imperial restoration. -The [[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]] in [[Taiwan]] and the [[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] on the [[Mainland China|mainland]] both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the Xinhai Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including [[Chinese nationalism|nationalism]], [[republicanism]], modernization of China and [[Zhonghua minzu|national unity]]. 10 October is commemorated in [[Taiwan]] as [[Double Ten Day]], the National Day of the ROC. In mainland China, Hong Kong, and [[Macau]], the day is celebrated as the Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution. +The [[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]] in [[Taiwan]] and the [[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] on the [[Mainland China|mainland]] both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the 1911 Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including [[Chinese nationalism|nationalism]], [[republicanism]], modernization of China and [[Zhonghua minzu|national unity]]. 10 October is commemorated in [[Taiwan]] as [[Double Ten Day]], the National Day of the ROC. In mainland China, Hong Kong, and [[Macau]], the day is celebrated as the Anniversary of the 1911 Revolution. == Background == @@ -78,5 +78,5 @@ | header_align = left/right/center | header_background = -| footer = After the failure of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] in 1898, Guangxu's advisors [[Kang Youwei]] (left, 1858–1927) and [[Liang Qichao]] (1873–1929) fled into exile, while [[Tan Sitong]] (right, 1865–1898) was executed. In Canada, Kang and Liang formed the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] to promote a [[constitutional monarchy]] for China. In 1900, they supported an unsuccessful uprising in central China to rescue Guangxu. After the Xinhai Revolution, Liang became a [[Minister of Justice of the Republic of China]]. Kang remained a royalist and supported [[Puyi#Brief restoration (1917)|restoring]] the last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] in 1917. +| footer = After the failure of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] in 1898, Guangxu's advisors [[Kang Youwei]] (left, 1858–1927) and [[Liang Qichao]] (1873–1929) fled into exile, while [[Tan Sitong]] (right, 1865–1898) was executed. In Canada, Kang and Liang formed the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] to promote a [[constitutional monarchy]] for China. In 1900, they supported an unsuccessful uprising in central China to rescue Guangxu. After the 1911 Revolution, Liang became a [[Minister of Justice of the Republic of China]]. Kang remained a royalist and supported [[Puyi#Brief restoration (1917)|restoring]] the last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] in 1917. | footer_align = left/right/center | footer_background = @@ -132,14 +132,14 @@ ==Strata and groups== -The Xinhai Revolution was supported by many groups, including students and intellectuals who returned from abroad, as well as participants of the revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers and others. +The 1911 Revolution was supported by many groups, including students and intellectuals who returned from abroad, as well as participants of the revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers and others. ===Overseas Chinese=== {{main|Chinese revolutionary activities in Malaya}} -Assistance from [[overseas Chinese]] was important in the Xinhai Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.<ref>Lee, Khoon Choy Lee. [2005] (2005). ''Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese''. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-256-618-X}}, 9789812566188.</ref> Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in the funding of revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (Singapore and [[Malaysia]]).<ref name="Gao">Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). ''Historical Dictionary of Modern China'' (1800–1949). Issue 25 of "Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras". Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-4930-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4930-3}}. pg 156. pg 29.</ref> Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".<ref name="Gao" /> +Assistance from [[overseas Chinese]] was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.<ref>Lee, Khoon Choy Lee. [2005] (2005). ''Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese''. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-256-618-X}}, 9789812566188.</ref> Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in the funding of revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (Singapore and [[Malaysia]]).<ref name="Gao">Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). ''Historical Dictionary of Modern China'' (1800–1949). Issue 25 of "Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras". Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-4930-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4930-3}}. pg 156. pg 29.</ref> Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".<ref name="Gao" /> === Newly emerged intellectuals === -In 1906, after the abolition of the [[imperial examinations]], the Qing government established many new schools and encouraged students to study abroad. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.<ref name="fenby">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 96. pg 106.</ref> A new class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the Xinhai Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, [[Song Jiaoren]], [[Hu Hanmin]], [[Liao Zhongkai]], [[Zhu Zhixin (revolutionary)|Zhu Zhixin]] and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like [[Zou Rong]], known for writing the book ''Revolutionary Army'', in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty and tyranny and turning the [[Descendants of Yan & Huang Emperors|sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor]] into [[George Washington]]s.<ref name="fenby109">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 109.</ref> +In 1906, after the abolition of the [[imperial examinations]], the Qing government established many new schools and encouraged students to study abroad. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.<ref name="fenby">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 96. pg 106.</ref> A new class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, [[Song Jiaoren]], [[Hu Hanmin]], [[Liao Zhongkai]], [[Zhu Zhixin (revolutionary)|Zhu Zhixin]] and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like [[Zou Rong]], known for writing the book ''Revolutionary Army'', in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty and tyranny and turning the [[Descendants of Yan & Huang Emperors|sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor]] into [[George Washington]]s.<ref name="fenby109">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 109.</ref> -Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings that these organizations would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the Xinhai Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like [[Tiandihui|Sanhehui]] were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."<ref>''Complete works of Sun Yat-sen'' 《總理全集》 First edition, page 920</ref> +Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings that these organizations would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like [[Tiandihui|Sanhehui]] were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."<ref>''Complete works of Sun Yat-sen'' 《總理全集》 First edition, page 920</ref> ===Gentry and businessmen=== @@ -149,5 +149,5 @@ ===Foreigners=== -Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some of the supporters and participants of the Xinhai Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. [[Miyazaki Touten]] was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and [[Ryōhei Uchida]]. [[Homer Lea]], an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.<ref>{{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Lawrence M. |year = 2010 |title = Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune |publisher = University Press of Kentucky |location = Lexington |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0813126173|ref = none }}</ref> +Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some of the supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. [[Miyazaki Touten]] was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and [[Ryōhei Uchida]]. [[Homer Lea]], an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.<ref>{{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Lawrence M. |year = 2010 |title = Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune |publisher = University Press of Kentucky |location = Lexington |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0813126173|ref = none }}</ref> British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in the revolution.<ref name="Laukit">Lau, Kit-ching Chan. [1990] (1990). ''China, Britain and Hong Kong, 1895–1945''. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|962-201-409-7}}, {{ISBN|978-962-201-409-1}}. p. 37.</ref> Some foreigners, such as English explorer [[Arthur de Carle Sowerby]], led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912.<ref name="Borst-Smith 1912">{{cite book |last = Borst-Smith |first = Ernest F. |title = Caught in the Chinese Revolution |url = https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft |publisher = T Fisher Unwin |year = 1912 }}</ref> {{multiple image @@ -266,5 +266,5 @@ == Provincial uprisings == -[[File:Qing Dynasty Map durnig Xinhai Revolution.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Map of many of the uprisings during the Xinhai Revolution]] +[[File:Qing Dynasty Map at the time of the 1911 Revolution.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Map of uprisings during the 1911 Revolution]] After the success of the Wuchang Uprising, many other protests occurred throughout the country for various reasons. Some of the uprisings declared restoration (光復) of the [[Han Chinese]] rule. Other uprisings were a step toward independence, and some were protests or rebellions against the local authorities.{{Citation needed|date=September 2014}} Regardless the reason for the uprising the outcome was that all provinces in the country renounced the Qing dynasty and joined the ROC. @@ -284,5 +284,5 @@ On 29 October, [[Yan Xishan]] of the New Army led an uprising in [[Taiyuan]], the capital city of the province of [[Shanxi]], along with Yao Yijie (姚以價), Huang Guoliang (黃國梁), Wen Shouquan (溫壽泉), Li Chenglin (李成林), Zhang Shuzhi (張樹幟) and Qiao Xi (喬煦).<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /><ref>蒋顺兴, 李良玉. [1990] (1990). 山西王阎锡山/中华民国史丛书. Edition reprint. 河南人民出版社, 1990.</ref> -The Xinhai rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.<ref>{{cite book| title= Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907-1985 | page=102}}</ref> They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (陸鍾琦).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml |title=山西辛亥革命官僚階層——巡撫陸鍾琦之死_辛亥革命前奏_辛亥革命网 |publisher=Big5.xhgmw.org |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Yan Xishan would later become one of the warlords that plagued China during what was known as "the warlord era". +The rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where Banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.<ref>{{cite book| title= Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907-1985 | page=102}}</ref> They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (陸鍾琦).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml |title=山西辛亥革命官僚階層——巡撫陸鍾琦之死_辛亥革命前奏_辛亥革命网 |publisher=Big5.xhgmw.org |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Yan Xishan would later become one of the warlords that plagued China during what was known as "the warlord era". ===Kunming Double Ninth Uprising=== @@ -342,9 +342,9 @@ ===Mongolian independence=== {{main|Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia}} -At the end of 1911, the Mongols took action with an armed revolt against the Manchu authorities but were unsuccessful in the attempt.<ref name="Onon">Onon, Urgunge Onon. Pritchatt, Derrick. [1989] (1989). ''Asia's first modern revolution: Mongolia proclaims its independence in 1911''. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-08390-1}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08390-5}}. pg 38–40, 79.</ref> The independence movement that took place was not limited to just North (outer) Mongolia but was also a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.<ref name="Onon" /> On 29 December 1911, [[Bogd Khan]] became the leader of the Mongol empire. [[Inner Mongolia]] became a contested terrain between Khan and the Republic.<ref>Uradyn Erden Bulag. Hildegard Diemberger. International Association for Tibetan Studies. Seminar, Uradyn Erden Bulag. Brill's Tibetan studies library. [2007] (2007). "The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia": PIATS 2003: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-15521-X}}, {{ISBN|9789004155213}}.</ref> In general, Russia supported the [[Outer Mongolian revolution of 1911|Independence of Outer Mongolia]] (including [[Tannu Uriankhai]]) during the time of the Xinhai Revolution.<ref>Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). ''Chinese foreign policy: pragmatism and strategic behavior''. M.E. Sharpe publishing. {{ISBN|0-7656-1284-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7656-1284-7}}. pg 207.</ref> +At the end of 1911, the Mongols took action with an armed revolt against the Manchu authorities but were unsuccessful in the attempt.<ref name="Onon">Onon, Urgunge Onon. Pritchatt, Derrick. [1989] (1989). ''Asia's first modern revolution: Mongolia proclaims its independence in 1911''. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-08390-1}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08390-5}}. pg 38–40, 79.</ref> The independence movement that took place was not limited to just North (outer) Mongolia but was also a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.<ref name="Onon" /> On 29 December 1911, [[Bogd Khan]] became the leader of the Mongol empire. [[Inner Mongolia]] became a contested terrain between Khan and the Republic.<ref>Uradyn Erden Bulag. Hildegard Diemberger. International Association for Tibetan Studies. Seminar, Uradyn Erden Bulag. Brill's Tibetan studies library. [2007] (2007). "The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia": PIATS 2003: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-15521-X}}, {{ISBN|9789004155213}}.</ref> In general, Russia supported the [[Outer Mongolian revolution of 1911|Independence of Outer Mongolia]] (including [[Tannu Uriankhai]]) during the time of the 1911 Revolution.<ref>Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). ''Chinese foreign policy: pragmatism and strategic behavior''. M.E. Sharpe publishing. {{ISBN|0-7656-1284-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7656-1284-7}}. pg 207.</ref> Tibet and Mongolia then recognized each other in a treaty. ===Dihua and Yili Uprising=== -{{Main|Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang}} +{{Main|1911 Revolution in Xinjiang}} In [[Xinjiang]] on 28 December, Liu Xianzun (劉先俊) and the revolutionaries started the [[Ürümqi|Dihua]] Uprising (迪化起義).<ref name="doizung">中央研究院. [1993] (1993). 近代中國歷史人物論文集. 中央研究院近代史研究所. {{ISBN|957-671-150-9}}, {{ISBN|978-957-671-150-3}}.</ref> This was led by more than 100 members of Geilaohui.<ref name="hkcna">{{cite web|url=http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml |title=新疆伊犁辛亥革命打破清王朝西遷夢 |publisher=Hkcna.hk |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref> This uprising failed. On 7 January 1912, the [[Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture|Yili]] Uprising (伊犁起義) with Feng Temin (馮特民) began.<ref name="doizung" /><ref name="hkcna" /> Qing governor Yuan Dahua (袁大化) fled and handed over his resignation to [[Yang Zengxin]], because he could not handle fighting the revolutionaries.<ref name="yz">Millward, James A. [2007] (2007). ''Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang''. Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-231-13924-1}} pg 168, 440.</ref> @@ -355,5 +355,5 @@ ===Taiwan Uprising=== -In 1911 as part of the Xinhai Revolution, Tongmenghui sent Luo Fu-xing (羅福星) to the [[Taiwan island|island of Taiwan]] to free it from being [[Japanese rule in Taiwan|occupied by the Japanese]].<ref>[1981] (2007). Daily report: People's Republic of China, Issues 200–210. National Technical Information Service publishing. Digitized 2 March 2007 by University of Michigan. pg 50.</ref> The goal was to bring Taiwan island back to the Chinese Republic by inciting the Taiwan Uprising (台灣起義).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html |title=人民網-寶島英雄譜-苗栗事件：台灣光復先驅羅福星 |publisher=Tw.people.com.cn |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Luo was caught and killed on 3 March 1914.<ref name="Dellorto">Dell'Orto, Alessandro. [2002] (2002). ''Place and spirit in Taiwan: Tudi Gong in the stories, strategies, and memories of everyday life''. Psychology Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1568-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1568-8}}. pg 39.</ref> What was left was known as the "[[Miaoli County|Miaoli]] Incident", (苗栗事件) where more than 1,000 Taiwanese were executed by the Japanese police.<ref>Katz, Paul R. Rubinstein, Murray A. [2003] (2003). ''Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities''. Palgrave Macmillan Publishing. {{ISBN|0-312-23969-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-312-23969-5}}. pg 56.</ref> Luo's sacrifice is commemorated in Miaoli.<ref name="Dellorto" /> +In 1911, the Tongmenghui sent Luo Fu-xing (羅福星) to the [[Taiwan island|island of Taiwan]] to wrest it from [[Japanese rule in Taiwan|Japanese control]].<ref>[1981] (2007). Daily report: People's Republic of China, Issues 200–210. National Technical Information Service publishing. Digitized 2 March 2007 by University of Michigan. pg 50.</ref> The goal was to bring Taiwan island into the Chinese Republic by inciting the Taiwan Uprising (台灣起義).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html |title=人民網-寶島英雄譜-苗栗事件：台灣光復先驅羅福星 |publisher=Tw.people.com.cn |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Luo was caught and killed on 3 March 1914.<ref name="Dellorto">Dell'Orto, Alessandro. [2002] (2002). ''Place and spirit in Taiwan: Tudi Gong in the stories, strategies, and memories of everyday life''. Psychology Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1568-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1568-8}}. pg 39.</ref> What was left was known as the "[[Miaoli County|Miaoli]] Incident", (苗栗事件) where more than 1,000 Taiwanese were executed by the Japanese police.<ref>Katz, Paul R. Rubinstein, Murray A. [2003] (2003). ''Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities''. Palgrave Macmillan Publishing. {{ISBN|0-312-23969-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-312-23969-5}}. pg 56.</ref> Luo's sacrifice is commemorated in Miaoli.<ref name="Dellorto" /> ==Change of government== @@ -379,5 +379,5 @@ [[1911 Republic of China provisional presidential election|On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected]] as the first [[List of leaders of the Republic of China|provisional president]].<ref>Lane, Roger deWardt. [2008] (2008). ''Encyclopedia Small Silver Coins''. {{ISBN|0-615-24479-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-615-24479-2}}.</ref> 1 January 1912 was set as the [[Epoch (reference date)|first day]] of the First Year of the ROC.<ref name="Well">Welland, Sasah Su-ling. [2007] (2007). ''A Thousand miles of dreams: The journeys of two Chinese sisters''. Rowman Littlefield Publishing. {{ISBN|0-7425-5314-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7425-5314-9}}. pg 87.</ref> On 3 January, the representatives recommended Li Yuanhong as the provisional vice-president.<ref>Yu Weichao Yu. [1997] (1997). ''A Journey into China's Antiquity: Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty''. Volume 4. Morning Glory Publishers. {{ISBN|7-5054-0514-4}}, {{ISBN|978-7-5054-0514-1}}.</ref> -During and after the Xinhai Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with [[Taijitu]].<ref name="fitzj">Fitzgerald, John. [1998] (1998). ''Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-3337-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-3337-3}}. pg 180.</ref> Others in competition included [[Lu Haodong]]'s [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag. [[Huang Xing]] favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of [[Five Races Under One Union]].<ref name="fitzj" /> The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.<ref name="newlight10-92">劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. [2002] (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. {{ISBN|962-07-5316-X}}. pg 92–93</ref> The red represented [[Han Chinese|Han]], the yellow represented [[Manchu people|Manchus]], the blue for [[Mongols]], the white for [[Islam in China|Muslim]]s, and the black for [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]].<ref name="fitzj" /><ref name="newlight10-92" /> Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated [[racial integration]] to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.<ref>Hsiao-ting Lin. [2010] (2010). ''Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west''. Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-415-58264-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-58264-3}}. pg 7.</ref> +During and after the 1911 Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with [[Taijitu]].<ref name="fitzj">Fitzgerald, John. [1998] (1998). ''Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-3337-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-3337-3}}. pg 180.</ref> Others in competition included [[Lu Haodong]]'s [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag. [[Huang Xing]] favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of [[Five Races Under One Union]].<ref name="fitzj" /> The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.<ref name="newlight10-92">劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. [2002] (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. {{ISBN|962-07-5316-X}}. pg 92–93</ref> The red represented [[Han Chinese|Han]], the yellow represented [[Manchu people|Manchus]], the blue for [[Mongols]], the white for [[Islam in China|Muslim]]s, and the black for [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]].<ref name="fitzj" /><ref name="newlight10-92" /> Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated [[racial integration]] to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.<ref>Hsiao-ting Lin. [2010] (2010). ''Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west''. Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-415-58264-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-58264-3}}. pg 7.</ref> ===Donghuamen incident=== @@ -411,27 +411,27 @@ ==Legacy== ===Social influence=== -After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, but particularly in Beijing where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence as imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled as Manchu imperial power crumbled.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution |title=Sun Yatsen and the Xinhai Revolution |publisher=Sinica |date=13 October 2011 |accessdate=14 March 2017}}</ref> Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like ''A Short History of [[Nucai|Slaves]]'' (奴才小史) and ''The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel'' (貪官污吏傳) by Laoli (老吏).<ref name="Rhoads266" /><ref name="ckd">{{cite web|author=Ulrich Theobald |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html |title=Chinese Literature&nbsp;– Man-Qing yeshi 滿淸野史 |publisher=www.chinaknowledge.de |date=28 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> +After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, but particularly in Beijing where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence as imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled as Manchu imperial power crumbled.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution |title=Sun Yatsen and the 1911 Revolution |publisher=Sinica |date=13 October 2011 |accessdate=14 March 2017}}</ref> Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like ''A Short History of [[Nucai|Slaves]]'' (奴才小史) and ''The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel'' (貪官污吏傳) by Laoli (老吏).<ref name="Rhoads266" /><ref name="ckd">{{cite web|author=Ulrich Theobald |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html |title=Chinese Literature&nbsp;– Man-Qing yeshi 滿淸野史 |publisher=www.chinaknowledge.de |date=28 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> During the abdication of the last emperor, Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan Shikai and Sun Yat-sen both tried to adopt the concept of "Manchu and Han as one family" (滿漢一家).<ref name="Rhoads266">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). ''Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928''. University of Washington publishing. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-295-98040-9}}. p. 266.</ref> People started exploring and debating with themselves on the root cause of their national weakness. This new search of identity was the [[New Culture Movement]].<ref>Tanner, Harold M. [2010] (2010). "China: From the Great Qing Empire through the People's Republic of China 1644–2009" Volume 2 of ''China: A History''. Hackett Publishing. {{ISBN|1-60384-204-7}}, {{ISBN|978-1-60384-204-4}}. pg 123.</ref> Manchu culture and [[Manchu language|language]], on the contrary, has become virtually extinct by 2007.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lague |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/world/asia/16iht-manchu.4935046.html |title=China's Manchu speakers struggle to save language |work=The New York Times |date=16 March 2007 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> -Unlike revolutions in the West, the Xinhai Revolution did not restructure society. The participants of the Xinhai Revolution were mostly military personnel, old-type bureaucrats, and local gentries. These people still held regional power after the Xinhai Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the [[standard of living]]. Writer [[Lu Xun]] commented in 1921 during the publishing of ''[[The True Story of Ah Q]]'', ten years after the Xinhai Revolution, that basically nothing changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".<ref>Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 143.</ref> The economic problems were not addressed until the governance of [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] in Taiwan and [[Deng Xiaoping]] on the mainland.<ref name="scmpjul4" /> +Unlike revolutions in the West, the 1911 Revolution did not restructure society. The participants in the 1911 Revolution were mostly military personnel, old-type bureaucrats, and local gentries. These people still held regional power after the 1911 Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the [[standard of living]]. The writer [[Lu Xun]] commented in 1921 during the publishing of ''[[The True Story of Ah Q]]'', ten years after the 1911 Revolution, that basically nothing changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".<ref>Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 143.</ref> The economic problems were not addressed until the governance of [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] in Taiwan and [[Deng Xiaoping]] on the mainland.<ref name="scmpjul4" /> -The Xinhai Revolution mainly got rid of [[feudalism]] ([[fengjian]]) from [[Late Imperial China]]. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]].<ref name="Yanjia">Yan, Jiaqi Yan. Hong, David S. K. Mair, Denis C. [1992] (1992). Toward a democratic China: the intellectual autobiography of Yan Jiaqi. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-1501-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-1501-1}}. pg 189, 251.</ref> Both were unsuccessful, but the "feudal remnants" returned to China with the [[Cultural Revolution]] in a concept called [[guanxi]], where people relied not on feudal relationships, but personal relationships, for survival.<ref name="yangm">[[Mayfair Yang|Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui]]. [1994] (1994). ''Gifts, favors, and banquets: the art of social relationships in China''. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8014-9592-X}}, 9780801495922. Pg 146–147.</ref> While guanxi is helpful in Taiwan, on the mainland, guanxi is necessary to get anything done.<ref name="Luoy">Luo, Yadong. [2007] (2007). ''Guanxi and business''. Volume 5 of Asia-Pacific business series. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-270-046-3}}, {{ISBN|978-981-270-046-9}}. pg 26.</ref> +The 1911 Revolution mainly got rid of [[feudalism]] ([[fengjian]]) from [[Late Imperial China]]. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]].<ref name="Yanjia">Yan, Jiaqi Yan. Hong, David S. K. Mair, Denis C. [1992] (1992). Toward a democratic China: the intellectual autobiography of Yan Jiaqi. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-1501-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-1501-1}}. pg 189, 251.</ref> Both were unsuccessful, but the "feudal remnants" returned to China with the [[Cultural Revolution]] in a concept called [[guanxi]], where people relied not on feudal relationships, but personal relationships, for survival.<ref name="yangm">[[Mayfair Yang|Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui]]. [1994] (1994). ''Gifts, favors, and banquets: the art of social relationships in China''. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8014-9592-X}}, 9780801495922. Pg 146–147.</ref> While guanxi is helpful in Taiwan, on the mainland, guanxi is necessary to get anything done.<ref name="Luoy">Luo, Yadong. [2007] (2007). ''Guanxi and business''. Volume 5 of Asia-Pacific business series. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-270-046-3}}, {{ISBN|978-981-270-046-9}}. pg 26.</ref> Due to the effects of anti-Manchu sentiment after the revolution, the Manchus of the Metropolitan Banners were driven into deep poverty, with Manchu men too impoverished to marry so Han men married Manchu women, Manchus stopped dressing in Manchu clothing and stopped practicing Manchu traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhoads |first1=Edward J. M. |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295980400 |page=270 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA270}}</ref> ===Historical significance=== -The Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing government and two thousand years of monarchy.<ref name="xb1" /> Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The Xinhai Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. Though in 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the [[comrade]]s still need to strive for the future." ({{zh|labels=no|c=革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力}}).<ref>陸韻葭. [2006] (2006). 上海玩全指南. Travelcom press. {{ISBN|986-7143-13-2}}, {{ISBN|978-986-7143-13-6}}. pg 49.</ref> +The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government and two thousand years of monarchy.<ref name="xb1" /> Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The 1911 Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. Though in 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the [[comrade]]s still need to strive for the future." ({{zh|labels=no|c=革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力}}).<ref>陸韻葭. [2006] (2006). 上海玩全指南. Travelcom press. {{ISBN|986-7143-13-2}}, {{ISBN|978-986-7143-13-6}}. pg 49.</ref> -Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties–the ROC and PRC–see the Xinhai Revolution quite differently.<ref name="scmpr">South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Replacing chairman Mao with Sun Yat-sen.</ref> Both sides recognize Sun Yat-sen as the [[Father of the Nation]], but in Taiwan, they mean "Father of the Republic of China".<ref name="scmpr" /> On the mainland, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a pre-condition for the Communist state founded in 1949.<ref name="scmpr" /> The PRC views Sun's work as the first step towards the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly independent state that expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power.<ref name="scmpr" /> The father of [[People's Republic of China|New China]] is seen as [[Mao Zedong]].<ref name="scmpr" /> In 1954, [[Liu Shaoqi]] was quoted as saying that the "Xinhai Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".<ref>{{cite web|author=Takungpao.com |url=http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 |title=1911 |publisher=Takungpao.com |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=1059 |url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html |title=劉少奇談辛亥革命（摘要）-中國共產黨新聞 |publisher=Dangshi.people.com.cn |date=19 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> [[Zhou Enlai]] pointed out that the "Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 2000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml |title=王志昆講重慶辛亥革命：為什麼兵不血刃，一次成功_重慶_重慶站_鳳凰網 |publisher=Big5.ifeng.com |date=30 December 2008 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> +Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties–the ROC and PRC–see the 1911 Revolution quite differently.<ref name="scmpr">South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Replacing chairman Mao with Sun Yat-sen.</ref> Both sides recognize Sun Yat-sen as the [[Father of the Nation]], but in Taiwan, they mean "Father of the Republic of China".<ref name="scmpr" /> On the mainland, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a pre-condition for the Communist state founded in 1949.<ref name="scmpr" /> The PRC views Sun's work as the first step towards the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly independent state that expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power.<ref name="scmpr" /> The father of [[People's Republic of China|New China]] is seen as [[Mao Zedong]].<ref name="scmpr" /> In 1954, [[Liu Shaoqi]] was quoted as saying that the "1911 Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".<ref>{{cite web|author=Takungpao.com |url=http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 |title=1911 |publisher=Takungpao.com |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=1059 |url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html |title=劉少奇談辛亥革命（摘要）-中國共產黨新聞 |publisher=Dangshi.people.com.cn |date=19 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> [[Zhou Enlai]] pointed out that the "1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 2000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml |title=王志昆講重慶辛亥革命：為什麼兵不血刃，一次成功_重慶_重慶站_鳳凰網 |publisher=Big5.ifeng.com |date=30 December 2008 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> ===Modern evaluation=== [[File:Taiw 100ann 10yuan.jpg|thumb|300px|Commemorative coin, minted in Taiwan in 2011]] -A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but [[Zhang Shizhao]] was quoted as arguing that "When talking about the Xinhai Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."<ref>{{cite book |last = 章 |first = 士釗 |year = 2000 |orig-year = 1962 |chapter = 孫、黃遺劄密詮 |title = 章士釗全集 |volume = 8 |location = 上海 |publisher = 文彙出版社 |page = 341 |isbn = 978-7805315430 }}</ref> +A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but [[Zhang Shizhao]] was quoted as arguing that "When talking about the 1911 Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."<ref>{{cite book |last = 章 |first = 士釗 |year = 2000 |orig-year = 1962 |chapter = 孫、黃遺劄密詮 |title = 章士釗全集 |volume = 8 |location = 上海 |publisher = 文彙出版社 |page = 341 |isbn = 978-7805315430 }}</ref> -The success of the democracy gained from the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, for sixty years, the KMT controlled all five branches of the government; none were independent.<ref name="scmpjul4">South China morning post. Sun Yat-sen and the centenary of the Xinhai revolution. 4 July 2010.</ref> [[Yan Jiaqi]], founder of the [[Federation for a Democratic China]], has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there now democratizing the region.<ref name="Yanjia" /> +The success of the democracy gained from the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, for sixty years, the KMT controlled all five branches of the government; none were independent.<ref name="scmpjul4">South China morning post. Sun Yat-sen and the centenary of the 1911 Revolution. 4 July 2010.</ref> [[Yan Jiaqi]], founder of the [[Federation for a Democratic China]], has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there now democratizing the region.<ref name="Yanjia" /> -Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised on the mainland. For example, former Chinese premier [[Wen Jiabao]] once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights; but he led a [[2011 crackdown on dissidents in the People's Republic of China|2011 crackdown]] against the peaceful [[2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests|Chinese jasmine protests]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Pomfret |first=James |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627 |title=China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms |publisher=Reuters |date= 27 June 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> [[Liu Xiaobo]], a pro-democracy activist who received the global [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize]], died in prison.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Yomiuri Shimbun |url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm |title=100 years on, China far from democracy: Editorial: DAILY YOMIURI ONLINE (The Daily Yomiuri) |publisher=Yomiuri.co.jp |date=14 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> Others, such as Qin Yongmin (秦永敏) of the [[Democracy Party of China]], who was only released from prison after twelve years, do not praise the Xinhai Revolution.<ref name="geo">{{cite web |url = http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |publisher=GEO.tv |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref name="hrichina">{{cite web |url = http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879 |title=Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence &#124; Human Rights in China 中国人权 |publisher=Hrichina.org |date=29 November 2010 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Qin Yongmin said the revolution only replaced one dictator with another, that [[Mao Zedong]] was not an emperor, but he is worse than the emperor.<ref name="geo" /><ref name="hrichina" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on/ |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |work= The West Australian |publisher=Au.news.yahoo.com |date=9 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> +Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised on the mainland. For example, former Chinese premier [[Wen Jiabao]] once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights; but he led a [[2011 crackdown on dissidents in the People's Republic of China|2011 crackdown]] against the peaceful [[2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests|Chinese jasmine protests]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Pomfret |first=James |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627 |title=China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms |publisher=Reuters |date= 27 June 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> [[Liu Xiaobo]], a pro-democracy activist who received the global [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize]], died in prison.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Yomiuri Shimbun |url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm |title=100 years on, China far from democracy: Editorial: DAILY YOMIURI ONLINE (The Daily Yomiuri) |publisher=Yomiuri.co.jp |date=14 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> Others, such as Qin Yongmin (秦永敏) of the [[Democracy Party of China]], who was only released from prison after twelve years, do not praise the 1911 Revolution.<ref name="geo">{{cite web |url = http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |publisher=GEO.tv |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref name="hrichina">{{cite web |url = http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879 |title=Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence &#124; Human Rights in China 中国人权 |publisher=Hrichina.org |date=29 November 2010 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Qin Yongmin said the revolution only replaced one dictator with another, that [[Mao Zedong]] was not an emperor, but he is worse than the emperor.<ref name="geo" /><ref name="hrichina" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on/ |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |work= The West Australian |publisher=Au.news.yahoo.com |date=9 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> ==See also== '
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[ 0 => '|image = 1911 Revolution in Shanghai.jpg', 1 => 'The '''1911 Revolution''' ({{zh |c = {{linktext|辛亥革命}} |p = Xīnhài Gémìng }}), also known as the '''Chinese Revolution''' or the '''Xinhai Revolution''', was a revolution that overthrew China's last [[Dynasties in Chinese history#Dynasties|imperial dynasty]] (the [[Qing dynasty]]) and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (ROC). The revolution was named Xinhai (Hsin-hai) because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai ({{zh|labels=no |c=辛亥 }}) stem-branch in the [[sexagenary cycle]] of the [[Chinese calendar]].<ref>Li Xing. [2010] (2010). The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|0-7546-7913-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-7913-4}}. p. 91.</ref>', 2 => 'The [[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]] in [[Taiwan]] and the [[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] on the [[Mainland China|mainland]] both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the 1911 Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including [[Chinese nationalism|nationalism]], [[republicanism]], modernization of China and [[Zhonghua minzu|national unity]]. 10 October is commemorated in [[Taiwan]] as [[Double Ten Day]], the National Day of the ROC. In mainland China, Hong Kong, and [[Macau]], the day is celebrated as the Anniversary of the 1911 Revolution.', 3 => '| footer = After the failure of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] in 1898, Guangxu's advisors [[Kang Youwei]] (left, 1858–1927) and [[Liang Qichao]] (1873–1929) fled into exile, while [[Tan Sitong]] (right, 1865–1898) was executed. In Canada, Kang and Liang formed the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] to promote a [[constitutional monarchy]] for China. In 1900, they supported an unsuccessful uprising in central China to rescue Guangxu. After the 1911 Revolution, Liang became a [[Minister of Justice of the Republic of China]]. Kang remained a royalist and supported [[Puyi#Brief restoration (1917)|restoring]] the last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] in 1917.', 4 => 'The 1911 Revolution was supported by many groups, including students and intellectuals who returned from abroad, as well as participants of the revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers and others.', 5 => 'Assistance from [[overseas Chinese]] was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.<ref>Lee, Khoon Choy Lee. [2005] (2005). ''Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese''. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-256-618-X}}, 9789812566188.</ref> Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in the funding of revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (Singapore and [[Malaysia]]).<ref name="Gao">Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). ''Historical Dictionary of Modern China'' (1800–1949). Issue 25 of "Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras". Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-4930-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4930-3}}. pg 156. pg 29.</ref> Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".<ref name="Gao" />', 6 => 'In 1906, after the abolition of the [[imperial examinations]], the Qing government established many new schools and encouraged students to study abroad. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.<ref name="fenby">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 96. pg 106.</ref> A new class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, [[Song Jiaoren]], [[Hu Hanmin]], [[Liao Zhongkai]], [[Zhu Zhixin (revolutionary)|Zhu Zhixin]] and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like [[Zou Rong]], known for writing the book ''Revolutionary Army'', in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty and tyranny and turning the [[Descendants of Yan & Huang Emperors|sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor]] into [[George Washington]]s.<ref name="fenby109">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 109.</ref>', 7 => 'Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings that these organizations would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like [[Tiandihui|Sanhehui]] were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."<ref>''Complete works of Sun Yat-sen'' 《總理全集》 First edition, page 920</ref>', 8 => 'Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some of the supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. [[Miyazaki Touten]] was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and [[Ryōhei Uchida]]. [[Homer Lea]], an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.<ref>{{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Lawrence M. |year = 2010 |title = Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune |publisher = University Press of Kentucky |location = Lexington |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0813126173|ref = none }}</ref>', 9 => '[[File:Qing Dynasty Map at the time of the 1911 Revolution.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Map of uprisings during the 1911 Revolution]]', 10 => 'The rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where Banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.<ref>{{cite book| title= Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907-1985 | page=102}}</ref> They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (陸鍾琦).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml |title=山西辛亥革命官僚階層——巡撫陸鍾琦之死_辛亥革命前奏_辛亥革命网 |publisher=Big5.xhgmw.org |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Yan Xishan would later become one of the warlords that plagued China during what was known as "the warlord era".', 11 => 'At the end of 1911, the Mongols took action with an armed revolt against the Manchu authorities but were unsuccessful in the attempt.<ref name="Onon">Onon, Urgunge Onon. Pritchatt, Derrick. [1989] (1989). ''Asia's first modern revolution: Mongolia proclaims its independence in 1911''. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-08390-1}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08390-5}}. pg 38–40, 79.</ref> The independence movement that took place was not limited to just North (outer) Mongolia but was also a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.<ref name="Onon" /> On 29 December 1911, [[Bogd Khan]] became the leader of the Mongol empire. [[Inner Mongolia]] became a contested terrain between Khan and the Republic.<ref>Uradyn Erden Bulag. Hildegard Diemberger. International Association for Tibetan Studies. Seminar, Uradyn Erden Bulag. Brill's Tibetan studies library. [2007] (2007). "The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia": PIATS 2003: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-15521-X}}, {{ISBN|9789004155213}}.</ref> In general, Russia supported the [[Outer Mongolian revolution of 1911|Independence of Outer Mongolia]] (including [[Tannu Uriankhai]]) during the time of the 1911 Revolution.<ref>Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). ''Chinese foreign policy: pragmatism and strategic behavior''. M.E. Sharpe publishing. {{ISBN|0-7656-1284-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7656-1284-7}}. pg 207.</ref>', 12 => '{{Main|1911 Revolution in Xinjiang}}', 13 => 'In 1911, the Tongmenghui sent Luo Fu-xing (羅福星) to the [[Taiwan island|island of Taiwan]] to wrest it from [[Japanese rule in Taiwan|Japanese control]].<ref>[1981] (2007). Daily report: People's Republic of China, Issues 200–210. National Technical Information Service publishing. Digitized 2 March 2007 by University of Michigan. pg 50.</ref> The goal was to bring Taiwan island into the Chinese Republic by inciting the Taiwan Uprising (台灣起義).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html |title=人民網-寶島英雄譜-苗栗事件：台灣光復先驅羅福星 |publisher=Tw.people.com.cn |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Luo was caught and killed on 3 March 1914.<ref name="Dellorto">Dell'Orto, Alessandro. [2002] (2002). ''Place and spirit in Taiwan: Tudi Gong in the stories, strategies, and memories of everyday life''. Psychology Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1568-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1568-8}}. pg 39.</ref> What was left was known as the "[[Miaoli County|Miaoli]] Incident", (苗栗事件) where more than 1,000 Taiwanese were executed by the Japanese police.<ref>Katz, Paul R. Rubinstein, Murray A. [2003] (2003). ''Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities''. Palgrave Macmillan Publishing. {{ISBN|0-312-23969-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-312-23969-5}}. pg 56.</ref> Luo's sacrifice is commemorated in Miaoli.<ref name="Dellorto" />', 14 => 'During and after the 1911 Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with [[Taijitu]].<ref name="fitzj">Fitzgerald, John. [1998] (1998). ''Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-3337-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-3337-3}}. pg 180.</ref> Others in competition included [[Lu Haodong]]'s [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag. [[Huang Xing]] favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of [[Five Races Under One Union]].<ref name="fitzj" /> The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.<ref name="newlight10-92">劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. [2002] (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. {{ISBN|962-07-5316-X}}. pg 92–93</ref> The red represented [[Han Chinese|Han]], the yellow represented [[Manchu people|Manchus]], the blue for [[Mongols]], the white for [[Islam in China|Muslim]]s, and the black for [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]].<ref name="fitzj" /><ref name="newlight10-92" /> Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated [[racial integration]] to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.<ref>Hsiao-ting Lin. [2010] (2010). ''Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west''. Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-415-58264-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-58264-3}}. pg 7.</ref>', 15 => 'After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, but particularly in Beijing where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence as imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled as Manchu imperial power crumbled.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution |title=Sun Yatsen and the 1911 Revolution |publisher=Sinica |date=13 October 2011 |accessdate=14 March 2017}}</ref> Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like ''A Short History of [[Nucai|Slaves]]'' (奴才小史) and ''The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel'' (貪官污吏傳) by Laoli (老吏).<ref name="Rhoads266" /><ref name="ckd">{{cite web|author=Ulrich Theobald |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html |title=Chinese Literature&nbsp;– Man-Qing yeshi 滿淸野史 |publisher=www.chinaknowledge.de |date=28 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref>', 16 => 'Unlike revolutions in the West, the 1911 Revolution did not restructure society. The participants in the 1911 Revolution were mostly military personnel, old-type bureaucrats, and local gentries. These people still held regional power after the 1911 Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the [[standard of living]]. The writer [[Lu Xun]] commented in 1921 during the publishing of ''[[The True Story of Ah Q]]'', ten years after the 1911 Revolution, that basically nothing changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".<ref>Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 143.</ref> The economic problems were not addressed until the governance of [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] in Taiwan and [[Deng Xiaoping]] on the mainland.<ref name="scmpjul4" />', 17 => 'The 1911 Revolution mainly got rid of [[feudalism]] ([[fengjian]]) from [[Late Imperial China]]. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]].<ref name="Yanjia">Yan, Jiaqi Yan. Hong, David S. K. Mair, Denis C. [1992] (1992). Toward a democratic China: the intellectual autobiography of Yan Jiaqi. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-1501-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-1501-1}}. pg 189, 251.</ref> Both were unsuccessful, but the "feudal remnants" returned to China with the [[Cultural Revolution]] in a concept called [[guanxi]], where people relied not on feudal relationships, but personal relationships, for survival.<ref name="yangm">[[Mayfair Yang|Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui]]. [1994] (1994). ''Gifts, favors, and banquets: the art of social relationships in China''. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8014-9592-X}}, 9780801495922. Pg 146–147.</ref> While guanxi is helpful in Taiwan, on the mainland, guanxi is necessary to get anything done.<ref name="Luoy">Luo, Yadong. [2007] (2007). ''Guanxi and business''. Volume 5 of Asia-Pacific business series. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-270-046-3}}, {{ISBN|978-981-270-046-9}}. pg 26.</ref>', 18 => 'The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government and two thousand years of monarchy.<ref name="xb1" /> Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The 1911 Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. Though in 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the [[comrade]]s still need to strive for the future." ({{zh|labels=no|c=革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力}}).<ref>陸韻葭. [2006] (2006). 上海玩全指南. Travelcom press. {{ISBN|986-7143-13-2}}, {{ISBN|978-986-7143-13-6}}. pg 49.</ref>', 19 => 'Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties–the ROC and PRC–see the 1911 Revolution quite differently.<ref name="scmpr">South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Replacing chairman Mao with Sun Yat-sen.</ref> Both sides recognize Sun Yat-sen as the [[Father of the Nation]], but in Taiwan, they mean "Father of the Republic of China".<ref name="scmpr" /> On the mainland, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a pre-condition for the Communist state founded in 1949.<ref name="scmpr" /> The PRC views Sun's work as the first step towards the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly independent state that expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power.<ref name="scmpr" /> The father of [[People's Republic of China|New China]] is seen as [[Mao Zedong]].<ref name="scmpr" /> In 1954, [[Liu Shaoqi]] was quoted as saying that the "1911 Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".<ref>{{cite web|author=Takungpao.com |url=http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 |title=1911 |publisher=Takungpao.com |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=1059 |url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html |title=劉少奇談辛亥革命（摘要）-中國共產黨新聞 |publisher=Dangshi.people.com.cn |date=19 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> [[Zhou Enlai]] pointed out that the "1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 2000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml |title=王志昆講重慶辛亥革命：為什麼兵不血刃，一次成功_重慶_重慶站_鳳凰網 |publisher=Big5.ifeng.com |date=30 December 2008 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref>', 20 => 'A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but [[Zhang Shizhao]] was quoted as arguing that "When talking about the 1911 Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."<ref>{{cite book |last = 章 |first = 士釗 |year = 2000 |orig-year = 1962 |chapter = 孫、黃遺劄密詮 |title = 章士釗全集 |volume = 8 |location = 上海 |publisher = 文彙出版社 |page = 341 |isbn = 978-7805315430 }}</ref>', 21 => 'The success of the democracy gained from the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, for sixty years, the KMT controlled all five branches of the government; none were independent.<ref name="scmpjul4">South China morning post. Sun Yat-sen and the centenary of the 1911 Revolution. 4 July 2010.</ref> [[Yan Jiaqi]], founder of the [[Federation for a Democratic China]], has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there now democratizing the region.<ref name="Yanjia" />', 22 => 'Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised on the mainland. For example, former Chinese premier [[Wen Jiabao]] once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights; but he led a [[2011 crackdown on dissidents in the People's Republic of China|2011 crackdown]] against the peaceful [[2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests|Chinese jasmine protests]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Pomfret |first=James |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627 |title=China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms |publisher=Reuters |date= 27 June 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> [[Liu Xiaobo]], a pro-democracy activist who received the global [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize]], died in prison.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Yomiuri Shimbun |url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm |title=100 years on, China far from democracy: Editorial: DAILY YOMIURI ONLINE (The Daily Yomiuri) |publisher=Yomiuri.co.jp |date=14 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> Others, such as Qin Yongmin (秦永敏) of the [[Democracy Party of China]], who was only released from prison after twelve years, do not praise the 1911 Revolution.<ref name="geo">{{cite web |url = http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |publisher=GEO.tv |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref name="hrichina">{{cite web |url = http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879 |title=Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence &#124; Human Rights in China 中国人权 |publisher=Hrichina.org |date=29 November 2010 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Qin Yongmin said the revolution only replaced one dictator with another, that [[Mao Zedong]] was not an emperor, but he is worse than the emperor.<ref name="geo" /><ref name="hrichina" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on/ |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |work= The West Australian |publisher=Au.news.yahoo.com |date=9 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref>' ]
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[ 0 => '|image = Xinhai Revolution in Shanghai.jpg', 1 => 'The '''Xinhai Revolution''' ({{zh |c = {{linktext|辛亥革命}} |p = Xīnhài Gémìng }}), also known as the '''Chinese Revolution''' or the '''Revolution of 1911''', was a revolution that overthrew China's last [[Dynasties in Chinese history#Dynasties|imperial dynasty]] (the [[Qing dynasty]]) and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (ROC). The revolution was named Xinhai (Hsin-hai) because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai ({{zh|labels=no |c=辛亥 }}) stem-branch in the [[sexagenary cycle]] of the [[Chinese calendar]].<ref>Li Xing. [2010] (2010). The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|0-7546-7913-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-7913-4}}. p. 91.</ref>', 2 => 'The [[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]] in [[Taiwan]] and the [[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] on the [[Mainland China|mainland]] both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the Xinhai Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including [[Chinese nationalism|nationalism]], [[republicanism]], modernization of China and [[Zhonghua minzu|national unity]]. 10 October is commemorated in [[Taiwan]] as [[Double Ten Day]], the National Day of the ROC. In mainland China, Hong Kong, and [[Macau]], the day is celebrated as the Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution.', 3 => '| footer = After the failure of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] in 1898, Guangxu's advisors [[Kang Youwei]] (left, 1858–1927) and [[Liang Qichao]] (1873–1929) fled into exile, while [[Tan Sitong]] (right, 1865–1898) was executed. In Canada, Kang and Liang formed the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] to promote a [[constitutional monarchy]] for China. In 1900, they supported an unsuccessful uprising in central China to rescue Guangxu. After the Xinhai Revolution, Liang became a [[Minister of Justice of the Republic of China]]. Kang remained a royalist and supported [[Puyi#Brief restoration (1917)|restoring]] the last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] in 1917.', 4 => 'The Xinhai Revolution was supported by many groups, including students and intellectuals who returned from abroad, as well as participants of the revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers and others.', 5 => 'Assistance from [[overseas Chinese]] was important in the Xinhai Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.<ref>Lee, Khoon Choy Lee. [2005] (2005). ''Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese''. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-256-618-X}}, 9789812566188.</ref> Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in the funding of revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (Singapore and [[Malaysia]]).<ref name="Gao">Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). ''Historical Dictionary of Modern China'' (1800–1949). Issue 25 of "Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras". Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-4930-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4930-3}}. pg 156. pg 29.</ref> Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".<ref name="Gao" />', 6 => 'In 1906, after the abolition of the [[imperial examinations]], the Qing government established many new schools and encouraged students to study abroad. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.<ref name="fenby">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 96. pg 106.</ref> A new class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the Xinhai Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, [[Song Jiaoren]], [[Hu Hanmin]], [[Liao Zhongkai]], [[Zhu Zhixin (revolutionary)|Zhu Zhixin]] and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like [[Zou Rong]], known for writing the book ''Revolutionary Army'', in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty and tyranny and turning the [[Descendants of Yan & Huang Emperors|sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor]] into [[George Washington]]s.<ref name="fenby109">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 109.</ref>', 7 => 'Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings that these organizations would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the Xinhai Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like [[Tiandihui|Sanhehui]] were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."<ref>''Complete works of Sun Yat-sen'' 《總理全集》 First edition, page 920</ref>', 8 => 'Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some of the supporters and participants of the Xinhai Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. [[Miyazaki Touten]] was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and [[Ryōhei Uchida]]. [[Homer Lea]], an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.<ref>{{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Lawrence M. |year = 2010 |title = Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune |publisher = University Press of Kentucky |location = Lexington |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0813126173|ref = none }}</ref>', 9 => '[[File:Qing Dynasty Map durnig Xinhai Revolution.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Map of many of the uprisings during the Xinhai Revolution]]', 10 => 'The Xinhai rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.<ref>{{cite book| title= Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907-1985 | page=102}}</ref> They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (陸鍾琦).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml |title=山西辛亥革命官僚階層——巡撫陸鍾琦之死_辛亥革命前奏_辛亥革命网 |publisher=Big5.xhgmw.org |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Yan Xishan would later become one of the warlords that plagued China during what was known as "the warlord era".', 11 => 'At the end of 1911, the Mongols took action with an armed revolt against the Manchu authorities but were unsuccessful in the attempt.<ref name="Onon">Onon, Urgunge Onon. Pritchatt, Derrick. [1989] (1989). ''Asia's first modern revolution: Mongolia proclaims its independence in 1911''. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-08390-1}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08390-5}}. pg 38–40, 79.</ref> The independence movement that took place was not limited to just North (outer) Mongolia but was also a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.<ref name="Onon" /> On 29 December 1911, [[Bogd Khan]] became the leader of the Mongol empire. [[Inner Mongolia]] became a contested terrain between Khan and the Republic.<ref>Uradyn Erden Bulag. Hildegard Diemberger. International Association for Tibetan Studies. Seminar, Uradyn Erden Bulag. Brill's Tibetan studies library. [2007] (2007). "The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia": PIATS 2003: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. BRILL Publishing. {{ISBN|90-04-15521-X}}, {{ISBN|9789004155213}}.</ref> In general, Russia supported the [[Outer Mongolian revolution of 1911|Independence of Outer Mongolia]] (including [[Tannu Uriankhai]]) during the time of the Xinhai Revolution.<ref>Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). ''Chinese foreign policy: pragmatism and strategic behavior''. M.E. Sharpe publishing. {{ISBN|0-7656-1284-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7656-1284-7}}. pg 207.</ref>', 12 => '{{Main|Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang}}', 13 => 'In 1911 as part of the Xinhai Revolution, Tongmenghui sent Luo Fu-xing (羅福星) to the [[Taiwan island|island of Taiwan]] to free it from being [[Japanese rule in Taiwan|occupied by the Japanese]].<ref>[1981] (2007). Daily report: People's Republic of China, Issues 200–210. National Technical Information Service publishing. Digitized 2 March 2007 by University of Michigan. pg 50.</ref> The goal was to bring Taiwan island back to the Chinese Republic by inciting the Taiwan Uprising (台灣起義).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html |title=人民網-寶島英雄譜-苗栗事件：台灣光復先驅羅福星 |publisher=Tw.people.com.cn |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Luo was caught and killed on 3 March 1914.<ref name="Dellorto">Dell'Orto, Alessandro. [2002] (2002). ''Place and spirit in Taiwan: Tudi Gong in the stories, strategies, and memories of everyday life''. Psychology Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1568-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1568-8}}. pg 39.</ref> What was left was known as the "[[Miaoli County|Miaoli]] Incident", (苗栗事件) where more than 1,000 Taiwanese were executed by the Japanese police.<ref>Katz, Paul R. Rubinstein, Murray A. [2003] (2003). ''Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities''. Palgrave Macmillan Publishing. {{ISBN|0-312-23969-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-312-23969-5}}. pg 56.</ref> Luo's sacrifice is commemorated in Miaoli.<ref name="Dellorto" />', 14 => 'During and after the Xinhai Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with [[Taijitu]].<ref name="fitzj">Fitzgerald, John. [1998] (1998). ''Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-3337-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8047-3337-3}}. pg 180.</ref> Others in competition included [[Lu Haodong]]'s [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag. [[Huang Xing]] favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of [[Five Races Under One Union]].<ref name="fitzj" /> The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.<ref name="newlight10-92">劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. [2002] (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. {{ISBN|962-07-5316-X}}. pg 92–93</ref> The red represented [[Han Chinese|Han]], the yellow represented [[Manchu people|Manchus]], the blue for [[Mongols]], the white for [[Islam in China|Muslim]]s, and the black for [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]].<ref name="fitzj" /><ref name="newlight10-92" /> Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated [[racial integration]] to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.<ref>Hsiao-ting Lin. [2010] (2010). ''Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west''. Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-415-58264-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-58264-3}}. pg 7.</ref>', 15 => 'After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, but particularly in Beijing where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence as imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled as Manchu imperial power crumbled.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution |title=Sun Yatsen and the Xinhai Revolution |publisher=Sinica |date=13 October 2011 |accessdate=14 March 2017}}</ref> Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like ''A Short History of [[Nucai|Slaves]]'' (奴才小史) and ''The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel'' (貪官污吏傳) by Laoli (老吏).<ref name="Rhoads266" /><ref name="ckd">{{cite web|author=Ulrich Theobald |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html |title=Chinese Literature&nbsp;– Man-Qing yeshi 滿淸野史 |publisher=www.chinaknowledge.de |date=28 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref>', 16 => 'Unlike revolutions in the West, the Xinhai Revolution did not restructure society. The participants of the Xinhai Revolution were mostly military personnel, old-type bureaucrats, and local gentries. These people still held regional power after the Xinhai Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the [[standard of living]]. Writer [[Lu Xun]] commented in 1921 during the publishing of ''[[The True Story of Ah Q]]'', ten years after the Xinhai Revolution, that basically nothing changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".<ref>Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). ''The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power''. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9832-0}}. pg 143.</ref> The economic problems were not addressed until the governance of [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] in Taiwan and [[Deng Xiaoping]] on the mainland.<ref name="scmpjul4" />', 17 => 'The Xinhai Revolution mainly got rid of [[feudalism]] ([[fengjian]]) from [[Late Imperial China]]. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]].<ref name="Yanjia">Yan, Jiaqi Yan. Hong, David S. K. Mair, Denis C. [1992] (1992). Toward a democratic China: the intellectual autobiography of Yan Jiaqi. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-1501-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8248-1501-1}}. pg 189, 251.</ref> Both were unsuccessful, but the "feudal remnants" returned to China with the [[Cultural Revolution]] in a concept called [[guanxi]], where people relied not on feudal relationships, but personal relationships, for survival.<ref name="yangm">[[Mayfair Yang|Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui]]. [1994] (1994). ''Gifts, favors, and banquets: the art of social relationships in China''. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8014-9592-X}}, 9780801495922. Pg 146–147.</ref> While guanxi is helpful in Taiwan, on the mainland, guanxi is necessary to get anything done.<ref name="Luoy">Luo, Yadong. [2007] (2007). ''Guanxi and business''. Volume 5 of Asia-Pacific business series. World Scientific. {{ISBN|981-270-046-3}}, {{ISBN|978-981-270-046-9}}. pg 26.</ref>', 18 => 'The Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing government and two thousand years of monarchy.<ref name="xb1" /> Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The Xinhai Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. Though in 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the [[comrade]]s still need to strive for the future." ({{zh|labels=no|c=革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力}}).<ref>陸韻葭. [2006] (2006). 上海玩全指南. Travelcom press. {{ISBN|986-7143-13-2}}, {{ISBN|978-986-7143-13-6}}. pg 49.</ref>', 19 => 'Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties–the ROC and PRC–see the Xinhai Revolution quite differently.<ref name="scmpr">South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Replacing chairman Mao with Sun Yat-sen.</ref> Both sides recognize Sun Yat-sen as the [[Father of the Nation]], but in Taiwan, they mean "Father of the Republic of China".<ref name="scmpr" /> On the mainland, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a pre-condition for the Communist state founded in 1949.<ref name="scmpr" /> The PRC views Sun's work as the first step towards the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly independent state that expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power.<ref name="scmpr" /> The father of [[People's Republic of China|New China]] is seen as [[Mao Zedong]].<ref name="scmpr" /> In 1954, [[Liu Shaoqi]] was quoted as saying that the "Xinhai Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".<ref>{{cite web|author=Takungpao.com |url=http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 |title=1911 |publisher=Takungpao.com |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=1059 |url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html |title=劉少奇談辛亥革命（摘要）-中國共產黨新聞 |publisher=Dangshi.people.com.cn |date=19 September 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> [[Zhou Enlai]] pointed out that the "Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 2000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml |title=王志昆講重慶辛亥革命：為什麼兵不血刃，一次成功_重慶_重慶站_鳳凰網 |publisher=Big5.ifeng.com |date=30 December 2008 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref>', 20 => 'A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but [[Zhang Shizhao]] was quoted as arguing that "When talking about the Xinhai Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."<ref>{{cite book |last = 章 |first = 士釗 |year = 2000 |orig-year = 1962 |chapter = 孫、黃遺劄密詮 |title = 章士釗全集 |volume = 8 |location = 上海 |publisher = 文彙出版社 |page = 341 |isbn = 978-7805315430 }}</ref>', 21 => 'The success of the democracy gained from the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, for sixty years, the KMT controlled all five branches of the government; none were independent.<ref name="scmpjul4">South China morning post. Sun Yat-sen and the centenary of the Xinhai revolution. 4 July 2010.</ref> [[Yan Jiaqi]], founder of the [[Federation for a Democratic China]], has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there now democratizing the region.<ref name="Yanjia" />', 22 => 'Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised on the mainland. For example, former Chinese premier [[Wen Jiabao]] once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights; but he led a [[2011 crackdown on dissidents in the People's Republic of China|2011 crackdown]] against the peaceful [[2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests|Chinese jasmine protests]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Pomfret |first=James |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627 |title=China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms |publisher=Reuters |date= 27 June 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> [[Liu Xiaobo]], a pro-democracy activist who received the global [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize]], died in prison.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Yomiuri Shimbun |url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm |title=100 years on, China far from democracy: Editorial: DAILY YOMIURI ONLINE (The Daily Yomiuri) |publisher=Yomiuri.co.jp |date=14 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref> Others, such as Qin Yongmin (秦永敏) of the [[Democracy Party of China]], who was only released from prison after twelve years, do not praise the Xinhai Revolution.<ref name="geo">{{cite web |url = http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |publisher=GEO.tv |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref><ref name="hrichina">{{cite web |url = http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879 |title=Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence &#124; Human Rights in China 中国人权 |publisher=Hrichina.org |date=29 November 2010 |accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref> Qin Yongmin said the revolution only replaced one dictator with another, that [[Mao Zedong]] was not an emperor, but he is worse than the emperor.<ref name="geo" /><ref name="hrichina" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on/ |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |work= The West Australian |publisher=Au.news.yahoo.com |date=9 October 2011 |accessdate=2011-11-17 }}</ref>' ]
All external links added in the edit (added_links)
[]
All external links in the new text (all_links)
[ 0 => 'http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/robert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement#fn5', 1 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false', 2 => 'https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft', 3 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=0FIWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun#v=onepage&q=Black%20Dragon%20Society%20sun&f=false', 4 => 'https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg', 5 => 'https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg/page/132', 6 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=vQsVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA252&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun', 7 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=XfkvAQAAIAAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun', 8 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=_OY-AQAAIAAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun', 9 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=oXysBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun#v=onepage&q=Black%20Dragon%20Society%20sun&f=false', 10 => 'http://big5.china.com/gate/big5/news.china.com/focus/xhgm100/11106309/20111009/16801100.html', 11 => 'http://www.baojinews.com/_info/content_190080.htm', 12 => 'https://freudianslumber.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/lin-jue-mins-letter-of-farewell-to-my-wife-my-translation/', 13 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=EsO3AAAAIAAJ&dq=The+railway+company's+chief+officer+at+Yichang+was+no+longer+listening+to+company+directives+and+had+turned+company+accounts+over+to+Duanfang,+Superintendent+of+the+Chuan+Han+and+Yue+Han+railroads.+The+situation+of+the+Sichuanese&q=Duanfang', 14 => 'http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/www.hb.xinhuanet.com/zhuanti/2011-01/13/content_21859416.htm', 15 => 'https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp', 16 => 'https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp/page/n241', 17 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj4wAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA779', 18 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA779', 19 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA168&dq=ma+anliang's+brother+ma+guoliang&cd=1#v=snippet&q=twenty%20battalions%20of%20loyal%20muslim%20braves&f=false', 20 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA190', 21 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA192', 22 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA193', 23 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=vPRxAAAAMAAJ&q=manchu+girls&dq=manchu+girls&hl=en&ei=LUmxTNbbJMG78gb8kfmhCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAg', 24 => 'http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml', 25 => 'http://www.chinanews.com.cn/cul/news/2007/12-11/1101653.shtml', 26 => 'http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/sz.xinhuanet.com/2011-10/10/content_23855051.htm', 27 => 'http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2011-04/20/c_121987093.htm', 28 => 'https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor', 29 => 'https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor/page/51', 30 => 'https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft', 31 => 'https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft/page/188', 32 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA182&dq=ma+fuxiang+gelaohui#v=onepage&q=ma%20fuxiang%20gelaohui&f=false', 33 => 'http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml', 34 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA139&lpg=PA139&dq=ma+shao-wu+assassination+attempt#v=onepage&q=yuan%20ta-hua%20time&f=false', 35 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83&lpg=PA83&dq=%E6%BC%A2%E8%92%99%E5%9B%9E%E7%BA%8F%E5%93%88#v=onepage&q=%E6%BC%A2%E8%92%99%E5%9B%9E%E7%BA%8F%E5%93%88&f=false', 36 => 'http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html', 37 => 'http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189.htm', 38 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120606083901/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189.htm', 39 => 'http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_2.htm', 40 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032733/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_2.htm', 41 => 'http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm', 42 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032749/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm', 43 => 'http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_4.htm', 44 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032803/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_4.htm', 45 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=4TfPJpJRV_0C&pg=PA113', 46 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=DwgvjqO5ivUC&pg=PP84', 47 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=MmwKAQAAIAAJ&q=If+we+want+to+bring+order+and+peace+to+China,+we+should+follow+the+model+of+the+British+titular+monarchy;+nothing+seemed+more+reasonable+and+logical+than+to+make+the+present+monarch+the+titular+head+of+a+constitutional+monarchy.+This+was+the+reason+...+The+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke,+is+unparalleled+among+the+descendants+of+the+best+families+in+the+nation.+If+we+have+no+other+alternative,+let+us+promote+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke+two+ranks+and+make+him+emperor.&dq=If+we+want+to+bring+order+and+peace+to+China,+we+should+follow+the+model+of+the+British+titular+monarchy;+nothing+seemed+more+reasonable+and+logical+than+to+make+the+present+monarch+the+titular+head+of+a+constitutional+monarchy.+This+was+the+reason+...+The+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke,+is+unparalleled+among+the+descendants+of+the+best+families+in+the+nation.+If+we+have+no+other+alternative,+let+us+promote+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke+two+ranks+and+make+him+emperor.', 48 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=vyM-AQAAMAAJ&q=The+dificulty+lay+in+the+choice+of+a+suitable+monarch+upon+whom+to+exercise+the+curbing+influences+of+constitutional+limitation.+A+very+strong+element+proposed+that+Duke+Kung,+the+seventy-fifth+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+should+be+made+King+of+China;+and+the&dq=The+dificulty+lay+in+the+choice+of+a+suitable+monarch+upon+whom+to+exercise+the+curbing+influences+of+constitutional+limitation.+A+very+strong+element+proposed+that+Duke+Kung,+the+seventy-fifth+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+should+be+made+King+of+China;+and+the', 49 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=xzRDAQAAIAAJ&q=That+being+the+case,+the+abdicated+Ch'ing+emperor+or+even+%22+the+Holy+Duke+%22+(Yen-sheng+kung+ft&dq=That+being+the+case,+the+abdicated+Ch'ing+emperor+or+even+%22+the+Holy+Duke+%22+(Yen-sheng+kung+ft', 50 => 'https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941', 51 => 'https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941/page/n438', 52 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=TMMvxX67FpIC&pg=PA176&dq=Marquis+of+Extended+Grace#v=onepage&q=Marquis%20of%20Extended%20Grace&f=false', 53 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=ECJQBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false', 54 => 'https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution', 55 => 'http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html', 56 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/world/asia/16iht-manchu.4935046.html', 57 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA270', 58 => 'http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612', 59 => 'http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html', 60 => 'http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml', 61 => 'https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627', 62 => 'http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm', 63 => 'http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm', 64 => 'http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879', 65 => 'http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on/', 66 => 'http://www.xinhai.org/shi/191107129.htm', 67 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190517', 68 => 'https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernt00melv', 69 => 'https://books.google.de/books?id=NpBlT5nnKecC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false', 70 => 'https://archive.org/details/eliteactivismpol0000rank', 71 => 'https://archive.org/details/chinainrevolutio0000unse', 72 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645062', 73 => 'https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85024103', 74 => 'https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571018' ]
Links in the page, before the edit (old_links)
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'http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html', 11 => 'http://www.baojinews.com/_info/content_190080.htm', 12 => 'http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html', 13 => 'http://www.chinanews.com.cn/cul/news/2007/12-11/1101653.shtml', 14 => 'http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm', 15 => 'http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml', 16 => 'http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879', 17 => 'http://www.xinhai.org/shi/191107129.htm', 18 => 'http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189.htm', 19 => 'http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_2.htm', 20 => 'http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm', 21 => 'http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_4.htm', 22 => 'http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm', 23 => 'https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp', 24 => 'https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp/page/n241', 25 => 'https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor', 26 => 'https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor/page/51', 27 => 'https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft', 28 => 'https://archive.org/details/chinainrevolutio0000unse', 29 => 'https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft', 30 => 'https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft/page/188', 31 => 'https://archive.org/details/eliteactivismpol0000rank', 32 => 'https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernt00melv', 33 => 'https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941', 34 => 'https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941/page/n438', 35 => 'https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg', 36 => 'https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg/page/132', 37 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=0FIWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99&dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun#v=onepage&q=Black%20Dragon%20Society%20sun&f=false', 38 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=EsO3AAAAIAAJ&dq=The+railway+company's+chief+officer+at+Yichang+was+no+longer+listening+to+company+directives+and+had+turned+company+accounts+over+to+Duanfang,+Superintendent+of+the+Chuan+Han+and+Yue+Han+railroads.+The+situation+of+the+Sichuanese&q=Duanfang', 39 => 'https://books.google.com/?id=MmwKAQAAIAAJ&q=If+we+want+to+bring+order+and+peace+to+China,+we+should+follow+the+model+of+the+British+titular+monarchy;+nothing+seemed+more+reasonable+and+logical+than+to+make+the+present+monarch+the+titular+head+of+a+constitutional+monarchy.+This+was+the+reason+...+The+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke,+is+unparalleled+among+the+descendants+of+the+best+families+in+the+nation.+If+we+have+no+other+alternative,+let+us+promote+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke+two+ranks+and+make+him+emperor.&dq=If+we+want+to+bring+order+and+peace+to+China,+we+should+follow+the+model+of+the+British+titular+monarchy;+nothing+seemed+more+reasonable+and+logical+than+to+make+the+present+monarch+the+titular+head+of+a+constitutional+monarchy.+This+was+the+reason+...+The+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke,+is+unparalleled+among+the+descendants+of+the+best+families+in+the+nation.+If+we+have+no+other+alternative,+let+us+promote+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke+two+ranks+and+make+him+emperor.', 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'https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA168&dq=ma+anliang's+brother+ma+guoliang&cd=1#v=snippet&q=twenty%20battalions%20of%20loyal%20muslim%20braves&f=false', 50 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA182&dq=ma+fuxiang+gelaohui#v=onepage&q=ma%20fuxiang%20gelaohui&f=false', 51 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=DwgvjqO5ivUC&pg=PP84', 52 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=ECJQBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false', 53 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA139&lpg=PA139&dq=ma+shao-wu+assassination+attempt#v=onepage&q=yuan%20ta-hua%20time&f=false', 54 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj4wAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA779', 55 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA190', 56 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA192', 57 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA193', 58 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA270', 59 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA779', 60 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false', 61 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=vPRxAAAAMAAJ&q=manchu+girls&dq=manchu+girls&hl=en&ei=LUmxTNbbJMG78gb8kfmhCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAg', 62 => 'https://books.google.de/books?id=NpBlT5nnKecC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false', 63 => 'https://freudianslumber.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/lin-jue-mins-letter-of-farewell-to-my-wife-my-translation/', 64 => 'https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85024103', 65 => 'https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571018', 66 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120606083901/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189.htm', 67 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032733/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_2.htm', 68 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032749/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm', 69 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032803/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_4.htm', 70 => 'https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution', 71 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645062', 72 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/world/asia/16iht-manchu.4935046.html', 73 => 'https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627', 74 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190517' ]
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html)
'<div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Xinhai" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinhai_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Xinhai (disambiguation)">Xinhai (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Revolution in China that overthrew the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r904532608">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Chinese Revolution of 1911<br />(Xinhai Revolution)</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing Movements</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=1911_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpg" class="new" title="File:1911 Revolution in Shanghai.jpg">300px</a><br /><b>Double Ten Revolution</b> in Shanghai-<b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nanjing_Road" title="Nanjing Road">Nanjing Road</a></b> (<b>Nanking Road</b>) after the <b><a href="#Shanghai_Armed_Uprising">Shanghai Uprising</a></b>, hung with the <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Five_Races_Under_One_Union" title="Five Races Under One Union">Five Races Under One Union</a></b> flags then used by the revolutionaries in Shanghai and Northern China.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">10&#160;October&#160;1911<span style="display:none">&#160;(<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1911-10-10</span>)</span></a>&#160;– 12&#160;February&#160;1912<span style="display:none">&#160;(<span class="dtend">1912-02-12</span>)</span><br />(4&#160;months and 2&#160;days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">China</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td> <p><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Chinese Revolutionary Alliance</a></b> victory </p> <ul><li>Abdication of <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a></b></li> <li>Fall of the <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a></b></li> <li>End of <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial China</a></b></li> <li>Establishment of the <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912-1949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912-1949)">Republic of China</a></b></li> <li>Destabilization of <b>China</b></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" />&#160;</span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royalist_Party" title="Royalist Party">Royalist Party</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKit-ching197849–52_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKit-ching197849–52-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional Government of the Republic of China</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg/23px-Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg/35px-Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg/45px-Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="520" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Military Government</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gelaohui" title="Gelaohui">Gelaohui</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tiandihui" title="Tiandihui">Tiandihui</a><br />Various other revolutionary groups and forces<br />Regional officials and warlords</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Longyu" title="Empress Dowager Longyu">Dowager Longyu</a></b><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zaifeng,_Prince_Chun" title="Zaifeng, Prince Chun">Zaifeng</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prince_Chun_(%E9%86%87)" title="Prince Chun (醇)">Prince Chun</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feng_Guozhang" title="Feng Guozhang">Feng Guozhang</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ma_Anliang" title="Ma Anliang">Ma Anliang</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duan_Qirui" title="Duan Qirui">Duan Qirui</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yang_Zengxin" title="Yang Zengxin">Yang Zengxin</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhao_Erfeng" title="Zhao Erfeng">Zhao Erfeng</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ma_Qi" title="Ma Qi">Ma Qi</a><br />Various other <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobles</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a></b><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jiang_(rank)" title="Jiang (rank)">General</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huang_Xing" title="Huang Xing">Huang Xing</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Song_Jiaoren" title="Song Jiaoren">Song Jiaoren</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chen_Qimei" title="Chen Qimei">Chen Qimei</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cai_E" title="Cai E">Cai Genyin</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hu_Hanmin" title="Hu Hanmin">Hu Hanmin</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 200,000</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 100,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> ~170,000</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> ~50,000</td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="infobox" style="width:22em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background-color:#b0c4de">1911 Revolution</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Xinhai_Revolution_(Chinese_characters).svg" class="image"><img alt="Xinhai Revolution (Chinese characters).svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Xinhai_Revolution_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/180px-Xinhai_Revolution_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="47" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Xinhai_Revolution_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/270px-Xinhai_Revolution_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Xinhai_Revolution_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/360px-Xinhai_Revolution_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="975" data-file-height="252" /></a><div>"Xinhai Revolution" in Chinese characters</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size:1rem;" title="Chinese language text">辛亥革命</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td>"Xinhai (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexagenary_cycle" title="Sexagenary cycle">stem-branch</a>) revolution"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;font-size: 100%; text-align: left; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td><span style="font-style:normal" lang="zh-Latn" title="Chinese-language romanization">Xīnhài gémìng</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td><span style="font-style:normal" lang="zh-Latn" title="Chinese-language romanization">Hsin<sup>1</sup>-hai<sup>4</sup> kê<sup>2</sup>-ming<sup>4</sup></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td><span style="font-style:normal" lang="zh-Latn" title="Chinese-language romanization"><span class="IPA" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ɕi&#769;n.xa&#770;i&#160;kɤ&#780;.mi&#770;ŋ]</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td><span style="font-style:normal" lang="yue-Latn" title="Yue Chinese-language romanization">Sān-hoih gaak-mihng</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td><span style="font-style:normal" lang="yue-Latn" title="Yue Chinese-language romanization">San1-hoi6 gaak3-ming6</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td><span style="font-style:normal" lang="yue-Latn" title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span class="IPA" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[sɐ&#769;n.hɔ&#768;ːy&#160;ka&#772;ːk̚me&#768;ŋ]</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td><span style="font-style:normal" lang="nan-Latn" title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization">Sen-hāi kek-bēng</span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>1911 Revolution</b> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>&#58; <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BE%9B%E4%BA%A5%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:辛亥革命">辛亥革命</a></span>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>&#58; <i><span lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">Xīnhài Gémìng</span></i>), also known as the <b>Chinese Revolution</b> or the <b>Xinhai Revolution</b>, was a revolution that overthrew China's last <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history#Dynasties" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">imperial dynasty</a> (the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>) and established the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> (ROC). The revolution was named Xinhai (Hsin-hai) because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai (<span lang="zh">辛亥</span>) stem-branch in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexagenary_cycle" title="Sexagenary cycle">sexagenary cycle</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">Chinese calendar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The revolution consisted of many revolts and uprisings. The turning point was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wuchang_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuchang uprising">Wuchang uprising</a> on 10 October 1911, which was the result of the mishandling of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a>. The revolution ended with the abdication of the six-year-old <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Last Emperor</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a>, on 12 February 1912, that marked the end of 2,000 years of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">imperial rule</a> and the beginning of China's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China#Early_republic_(1912–16)" title="History of the Republic of China">early republican era</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-xb1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xb1-3">&#91;3&#93;</a></sup> </p> <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Revolutions" title="Category:Revolutions">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;font-size:200%; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution"><span style="color:black">Revolution</span></a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;padding:0.6em;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" class="image" title="French Revolution"><img alt="French Revolution" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/250px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/375px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/500px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5946" data-file-height="4771" /></a></td></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">Types</div><div class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">Bourgeois</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_revolution" title="Communist revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratic_revolution" title="Democratic revolution">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonviolent_revolution" title="Nonviolent revolution">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Permanent_revolution" title="Permanent revolution">Permanent</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_revolution" title="Political revolution">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">Proletarian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">Wave</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">Methods</div><div class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">Civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d&#39;état">Coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demonstration_(protest)" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstration (protest)">Demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutionary_terror" title="Revolutionary terror">Revolutionary terror</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">Terrorism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">Causes</div><div class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collaborationism" title="Collaborationism">Collaborationism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">Cronyism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Despotism" title="Despotism">Despotism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Depression_(economics)" title="Depression (economics)">Economic depression</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electoral_fraud" title="Electoral fraud">Electoral fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">Military occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">Natural disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">Political corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">Tyranny</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">Examples</div><div class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" title="Commercial Revolution">Commercial</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/English_Revolution" title="English Revolution">English</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1820" title="Revolutions of 1820">Of 1820</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">Of 1830</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian (1848)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">1st Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">Of 1917–1923</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–19">German</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936" title="Spanish Revolution of 1936">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guatemalan_Revolution" title="Guatemalan Revolution">Guatemalan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian (1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" title="Iranian Revolution">2nd Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">August Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bolivarian_Revolution" title="Bolivarian Revolution">Bolivarian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overthrow_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević">Bulldozer</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rose_Revolution" title="Rose Revolution">Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tulip_Revolution" title="Tulip Revolution">Tulip</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kyrgyz_Revolution_of_2010" title="Kyrgyz Revolution of 2010">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tunisian_Revolution" title="Tunisian Revolution">Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_Revolution_of_2011" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Revolution of 2011">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yemeni_Revolution" title="Yemeni Revolution">Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Arab_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2018–19 Arab protests">2018–19 Arab protests</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sudanese_Revolution" title="Sudanese Revolution">Sudanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2019_Latin_American_protests" title="2019 Latin American protests">2019 Latin American protests</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="image"><img alt="A coloured voting box.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics&#32;portal</a></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Revolution_sidebar" title="Template:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Revolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Revolution_sidebar&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The revolution arose mainly in response to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_Dynasty#Rebellion,_unrest_and_external_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Dynasty">decline of the Qing state</a>, which had proven ineffective in its efforts to modernize China and confront foreign aggression. Many underground <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">anti-Qing groups</a>, with the support of Chinese revolutionaries in exile, tried to overthrow the Qing. The brief civil war that ensued was ended through a political compromise between <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, the late Qing military strongman, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, the leader of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui (United League)</a>. After the Qing court transferred power to the newly founded republic, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">provisional coalition government</a> created along with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of the Republic of China">National Assembly</a>. However, political power of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beiyang_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang Government">new national government</a> in Beijing was soon thereafter monopolized by Yuan and led to decades of political division and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">warlordism</a>, including several attempts at imperial restoration. </p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">Republic of China</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People&#39;s Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland</a> both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the 1911 Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">nationalism</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a>, modernization of China and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhonghua_minzu" title="Zhonghua minzu">national unity</a>. 10 October is commemorated in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Double_Ten_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Double Ten Day">Double Ten Day</a>, the National Day of the ROC. In mainland China, Hong Kong, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>, the day is celebrated as the Anniversary of the 1911 Revolution. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Organization_for_revolution"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Organization for revolution</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Earliest_groups"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Earliest groups</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Smaller_groups"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Smaller groups</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Tongmenghui"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Tongmenghui</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Later_groups"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Later groups</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Views"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Views</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Strata_and_groups"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Strata and groups</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Overseas_Chinese"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Overseas Chinese</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Newly_emerged_intellectuals"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Newly emerged intellectuals</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Gentry_and_businessmen"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Gentry and businessmen</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Foreigners"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Foreigners</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Soldiers_of_the_new_armies"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Soldiers of the new armies</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Uprisings_and_incidents"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Uprisings and incidents</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#First_Guangzhou_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">First Guangzhou Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Independence_Army_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Independence Army Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Huizhou_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Huizhou Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Great_Ming_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Great Ming Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Ping-liu-li_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Ping-liu-li Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Beijing_Zhengyangmen_East_Railway_assassination_attempt"><span class="tocnumber">4.6</span> <span class="toctext">Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway assassination attempt</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Huanggang_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.7</span> <span class="toctext">Huanggang Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Huizhou_Qinühu_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.8</span> <span class="toctext">Huizhou Qinühu Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Anqing_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.9</span> <span class="toctext">Anqing Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Qinzhou_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.10</span> <span class="toctext">Qinzhou Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Zhennanguan_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.11</span> <span class="toctext">Zhennanguan Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Qin-lian_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.12</span> <span class="toctext">Qin-lian Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Hekou_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.13</span> <span class="toctext">Hekou Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Mapaoying_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.14</span> <span class="toctext">Mapaoying Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Gengxu_New_Army_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.15</span> <span class="toctext">Gengxu New Army Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Second_Guangzhou_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.16</span> <span class="toctext">Second Guangzhou Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Wuchang_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">4.17</span> <span class="toctext">Wuchang Uprising</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Provincial_uprisings"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Provincial uprisings</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Changsha_restoration"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Changsha restoration</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Shaanxi_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Shaanxi Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Jiujiang_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Jiujiang Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Shanxi_Taiyuan_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Shanxi Taiyuan Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Kunming_Double_Ninth_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Kunming Double Ninth Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#Nanchang_restoration"><span class="tocnumber">5.6</span> <span class="toctext">Nanchang restoration</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#Shanghai_Armed_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.7</span> <span class="toctext">Shanghai Armed Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Guizhou_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.8</span> <span class="toctext">Guizhou Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Zhejiang_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.9</span> <span class="toctext">Zhejiang Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#Jiangsu_restoration"><span class="tocnumber">5.10</span> <span class="toctext">Jiangsu restoration</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="#Anhui_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.11</span> <span class="toctext">Anhui Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-44"><a href="#Guangxi_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.12</span> <span class="toctext">Guangxi Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-45"><a href="#Fujian_independence"><span class="tocnumber">5.13</span> <span class="toctext">Fujian independence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#Guangdong_independence"><span class="tocnumber">5.14</span> <span class="toctext">Guangdong independence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><a href="#Shandong_independence"><span class="tocnumber">5.15</span> <span class="toctext">Shandong independence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-48"><a href="#Ningxia_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.16</span> <span class="toctext">Ningxia Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-49"><a href="#Sichuan_independence"><span class="tocnumber">5.17</span> <span class="toctext">Sichuan independence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-50"><a href="#Nanking_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.18</span> <span class="toctext">Nanking Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-51"><a href="#Tibetan_independence"><span class="tocnumber">5.19</span> <span class="toctext">Tibetan independence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-52"><a href="#Mongolian_independence"><span class="tocnumber">5.20</span> <span class="toctext">Mongolian independence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-53"><a href="#Dihua_and_Yili_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.21</span> <span class="toctext">Dihua and Yili Uprising</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-54"><a href="#Taiwan_Uprising"><span class="tocnumber">5.22</span> <span class="toctext">Taiwan Uprising</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-55"><a href="#Change_of_government"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Change of government</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-56"><a href="#North:_Qing_court_last_transformation_attempt"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">North: Qing court last transformation attempt</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-57"><a href="#South:_Government_in_Nanking"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">South: Government in Nanking</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-58"><a href="#North–South_Conference"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">North–South Conference</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-59"><a href="#Establishment_of_the_Republic"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Establishment of the Republic</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-60"><a href="#Republic_of_China_declared_and_national_flag_issue"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Republic of China declared and national flag issue</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-61"><a href="#Donghuamen_incident"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Donghuamen incident</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-62"><a href="#Abdication_of_the_emperor"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Abdication of the emperor</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-63"><a href="#Debate_over_the_capital"><span class="tocnumber">7.4</span> <span class="toctext">Debate over the capital</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-64"><a href="#Republican_government_in_Beijing"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Republican government in Beijing</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-65"><a href="#Proposed_Han_monarchs_and_retention_of_aristocratic_noble_titles"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Proposed Han monarchs and retention of aristocratic noble titles</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-66"><a href="#Legacy"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Legacy</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-67"><a href="#Social_influence"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">Social influence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-68"><a href="#Historical_significance"><span class="tocnumber">10.2</span> <span class="toctext">Historical significance</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-69"><a href="#Modern_evaluation"><span class="tocnumber">10.3</span> <span class="toctext">Modern evaluation</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-70"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-71"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-72"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-73"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-74"><a href="#Primary_sources"><span class="tocnumber">14.1</span> <span class="toctext">Primary sources</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-75"><a href="#Contemporary_accounts"><span class="tocnumber">14.2</span> <span class="toctext">Contemporary accounts</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-76"><a href="#Scholarly_secondary_sources"><span class="tocnumber">14.3</span> <span class="toctext">Scholarly secondary sources</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-77"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Background">Background</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r923042769/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:left;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption-center{text-align:center;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg/140px-Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="219" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg/210px-Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg/280px-Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1548" data-file-height="2421" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Postcard_of_Emperor_Guangxu.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Postcard_of_Emperor_Guangxu.jpg/142px-Postcard_of_Emperor_Guangxu.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="217" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Postcard_of_Emperor_Guangxu.jpg/213px-Postcard_of_Emperor_Guangxu.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Postcard_of_Emperor_Guangxu.jpg/284px-Postcard_of_Emperor_Guangxu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="393" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left/right/center;background-color:"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> (1835–1908), who personified the conservative Qing court and controlled court politics for 47 years, halted the attempt of her nephew, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu Emperor</a> (1871–1908), the penultimate Qing emperor, to institute <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days&#39; Reform">reforms in 1898</a>.</div></div></div></div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Qing_Famine" title="Great Qing Famine">Great Qing Famine</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r923042769/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"/><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:350px;max-width:350px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:127px;max-width:127px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kang_Youwei_circa_1920.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kang_Youwei_circa_1920.jpg/125px-Kang_Youwei_circa_1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="181" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kang_Youwei_circa_1920.jpg/188px-Kang_Youwei_circa_1920.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kang_Youwei_circa_1920.jpg/250px-Kang_Youwei_circa_1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="593" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:124px;max-width:124px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg/122px-MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="178" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg/183px-MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg/244px-MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="921" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:93px;max-width:93px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Tansitong.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tansitong.jpg/91px-Tansitong.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="190" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tansitong.jpg/137px-Tansitong.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tansitong.jpg/182px-Tansitong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="369" data-file-height="770" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left/right/center;background-color:">After the failure of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days&#39; Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a> in 1898, Guangxu's advisors <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a> (left, 1858–1927) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a> (1873–1929) fled into exile, while <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tan_Sitong" title="Tan Sitong">Tan Sitong</a> (right, 1865–1898) was executed. In Canada, Kang and Liang formed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Progressive_Party_(China)" title="Progressive Party (China)">Emperor Protection Society</a> to promote a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> for China. In 1900, they supported an unsuccessful uprising in central China to rescue Guangxu. After the 1911 Revolution, Liang became a <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Minister_of_Justice_of_the_Republic_of_China&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Minister of Justice of the Republic of China (page does not exist)">Minister of Justice of the Republic of China</a>. Kang remained a royalist and supported <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puyi#Brief_restoration_(1917)" title="Puyi">restoring</a> the last Qing emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a> in 1917.</div></div></div></div> <p>After suffering its first defeat to the West in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a> in 1842, the Qing imperial court struggled to contain foreign intrusions into China. Efforts to adjust and reform the traditional methods of governance were constrained by a deeply conservative court culture that did not want to give away too much authority to reform. Following defeat in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a> in 1860, the Qing tried to modernize by adopting certain Western technologies through the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a> from 1861.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">&#91;4&#93;</a></sup> In the wars against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping (1851–64)</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian (1851–68)</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Yunnan (1856–68)</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dungan_revolt_(1862%E2%80%9377)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dungan revolt (1862–77)">the Northwest (1862–77)</a>, the traditional imperial troops proved themselves incompetent and the court came to rely on local armies.<sup id="cite_ref-Wangke106_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wangke106-5">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup> In 1895, China suffered another defeat during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bevir_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bevir-6">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> This demonstrated that traditional Chinese feudal society also needed to be modernized if the technological and commercial advancements were to succeed. </p><p>In 1898 the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu Emperor</a> was guided by reformers like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a> for a drastic reform in education, military and economy under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days&#39; Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bevir_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bevir-6">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> The reform was abruptly cancelled by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wuxu_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuxu Coup">conservative coup</a> led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">&#91;7&#93;</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu Emperor</a>, who had always been a puppet dependent on Cixi, was put under house arrest in June 1898.<sup id="cite_ref-Wangke106_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wangke106-5">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup> Reformers Kang and Liang would be exiled. While in Canada, in June 1899, they tried to form the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Progressive_Party_(China)" title="Progressive Party (China)">Emperor Protection Society</a> in an attempt to restore the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-Wangke106_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wangke106-5">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup> Empress Dowager Cixi mainly controlled the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> from this point on. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> prompted another foreign invasion of Beijing in 1900 and the imposition of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unequal_treaty" title="Unequal treaty">unequal treaty</a> terms, which carved away territories, created extraterritorial concessions and gave away trade privileges. Under internal and external pressure, the Qing court began to adopt some of the reforms. The Qing managed to maintain its monopoly on political power by suppressing, often with great brutality, all domestic rebellions. Dissidents could operate only in secret societies and underground organizations, in foreign concessions or in exile overseas. </p> <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the<br />Republic of China (ROC)</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;padding-bottom:1.0em;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="image" title="National emblem of the Republic of China"><img alt="National emblem of the Republic of China" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/150px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/225px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/300px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></td></tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><span style="font-size:105%;">1912–1949</span><br />Mainland rule</a></div></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="hlist hlist-separated"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional Gov't</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beiyang_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang Government">Beiyang Government</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nationalist_Government_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist Government (China)">Nationalist Government</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Constitutional government</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Taiwan_since_1945" title="History of Taiwan since 1945"><span style="font-size:105%;">1945–present</span><br />Taiwan</a></div></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="hlist hlist-separated"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Retrocession_Day" title="Retrocession Day">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/February_28_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="February 28 Incident">February 28 Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Terror_(Taiwan)" title="White Terror (Taiwan)">White Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_China_retreat_to_Taiwan" title="Republic of China retreat to Taiwan">Exodus to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_China_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Republic of China in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Three_Noes" title="Three Noes">Three Noes</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Third Taiwan Strait Crisis">Third Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Secession_Law" title="Anti-Secession Law">Anti-Secession Law</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/100th_Anniversary_of_the_Xinhai_Revolution_and_Republic_of_China" title="100th Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution and Republic of China">100th anniversary</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sunflower_Student_Movement" title="Sunflower Student Movement">Sunflower Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2015_Ma%E2%80%93Xi_meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="2015 Ma–Xi meeting">2015 Ma–Xi meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2017_Summer_Universiade" title="2017 Summer Universiade">2017 Summer Universiade</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;"> History of</th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People&#39;s Republic of China">the PRC</a> (1949–present)</li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a> (geographical)</li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Taipei" title="History of Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Kaohsiung" title="History of Kaohsiung">Kaohsiung</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Beijing" title="History of Beijing">Beiping</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Kuomintang" title="History of the Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">Taiwan question</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;border-top:1px solid #707070;padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;font-weight:bold;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <div class="hlist hlist-separated"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Politics of the Republic of China">Politics</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of the Republic of China.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Taiwan&#32;portal</a></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template talk:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_China&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Organization_for_revolution">Organization for revolution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Organization for revolution">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Earliest_groups">Earliest groups</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Earliest groups">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>There were many revolutionaries and groups that wanted to overthrow the Qing government to re-establish Han-led government. The earliest revolutionary organizations were founded outside of China, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yeung_Ku-wan" title="Yeung Ku-wan">Yeung Ku-wan</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Furen_Literary_Society" title="Furen Literary Society">Furen Literary Society</a>, created in Hong Kong in 1890. There were 15 members, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tse_Tsan-tai" title="Tse Tsan-tai">Tse Tsan-tai</a>, who did political satire such as "The Situation in the Far East", one of the first ever Chinese <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manhua" title="Manhua">manhua</a>, and who later became one of the core founders of the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_China_Morning_Post" title="South China Morning Post">South China Morning Post</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup> </p> <div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Dr._Sun_in_London.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Dr._Sun_in_London.jpg/220px-Dr._Sun_in_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Dr._Sun_in_London.jpg/330px-Dr._Sun_in_London.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Dr._Sun_in_London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="575" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Dr._Sun_in_London.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Dr. Sun Yat-sen in London</div></div></div> <p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revive_China_Society" title="Revive China Society">Xingzhonghui (Revive China Society)</a> was established in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Honolulu" title="Honolulu">Honolulu</a> in 1894 with the main purpose of raising funds for revolutions.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup> The two organizations were merged in 1894.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Smaller_groups">Smaller groups</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Smaller groups">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huaxinghui" title="Huaxinghui">Huaxinghui (China Revival Society)</a> was founded in 1904 with notables like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huang_Xing" title="Huang Xing">Huang Xing</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Shizhao" title="Zhang Shizhao">Zhang Shizhao</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chen_Tianhua" title="Chen Tianhua">Chen Tianhua</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Song_Jiaoren" title="Song Jiaoren">Song Jiaoren</a>, along with 100 others. Their motto was "Take one province by force, and inspire the other provinces to rise up".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">&#91;11&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guangfuhui" title="Guangfuhui">Guangfuhui (Restoration Society)</a> was also founded in 1904, in Shanghai, by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cai_Yuanpei" title="Cai Yuanpei">Cai Yuanpei</a>. Other notable members include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Binglin" title="Zhang Binglin">Zhang Binglin</a> and Tao Chengzhang.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">&#91;12&#93;</a></sup> Despite professing the anti-Qing cause, the Guangfuhui was highly critical of Sun Yat-sen.<sup id="cite_ref-Wangke287_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wangke287-13">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup> One of the most famous female revolutionaries was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qiu_Jin" title="Qiu Jin">Qiu Jin</a>, who fought for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women&#39;s rights">women's rights</a> and was also from Guangfuhui.<sup id="cite_ref-Wangke287_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wangke287-13">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>There were also many other minor revolutionary organizations, such as Lizhi Xuehui (勵志學會) in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>, Gongqianghui (公強會) in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, Yiwenhui (益聞會) and Hanzudulihui (漢族獨立會) in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, Yizhishe (易知社) in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>, Yuewanghui (岳王會) in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and Qunzhihui (群智會/群智社) in Guangzhou.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">&#91;14&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>There were also criminal organizations that were anti-Manchu, including the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_Gang" title="Green Gang">Green Gang</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hongmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Hongmen">Hongmen</a> Zhigongtang (致公堂).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> Sun Yat-sen himself came in contact with the Hongmen, also known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tiandihui" title="Tiandihui">Tiandihui (Heaven and Earth society)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">&#91;16&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">&#91;17&#93;</a></sup> </p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gelaohui" title="Gelaohui">Gelaohui (Elder Brother society)</a> was another group, with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhu_De" title="Zhu De">Zhu De</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wu_Yuzhang" title="Wu Yuzhang">Wu Yuzhang</a>, Liu Zhidan (劉志丹) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/He_Long" title="He Long">He Long</a>. This is the revolutionary group that would eventually develop a strong link with the later <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China" title="Communist Party of China">Communist Party</a>. </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sun_Yat_Sen_together_with_the_members_of_the_Singapore_Branch_of_Tongmen_Hui.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Sun_Yat_Sen_together_with_the_members_of_the_Singapore_Branch_of_Tongmen_Hui.png/250px-Sun_Yat_Sen_together_with_the_members_of_the_Singapore_Branch_of_Tongmen_Hui.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="162" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Sun_Yat_Sen_together_with_the_members_of_the_Singapore_Branch_of_Tongmen_Hui.png/375px-Sun_Yat_Sen_together_with_the_members_of_the_Singapore_Branch_of_Tongmen_Hui.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Sun_Yat_Sen_together_with_the_members_of_the_Singapore_Branch_of_Tongmen_Hui.png/500px-Sun_Yat_Sen_together_with_the_members_of_the_Singapore_Branch_of_Tongmen_Hui.png 2x" data-file-width="2255" data-file-height="1458" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sun_Yat_Sen_together_with_the_members_of_the_Singapore_Branch_of_Tongmen_Hui.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Sun Yat-sen with members of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a></div></div></div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Tongmenghui">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Sun Yat-sen successfully united the Revive China Society, Huaxinghui and Guangfuhui in the summer of 1905, thereby establishing the unified <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui (United League)</a> in August 1905 in Tokyo.<sup id="cite_ref-chinahistvol1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chinahistvol1-18">&#91;18&#93;</a></sup> While it started in Tokyo, it had loose organizations distributed across and outside the country. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of this unified group. Other revolutionaries who worked with the Tongmenghui include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wang_Jingwei" title="Wang Jingwei">Wang Jingwei</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hu_Hanmin" title="Hu Hanmin">Hu Hanmin</a>. When the Tongmenhui was established, more than 90% of the Tongmenhui members were between 17–26 years of age.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">&#91;19&#93;</a></sup> Some of the work in the era includes manhua publications, such as the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Journal_of_Current_Pictorial" title="Journal of Current Pictorial">Journal of Current Pictorial</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Later_groups">Later groups</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Later groups">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In February 1906 Rizhihui (日知會) also had many revolutionaries, including Sun Wu (孫武), Zhang Nanxian (張難先), He Jiwei and Feng Mumin.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> A nucleus of attendees of this conference evolved into the Tongmenhui's establishment in Hubei. </p><p>In July 1907 several members of Tongmenhui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>. Liu Quiyi (劉揆一), Jiao Dafeng (焦達峰), Zhang Boxiang (張伯祥) and Sun Wu (孫武) established Gongjinhui (Progressive Association) (共進會).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">&#91;23&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wang390_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang390-24">&#91;24&#93;</a></sup> In January 1911, the revolutionary group Zhengwu Xueshe (振武學社) was renamed as Wenxueshe (Literary society) (文學社).<sup id="cite_ref-mz_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mz-25">&#91;25&#93;</a></sup> Jiang Yiwu (蔣翊武) was chosen as the leader.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">&#91;26&#93;</a></sup> These two organizations would play a big role in the Wuchang Uprising. </p><p>Many young revolutionaries adopted the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">radical programs of the anarchists</a>. In Tokyo <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liu_Shipei" title="Liu Shipei">Liu Shipei</a> proposed the overthrow of the Manchus and a return to Chinese classical values. In Paris Li Shizhen, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wu_Zhihui" title="Wu Zhihui">Wu Zhihui</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Renjie" title="Zhang Renjie">Zhang Renjie</a> agreed with Sun on the necessity of revolution and joined the Tongmenghui, but argued that a political replacement of one government with another government would not be progress; revolution in family, gender and social values would remove the need for government and coercion. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Ji_(Republic_of_China)" title="Zhang Ji (Republic of China)">Zhang Ji</a> was among the anarchists who defended assassination and terrorism as means toward revolution, but others insisted that only education was justifiable. Important anarchists included Cai Yuanpei, Wang Jingwei and Zhang Renjie, who gave Sun major financial help. Many of these anarchists would later assume high positions in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">&#91;27&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Views">Views</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Views">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></div> <p>Many revolutionaries promoted anti-Qing/anti-Manchu sentiments and revived memories of conflict between the ethnic minority <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> and the ethnic majority <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> from the late <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644). Leading intellectuals were influenced by books that had survived from the last years of the Ming dynasty, the last dynasty of Han Chinese. In 1904, Sun Yat-sen announced that his organization's goal was "to expel the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Tatar barbarians</a>, to revive <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Names_of_China#Zhongguo_and_Zhonghua" title="Names of China">Zhonghua</a>, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people." (驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權).<sup id="cite_ref-chinahistvol1_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chinahistvol1-18">&#91;18&#93;</a></sup> Many of the underground groups promoted the ideas of "Resist Qing and restore Ming" (反清復明) that had been around since the days of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup> Others, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Binglin" title="Zhang Binglin">Zhang Binglin</a>, supported straight-up lines like "slay the manchus" and concepts like "Anti-Manchuism" (興漢滅胡 / 排滿主義).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">&#91;29&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Strata_and_groups">Strata and groups</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Strata and groups">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>The 1911 Revolution was supported by many groups, including students and intellectuals who returned from abroad, as well as participants of the revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers and others. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Overseas_Chinese">Overseas Chinese</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Overseas Chinese">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_revolutionary_activities_in_Malaya" title="Chinese revolutionary activities in Malaya">Chinese revolutionary activities in Malaya</a></div> <p>Assistance from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">overseas Chinese</a> was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">&#91;30&#93;</a></sup> Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in the funding of revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a> (Singapore and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Gao_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gao-31">&#91;31&#93;</a></sup> Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".<sup id="cite_ref-Gao_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gao-31">&#91;31&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Newly_emerged_intellectuals">Newly emerged intellectuals</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Newly emerged intellectuals">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In 1906, after the abolition of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperial_examinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial examinations">imperial examinations</a>, the Qing government established many new schools and encouraged students to study abroad. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-fenby_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fenby-32">&#91;32&#93;</a></sup> A new class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Song_Jiaoren" title="Song Jiaoren">Song Jiaoren</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hu_Hanmin" title="Hu Hanmin">Hu Hanmin</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liao_Zhongkai" title="Liao Zhongkai">Liao Zhongkai</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhu_Zhixin_(revolutionary)" title="Zhu Zhixin (revolutionary)">Zhu Zhixin</a> and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zou_Rong" title="Zou Rong">Zou Rong</a>, known for writing the book <i>Revolutionary Army</i>, in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty and tyranny and turning the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Descendants_of_Yan_%26_Huang_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Descendants of Yan &amp; Huang Emperors">sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor</a> into <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washingtons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fenby109_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fenby109-33">&#91;33&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings that these organizations would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tiandihui" title="Tiandihui">Sanhehui</a> were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">&#91;34&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Gentry_and_businessmen">Gentry and businessmen</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Gentry and businessmen">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%E7%9A%87%E6%97%8F%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E7%9A%87%E6%97%8F%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3.png/220px-%E7%9A%87%E6%97%8F%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E7%9A%87%E6%97%8F%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3.png/330px-%E7%9A%87%E6%97%8F%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E7%9A%87%E6%97%8F%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3.png/440px-%E7%9A%87%E6%97%8F%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3.png 2x" data-file-width="1183" data-file-height="831" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%E7%9A%87%E6%97%8F%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yikuang" title="Yikuang">Prince Qing</a> with some <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prince_Qing%27s_Cabinet" title="Prince Qing&#39;s Cabinet">royal cabinet</a> members</div></div></div> <p>The strength of the gentry in local politics had become apparent. From December 1908, the Qing government created some apparatus to allow the gentry and businessmen to participate in politics. These middle-class people were originally supporters of constitutionalism. However, they became disenchanted when the Qing government created a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prince_Qing%27s_Cabinet" title="Prince Qing&#39;s Cabinet">cabinet</a> with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yikuang" title="Yikuang">Prince Qing</a> as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Imperial_Cabinet" title="Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet">prime minister</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">&#91;35&#93;</a></sup> By early 1911, an experimental cabinet had thirteen members, nine of whom were Manchus selected from the imperial family.<sup id="cite_ref-Wangke76_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wangke76-36">&#91;36&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Foreigners">Foreigners</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Foreigners">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some of the supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miyazaki_Touten" class="mw-redirect" title="Miyazaki Touten">Miyazaki Touten</a> was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dhei_Uchida" title="Ryōhei Uchida">Ryōhei Uchida</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Homer_Lea" title="Homer Lea">Homer Lea</a>, an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">&#91;37&#93;</a></sup> British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in the revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Laukit_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laukit-38">&#91;38&#93;</a></sup> Some foreigners, such as English explorer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arthur_de_Carle_Sowerby" title="Arthur de Carle Sowerby">Arthur de Carle Sowerby</a>, led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-Borst-Smith_1912_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borst-Smith_1912-39">&#91;39&#93;</a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r923042769/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"/><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Yuan_Shikai_as_governor_of_shandong.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Yuan_Shikai_as_governor_of_shandong.jpg/110px-Yuan_Shikai_as_governor_of_shandong.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="116" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Yuan_Shikai_as_governor_of_shandong.jpg/165px-Yuan_Shikai_as_governor_of_shandong.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Yuan_Shikai_as_governor_of_shandong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="210" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> (1859–1916)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Beiyang_Army.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Beiyang_Army.jpg/230px-Beiyang_Army.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="175" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Beiyang_Army.jpg/345px-Beiyang_Army.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Beiyang_Army.jpg/460px-Beiyang_Army.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1462" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left/right/center;background-color:">Yuan rose to power in north China and built the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>.</div></div></div></div> <p>The far right wing Japanese ultra-nationalist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Dragon_Society" title="Black Dragon Society">Black Dragon Society</a> supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Manchus, believing that overthrowing the Qing would help the Japanese take over the Manchu homeland and that Han Chinese would not oppose the take over. Toyama believed that the Japanese could easily take over Manchuria and Sun Yat-sen and other anti-Qing revolutionaries would not resist and help the Japanese take over and enlargen the opium trade in China while the Qing was trying to destroy the opium trade. The Japanese Black Dragons supported Sun Yat-sen and anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing collapsed.<sup id="cite_ref-Nash1997_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nash1997-40">&#91;40&#93;</a></sup> The far right wing Japanese ultranationalist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gen%27y%C5%8Dsha" title="Gen&#39;yōsha">Gen'yōsha</a> leader <a href="/enwiki/wiki/T%C5%8Dyama_Mitsuru" title="Tōyama Mitsuru">Tōyama Mitsuru</a> supported anti-Manchu, anti-Qing revolutionary activities including the ones organised by Sun Yat-sen and supported Japanese taking over Manchuria. The anti-Qing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a> was founded and based in exile in Japan where many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered. </p><p>The Japanese had been trying to unite anti-Manchu groups made out of Han people to take down the Qing. Japanese were the ones who helped Sun Yat-sen unite all anti-Qing, anti-Manchu revolutionary groups together and there were Japanese like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/T%C5%8Dten_Miyazaki" title="Tōten Miyazaki">Tōten Miyazaki</a> inside of the anti-Manchu Tongmenghui revolutionary alliance. The Black Dragon Society hosted the Tongmenghui in its first meeting.<sup id="cite_ref-BergèreLloyd1998_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergèreLloyd1998-41">&#91;41&#93;</a></sup> The Black Dragon Society had very intimate relations with Sun Yat-sen and promoted pan-Asianism and Sun sometimes passed himself off as Japanese<sup id="cite_ref-Horne2005_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne2005-42">&#91;42&#93;</a></sup> and they had connections with Sun for a long time.<sup id="cite_ref-Chung2000_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chung2000-43">&#91;43&#93;</a></sup> Japanese groups like the Black Dragon Society had a large impact on Sun Yat-sen.<sup id="cite_ref-Chung1997_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chung1997-44">&#91;44&#93;</a></sup> According to an American military historian, Japanese military officers were part of the Black Dragon Society. The Yakuza and Black Dragon Society helped arrange in Tokyo for Sun Yat-sen to hold the first Kuomintang meetings, and were hoping to flood China with opium and overthrow the Qing and deceive Chinese into overthrowing the Qing to Japan's benefit. After the revolution was successful, the Japanese Black Dragons started infiltrating China and spreading opium. The Black Dragons pushed for the takeover of Manchuria by Japan in 1932.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlisle2015_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlisle2015-45">&#91;45&#93;</a></sup> Sun Yat-sen was married to a Japanese, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaoru_Otsuki" title="Kaoru Otsuki">Kaoru Otsuki</a>. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Soldiers_of_the_new_armies">Soldiers of the new armies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Soldiers of the new armies">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a> was formed in 1901 after the defeat of the Qings in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fenby_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fenby-32">&#91;32&#93;</a></sup> They were launched by a decree from eight provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-fenby_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fenby-32">&#91;32&#93;</a></sup> New Army troops were by far the best trained and equipped.<sup id="cite_ref-fenby_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fenby-32">&#91;32&#93;</a></sup> The recruits were of a higher quality than the old army and received regular promotions.<sup id="cite_ref-fenby_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fenby-32">&#91;32&#93;</a></sup> Beginning in 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift their call to the new armies. Sun Yat-sen and the revolutionaries infiltrated the New Army.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">&#91;46&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Uprisings_and_incidents">Uprisings and incidents</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Uprisings and incidents">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>The central focus of the uprisings were mostly connected with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a> and Sun Yat-sen, including subgroups. Some uprisings involved groups that never merged with the Tongmenghui. Sun Yat-sen may have participated in 8–10 uprisings; all uprisings failed prior to the Wuchang Uprising. </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/200px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/300px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/400px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Flag of the First Guangzhou Uprising</div></div></div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="First_Guangzhou_Uprising">First Guangzhou Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: First Guangzhou Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In the spring of 1895, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revive_China_Society" title="Revive China Society">Revive China Society</a>, which was based in Hong Kong, planned the First Guangzhou Uprising (廣州起義). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lu_Haodong" title="Lu Haodong">Lu Haodong</a> was tasked with designing the revolutionaries' <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blue_Sky_with_a_White_Sun" title="Blue Sky with a White Sun">Blue Sky with a White Sun</a> flag.<sup id="cite_ref-Gao_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gao-31">&#91;31&#93;</a></sup> On 26 October 1895, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yeung_Ku-wan" title="Yeung Ku-wan">Yeung Ku-wan</a> and Sun Yat-sen led <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Zheng_Shiliang&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Zheng Shiliang (page does not exist)">Zheng Shiliang</a> and Lu Haodong to Guangzhou, preparing to capture Guangzhou in one strike. However, the details of their plans were leaked to the Qing government.<sup id="cite_ref-z1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-z1-47">&#91;47&#93;</a></sup> The government began to arrest revolutionaries, including Lu Haodong, who was later executed.<sup id="cite_ref-z1_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-z1-47">&#91;47&#93;</a></sup> The First Guangzhou Uprising was a failure. Under pressure from the Qing government, the government of Hong Kong forbade these two men to enter the territory for five years. Sun Yat-sen went into exile, promoting the Chinese revolution and raising funds in Japan, the United States, Canada and Britain. In 1901, following the Huizhou Uprising, Yeung Ku-wan was assassinated by Qing agents in Hong Kong.<sup id="cite_ref-scmpYkw_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmpYkw-48">&#91;48&#93;</a></sup> After his death, his family protected his identity by not putting his name on his tomb, just a number: 6348.<sup id="cite_ref-scmpYkw_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmpYkw-48">&#91;48&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Independence_Army_Uprising">Independence Army Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Independence Army Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In 1901, after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> started, Tang Caichang (唐才常) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tan_Sitong" title="Tan Sitong">Tan Sitong</a> of the previous <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foot_Emancipation_Society" title="Foot Emancipation Society">Foot Emancipation Society</a> organised the Independence Army. The Independence Army Uprising (自立軍起義) was planned to occur on 23 August 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-Wang424_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang424-49">&#91;49&#93;</a></sup> Their goal was to overthrow <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> to establish a constitutional monarchy under the Guangxu Emperor. Their plot was discovered by the governor-generals of Hunan and Hubei. About twenty conspirators were arrested and executed.<sup id="cite_ref-Wang424_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang424-49">&#91;49&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Huizhou_Uprising">Huizhou Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Huizhou Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 8 October 1900, Sun Yat-sen ordered the launch of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huizhou" title="Huizhou">Huizhou</a> Uprising (惠州起義).<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">&#91;50&#93;</a></sup> The revolutionary army was led by Zheng Shiliang and initially included 20,000 men, who fought for half a month. However, after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hirobumi_Ito" class="mw-redirect" title="Hirobumi Ito">Japanese Prime Minister</a> prohibited Sun Yat-sen from carrying out revolutionary activities on Taiwan, Zheng Shiliang had no choice but to order the army to disperse. This uprising therefore also failed. British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern participated in this uprising.<sup id="cite_ref-Laukit_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laukit-38">&#91;38&#93;</a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r923042769/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"/><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:236px;max-width:236px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Zhang_Zhitong-1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Zhang_Zhitong-1.jpg/110px-Zhang_Zhitong-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="157" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Zhang_Zhitong-1.jpg/165px-Zhang_Zhitong-1.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Zhang_Zhitong-1.jpg/220px-Zhang_Zhitong-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="666" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Zhidong" title="Zhang Zhidong">Zhang Zhidong</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:120px;max-width:120px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Li_Hung-Chang,_c._1896.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Li_Hung-Chang%2C_c._1896.jpg/118px-Li_Hung-Chang%2C_c._1896.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="158" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Li_Hung-Chang%2C_c._1896.jpg/177px-Li_Hung-Chang%2C_c._1896.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Li_Hung-Chang%2C_c._1896.jpg/236px-Li_Hung-Chang%2C_c._1896.jpg 2x" data-file-width="871" data-file-height="1164" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Li_Hongzhang" title="Li Hongzhang">Li Hongzhang</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color:">Two important Qing figures at the time</div></div></div></div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Great_Ming_Uprising">Great Ming Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Great Ming Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>A very short uprising occurred from 25 to 28 January 1903, to establish a "Great Ming Heavenly Kingdom" (大明順天國).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">&#91;51&#93;</a></sup> This involved <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tse_Tsan-tai" title="Tse Tsan-tai">Tse Tsan-tai</a>, Li Jitang (李紀堂), Liang Muguang (梁慕光) and Hong Quanfu (洪全福), who formerly took part in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jintian_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Jintian uprising">Jintian uprising</a> during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taiping_Heavenly_Kingdom" title="Taiping Heavenly Kingdom">Taiping Heavenly Kingdom</a> era.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">&#91;52&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ping-liu-li_Uprising">Ping-liu-li Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Ping-liu-li Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Ma Fuyi (馬福益) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huaxinghui" title="Huaxinghui">Huaxinghui</a> was involved in an uprising in the three areas of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pingxiang" title="Pingxiang">Pingxiang</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liuyang" title="Liuyang">Liuyang</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liling" title="Liling">Liling</a>, called "Ping-liu-li Uprising", (萍瀏醴起義) in 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-Joan1_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joan1-53">&#91;53&#93;</a></sup> The uprising recruited miners as early as 1903 to rise against the Qing ruling class. After the uprising failed, Ma Fuyi was executed.<sup id="cite_ref-Joan1_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joan1-53">&#91;53&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Beijing_Zhengyangmen_East_Railway_assassination_attempt">Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway assassination attempt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway assassination attempt">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Wu Yue (吳樾) of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guangfuhui" title="Guangfuhui">Guangfuhui</a> carried out an assassination attempt at the Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway station (正陽門車站) in an attack on five Qing officials on 24 September 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-Wangke287_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wangke287-13">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">&#91;54&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Huanggang_Uprising">Huanggang Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Huanggang Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The Huanggang Uprising (黃岡起義) was launched on 22 May 1907, in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chaozhou" title="Chaozhou">Chaozhou</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zga1_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zga1-55">&#91;55&#93;</a></sup> The revolutionary party, along with Xu Xueqiu (許雪秋), Chen Yongpo (陳湧波) and Yu Tongshi (余通實), launched the uprising and captured Huanggang city.<sup id="cite_ref-Zga1_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zga1-55">&#91;55&#93;</a></sup> Other Japanese that followed include 萱野長知 and 池亨吉.<sup id="cite_ref-Zga1_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zga1-55">&#91;55&#93;</a></sup> After the uprising began, the Qing government quickly and forcefully suppressed it. Around 200 revolutionaries were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">&#91;56&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span id="Huizhou_Qin.C3.BChu_Uprising"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Huizhou_Qinühu_Uprising">Huizhou Qinühu Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Huizhou Qinühu Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In the same year, Sun Yat-sen sent more revolutionaries to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huizhou" title="Huizhou">Huizhou</a> to launch the "Huizhou Qinühu Uprising" (<span lang="zh-Hant" title="Chinese language text">惠州七女湖起義</span>). </p><p><sup id="cite_ref-zz1_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zz1-57">&#91;57&#93;</a></sup> On 2 June, Deng Zhiyu (<span lang="zh-Hant" title="Chinese language text">鄧子瑜</span>) and Chen Chuan (<span lang="zh-Hant" title="Chinese language text">陳純</span>) gathered some followers, and together, they seized Qing arms in the lake, 20&#160;km (12&#160;mi) from Huizhou.<sup id="cite_ref-z3_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-z3-58">&#91;58&#93;</a></sup> They killed several Qing soldiers and attacked Taiwei (<span lang="zh" title="Chinese language text">泰尾</span>) on 5 June.<sup id="cite_ref-z3_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-z3-58">&#91;58&#93;</a></sup> The Qing army fled in disorder, and the revolutionaries exploited the opportunity, capturing several towns. They defeated the Qing army once again in Bazhiyie. Many organizations voiced their support after the uprising, and the number of revolutionary forces increased to two hundred men at its height. The uprising, however, ultimately failed. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Anqing_Uprising">Anqing Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Anqing Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:QiuJin_feminist_revolutionary.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/QiuJin_feminist_revolutionary.jpg/150px-QiuJin_feminist_revolutionary.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="236" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/QiuJin_feminist_revolutionary.jpg/225px-QiuJin_feminist_revolutionary.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/QiuJin_feminist_revolutionary.jpg/300px-QiuJin_feminist_revolutionary.jpg 2x" data-file-width="812" data-file-height="1280" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:QiuJin_feminist_revolutionary.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A statue to honor revolutionary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qiu_Jin" title="Qiu Jin">Qiu Jin</a></div></div></div> <p>On 6 July 1907, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xu_Xilin" title="Xu Xilin">Xu Xilin</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guangfuhui" title="Guangfuhui">Guangfuhui</a> led an uprising in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anqing" title="Anqing">Anqing</a>, Anhui, which became known as the Anqing Uprising (安慶起義).<sup id="cite_ref-mz_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mz-25">&#91;25&#93;</a></sup> Xu Xilin at the time was the police commissioner as well as the supervisor of the police academy. He led an uprising that was to assassinate the provincial governor of Anhui, En Ming (恩銘).<sup id="cite_ref-ln1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ln1-59">&#91;59&#93;</a></sup> They were defeated after four hours of fighting. Xu was captured, and En Ming's bodyguards cut out his heart and liver and ate them.<sup id="cite_ref-ln1_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ln1-59">&#91;59&#93;</a></sup> His cousin <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qiu_Jin" title="Qiu Jin">Qiu Jin</a> was executed a few days later.<sup id="cite_ref-ln1_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ln1-59">&#91;59&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Qinzhou_Uprising">Qinzhou Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Qinzhou Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>From August to September 1907, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qinzhou" title="Qinzhou">Qinzhou</a> Uprising occurred (欽州防城起義),<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">&#91;60&#93;</a></sup> to protest against heavy taxation from the government. Sun Yat-sen sent Wang Heshun (王和順) there to assist the revolutionary army and captured the county in September.<sup id="cite_ref-xn1_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xn1-61">&#91;61&#93;</a></sup> After that, they attempted to besiege and capture Qinzhou, but they were unsuccessful. They eventually retreated to the area of Shiwandashan, while Wang Heshun returned to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Zhennanguan_Uprising">Zhennanguan Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Zhennanguan Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 1 December 1907, the Zhennanguan Uprising (鎮南關起事) took place at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Friendship_Pass" title="Friendship Pass">Zhennanguan</a>, a pass on the Chinese-Vietnamese border. Sun Yat-sen sent Huang Mintang (黃明堂) to monitor the pass, which was guarded by a fort.<sup id="cite_ref-xn1_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xn1-61">&#91;61&#93;</a></sup> With the assistance of supporters among the fort's defenders, the revolutionaries captured the cannon tower in Zhennanguan. Sun Yat-sen, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huang_Xing" title="Huang Xing">Huang Xing</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hu_Hanmin" title="Hu Hanmin">Hu Hanmin</a> personally went to the tower to command the battle.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">&#91;62&#93;</a></sup> The Qing government sent troops led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Long_Jiguang" title="Long Jiguang">Long Jiguang</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lu_Rongting" title="Lu Rongting">Lu Rongting</a> to counterattack, and the revolutionaries were forced to retreat into the mountainous areas. After the failure of this uprising, Sun was forced to move to Singapore due to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen#Anti-Sun_movements" title="Sun Yat-sen">anti-Sun sentiments</a> within the revolutionary groups.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">&#91;63&#93;</a></sup> He would not return to the mainland until after the Wuchang Uprising. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Qin-lian_Uprising">Qin-lian Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Qin-lian Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 27 March 1908, Huang Xing launched a raid, later known as the Qin-lian Uprising (欽廉上思起義), from a base in Vietnam and attacked the cities of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qinzhou" title="Qinzhou">Qinzhou</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lianzhou" title="Lianzhou">Lianzhou</a> in Guangdong. The struggle continued for fourteen days but was forced to terminate after the revolutionaries ran out of supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">&#91;64&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Hekou_Uprising">Hekou Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: Hekou Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In April 1908, another uprising was launched in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, Hekou, called the Hekou Uprising (雲南河口起義). Huang Mingtang (黃明堂) led two hundred men from Vietnam and attacked Hekou on 30 April. Other revolutionaries who participated include Wang Heshun (王和順) and Guan Renfu (關仁甫). They were outnumbered and defeated by government troops, however, and the uprising failed.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">&#91;65&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mapaoying_Uprising">Mapaoying Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: Mapaoying Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 19 November 1908, the Mapaoying Uprising (馬炮營起義) was launched by revolutionary group Yuewanghui (岳王會) member Xiong Chenggei (熊成基) at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">&#91;66&#93;</a></sup> Yuewanghui, at this time, was a subset of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a>. This uprising also failed. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Gengxu_New_Army_Uprising">Gengxu New Army Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: Gengxu New Army Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In February 1910, the Gengxu New Army Uprising (庚戌新軍起義), also known as the Guangzhou New Army Uprising (廣州新軍起義), took place.<sup id="cite_ref-yq_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yq-67">&#91;67&#93;</a></sup> This involved a conflict between the citizens and local police against the New Army. After revolutionary leader Ni Yingdian was killed by Qing forces, the remaining revolutionaries were quickly defeated, causing the uprising to fail. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Second_Guangzhou_Uprising">Second Guangzhou Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: Second Guangzhou Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Guangzhou_Uprising" title="Second Guangzhou Uprising">Second Guangzhou Uprising</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Huanghuagang_Mausoleum_of_72_Martyrs.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Huanghuagang_Mausoleum_of_72_Martyrs.jpg/220px-Huanghuagang_Mausoleum_of_72_Martyrs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Huanghuagang_Mausoleum_of_72_Martyrs.jpg/330px-Huanghuagang_Mausoleum_of_72_Martyrs.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Huanghuagang_Mausoleum_of_72_Martyrs.jpg/440px-Huanghuagang_Mausoleum_of_72_Martyrs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Huanghuagang_Mausoleum_of_72_Martyrs.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The memorial for the 72 martyrs</div></div></div> <p>On 27 April 1911, an uprising occurred in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, known as the Second Guangzhou Uprising (辛亥廣州起義) or Yellow Flower Mound Revolt (黃花岡之役). It ended in disaster, as 86 bodies were found (only 72 could be identified).<sup id="cite_ref-gongtong1_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gongtong1-68">&#91;68&#93;</a></sup> The 72 revolutionaries were remembered as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martyrdom_in_Chinese_culture" title="Martyrdom in Chinese culture">martyrs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gongtong1_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gongtong1-68">&#91;68&#93;</a></sup> Revolutionary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lin_Juemin" title="Lin Juemin">Lin Juemin</a> (林覺民) was one of the 72. On the eve of battle, he wrote the legendary "A Letter to My Wife" (與妻訣別書), later to be considered as a masterpiece in Chinese literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Langmead_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langmead-69">&#91;69&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">&#91;70&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Wuchang_Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section: Wuchang Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_(1911-1928)_18_dots.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg/200px-Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg/300px-Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg/400px-Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_%281911-1928%29_18_dots.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="520" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Chinese-army_Wuhan_flag_(1911-1928)_18_dots.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Iron Blood 18-star flag</div></div></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A6%E6%98%8C%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/%E6%AD%A6%E6%98%8C%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89.png/100px-%E6%AD%A6%E6%98%8C%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="186" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/%E6%AD%A6%E6%98%8C%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89.png/150px-%E6%AD%A6%E6%98%8C%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/%E6%AD%A6%E6%98%8C%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89.png/200px-%E6%AD%A6%E6%98%8C%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89.png 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="1178" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A6%E6%98%8C%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Paths of the uprising</div></div></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Yangxia" title="Battle of Yangxia">Battle of Yangxia</a></div> <p>The Literary Society (文學社) and the Progressive Association (共進會) were revolutionary organizations involved in the uprising that mainly began with a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a> protest.<sup id="cite_ref-Wang390_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang390-24">&#91;24&#93;</a></sup> In the late summer, some Hubei New Army units were ordered to neighboring Sichuan to quell the Railway Protection Movement, a mass protest against the Qing government's seizure and handover of local railway development ventures to foreign powers.<sup id="cite_ref-reillyt_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reillyt-71">&#91;71&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eight_Banner" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight Banner">Banner</a> officers like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duanfang" title="Duanfang">Duanfang</a>, the railroad superintendent,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">&#91;72&#93;</a></sup> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhao_Erfeng" title="Zhao Erfeng">Zhao Erfeng</a> led the New Army against the Railway Protection Movement. </p><p>The New Army units of Hubei had originally been the Hubei Army, which had been trained by Qing official <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Zhidong" title="Zhang Zhidong">Zhang Zhidong</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-xb1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xb1-3">&#91;3&#93;</a></sup> On 24 September, the Literary Society and Progressive Association convened a conference in Wuchang, along with sixty representatives from local New Army units. During the conference, they established a headquarters for the uprising. The leaders of the two organizations, Jiang Yiwu (蔣翊武) and Sun Wu (孫武), were elected as commander and chief of staff. Initially, the date of the uprising was to be 6 October 1911.<sup id="cite_ref-gongtong2_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gongtong2-73">&#91;73&#93;</a></sup> It was postponed to a later date due to insufficient preparations. </p><p>Revolutionaries intent on overthrowing the Qing dynasty had built bombs, and on 9 October, one accidentally exploded.<sup id="cite_ref-gongtong2_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gongtong2-73">&#91;73&#93;</a></sup> Sun Yat-sen himself had no direct part in the uprising and was traveling in the United States at the time in an effort to recruit more support from among overseas Chinese. The Qing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Viceroy of Huguang</a>, Rui Cheng (瑞澂), tried to track down and arrest the revolutionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-tonsi1_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tonsi1-74">&#91;74&#93;</a></sup> Squad leader Xiong Bingkun (熊秉坤) and others decided not to delay the uprising any longer and launched the revolt on 10 October 1911, at 7&#160;pm.<sup id="cite_ref-tonsi1_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tonsi1-74">&#91;74&#93;</a></sup> The revolt was a success; the entire city of Wuchang was captured by the revolutionaries on the morning of 11 October. That evening, they established a tactical headquarters and announced the establishment of the "Military Government of Hubei of Republic of China".<sup id="cite_ref-tonsi1_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tonsi1-74">&#91;74&#93;</a></sup> The conference chose <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a> as the governor of the temporary government.<sup id="cite_ref-tonsi1_74-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tonsi1-74">&#91;74&#93;</a></sup> Qing officers like the bannermen Duanfang and Zhao Erfeng were killed by the revolutionary forces. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Provincial_uprisings">Provincial uprisings</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section: Provincial uprisings">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Qing_Dynasty_Map_at_the_time_of_the_1911_Revolution.JPG" class="new" title="File:Qing Dynasty Map at the time of the 1911 Revolution.JPG">File:Qing Dynasty Map at the time of the 1911 Revolution.JPG</a> <div class="thumbcaption">Map of uprisings during the 1911 Revolution</div></div></div> <p>After the success of the Wuchang Uprising, many other protests occurred throughout the country for various reasons. Some of the uprisings declared restoration (光復) of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> rule. Other uprisings were a step toward independence, and some were protests or rebellions against the local authorities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> Regardless the reason for the uprising the outcome was that all provinces in the country renounced the Qing dynasty and joined the ROC. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Changsha_restoration">Changsha restoration</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edit section: Changsha restoration">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1911)" title="Battle of Changsha (1911)">Battle of Changsha (1911)</a></div> <p>On 22 October 1911, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> Tongmenghui were led by Jiao Dafeng (焦達嶧) and Chen Zuoxin (陳作新).<sup id="cite_ref-zhanged2_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhanged2-75">&#91;75&#93;</a></sup> They headed an armed group, consisting partly of revolutionaries from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hongjiang" title="Hongjiang">Hongjiang</a> and partly of defecting New Army units, in a campaign to extend the uprising into <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Changsha" title="Changsha">Changsha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zhanged2_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhanged2-75">&#91;75&#93;</a></sup> They captured the city and killed the local Imperial general. Then they announced the establishment of the Hunan Military Government of the Republic of China and announced their opposition to the Qing Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-zhanged2_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhanged2-75">&#91;75&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Shaanxi_Uprising">Shaanxi Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="Edit section: Shaanxi Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On the same day, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>'s Tongmenghui, led by Jing Dingcheng (景定成) and Qian Ding (錢鼎) as well as Jing Wumu (井勿幕) and others including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gelaohui" title="Gelaohui">Gelaohui</a>, launched an uprising and captured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi&#39;an">Xi'an</a> after two days of struggle.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> The Hui Muslim community was divided in its support for the revolution. The Hui Muslims of Shaanxi supported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims of Gansu supported the Qing. The native Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) of Xi'an (Shaanxi province) joined the Han Chinese revolutionaries in slaughtering the Manchus.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">&#91;77&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">&#91;78&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">&#91;79&#93;</a></sup> The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ma_Anliang" title="Ma Anliang">Ma Anliang</a> led more than twenty battalions of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> Muslim troops to defend the Qing imperials and attacked Shaanxi, held by revolutionary Zhang Fenghui (張鳳翽).<sup id="cite_ref-fsh_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fsh-80">&#91;80&#93;</a></sup> The attack was successful, and after news arrived that Puyi was about to abdicate, Ma agreed to join the new Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-fsh_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fsh-80">&#91;80&#93;</a></sup> The revolutionaries established the "Qinlong Fuhan Military Government" and elected Zhang Fenghui, a member of the Yuanrizhi Society (原日知會), as new governor.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> After the Xi'an Manchu quarter fell on 24 October, Xinhai forces killed all of the Manchus in the city, about 20,000 Manchus were killed in the massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads192_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads192-81">&#91;81&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">&#91;82&#93;</a></sup> Many of its Manchu defenders committed suicide, including Qing general Wenrui (文瑞), who threw himself down a well.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads192_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads192-81">&#91;81&#93;</a></sup> Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">&#91;83&#93;</a></sup> and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">&#91;84&#93;</a></sup> Young Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">&#91;85&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Jiujiang_Uprising">Jiujiang Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35" title="Edit section: Jiujiang Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 23 October, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lin_Sen" title="Lin Sen">Lin Sen</a>, Jiang Qun (蔣群), Cai Hui (蔡蕙) and other members of the Tongmenghui in the province of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> plotted a revolt of New Army units.<sup id="cite_ref-zhanged2_75-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhanged2-75">&#91;75&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> After they achieved victory, they announced their independence. The Jiujiang Military Government was then established.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Shanxi_Taiyuan_Uprising">Shanxi Taiyuan Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36" title="Edit section: Shanxi Taiyuan Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 29 October, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a> of the New Army led an uprising in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taiyuan" title="Taiyuan">Taiyuan</a>, the capital city of the province of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, along with Yao Yijie (姚以價), Huang Guoliang (黃國梁), Wen Shouquan (溫壽泉), Li Chenglin (李成林), Zhang Shuzhi (張樹幟) and Qiao Xi (喬煦).<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">&#91;87&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where Banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">&#91;88&#93;</a></sup> They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (陸鍾琦).<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup> They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> Yan Xishan would later become one of the warlords that plagued China during what was known as "the warlord era". </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Kunming_Double_Ninth_Uprising">Kunming Double Ninth Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37" title="Edit section: Kunming Double Ninth Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 30 October, Li Genyuan (李根源) of the Tongmenghui in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> joined with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cai_E" title="Cai E">Cai E</a>, Luo Peijin (羅佩金), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tang_Jiyao" title="Tang Jiyao">Tang Jiyao</a>, and other officers of the New Army to launch the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Double_Ninth_Festival" title="Double Ninth Festival">Double Ninth</a> Uprising (重九起義).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">&#91;90&#93;</a></sup> They captured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kunming" title="Kunming">Kunming</a> the next day and established the Yunnan Military Government, electing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cai_E" title="Cai E">Cai E</a> as the military governor.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nanchang_restoration">Nanchang restoration</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=38" title="Edit section: Nanchang restoration">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 31 October, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nanchang" title="Nanchang">Nanchang</a> branch of the Tongmenghui led New Army units in a successful uprising. They established the Jiangxi Military Government.<sup id="cite_ref-zhanged2_75-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhanged2-75">&#91;75&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Li_Liejun" title="Li Liejun">Li Liejun</a> was elected as the military governor.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> Li declared <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> as independent and launched an expedition against Qing official Yuan Shikai.<sup id="cite_ref-Langmead_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langmead-69">&#91;69&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Shanghai_Armed_Uprising">Shanghai Armed Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=39" title="Edit section: Shanghai Armed Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Chen_Qi-mei.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Chen_Qi-mei.png/150px-Chen_Qi-mei.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="198" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Chen_Qi-mei.png/225px-Chen_Qi-mei.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Chen_Qi-mei.png/300px-Chen_Qi-mei.png 2x" data-file-width="558" data-file-height="735" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Chen_Qi-mei.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chen_Qimei" title="Chen Qimei">Chen Qimei</a>, military governor of Shanghai</div></div></div> <p>On 3 November, Shanghai's Tongmenghui, Guangfuhui and merchants led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chen_Qimei" title="Chen Qimei">Chen Qimei</a> (陳其美), Li Pingsu (李平書), Zhang Chengyou (張承槱), Li Yingshi (李英石), Li Xiehe (李燮和) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Song_Jiaoren" title="Song Jiaoren">Song Jiaoren</a> organized an armed rebellion in Shanghai.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> They received the support of local police officers.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> The rebels captured the Jiangnan Workshop on the 4th and captured Shanghai soon after. On 8 November, they established the Shanghai Military Government and elected Chen Qimei as the military governor.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> He would eventually become one of the founders of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Four_big_families_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Four big families of the Republic of China">ROC four big families</a>, along with some of the most well-known families of the era.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">&#91;91&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Guizhou_Uprising">Guizhou Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=40" title="Edit section: Guizhou Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 4 November, Zhang Bailin (張百麟) of the revolutionary party in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a> led an uprising along with New Army units and students from the military academy. They immediately captured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guiyang" title="Guiyang">Guiyang</a> and established the Great Han Guizhou Military Government, electing Yang Jincheng (楊藎誠) and Zhao Dequan (趙德全) as the chief and vice governor respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">&#91;92&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Zhejiang_Uprising">Zhejiang Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=41" title="Edit section: Zhejiang Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Also on 4 November, revolutionaries in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> urged the New Army units in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a> to launch an uprising.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> Zhu Rui (朱瑞), Wu Siyu (吳思豫), Lu Gongwang (吕公望) and others of the New Army captured the military supplies workshop.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> Other units, led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> and Yin Zhirei (尹銳志), captured most of the government offices.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> Eventually, Hangzhou was under the control of the revolutionaries, and the constitutionalist Tang Shouqian (湯壽潛) was elected as the military governor.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Jiangsu_restoration">Jiangsu restoration</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=42" title="Edit section: Jiangsu restoration">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 5 November, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> constitutionalists and gentry urged Qing governor Cheng Dequan (程德全) to announce independence and established the Jiangsu Revolutionary Military Government with Cheng himself as the governor.<sup id="cite_ref-zhong1911-ch12_86-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zhong1911-ch12-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">&#91;93&#93;</a></sup> Unlike some of the other cities, anti-Manchu violence began after the restoration on 7 November in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhenjiang" title="Zhenjiang">Zhenjiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads194_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads194-94">&#91;94&#93;</a></sup> Qing general Zaimu (載穆) agreed to surrender, but because of a misunderstanding, the revolutionaries were unaware that their safety was guaranteed.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads194_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads194-94">&#91;94&#93;</a></sup> The Manchu quarters were ransacked, and an unknown number of Manchus were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads194_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads194-94">&#91;94&#93;</a></sup> Zaimu, feeling betrayed, committed suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads194_94-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads194-94">&#91;94&#93;</a></sup> This is regarded as the Zhenjiang Uprising (鎮江起義).<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">&#91;95&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">&#91;96&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Anhui_Uprising">Anhui Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=43" title="Edit section: Anhui Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Members of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>'s Tongmenghui also launched an uprising on that day and laid siege to the provincial capital. The constitutionalists persuaded <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhu_Jiabao" title="Zhu Jiabao">Zhu Jiabao</a> (朱家寶), the Qing Governor of Anhui, to announce independence.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">&#91;97&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Guangxi_Uprising">Guangxi Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=44" title="Edit section: Guangxi Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 7 November, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> politics department decided to secede from the Qing government, announcing Guangxi's independence. Qing Governor Shen Bingkun (沈秉堃) was allowed to remain governor, but <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lu_Rongting" title="Lu Rongting">Lu Rongting</a> would soon become the new governor.<sup id="cite_ref-xn1_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xn1-61">&#91;61&#93;</a></sup> Lu Rongting would later rise to prominence during the "warlord era" as one of the warlords, and his bandits controlled Guangxi for more than a decade.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">&#91;98&#93;</a></sup> Under the leadership of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huang_Shaohong" title="Huang Shaohong">Huang Shaohong</a>, the Muslim law student <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a> was enlisted into a Dare to Die unit to fight as a revolutionary.<sup id="cite_ref-BoormanHoward1967_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BoormanHoward1967-99">&#91;99&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fujian_independence">Fujian independence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=45" title="Edit section: Fujian independence">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%E8%BF%9E%E6%B1%9F%E5%85%89%E5%A4%8D%E4%BC%9A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/%E8%BF%9E%E6%B1%9F%E5%85%89%E5%A4%8D%E4%BC%9A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80.jpg/220px-%E8%BF%9E%E6%B1%9F%E5%85%89%E5%A4%8D%E4%BC%9A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/%E8%BF%9E%E6%B1%9F%E5%85%89%E5%A4%8D%E4%BC%9A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80.jpg/330px-%E8%BF%9E%E6%B1%9F%E5%85%89%E5%A4%8D%E4%BC%9A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/%E8%BF%9E%E6%B1%9F%E5%85%89%E5%A4%8D%E4%BC%9A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80.jpg/440px-%E8%BF%9E%E6%B1%9F%E5%85%89%E5%A4%8D%E4%BC%9A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80.jpg 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="406" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%E8%BF%9E%E6%B1%9F%E5%85%89%E5%A4%8D%E4%BC%9A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>One of the old buildings occupied by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guangfuhui" title="Guangfuhui">Guangfuhui</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lianjiang_County" title="Lianjiang County">Lianjiang County</a>, Fujian</div></div></div> <p>In November, members of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>'s branch of the Tongmenghui, along with Sun Daoren (孫道仁) of the New Army, launched an uprising against the Qing army.<sup id="cite_ref-gli_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gli-100">&#91;100&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">&#91;101&#93;</a></sup> The Qing viceroy, Song Shou (松壽), committed suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">&#91;102&#93;</a></sup> On 11 November, the entire Fujian province declared independence.<sup id="cite_ref-gli_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gli-100">&#91;100&#93;</a></sup> The Fujian Military Government was established, and Sun Daoren was elected as the military governor.<sup id="cite_ref-gli_100-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gli-100">&#91;100&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Guangdong_independence">Guangdong independence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=46" title="Edit section: Guangdong independence">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Near the end of October, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Chen Jiongming</a>, Deng Keng (鄧鏗), Peng Reihai (彭瑞海) and other members of Guangdong's Tongmenghui organized local militias to launch the uprising in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huazhou,_Guangdong" title="Huazhou, Guangdong">Huazhou</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nanhai_District" title="Nanhai District">Nanhai</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shunde_District" title="Shunde District">Sunde</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanshui_District" title="Sanshui District">Sanshui</a> in Guangdong Province.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">&#91;103&#93;</a></sup> On 8 November, after being persuaded by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hu_Hanmin" title="Hu Hanmin">Hu Hanmin</a>, General Li Zhun (李準) and Long Jiguang (龍濟光) of the Guangdong Navy agreed to support the revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> The Qing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">viceroy of Liangguang</a>, Zhang Mingqi (張鳴岐), was forced to discuss with the local representatives a proposal for Guangdong's independence.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> They decided to announce it the next day. Chen Jiongming then captured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huizhou" title="Huizhou">Huizhou</a>. On 9 November, Guangdong announced its independence and established a military government.<sup id="cite_ref-qiuf_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-qiuf-104">&#91;104&#93;</a></sup> They elected Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming as the chief and vice-governor.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">&#91;105&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qiu_Fengjia" title="Qiu Fengjia">Qiu Fengjia</a> is known to have helped make the independence declaration more peaceful.<sup id="cite_ref-qiuf_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-qiuf-104">&#91;104&#93;</a></sup> It was unknown at the time if representatives from the European colonies of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Macau</a> would be ceded to the new government.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2017)">clarification needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Shandong_independence">Shandong independence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=47" title="Edit section: Shandong independence">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 13 November, after being persuaded by revolutionary Din Weifen (丁惟汾) and several other officers of the New Army, the Qing governor of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sun_Baoqi" title="Sun Baoqi">Sun Baoqi</a>, agreed to secede from the Qing government and announced Shandong's independence.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ningxia_Uprising">Ningxia Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=48" title="Edit section: Ningxia Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 17 November, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a> Tongmenghui launched the Ningxia Uprising (寧夏會黨起義). The revolutionaries sent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yu_Youren" title="Yu Youren">Yu Youren</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhangjiachuan_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangjiachuan County">Zhangjiachuan</a> to meet <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dungan_people" title="Dungan people">Dungan</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> master <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ma_Yuanzhang" title="Ma Yuanzhang">Ma Yuanzhang</a> to persuade him not to support the Qing. However, Ma did not want to endanger his relationship with the Qings. He sent the eastern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> Muslim militia under the command of one of his sons to help <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ma_Qi" title="Ma Qi">Ma Qi</a> crush the Ningxia Gelaohui.<sup id="cite_ref-CUP_Archive_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CUP_Archive-106">&#91;106&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">&#91;107&#93;</a></sup> However,the Ningxia Revolutionary Military Government was established on 23 November.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> Some of the revolutionaries involved included Huang Yue (黃鉞) and Xiang Shen (向燊), who gathered New Army forces at Qinzhou (秦州).<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">&#91;108&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">&#91;109&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sichuan_independence">Sichuan independence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=49" title="Edit section: Sichuan independence">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 21 November, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guang%27an" title="Guang&#39;an">Guang'an</a> organized the Great Han <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a> Northern Military Government.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">&#91;110&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>On 22 November, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> began to declare independence. By the 27th, the Great Han Sichuan Military Government was established, headed by revolutionary Pu Dianzun (蒲殿俊).<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> Qing official <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duan_Fang" class="mw-redirect" title="Duan Fang">Duan Fang</a> (端方) would also be killed.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nanking_Uprising">Nanking Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=50" title="Edit section: Nanking Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:An_episode_in_the_revolutionary_war_in_China,_1911_-_the_battle_at_the_Ta-ping_gate_at_Nanking._Wellcome_L0040002.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/An_episode_in_the_revolutionary_war_in_China%2C_1911_-_the_battle_at_the_Ta-ping_gate_at_Nanking._Wellcome_L0040002.jpg/220px-An_episode_in_the_revolutionary_war_in_China%2C_1911_-_the_battle_at_the_Ta-ping_gate_at_Nanking._Wellcome_L0040002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/An_episode_in_the_revolutionary_war_in_China%2C_1911_-_the_battle_at_the_Ta-ping_gate_at_Nanking._Wellcome_L0040002.jpg/330px-An_episode_in_the_revolutionary_war_in_China%2C_1911_-_the_battle_at_the_Ta-ping_gate_at_Nanking._Wellcome_L0040002.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/An_episode_in_the_revolutionary_war_in_China%2C_1911_-_the_battle_at_the_Ta-ping_gate_at_Nanking._Wellcome_L0040002.jpg/440px-An_episode_in_the_revolutionary_war_in_China%2C_1911_-_the_battle_at_the_Ta-ping_gate_at_Nanking._Wellcome_L0040002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7087" data-file-height="5106" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:An_episode_in_the_revolutionary_war_in_China,_1911_-_the_battle_at_the_Ta-ping_gate_at_Nanking._Wellcome_L0040002.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>1911 battle at Ta-ping gate, Nanking. Painting by T. Miyano.</div></div></div> <p>On 8 November, supported by the Tongmenghui, Xu Shaozhen (徐紹楨) of the New Army announced an uprising in Molin Pass (秣陵關), 30&#160;km (19&#160;mi) away from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nanjing_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing City">Nanking City</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> Xu Shaozhen, Chen Qimei and other generals decided to form a united army under Xu to strike Nanking together. On 11 November, the united army headquarters was established in Zhenjiang. Between 24 November and 1 December, under the command of Xu Shaozhen, the united army captured Wulongshan (烏龍山), Mufushan (幕府山), Yuhuatai (雨花臺), Tianbao City (天保城) and many other strongholds of the Qing army.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> On 2 December, Nanking City was captured by the revolutionaries after the Battle of Nanking, 1911.<sup id="cite_ref-bigxz13_76-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigxz13-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup> On 3 December, revolutionary Su Liangbi led troops in a massacre of a large number of Manchus (the exact number is not known).<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads198_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads198-111">&#91;111&#93;</a></sup> He was shortly afterward arrested, and his troops disbanded.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads198_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads198-111">&#91;111&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Tibetan_independence">Tibetan independence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=51" title="Edit section: Tibetan independence">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet (1912–1951)</a></div> <p>In 1905, the Qing sent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhao_Erfeng" title="Zhao Erfeng">Zhao Erfeng</a> to Tibet to retaliate against <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1905_Tibetan_Rebellion" title="1905 Tibetan Rebellion">rebellions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blondeau_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blondeau-112">&#91;112&#93;</a></sup> By 1908, Zhao was appointed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Qing_imperial_residents_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing imperial residents in Tibet">imperial resident</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lhasa" title="Lhasa">Lhasa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blondeau_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blondeau-112">&#91;112&#93;</a></sup> Zhao was beheaded in December 1911 by pro-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republican</a> forces.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">&#91;113&#93;</a></sup> The bulk of the area that was historically known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kham" title="Kham">Kham</a> was now claimed to be the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xikang" title="Xikang">Xikang Administrative District</a>, created by the Republican revolutionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">&#91;114&#93;</a></sup> By the end of 1912, the last Manchu troops were forced out of Tibet through India. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thubten_Gyatso" class="mw-redirect" title="Thubten Gyatso">Thubten Gyatso</a>, the 13th <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a>, returned to Tibet in January 1913 from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>, where he had been residing.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayhew_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayhew-115">&#91;115&#93;</a></sup> When the new ROC government apologised for the actions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama to his former position, he replied that he was not interested in Chinese ranks, that Tibet had never been subordinated to China, that Tibet was an independent country, and that he was assuming the spiritual and political leadership of Tibet.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayhew_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayhew-115">&#91;115&#93;</a></sup> Because of this, many have read this reply as a formal declaration of independence. The Chinese side ignored the response, and Tibet had thirty years free of interference from China.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayhew_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayhew-115">&#91;115&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mongolian_independence">Mongolian independence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=52" title="Edit section: Mongolian independence">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd Khanate of Mongolia</a></div> <p>At the end of 1911, the Mongols took action with an armed revolt against the Manchu authorities but were unsuccessful in the attempt.<sup id="cite_ref-Onon_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onon-116">&#91;116&#93;</a></sup> The independence movement that took place was not limited to just North (outer) Mongolia but was also a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-Onon_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onon-116">&#91;116&#93;</a></sup> On 29 December 1911, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bogd_Khan" title="Bogd Khan">Bogd Khan</a> became the leader of the Mongol empire. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a> became a contested terrain between Khan and the Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">&#91;117&#93;</a></sup> In general, Russia supported the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outer_Mongolian_revolution_of_1911" class="mw-redirect" title="Outer Mongolian revolution of 1911">Independence of Outer Mongolia</a> (including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tannu_Uriankhai" title="Tannu Uriankhai">Tannu Uriankhai</a>) during the time of the 1911 Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">&#91;118&#93;</a></sup> Tibet and Mongolia then recognized each other in a treaty. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Dihua_and_Yili_Uprising">Dihua and Yili Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=53" title="Edit section: Dihua and Yili Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_in_Xinjiang&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="1911 Revolution in Xinjiang (page does not exist)">1911 Revolution in Xinjiang</a></div> <p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> on 28 December, Liu Xianzun (劉先俊) and the revolutionaries started the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi" title="Ürümqi">Dihua</a> Uprising (迪化起義).<sup id="cite_ref-doizung_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doizung-119">&#91;119&#93;</a></sup> This was led by more than 100 members of Geilaohui.<sup id="cite_ref-hkcna_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hkcna-120">&#91;120&#93;</a></sup> This uprising failed. On 7 January 1912, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ili_Kazakh_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture">Yili</a> Uprising (伊犁起義) with Feng Temin (馮特民) began.<sup id="cite_ref-doizung_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doizung-119">&#91;119&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hkcna_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hkcna-120">&#91;120&#93;</a></sup> Qing governor Yuan Dahua (袁大化) fled and handed over his resignation to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yang_Zengxin" title="Yang Zengxin">Yang Zengxin</a>, because he could not handle fighting the revolutionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-yz_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yz-121">&#91;121&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>In the morning of 8 January, a new Yili government was established for the revolutionaries,<sup id="cite_ref-hkcna_120-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hkcna-120">&#91;120&#93;</a></sup> but the revolutionaries would be defeated at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jinghe_County" title="Jinghe County">Jinghe</a> in January and February.<sup id="cite_ref-yz_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yz-121">&#91;121&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wamu_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wamu-122">&#91;122&#93;</a></sup> Eventually because of the abdication to come, Yuan Shikai recognized Yang Zengxin's rule, appointed him Governor of Xinjiang and had the province join the Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-yz_121-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yz-121">&#91;121&#93;</a></sup> Eleven more former Qing officials would be assassinated in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bark%C3%B6l_Kazakh_Autonomous_County" title="Barköl Kazakh Autonomous County">Zhenxi</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karashahr" class="mw-redirect" title="Karashahr">Karashahr</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aksu,_Xinjiang" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksu, Xinjiang">Aksu</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Luntai" class="mw-redirect" title="Luntai">Luntai</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a> in April and May 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-yz_121-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yz-121">&#91;121&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The revolutionaries printed a new multi-lingual media.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">&#91;123&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Taiwan_Uprising">Taiwan Uprising</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=54" title="Edit section: Taiwan Uprising">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In 1911, the Tongmenghui sent Luo Fu-xing (羅福星) to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taiwan_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwan island">island of Taiwan</a> to wrest it from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japanese_rule_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese rule in Taiwan">Japanese control</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">&#91;124&#93;</a></sup> The goal was to bring Taiwan island into the Chinese Republic by inciting the Taiwan Uprising (台灣起義).<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">&#91;125&#93;</a></sup> Luo was caught and killed on 3 March 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-Dellorto_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dellorto-126">&#91;126&#93;</a></sup> What was left was known as the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miaoli_County" title="Miaoli County">Miaoli</a> Incident", (苗栗事件) where more than 1,000 Taiwanese were executed by the Japanese police.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">&#91;127&#93;</a></sup> Luo's sacrifice is commemorated in Miaoli.<sup id="cite_ref-Dellorto_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dellorto-126">&#91;126&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Change_of_government">Change of government</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=55" title="Edit section: Change of government">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Seal_for_the_provisional_government_president_of_Republic_of_China_20050807.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Seal_for_the_provisional_government_president_of_Republic_of_China_20050807.jpg/220px-Seal_for_the_provisional_government_president_of_Republic_of_China_20050807.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Seal_for_the_provisional_government_president_of_Republic_of_China_20050807.jpg/330px-Seal_for_the_provisional_government_president_of_Republic_of_China_20050807.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Seal_for_the_provisional_government_president_of_Republic_of_China_20050807.jpg/440px-Seal_for_the_provisional_government_president_of_Republic_of_China_20050807.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Seal_for_the_provisional_government_president_of_Republic_of_China_20050807.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Seal of the President of Provisional Government of Republic of China</div></div></div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="North:_Qing_court_last_transformation_attempt">North: Qing court last transformation attempt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=56" title="Edit section: North: Qing court last transformation attempt">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 1 November 1911, the Qing government appointed Yuan Shikai as the prime minister of the imperial cabinet, replacing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yikuang" title="Yikuang">Prince Qing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">&#91;128&#93;</a></sup> On 3 November, after a proposition by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cen_Chunxuan" title="Cen Chunxuan">Cen Chunxuan</a> from the Constitutional Monarchy Movement (立憲運動), in 1903, the Qing court passed the Nineteen Articles (憲法重大信條十九條), which turned the Qing from an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocratic">autocratic</a> system with the emperor having unlimited power to a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">&#91;129&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads228_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads228-130">&#91;130&#93;</a></sup> On 9 November, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huang_Xing" title="Huang Xing">Huang Xing</a> even cabled Yuan Shikai and invited him to join the Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-pompl_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pompl-131">&#91;131&#93;</a></sup> The court changes were too late, and the emperor was about to have to step down. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="South:_Government_in_Nanking">South: Government in Nanking</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=57" title="Edit section: South: Government in Nanking">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)</a></div> <p>On 28 November 1911, Wuchang and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hanyang_District" title="Hanyang District">Hanyang</a> had fallen back to the Qing army. So for safety, the revolutionaries convened their first conference at the British concession in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hankou" title="Hankou">Hankou</a> on 30 November.<sup id="cite_ref-ksliew_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ksliew-132">&#91;132&#93;</a></sup> By 2 December, the revolutionary forces were able to <a href="#Nanking_Uprising">capture Nanking in the uprising</a>; and the revolutionaries decided to make it the site of the new provisional government.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">&#91;133&#93;</a></sup> At the time, Beijing was still the Qing capital. </p> <h3><span id="North.E2.80.93South_Conference"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="North–South_Conference">North–South Conference</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=58" title="Edit section: North–South Conference">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Nanbeihetan_1911.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nanbeihetan_1911.png/220px-Nanbeihetan_1911.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Nanbeihetan_1911.png 1.5x" data-file-width="227" data-file-height="171" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Nanbeihetan_1911.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tang_Shaoyi" title="Tang Shaoyi">Tang Shaoyi</a>, left. Edward Selby Little, middle. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wu_Tingfang" title="Wu Tingfang">Wu Tingfang</a>, right.</div></div></div> <p>On 18 December, the North–South Conference (南北議和) was held in Shanghai to discuss the north and south issues.<sup id="cite_ref-liwanhon_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liwanhon-134">&#91;134&#93;</a></sup> Yuan Shikai selected <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tang_Shaoyi" title="Tang Shaoyi">Tang Shaoyi</a> as his representative.<sup id="cite_ref-liwanhon_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liwanhon-134">&#91;134&#93;</a></sup> Tang left Beijing for Wuhan to negotiate with the revolutionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-liwanhon_134-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liwanhon-134">&#91;134&#93;</a></sup> The revolutionaries chose <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wu_Tingfang" title="Wu Tingfang">Wu Tingfang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-liwanhon_134-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liwanhon-134">&#91;134&#93;</a></sup> With the intervention of six foreign powers, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>, Japan, and France, Tang Shaoyi and Wu Tingfang began to negotiate a settlement at the British <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Concession_(territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Concession (territory)">concession</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">&#91;135&#93;</a></sup> Foreign businessman Edward Selby Little (李德立) acted as the negotiator and facilitated the peace agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">&#91;136&#93;</a></sup> They agreed that Yuan Shikai would force the Qing emperor to abdicate in exchange for the southern provinces' support of Yuan as the president of the Republic. After considering the possibility that the new republic might be defeated in a civil war or by foreign invasion, Sun Yat-sen agreed to Yuan's proposal to unify China under Yuan Shikai's Beijing government. Further decisions were made to let the emperor rule over his little court in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Summer_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="New Summer Palace">New Summer Palace</a>. He would be treated as a ruler of a separate country and have expenses of several million <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taels" class="mw-redirect" title="Taels">taels</a> in silver.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">&#91;137&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Establishment_of_the_Republic">Establishment of the Republic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=59" title="Edit section: Establishment of the Republic">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg/220px-1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg/330px-1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg/440px-1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="550" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Sun Yat-sen in 1912 at one of the historic crossroads with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Five_Races_Under_One_Union" title="Five Races Under One Union">Five Races Under One Union</a> flag and the Iron Blood 18-star flag</div></div></div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Republic_of_China_declared_and_national_flag_issue">Republic of China declared and national flag issue</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=60" title="Edit section: Republic of China declared and national flag issue">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1911_Republic_of_China_provisional_presidential_election" title="1911 Republic of China provisional presidential election">On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected</a> as the first <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="List of leaders of the Republic of China">provisional president</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">&#91;138&#93;</a></sup> 1 January 1912 was set as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epoch_(reference_date)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (reference date)">first day</a> of the First Year of the ROC.<sup id="cite_ref-Well_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Well-139">&#91;139&#93;</a></sup> On 3 January, the representatives recommended Li Yuanhong as the provisional vice-president.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">&#91;140&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>During and after the 1911 Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taijitu" title="Taijitu">Taijitu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fitzj_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fitzj-141">&#91;141&#93;</a></sup> Others in competition included <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lu_Haodong" title="Lu Haodong">Lu Haodong</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blue_Sky_with_a_White_Sun" title="Blue Sky with a White Sun">Blue Sky with a White Sun</a> flag. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huang_Xing" title="Huang Xing">Huang Xing</a> favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Five_Races_Under_One_Union" title="Five Races Under One Union">Five Races Under One Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fitzj_141-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fitzj-141">&#91;141&#93;</a></sup> The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.<sup id="cite_ref-newlight10-92_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newlight10-92-142">&#91;142&#93;</a></sup> The red represented <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a>, the yellow represented <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchus</a>, the blue for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, the white for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Muslims</a>, and the black for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tibetan_people" title="Tibetan people">Tibetans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fitzj_141-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fitzj-141">&#91;141&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-newlight10-92_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newlight10-92-142">&#91;142&#93;</a></sup> Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">racial integration</a> to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">&#91;143&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Donghuamen_incident">Donghuamen incident</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=61" title="Edit section: Donghuamen incident">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>On 16 January, while returning to his residence, Yuan Shikai was ambushed in a bomb attack organized by the Tongmenghui in Donghuamen (東華門), Beijing.<sup id="cite_ref-gg_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gg-144">&#91;144&#93;</a></sup> A total of eighteen revolutionaries were involved. About ten of the guards died, but Yuan himself was not seriously injured.<sup id="cite_ref-gg_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gg-144">&#91;144&#93;</a></sup> He sent a message to the revolutionaries the next day pledging his loyalty and asking them not to organize any more assassination attempts against him. </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG/300px-Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="119" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG/450px-Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG/600px-Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1424" data-file-height="565" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Imperial edict for abdication</div></div></div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Abdication_of_the_emperor">Abdication of the emperor</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=62" title="Edit section: Abdication of the emperor">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puyi#Abdication" title="Puyi">Puyi §&#160;Abdication</a></div> <p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Jian_(politician)" title="Zhang Jian (politician)">Zhang Jian</a> drafted an abdication proposal that was approved by the Provisional Senate. On 20 January, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wu_Tingfang" title="Wu Tingfang">Wu Tingfang</a> of the Nanking Provisional Government officially delivered the imperial edict of abdication to Yuan Shikai for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">abdication</a> of Puyi.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads228_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads228-130">&#91;130&#93;</a></sup> On 22 January, Sun Yat-sen announced that he would resign the presidency in favor of Yuan Shikai if the latter supported the emperor's abdication.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">&#91;145&#93;</a></sup> Yuan then pressured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Longyu" title="Empress Dowager Longyu">Empress Dowager Longyu</a> with the threat that the lives of the imperial family would not be spared if abdication did not come before the revolutionaries reached Beijing, but if they agreed to abdicate, the provisional government would honor the terms proposed by the imperial family. </p><p>On 3 February, Empress Dowager Longyu gave Yuan full permission to negotiate the abdication terms of the Qing emperor. Yuan then drew up his own version and forwarded it to the revolutionaries on 3 February.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads228_130-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads228-130">&#91;130&#93;</a></sup> His version consisted of three sections instead of two.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads228_130-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads228-130">&#91;130&#93;</a></sup> On 12 February 1912, after being pressured by Yuan and other ministers, Puyi (age six) and Empress Dowager Longyu accepted Yuan's terms of abdication.<sup id="cite_ref-Well_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Well-139">&#91;139&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Debate_over_the_capital">Debate over the capital</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=63" title="Edit section: Debate over the capital">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Beijing" title="History of Beijing">History of Beijing</a></div> <p>As a condition for ceding leadership to Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen insisted that the provisional government remain in Nanjing. On 14 February, the Provisional Senate initially voted 20–5 in favor of making Beijing the capital over Nanjing, with two votes going for Wuhan and one for Tianjin.<sup id="cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.1_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.1-146">&#91;146&#93;</a></sup> The Senate majority wanted to secure the peace agreement by taking power in Beijing.<sup id="cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.1_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.1-146">&#91;146&#93;</a></sup> Zhang Jian and others reasoned that having the capital in Beijing would check against Manchu restoration and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outer_Mongolia_(1911%E2%80%9319)" class="mw-redirect" title="Outer Mongolia (1911–19)">Mongol secession</a>. But Sun and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huang_Xing" title="Huang Xing">Huang Xing</a> argued in favor of Nanjing to balance against Yuan's power base in the north.<sup id="cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.1_146-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.1-146">&#91;146&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a> presented Wuhan as a compromise.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">&#91;147&#93;</a></sup> The next day, the Provisional Senate voted again, this time, 19–6 in favor of Nanjing with two votes for Wuhan.<sup id="cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.1_146-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.1-146">&#91;146&#93;</a></sup> Sun sent a delegation led by Cai Yuanpei and Wang Jingwei to persuade Yuan to move to Nanjing.<sup id="cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.3_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.3-148">&#91;148&#93;</a></sup> Yuan welcomed the delegation and agreed to accompany the delegates back to the south.<sup id="cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.4_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.4-149">&#91;149&#93;</a></sup> Then on the evening of 29 February, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)#Northern_transition#Dong&#39;anmen_Gate_incident" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">riots and fires</a> broke out all over the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.4_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.4-149">&#91;149&#93;</a></sup> They were allegedly started by disobedient troops of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cao_Kun" title="Cao Kun">Cao Kun</a>, a loyal officer of Yuan.<sup id="cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.4_149-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.4-149">&#91;149&#93;</a></sup> The disorder gave Yuan the pretext to stay in the north to guard against unrest. On 10 March, Yuan was inaugurated in Beijing as the provisional president of the Republic of China.<sup id="cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.2_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.2-150">&#91;150&#93;</a></sup> On 5 April, the Provisional Senate in Nanjing voted to make Beijing the capital of the Republic and convened in Beijing at the end of the month. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Republican_government_in_Beijing">Republican government in Beijing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=64" title="Edit section: Republican government in Beijing">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beiyang_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang Government">Beiyang Government</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg/220px-Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg/330px-Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg/440px-Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="424" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Yuan Shikai swearing in as the Provisional President in Beijing</div></div></div> <p>On 10 March 1912, Yuan Shikai was sworn as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China in Beijing.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151">&#91;151&#93;</a></sup> The government based in Beijing, called the Beiyang Government, was not internationally recognized as the legitimate government of the Republic of China until 1928, so the period from 1912 until 1928 was known simply as the "Beiyang Period". The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1912_Republic_of_China_National_Assembly_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1912 Republic of China National Assembly elections">first National Assembly election</a> took place according to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China">Provisional Constitution</a>. While in Beijing, the Kuomintang was formed on 25 August 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152">&#91;152&#93;</a></sup> The KMT held the majority of seats after the election. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Song_Jiaoren" title="Song Jiaoren">Song Jiaoren</a> was elected as premier. However, Song was assassinated in Shanghai on 20 March 1913, under the secret order of Yuan Shikai.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">&#91;153&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Proposed_Han_monarchs_and_retention_of_aristocratic_noble_titles">Proposed Han monarchs and retention of aristocratic noble titles</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=65" title="Edit section: Proposed Han monarchs and retention of aristocratic noble titles">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>Some advocated that a Han be installed as Emperor, either the descendant of Confucius, who was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duke_Yansheng" title="Duke Yansheng">Duke Yansheng</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Woodhouse2004_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodhouse2004-154">&#91;154&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spence1982_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spence1982-155">&#91;155&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HuLiu1983_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HuLiu1983-156">&#91;156&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">&#91;157&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">&#91;158&#93;</a></sup> or the Ming dynasty imperial family descendant, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marquis_of_Extended_Grace" title="Marquis of Extended Grace">Marquis of Extended Grace</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kent1912_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kent1912-159">&#91;159&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aldrich2008_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldrich2008-160">&#91;160&#93;</a></sup> The Duke Yansheng was proposed for replacing the Qing dynasty as Emperor by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161">&#91;161&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The Han hereditary aristocratic nobility like the Duke Yansheng, Marquis of Extended Grace, and the title of the Wujing Boshi (changed to "Dacheng Zhisheng Xianshi Nanzong Fengsi Guan" 大成至聖先師南宗奉祀官) and the titles held by the descendants of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zengzi" title="Zengzi">Zengzi</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yan_Hui" title="Yan Hui">Yan Hui</a> were retained by the new Republic of China and the title holders continued to receive their pensions. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Legacy">Legacy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=66" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Social_influence">Social influence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=67" title="Edit section: Social influence">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, but particularly in Beijing where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence as imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled as Manchu imperial power crumbled.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162">&#91;162&#93;</a></sup> Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like <i>A Short History of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nucai" title="Nucai">Slaves</a></i> (奴才小史) and <i>The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel</i> (貪官污吏傳) by Laoli (老吏).<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads266_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads266-163">&#91;163&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ckd_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ckd-164">&#91;164&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>During the abdication of the last emperor, Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan Shikai and Sun Yat-sen both tried to adopt the concept of "Manchu and Han as one family" (滿漢一家).<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads266_163-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads266-163">&#91;163&#93;</a></sup> People started exploring and debating with themselves on the root cause of their national weakness. This new search of identity was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165">&#91;165&#93;</a></sup> Manchu culture and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">language</a>, on the contrary, has become virtually extinct by 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166">&#91;166&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Unlike revolutions in the West, the 1911 Revolution did not restructure society. The participants in the 1911 Revolution were mostly military personnel, old-type bureaucrats, and local gentries. These people still held regional power after the 1911 Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a>. The writer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a> commented in 1921 during the publishing of <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_True_Story_of_Ah_Q" title="The True Story of Ah Q">The True Story of Ah Q</a></i>, ten years after the 1911 Revolution, that basically nothing changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167">&#91;167&#93;</a></sup> The economic problems were not addressed until the governance of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chiang_Ching-kuo" title="Chiang Ching-kuo">Chiang Ching-kuo</a> in Taiwan and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> on the mainland.<sup id="cite_ref-scmpjul4_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmpjul4-168">&#91;168&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The 1911 Revolution mainly got rid of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fengjian" title="Fengjian">fengjian</a>) from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Imperial China">Late Imperial China</a>. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Xun_(Qing_loyalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)">Zhang Xun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yanjia_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yanjia-169">&#91;169&#93;</a></sup> Both were unsuccessful, but the "feudal remnants" returned to China with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> in a concept called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guanxi" title="Guanxi">guanxi</a>, where people relied not on feudal relationships, but personal relationships, for survival.<sup id="cite_ref-yangm_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yangm-170">&#91;170&#93;</a></sup> While guanxi is helpful in Taiwan, on the mainland, guanxi is necessary to get anything done.<sup id="cite_ref-Luoy_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luoy-171">&#91;171&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Due to the effects of anti-Manchu sentiment after the revolution, the Manchus of the Metropolitan Banners were driven into deep poverty, with Manchu men too impoverished to marry so Han men married Manchu women, Manchus stopped dressing in Manchu clothing and stopped practicing Manchu traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172">&#91;172&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_significance">Historical significance</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=68" title="Edit section: Historical significance">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government and two thousand years of monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-xb1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xb1-3">&#91;3&#93;</a></sup> Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The 1911 Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. Though in 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Comrade" title="Comrade">comrades</a> still need to strive for the future." (<span lang="zh">革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173">&#91;173&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties–the ROC and PRC–see the 1911 Revolution quite differently.<sup id="cite_ref-scmpr_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmpr-174">&#91;174&#93;</a></sup> Both sides recognize Sun Yat-sen as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Father_of_the_Nation" title="Father of the Nation">Father of the Nation</a>, but in Taiwan, they mean "Father of the Republic of China".<sup id="cite_ref-scmpr_174-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmpr-174">&#91;174&#93;</a></sup> On the mainland, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a pre-condition for the Communist state founded in 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-scmpr_174-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmpr-174">&#91;174&#93;</a></sup> The PRC views Sun's work as the first step towards the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly independent state that expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power.<sup id="cite_ref-scmpr_174-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmpr-174">&#91;174&#93;</a></sup> The father of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People&#39;s Republic of China">New China</a> is seen as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-scmpr_174-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmpr-174">&#91;174&#93;</a></sup> In 1954, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liu_Shaoqi" title="Liu Shaoqi">Liu Shaoqi</a> was quoted as saying that the "1911 Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175">&#91;175&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176">&#91;176&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> pointed out that the "1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 2000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177">&#91;177&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_evaluation">Modern evaluation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=69" title="Edit section: Modern evaluation">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Taiw_100ann_10yuan.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Taiw_100ann_10yuan.jpg/300px-Taiw_100ann_10yuan.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="148" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Taiw_100ann_10yuan.jpg/450px-Taiw_100ann_10yuan.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Taiw_100ann_10yuan.jpg/600px-Taiw_100ann_10yuan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1084" data-file-height="534" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Taiw_100ann_10yuan.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Commemorative coin, minted in Taiwan in 2011</div></div></div> <p>A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhang_Shizhao" title="Zhang Shizhao">Zhang Shizhao</a> was quoted as arguing that "When talking about the 1911 Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178">&#91;178&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The success of the democracy gained from the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, for sixty years, the KMT controlled all five branches of the government; none were independent.<sup id="cite_ref-scmpjul4_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmpjul4-168">&#91;168&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yan_Jiaqi" title="Yan Jiaqi">Yan Jiaqi</a>, founder of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federation_for_a_Democratic_China" title="Federation for a Democratic China">Federation for a Democratic China</a>, has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there now democratizing the region.<sup id="cite_ref-Yanjia_169-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yanjia-169">&#91;169&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised on the mainland. For example, former Chinese premier <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wen_Jiabao" title="Wen Jiabao">Wen Jiabao</a> once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights; but he led a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2011_crackdown_on_dissidents_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 crackdown on dissidents in the People&#39;s Republic of China">2011 crackdown</a> against the peaceful <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2011_Chinese_pro-democracy_protests" title="2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests">Chinese jasmine protests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179">&#91;179&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liu_Xiaobo" title="Liu Xiaobo">Liu Xiaobo</a>, a pro-democracy activist who received the global <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2010_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2010 Nobel Peace Prize">2010 Nobel Peace Prize</a>, died in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180">&#91;180&#93;</a></sup> Others, such as Qin Yongmin (秦永敏) of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democracy_Party_of_China" title="Democracy Party of China">Democracy Party of China</a>, who was only released from prison after twelve years, do not praise the 1911 Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-geo_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geo-181">&#91;181&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hrichina_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hrichina-182">&#91;182&#93;</a></sup> Qin Yongmin said the revolution only replaced one dictator with another, that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> was not an emperor, but he is worse than the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-geo_181-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geo-181">&#91;181&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hrichina_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hrichina-182">&#91;182&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183">&#91;183&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=70" title="Edit section: See also">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r936637989">.mw-parser-output .portal{border:solid #aaa 1px;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .portal.tleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portal.tright{margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}.mw-parser-output .portal>ul{display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portal>ul>li{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .portal>ul>li>span:first-child{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portal>ul>li>span:last-child{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}</style><div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portal plainlist tright"> <ul> <li><span><img alt="flag" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="noviewer thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span><span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1911_(film)" title="1911 (film)"><i>1911</i> (film)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of the Republic of China">Military of the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_Late_Anti-Qing_Rebellions" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Late Anti-Qing Rebellions">Timeline of Late Anti-Qing Rebellions</a></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=71" title="Edit section: Notes">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047268">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin reflist" style=""> <p><span id="cnote_a"><b><a href="#ref_a">^</a></b></span>&#160;<b>a:</b>&#160;Many of the Qing soldiers with Han background turned to support the revolution during the uprisings, so the actual casualties are hard to trace.<br /> <span id="cnote_b"><b><a href="#ref_b">^</a></b></span>&#160;<b>b:</b>&#160;Clipping from Min Bao (People's Papers). Originally the publishing of Hua Xin Hui and named <i>China of the Twentieth Century</i>, it was renamed after the establishment of Tongmenhui.<br /> </p> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=72" title="Edit section: References">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKit-ching197849–52-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKit-ching197849–52_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKit-ching1978">Kit-ching (1978)</a>, pp.&#160;49–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Li Xing. [2010] (2010). The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r951705291">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-image:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-image:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-image:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-image:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-7913-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-7913-6">0-7546-7913-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7913-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7913-4">978-0-7546-7913-4</a>. p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-xb1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-xb1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-xb1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-xb1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Li, Xiaobing. [2007] (2007). <i>A History of the Modern Chinese Army</i>. University Press of Kentucky. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8131-2438-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8131-2438-7">0-8131-2438-7</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2438-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2438-4">978-0-8131-2438-4</a>. pp. 13, 26–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wang, Gabe T. [2006] (2006). <i>China and the Taiwan Issue: Impending War at Taiwan Strait</i>. University Press of America. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7618-3434-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7618-3434-6">0-7618-3434-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-3434-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-3434-2">978-0-7618-3434-2</a>. pg 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wangke106-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wangke106_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wangke106_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wangke106_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). <i>Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism</i>. Taylor &amp; Francis publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-0720-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-0720-9">0-8153-0720-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0720-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0720-4">978-0-8153-0720-4</a>. pg 106. pg 344.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bevir-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bevir_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bevir_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bevir, Mark. [2010] (2010). <i>Encyclopedia of Political Theory</i>. Sage Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4129-5865-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-4129-5865-2">1-4129-5865-2</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5865-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5865-3">978-1-4129-5865-3</a>. pg 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chang,_Kang-i_Sun" class="mw-redirect" title="Chang, Kang-i Sun">Chang, Kang-i Sun</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stephen_Owen_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Owen (academic)">Owen, Stephen</a> (2010). <i>The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 2</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-11677-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-11677-5">0-521-11677-5</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11677-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11677-0">978-0-521-11677-0</a>. pg 441.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Hong Kong played a key role in the life of Sun Yat-sen.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lum, Yansheng Ma. Lum, Raymond Mun Kong. [1999] (1999). <i>Sun Yat-sen in Hawaii: Activities and Supporters</i>. University of Hawaii Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-2179-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-2179-3">0-8248-2179-3</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2179-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2179-1">978-0-8248-2179-1</a>. pg 6–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Curthoys, Ann. Lake, Marilyn. [2005] (2005). <i>Connected Worlds: History in Transnational Perspective</i>. ANU Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-920942-44-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-920942-44-0">1-920942-44-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-920942-44-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-920942-44-1">978-1-920942-44-1</a>. pg 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Platt, Stephen R. [2007] (2007). <i>Provincial Patriots: The Hunanese and Modern China</i>. Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-02665-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-02665-9">0-674-02665-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02665-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02665-0">978-0-674-02665-0</a>. pg 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goossaert, Vincent. Palmer, David A. [2011] (2011). <i>The Religious Question in Modern China</i>. 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[1998] (1998). <i>Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism</i>. Taylor &amp; Francis Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-0720-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-0720-9">0-8153-0720-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0720-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0720-4">978-0-8153-0720-4</a>. pg 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">中国人民大学. 书报资料中心. [1982] (1982). 中国近代史, Issues 1–6. 中国人民大学书报资料社 publishing. University of California Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Lifu. Chang, Hsu-hsin. Myers, Ramon Hawley. [1994] (1994). <i>The Storm Clouds Clear Over China: The Memoir of Chʻen Li-fu, 1900–1993</i>. Hoover Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8179-9272-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8179-9272-3">0-8179-9272-3</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-9272-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-9272-9">978-0-8179-9272-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">João de Pina-Cabral. [2002] (2002). <i>Between China and Europe: Person, Culture and Emotion in Macao</i>. Berg Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-5749-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-5749-5">0-8264-5749-5</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-5749-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-5749-3">978-0-8264-5749-3</a>. pg 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">陳民, 中國社會科學院. 中華民國史研究室. [1981] (1981). 中國致公黨. 文史資料出版社. Digitized University of California 10 December 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chinahistvol1-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chinahistvol1_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chinahistvol1_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">計秋楓, 朱慶葆. [2001] (2001). 中國近代史, V. 1. Chinese University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-201-987-0" title="Special:BookSources/962-201-987-0">962-201-987-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-201-987-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-201-987-4">978-962-201-987-4</a>. pg 468.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Etō, Shinkichi. Schiffrin, Harold Z. [2008] (2008). <i>China's Republican Revolution</i>. University of Tokyo Press. Digitized 10 September 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-13-027030-3" title="Special:BookSources/4-13-027030-3">4-13-027030-3</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-13-027030-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-13-027030-4">978-4-13-027030-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wong, Wendy Siuyi. [2002] (2001) <i>Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua</i>. Princeton Architectural Press. New York. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56898-269-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-56898-269-0">1-56898-269-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">为君丘, 張運宗. [2003] (2003). 走入近代中國. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/957-11-3175-X" title="Special:BookSources/957-11-3175-X">957-11-3175-X</a>, 9789571131757.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">蔣緯國. [1981] (1981). 建立民國, Volume 2. 國民革命戰史: 第1部. 黎明文化事業公司. University of California. Digitized 14 February 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">饒懷民. [2006] (2006). 辛亥革命與清末民初社會/中國近代史事論叢. 中華書局 publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-101-05156-1" title="Special:BookSources/7-101-05156-1">7-101-05156-1</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-101-05156-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-101-05156-8">978-7-101-05156-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wang390-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wang390_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wang390_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). <i>Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism</i>. Taylor &amp; Francis Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-0720-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-0720-9">0-8153-0720-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0720-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0720-4">978-0-8153-0720-4</a>. pp. 390–391.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mz-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mz_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mz_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">張豈之, 陳振江, 江沛. [2002] (2002). 晚淸民國史. Volume 5 of 中國歷史, 張 豈之. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/957-11-2898-8" title="Special:BookSources/957-11-2898-8">957-11-2898-8</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-957-11-2898-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-957-11-2898-6">978-957-11-2898-6</a>. pg 178–186</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">蔡登山. 繁華落盡──洋場才子與小報文人. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/986-221-826-6" title="Special:BookSources/986-221-826-6">986-221-826-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-986-221-826-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-986-221-826-6">978-986-221-826-6</a>. pg 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Scalapino, Robert A. and George T. Yu (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/robert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement#fn5"><i>The Chinese Anarchist Movement</i></a>. Berkeley: Center for Chinese Studies, Institute of International Studies, University of California.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Anarchist+Movement&amp;rft.place=Berkeley&amp;rft.pub=Center+for+Chinese+Studies%2C+Institute+of+International+Studies%2C+University+of+California&amp;rft.date=1961&amp;rft.aulast=Scalapino&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+A.+and+George+T.+Yu&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheanarchistlibrary.org%2Flibrary%2Frobert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement%23fn5&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/> At The Anarchist Library (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/robert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement#fn5">Free Download</a>). The online version is unpaginated.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">楊碧玉. 洪秀全政治人格之研究. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/986-221-141-5" title="Special:BookSources/986-221-141-5">986-221-141-5</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-986-221-141-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-986-221-141-0">978-986-221-141-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crossley, Pamela Kyle. [1991] (1991). <i>Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World</i>. Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00877-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00877-9">0-691-00877-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00877-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00877-6">978-0-691-00877-6</a>. pg180-181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee, Khoon Choy Lee. [2005] (2005). <i>Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese</i>. World Scientific. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-256-618-X" title="Special:BookSources/981-256-618-X">981-256-618-X</a>, 9789812566188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gao-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gao_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gao_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gao_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). <i>Historical Dictionary of Modern China</i> (1800–1949). Issue 25 of "Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras". Scarecrow Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8108-4930-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8108-4930-5">0-8108-4930-5</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-4930-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-4930-3">978-0-8108-4930-3</a>. pg 156. pg 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fenby-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fenby_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fenby_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fenby_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fenby_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fenby_32-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). <i>The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9832-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9832-0">978-0-7139-9832-0</a>. pg 96. pg 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fenby109-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fenby109_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fenby, Jonathan. [2008] (2008). <i>The History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9832-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9832-0">978-0-7139-9832-0</a>. pg 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Complete works of Sun Yat-sen</i> 《總理全集》 First edition, page 920</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). <i>Manchus &amp; Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</i>. University of Washington Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0">0-295-98040-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98040-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98040-9">978-0-295-98040-9</a>. pg21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wangke76-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wangke76_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). <i>Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism</i>. Taylor &amp; Francis Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-0720-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-0720-9">0-8153-0720-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0720-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0720-4">978-0-8153-0720-4</a>. Pg 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kaplan, Lawrence M. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false"><i>Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune</i></a>. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813126173" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813126173"><bdi>978-0813126173</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Homer+Lea+American+Soldier+of+Fortune&amp;rft.place=Lexington&amp;rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0813126173&amp;rft.aulast=Kaplan&amp;rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dksu7KibCOukC%26lpg%3DPP1%26pg%3DPR4%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laukit-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Laukit_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Laukit_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lau, Kit-ching Chan. [1990] (1990). <i>China, Britain and Hong Kong, 1895–1945</i>. Chinese University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-201-409-7" title="Special:BookSources/962-201-409-7">962-201-409-7</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-201-409-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-201-409-1">978-962-201-409-1</a>. p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Borst-Smith_1912-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Borst-Smith_1912_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBorst-Smith1912" class="citation book">Borst-Smith, Ernest F. (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft"><i>Caught in the Chinese Revolution</i></a>. T Fisher Unwin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Caught+in+the+Chinese+Revolution&amp;rft.pub=T+Fisher+Unwin&amp;rft.date=1912&amp;rft.aulast=Borst-Smith&amp;rft.aufirst=Ernest+F.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcaughtinchineser00borsuoft&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nash1997-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nash1997_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Robert_Nash1997" class="citation book">Jay Robert Nash (28 October 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=0FIWCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA99&amp;dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun#v=onepage&amp;q=Black%20Dragon%20Society%20sun&amp;f=false"><i>Spies: A Narrative Encyclopedia of Dirty Tricks and Double Dealing from Biblical Times to Today</i></a>. M. Evans. pp.&#160;99–. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4617-4770-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4617-4770-3"><bdi>978-1-4617-4770-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Spies%3A+A+Narrative+Encyclopedia+of+Dirty+Tricks+and+Double+Dealing+from+Biblical+Times+to+Today&amp;rft.pages=99-&amp;rft.pub=M.+Evans&amp;rft.date=1997-10-28&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4617-4770-3&amp;rft.au=Jay+Robert+Nash&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D0FIWCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA99%26dq%3DBlack%2BDragon%2BSociety%2Bsun%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DBlack%2520Dragon%2520Society%2520sun%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BergèreLloyd1998-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BergèreLloyd1998_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMarie-Claire_BergèreJanet_Lloyd1998" class="citation book">Marie-Claire Bergère; Janet Lloyd (1998). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg"><i>Sun Yat-sen</i></a></span>. Stanford University Press. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg/page/132">132</a>–. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4011-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4011-1"><bdi>978-0-8047-4011-1</bdi></a>. <q>Black Dragon Society sun.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Sun+Yat-sen&amp;rft.pages=132-&amp;rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4011-1&amp;rft.au=Marie-Claire+Berg%C3%A8re&amp;rft.au=Janet+Lloyd&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsunyatsen00berg&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horne2005-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Horne2005_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGerald_Horne2005" class="citation book">Gerald Horne (November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=vQsVCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA252&amp;dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun"><i>Race War!: White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire</i></a>. NYU Press. pp.&#160;252–. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3641-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3641-8"><bdi>978-0-8147-3641-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Race+War%21%3A+White+Supremacy+and+the+Japanese+Attack+on+the+British+Empire&amp;rft.pages=252-&amp;rft.pub=NYU+Press&amp;rft.date=2005-11&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8147-3641-8&amp;rft.au=Gerald+Horne&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DvQsVCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA252%26dq%3DBlack%2BDragon%2BSociety%2Bsun&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chung2000-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chung2000_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDooeum_Chung2000" class="citation book">Dooeum Chung (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=XfkvAQAAIAAJ&amp;q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&amp;dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun"><i>Élitist fascism: Chiang Kaishek's Blueshirts in 1930s China</i></a>. Ashgate. p.&#160;61. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-1166-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-1166-0"><bdi>978-0-7546-1166-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=%C3%89litist+fascism%3A+Chiang+Kaishek%27s+Blueshirts+in+1930s+China&amp;rft.pages=61&amp;rft.pub=Ashgate&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7546-1166-0&amp;rft.au=Dooeum+Chung&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DXfkvAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DBlack%2BDragon%2BSociety%2Bsun%26dq%3DBlack%2BDragon%2BSociety%2Bsun&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chung1997-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chung1997_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDooeum_Chung1997" class="citation book">Dooeum Chung (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=_OY-AQAAIAAJ&amp;q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&amp;dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun"><i>A re-evaluation of Chiang Kaishek's blueshirts: Chinese fascism in the 1930s</i></a>. University of London. p.&#160;78.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+re-evaluation+of+Chiang+Kaishek%27s+blueshirts%3A+Chinese+fascism+in+the+1930s&amp;rft.pages=78&amp;rft.pub=University+of+London&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.au=Dooeum+Chung&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D_OY-AQAAIAAJ%26q%3DBlack%2BDragon%2BSociety%2Bsun%26dq%3DBlack%2BDragon%2BSociety%2Bsun&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carlisle2015-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carlisle2015_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRodney_Carlisle2015" class="citation book">Rodney Carlisle (26 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=oXysBwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA71&amp;dq=Black+Dragon+Society+sun#v=onepage&amp;q=Black%20Dragon%20Society%20sun&amp;f=false"><i>Encyclopedia of Intelligence and Counterintelligence</i></a>. Routledge. pp.&#160;71–. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-47177-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-47177-6"><bdi>978-1-317-47177-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Intelligence+and+Counterintelligence&amp;rft.pages=71-&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2015-03-26&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-317-47177-6&amp;rft.au=Rodney+Carlisle&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DoXysBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA71%26dq%3DBlack%2BDragon%2BSociety%2Bsun%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DBlack%2520Dragon%2520Society%2520sun%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spence, Jonathan D. [1990] (1990). <i>The Search for Modern China</i>. W. W. Norton &amp; Company Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-30780-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-30780-8">0-393-30780-8</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30780-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30780-1">978-0-393-30780-1</a>. pp. 250–256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-z1-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-z1_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-z1_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">計秋楓, 朱慶葆. [2001] (2001). 中國近代史, Volume 1. Chinese University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-201-987-0" title="Special:BookSources/962-201-987-0">962-201-987-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-201-987-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-201-987-4">978-962-201-987-4</a>. p. 464.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scmpYkw-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scmpYkw_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scmpYkw_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">South China morning post. 6 April 2011. Waiting may be over at grave of an unsung hero.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wang424-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wang424_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wang424_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wang, Ke-wen. [1998] (1998). <i>Modern China: an encyclopedia of history, culture, and nationalism</i>. Taylor &amp; Francis Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-0720-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-0720-9">0-8153-0720-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0720-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0720-4">978-0-8153-0720-4</a>. p. 424.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gao, James Zheng. [2009] (2009). <i>Historical dictionary of modern China (1800–1949)</i>. 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Felsing (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=EsO3AAAAIAAJ&amp;dq=The+railway+company%27s+chief+officer+at+Yichang+was+no+longer+listening+to+company+directives+and+had+turned+company+accounts+over+to+Duanfang%2C+Superintendent+of+the+Chuan+Han+and+Yue+Han+railroads.+The+situation+of+the+Sichuanese&amp;q=Duanfang"><i>The heritage of Han: the Gelaohui and the 1911 revolution in Sichuan</i></a>. University of Iowa. p.&#160;156<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2012</span>. <q>The railway company's chief officer at Yichang was no longer listening to company directives and had turned company accounts over to Duanfang, Superintendent of the Chuan Han and Yue Han railroads. The situation of the Sichuanese</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+heritage+of+Han%3A+the+Gelaohui+and+the+1911+revolution+in+Sichuan&amp;rft.pages=156&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Iowa&amp;rft.date=1979&amp;rft.au=Robert+H.+Felsing&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DEsO3AAAAIAAJ%26dq%3DThe%2Brailway%2Bcompany%2527s%2Bchief%2Bofficer%2Bat%2BYichang%2Bwas%2Bno%2Blonger%2Blistening%2Bto%2Bcompany%2Bdirectives%2Band%2Bhad%2Bturned%2Bcompany%2Baccounts%2Bover%2Bto%2BDuanfang%252C%2BSuperintendent%2Bof%2Bthe%2BChuan%2BHan%2Band%2BYue%2BHan%2Brailroads.%2BThe%2Bsituation%2Bof%2Bthe%2BSichuanese%26q%3DDuanfang&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gongtong2-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gongtong2_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gongtong2_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">王恆偉. (2005) (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No.&#160;6 民國. 中華書局. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-8885-29-4" title="Special:BookSources/962-8885-29-4">962-8885-29-4</a>. pp. 3–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tonsi1-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tonsi1_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tonsi1_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tonsi1_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tonsi1_74-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">戴逸, 龔書鐸. [2002] (2003) 中國通史. 清. Intelligence Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-8792-89-X" title="Special:BookSources/962-8792-89-X">962-8792-89-X</a>. pp. 86–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zhanged2-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zhanged2_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zhanged2_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zhanged2_75-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zhanged2_75-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zhanged2_75-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">张创新. [2005] (2005). 中国政治制度史. 2nd Edition. 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Houghton Mifflin. p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp/page/n241">209</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Annals+%26+Memoirs+of+the+Court+of+Peking%3A+%28from+the+16th+to+the+20th+Century%29&amp;rft.pages=209&amp;rft.edition=reprint&amp;rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&amp;rft.date=1914&amp;rft.aulast=Backhouse&amp;rft.aufirst=Sir+Edmund&amp;rft.au=Otway%2C+John&amp;rft.au=Bland%2C+Percy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fannalsmemoirsoft002081mbp&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj4wAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA779"><i>The Atlantic, Volume 112</i></a>. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p.&#160;779.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Atlantic%2C+Volume+112&amp;rft.pages=779&amp;rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Company&amp;rft.date=1913&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMj4wAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA779&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA779"><i>The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 112</i></a>. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p.&#160;779.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Monthly%2C+Volume+112&amp;rft.pages=779&amp;rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Company&amp;rft.date=1913&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSGACAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA779&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fsh-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fsh_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fsh_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Neaman_Lipman2004" class="citation book">Jonathan Neaman Lipman (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&amp;pg=PA168&amp;dq=ma+anliang&#39;s+brother+ma+guoliang&amp;cd=1#v=snippet&amp;q=twenty%20battalions%20of%20loyal%20muslim%20braves&amp;f=false"><i>Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China</i></a>. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p.&#160;170. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-97644-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-97644-0"><bdi>978-0-295-97644-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Familiar+Strangers%3A+A+History+of+Muslims+in+Northwest+China&amp;rft.place=Seattle&amp;rft.pages=170&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-295-97644-0&amp;rft.au=Jonathan+Neaman+Lipman&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D90CN0vtxdY0C%26pg%3DPA168%26dq%3Dma%2Banliang%27s%2Bbrother%2Bma%2Bguoliang%26cd%3D1%23v%3Dsnippet%26q%3Dtwenty%2520battalions%2520of%2520loyal%2520muslim%2520braves%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhoads192-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhoads192_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhoads192_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). <i>Manchus &amp; Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</i>. University of Washington publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0">0-295-98040-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98040-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98040-9">978-0-295-98040-9</a>. pg 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_J._M._Rhoads2000" class="citation book">Edward J. M. Rhoads (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&amp;pg=PA190"><i>Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</i></a>. University of Washington. p.&#160;190. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780295980409" title="Special:BookSources/9780295980409"><bdi>9780295980409</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Manchus+and+Han%3A+Ethnic+Relations+and+Political+Power+in+Late+Qing+and+Early+Republican+China%2C+1861%E2%80%931928&amp;rft.pages=190&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Washington&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=9780295980409&amp;rft.au=Edward+J.+M.+Rhoads&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQiM2pF5PDR8C%26pg%3DPA190&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRhoads2000" class="citation book">Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&amp;pg=PA192"><i>Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</i></a> (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Washington Press. p.&#160;192. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0295980400" title="Special:BookSources/0295980400"><bdi>0295980400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Manchus+and+Han%3A+Ethnic+Relations+and+Political+Power+in+Late+Qing+and+Early+Republican+China%2C+1861%E2%80%931928&amp;rft.pages=192&amp;rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=0295980400&amp;rft.aulast=Rhoads&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward+J.+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQiM2pF5PDR8C%26pg%3DPA192&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRhoads2000" class="citation book">Rhoads, Edward J. 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University of Washington Press. p.&#160;193. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0295980400" title="Special:BookSources/0295980400"><bdi>0295980400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Manchus+and+Han%3A+Ethnic+Relations+and+Political+Power+in+Late+Qing+and+Early+Republican+China%2C+1861%E2%80%931928&amp;rft.pages=193&amp;rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=0295980400&amp;rft.aulast=Rhoads&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward+J.+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQiM2pF5PDR8C%26pg%3DPA193&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFitzgeraldKotker1969" class="citation book">Fitzgerald, Charles Patrick; Kotker, Norman (1969). Kotker, Norman (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vPRxAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=manchu+girls&amp;dq=manchu+girls&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=LUmxTNbbJMG78gb8kfmhCQ&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=3&amp;ved=0CCwQ6AEwAg"><i>The Horizon history of China</i></a> (illustrated ed.). American Heritage Pub. 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[1981] (1981). 湖南反正追记. 湖南人民出版社.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">辛亥革命史地圖集. [1991] (1991). 辛亥革命武昌起義紀念館. 中國地圖出版社.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">中國地圖出版社. [1991] (1991). 辛亥革命史地圖集. 中國地圖出版社 publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhoads198-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhoads198_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhoads198_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). <i>Manchus &amp; Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</i>. University of Washington Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0">0-295-98040-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98040-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98040-9">978-0-295-98040-9</a>. pg 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blondeau-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blondeau_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blondeau_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Blondeau, Anne-Marie. Buffetrille, Katia. Jing, Wei. [2008] (2008). <i>Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions</i>. University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-24464-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-24464-8">0-520-24464-8</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24464-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24464-1">978-0-520-24464-1</a>. pg 230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunfeld, A. Tom. [1996] (1996). <i>The Making of Modern Tibet</i> Edition 2. M.E. Sharpe Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56324-714-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-56324-714-3">1-56324-714-3</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56324-714-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56324-714-9">978-1-56324-714-9</a>. pg 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rong, Ma. [2010] (2010). <i>Population and Society in Tibet</i>. Hong Kong University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-209-202-0" title="Special:BookSources/962-209-202-0">962-209-202-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-209-202-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-209-202-0">978-962-209-202-0</a>. pg 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mayhew-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mayhew_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mayhew_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mayhew_115-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayhew, Bradley and Michael Kohn. (2005). <i>Tibet</i>, p. 32. Lonely Planet Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-74059-523-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-74059-523-8">1-74059-523-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Onon-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Onon_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onon_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Onon, Urgunge Onon. Pritchatt, Derrick. [1989] (1989). <i>Asia's first modern revolution: Mongolia proclaims its independence in 1911</i>. 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"The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia": PIATS 2003: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. BRILL Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-15521-X" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-15521-X">90-04-15521-X</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004155213" title="Special:BookSources/9789004155213">9789004155213</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhao, Suisheng. 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[1993] (1993). 近代中國歷史人物論文集. 中央研究院近代史研究所. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/957-671-150-9" title="Special:BookSources/957-671-150-9">957-671-150-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-957-671-150-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-957-671-150-3">978-957-671-150-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hkcna-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hkcna_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hkcna_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hkcna_120-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml">"新疆伊犁辛亥革命打破清王朝西遷夢"</a>. 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Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p.&#160;376. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25514-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25514-1"><bdi>978-0-521-25514-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Daily report: People's Republic of China, Issues 200–210. National Technical Information Service publishing. Digitized 2 March 2007 by University of Michigan. pg 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tw.people.com.cn/BIG5/26741/51057/51764/3634815.html">"人民網-寶島英雄譜-苗栗事件：台灣光復先驅羅福星"</a>. Tw.people.com.cn<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E7%B6%B2-%E5%AF%B6%E5%B3%B6%E8%8B%B1%E9%9B%84%E8%AD%9C-%E8%8B%97%E6%A0%97%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6%EF%BC%9A%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E5%85%89%E5%BE%A9%E5%85%88%E9%A9%85%E7%BE%85%E7%A6%8F%E6%98%9F&amp;rft.pub=Tw.people.com.cn&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftw.people.com.cn%2FBIG5%2F26741%2F51057%2F51764%2F3634815.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dellorto-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dellorto_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dellorto_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dell'Orto, Alessandro. [2002] (2002). <i>Place and spirit in Taiwan: Tudi Gong in the stories, strategies, and memories of everyday life</i>. Psychology Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1568-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1568-1">0-7007-1568-1</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1568-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1568-8">978-0-7007-1568-8</a>. pg 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Katz, Paul R. Rubinstein, Murray A. [2003] (2003). <i>Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities</i>. Palgrave Macmillan Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-23969-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-23969-6">0-312-23969-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-23969-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-23969-5">978-0-312-23969-5</a>. pg 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). <i>Manchus and Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928</i>. University of Washington Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0">0-295-98040-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98040-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98040-9">978-0-295-98040-9</a>. pg 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tung, William L. [1968] (1968). <i>The political institutions of modern China</i>. Springer Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-247-0552-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-247-0552-5">90-247-0552-5</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-247-0552-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-247-0552-8">978-90-247-0552-8</a>. pg 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhoads228-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhoads228_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhoads228_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhoads228_130-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhoads228_130-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rhoads, Edward J. M. [2000] (2000). <i>Manchus &amp; Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928</i>. University of Washington publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0">0-295-98040-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98040-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98040-9">978-0-295-98040-9</a>. pg 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pompl-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pompl_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pomerantz-Zhang, Linda. [1992] (1992). <i>Wu Tingfang (1842–1922): reform and modernization in modern Chinese history</i>. Hong Kong University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-209-287-X" title="Special:BookSources/962-209-287-X">962-209-287-X</a>, 9789622092877. pg 207- 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ksliew-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ksliew_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. S. Liew. [1971] (1971). <i>Struggle for democracy: Sung Chiao-jen and the 1911 Chinese revolution</i>. University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-01760-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-01760-9">0-520-01760-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01760-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01760-3">978-0-520-01760-3</a>. pg 131–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wu Yuzhang. [2001] (2001). <i>Recollections of the Revolution of 1911: A Great Democratic Revolution of China</i>. The Minerva Group Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89875-531-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-89875-531-X">0-89875-531-X</a>, 9780898755312. pg 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-liwanhon-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-liwanhon_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-liwanhon_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-liwanhon_134-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-liwanhon_134-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">李雲漢. [1996] (1996). 中國近代史. 三民書局 publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/957-14-0669-4" title="Special:BookSources/957-14-0669-4">957-14-0669-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-957-14-0669-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-957-14-0669-5">978-957-14-0669-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">中央硏究院近代史硏究所. [1971] (1971). 中央硏究院近代史硏究所集刊, Volume 2. Digitized on 2 August 2007 from the University of California.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">存萃學社. 周康燮. [1971] (1971). 辛亥革命研究論集: 1895–1929, Volume 1. 崇文書店 publishing. Digitized on 16 August 2007 by University of Michigan.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feng, Youlan Feng. Mair, Denis C. [2000] (2000). The hall of three pines: an account of my life. University of Hawaii Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-2220-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-2220-X">0-8248-2220-X</a>, 9780824822200. pg 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lane, Roger deWardt. [2008] (2008). <i>Encyclopedia Small Silver Coins</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-615-24479-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-615-24479-3">0-615-24479-3</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-615-24479-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-615-24479-2">978-0-615-24479-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Well-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Well_139-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Well_139-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Welland, Sasah Su-ling. [2007] (2007). <i>A Thousand miles of dreams: The journeys of two Chinese sisters</i>. Rowman Littlefield Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-5314-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-5314-0">0-7425-5314-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5314-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5314-9">978-0-7425-5314-9</a>. pg 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yu Weichao Yu. [1997] (1997). <i>A Journey into China's Antiquity: Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty</i>. Volume 4. Morning Glory Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5054-0514-4" title="Special:BookSources/7-5054-0514-4">7-5054-0514-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5054-0514-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5054-0514-1">978-7-5054-0514-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fitzj-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fitzj_141-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fitzj_141-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fitzj_141-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fitzgerald, John. [1998] (1998). <i>Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution</i>. Stanford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-3337-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-3337-6">0-8047-3337-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3337-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3337-3">978-0-8047-3337-3</a>. pg 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-newlight10-92-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-newlight10-92_142-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-newlight10-92_142-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. [2002] (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-07-5316-X" title="Special:BookSources/962-07-5316-X">962-07-5316-X</a>. pg 92–93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hsiao-ting Lin. [2010] (2010). <i>Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west</i>. Taylor &amp; Francis. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-58264-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-58264-4">0-415-58264-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3">978-0-415-58264-3</a>. pg 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gg-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gg_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gg_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">邵建. [2008] (2008). 胡適前傳. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/986-221-008-7" title="Special:BookSources/986-221-008-7">986-221-008-7</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-986-221-008-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-986-221-008-6">978-986-221-008-6</a>. pg 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boorman, Howard L. Howard, Richard C. Cheng, Joseph K. H. [1970] (1970). <i>Biographical dictionary of Republican China</i>, V. 3. Columbia University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-08957-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-08957-0">0-231-08957-0</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-08957-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-08957-9">978-0-231-08957-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.1-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.1_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.1_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.1_146-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.1_146-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">(Chinese) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189.htm">胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" <i>民国档案</i> p.1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120606083901/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189.htm">Archived</a> 6 June 2012 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2010-12-08</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Chinese) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_2.htm">胡绳武 "民国元年定都之" <i>民国档案</i> p. 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032733/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_2.htm">Archived</a> 15 September 2012 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2010-12-08</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.3-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.3_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Chinese) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm">胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" <i>民国档案</i> p. 3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032749/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm">Archived</a> 15 September 2012 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2010-12-08</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.4-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.4_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.4_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.4_149-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">(Chinese) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_4.htm">胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" <i>民国档案</i> p. 4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032803/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_4.htm">Archived</a> 15 September 2012 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2010-12-08</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xinhai.org_p.2-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Xinhai.org_p.2_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Chinese) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm">胡绳武 "民国元年定都之争" <i>民国档案</i> p. 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915032749/http://www.xinhai.org/yanjiu/191101189_3.htm">Archived</a> 15 September 2012 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2010-12-08</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fu, Zhengyuan. [1993] (1993). <i>Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics: Zhengyuan Fu</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44228-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44228-1">0-521-44228-1</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44228-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44228-2">978-0-521-44228-2</a>. pg 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hsueh, Chun-tu. Xue, Jundu. [1961] (1961). <i>Huang Hsing and the Chinese revolution</i>. Stanford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-0031-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-0031-1">0-8047-0031-1</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0031-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0031-3">978-0-8047-0031-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fu, Zhengyuan. [1993] (1993). <i>Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44228-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44228-1">0-521-44228-1</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44228-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44228-2">978-0-521-44228-2</a>. pp 153–154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woodhouse2004-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woodhouse2004_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEiko_Woodhouse2004" class="citation book">Eiko Woodhouse (2 August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4TfPJpJRV_0C&amp;pg=PA113"><i>The Chinese Hsinhai Revolution: G. E. Morrison and Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1897–1920</i></a>. Routledge. pp.&#160;113–. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-35242-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-35242-5"><bdi>978-1-134-35242-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Hsinhai+Revolution%3A+G.+E.+Morrison+and+Anglo-Japanese+Relations%2C+1897%E2%80%931920&amp;rft.pages=113-&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2004-08-02&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-134-35242-5&amp;rft.au=Eiko+Woodhouse&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4TfPJpJRV_0C%26pg%3DPA113&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spence1982-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spence1982_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_D._Spence1982" class="citation book">Jonathan D. Spence (28 October 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DwgvjqO5ivUC&amp;pg=PP84"><i>The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and Their Revolution</i></a>. Penguin Publishing Group. pp.&#160;84–. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-17372-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-17372-5"><bdi>978-1-101-17372-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Gate+of+Heavenly+Peace%3A+The+Chinese+and+Their+Revolution&amp;rft.pages=84-&amp;rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing+Group&amp;rft.date=1982-10-28&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-101-17372-5&amp;rft.au=Jonathan+D.+Spence&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDwgvjqO5ivUC%26pg%3DPP84&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HuLiu1983-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HuLiu1983_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShêng_HuDanian_Liu1983" class="citation book">Shêng Hu; Danian Liu (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=MmwKAQAAIAAJ&amp;q=If+we+want+to+bring+order+and+peace+to+China,+we+should+follow+the+model+of+the+British+titular+monarchy;+nothing+seemed+more+reasonable+and+logical+than+to+make+the+present+monarch+the+titular+head+of+a+constitutional+monarchy.+This+was+the+reason+...+The+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke,+is+unparalleled+among+the+descendants+of+the+best+families+in+the+nation.+If+we+have+no+other+alternative,+let+us+promote+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke+two+ranks+and+make+him+emperor.&amp;dq=If+we+want+to+bring+order+and+peace+to+China,+we+should+follow+the+model+of+the+British+titular+monarchy;+nothing+seemed+more+reasonable+and+logical+than+to+make+the+present+monarch+the+titular+head+of+a+constitutional+monarchy.+This+was+the+reason+...+The+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke,+is+unparalleled+among+the+descendants+of+the+best+families+in+the+nation.+If+we+have+no+other+alternative,+let+us+promote+the+Yan+Sheng+Duke+two+ranks+and+make+him+emperor."><i>The 1911 Revolution: A Retrospective After 70 Years</i></a>. New World Press. p.&#160;55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+1911+Revolution%3A+A+Retrospective+After+70+Years&amp;rft.pages=55&amp;rft.pub=New+World+Press&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft.au=Sh%C3%AAng+Hu&amp;rft.au=Danian+Liu&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DMmwKAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DIf%2Bwe%2Bwant%2Bto%2Bbring%2Border%2Band%2Bpeace%2Bto%2BChina%2C%2Bwe%2Bshould%2Bfollow%2Bthe%2Bmodel%2Bof%2Bthe%2BBritish%2Btitular%2Bmonarchy%3B%2Bnothing%2Bseemed%2Bmore%2Breasonable%2Band%2Blogical%2Bthan%2Bto%2Bmake%2Bthe%2Bpresent%2Bmonarch%2Bthe%2Btitular%2Bhead%2Bof%2Ba%2Bconstitutional%2Bmonarchy.%2BThis%2Bwas%2Bthe%2Breason%2B...%2BThe%2Blineal%2Bdescendant%2Bof%2BConfucius%2C%2Bthe%2BYan%2BSheng%2BDuke%2C%2Bis%2Bunparalleled%2Bamong%2Bthe%2Bdescendants%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bbest%2Bfamilies%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bnation.%2BIf%2Bwe%2Bhave%2Bno%2Bother%2Balternative%2C%2Blet%2Bus%2Bpromote%2Bthe%2BYan%2BSheng%2BDuke%2Btwo%2Branks%2Band%2Bmake%2Bhim%2Bemperor.%26dq%3DIf%2Bwe%2Bwant%2Bto%2Bbring%2Border%2Band%2Bpeace%2Bto%2BChina%2C%2Bwe%2Bshould%2Bfollow%2Bthe%2Bmodel%2Bof%2Bthe%2BBritish%2Btitular%2Bmonarchy%3B%2Bnothing%2Bseemed%2Bmore%2Breasonable%2Band%2Blogical%2Bthan%2Bto%2Bmake%2Bthe%2Bpresent%2Bmonarch%2Bthe%2Btitular%2Bhead%2Bof%2Ba%2Bconstitutional%2Bmonarchy.%2BThis%2Bwas%2Bthe%2Breason%2B...%2BThe%2Blineal%2Bdescendant%2Bof%2BConfucius%2C%2Bthe%2BYan%2BSheng%2BDuke%2C%2Bis%2Bunparalleled%2Bamong%2Bthe%2Bdescendants%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bbest%2Bfamilies%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bnation.%2BIf%2Bwe%2Bhave%2Bno%2Bother%2Balternative%2C%2Blet%2Bus%2Bpromote%2Bthe%2BYan%2BSheng%2BDuke%2Btwo%2Branks%2Band%2Bmake%2Bhim%2Bemperor.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=vyM-AQAAMAAJ&amp;q=The+dificulty+lay+in+the+choice+of+a+suitable+monarch+upon+whom+to+exercise+the+curbing+influences+of+constitutional+limitation.+A+very+strong+element+proposed+that+Duke+Kung,+the+seventy-fifth+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+should+be+made+King+of+China;+and+the&amp;dq=The+dificulty+lay+in+the+choice+of+a+suitable+monarch+upon+whom+to+exercise+the+curbing+influences+of+constitutional+limitation.+A+very+strong+element+proposed+that+Duke+Kung,+the+seventy-fifth+lineal+descendant+of+Confucius,+should+be+made+King+of+China;+and+the"><i>The National Review, China</i></a>. 1913. p.&#160;200.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+National+Review%2C+China&amp;rft.pages=200&amp;rft.date=1913&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DvyM-AQAAMAAJ%26q%3DThe%2Bdificulty%2Blay%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bchoice%2Bof%2Ba%2Bsuitable%2Bmonarch%2Bupon%2Bwhom%2Bto%2Bexercise%2Bthe%2Bcurbing%2Binfluences%2Bof%2Bconstitutional%2Blimitation.%2BA%2Bvery%2Bstrong%2Belement%2Bproposed%2Bthat%2BDuke%2BKung%2C%2Bthe%2Bseventy-fifth%2Blineal%2Bdescendant%2Bof%2BConfucius%2C%2Bshould%2Bbe%2Bmade%2BKing%2Bof%2BChina%3B%2Band%2Bthe%26dq%3DThe%2Bdificulty%2Blay%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bchoice%2Bof%2Ba%2Bsuitable%2Bmonarch%2Bupon%2Bwhom%2Bto%2Bexercise%2Bthe%2Bcurbing%2Binfluences%2Bof%2Bconstitutional%2Blimitation.%2BA%2Bvery%2Bstrong%2Belement%2Bproposed%2Bthat%2BDuke%2BKung%2C%2Bthe%2Bseventy-fifth%2Blineal%2Bdescendant%2Bof%2BConfucius%2C%2Bshould%2Bbe%2Bmade%2BKing%2Bof%2BChina%3B%2Band%2Bthe&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=xzRDAQAAIAAJ&amp;q=That+being+the+case,+the+abdicated+Ch&#39;ing+emperor+or+even+%22+the+Holy+Duke+%22+(Yen-sheng+kung+ft&amp;dq=That+being+the+case,+the+abdicated+Ch&#39;ing+emperor+or+even+%22+the+Holy+Duke+%22+(Yen-sheng+kung+ft"><i>Monumenta Serica</i></a>. H. Vetch. 1967. p.&#160;67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Monumenta+Serica&amp;rft.pages=67&amp;rft.pub=H.+Vetch&amp;rft.date=1967&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DxzRDAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DThat%2Bbeing%2Bthe%2Bcase%2C%2Bthe%2Babdicated%2BCh%27ing%2Bemperor%2Bor%2Beven%2B%2522%2Bthe%2BHoly%2BDuke%2B%2522%2B%28Yen-sheng%2Bkung%2Bft%26dq%3DThat%2Bbeing%2Bthe%2Bcase%2C%2Bthe%2Babdicated%2BCh%27ing%2Bemperor%2Bor%2Beven%2B%2522%2Bthe%2BHoly%2BDuke%2B%2522%2B%28Yen-sheng%2Bkung%2Bft&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kent1912-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kent1912_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPercy_Horace_Braund_Kent1912" class="citation book">Percy Horace Braund Kent (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941"><i>The Passing of the Manchus</i></a>. 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Arnold. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941/page/n438">382</a>–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Passing+of+the+Manchus&amp;rft.pages=382-&amp;rft.pub=E.+Arnold&amp;rft.date=1912&amp;rft.au=Percy+Horace+Braund+Kent&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.95941&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aldrich2008-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aldrich2008_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFM.A._Aldrich2008" class="citation book">M.A. Aldrich (1 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=TMMvxX67FpIC&amp;pg=PA176&amp;dq=Marquis+of+Extended+Grace#v=onepage&amp;q=Marquis%20of%20Extended%20Grace&amp;f=false"><i>The Search for a Vanishing Beijing: A Guide to China's Capital Through the Ages</i></a>. Hong Kong University Press. pp.&#160;176–. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-209-777-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-209-777-3"><bdi>978-962-209-777-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Search+for+a+Vanishing+Beijing%3A+A+Guide+to+China%27s+Capital+Through+the+Ages&amp;rft.pages=176-&amp;rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2008-03-01&amp;rft.isbn=978-962-209-777-3&amp;rft.au=M.A.+Aldrich&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DTMMvxX67FpIC%26pg%3DPA176%26dq%3DMarquis%2Bof%2BExtended%2BGrace%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DMarquis%2520of%2520Extended%2520Grace%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ECJQBwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false"><i>Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change</i></a> (revised ed.). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2014. p.&#160;74. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1443867726" title="Special:BookSources/978-1443867726"><bdi>978-1443867726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Modernisation+of+Chinese+Culture%3A+Continuity+and+Change&amp;rft.pages=74&amp;rft.edition=revised&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-1443867726&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DECJQBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA74%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution">"Sun Yatsen and the 1911 Revolution"</a>. 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"孫、黃遺劄密詮". <i>章士釗全集</i>. <b>8</b>. 上海: 文彙出版社. p.&#160;341. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7805315430" title="Special:BookSources/978-7805315430"><bdi>978-7805315430</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=%E5%AD%AB%E3%80%81%E9%BB%83%E9%81%BA%E5%8A%84%E5%AF%86%E8%A9%AE&amp;rft.btitle=%E7%AB%A0%E5%A3%AB%E9%87%97%E5%85%A8%E9%9B%86&amp;rft.place=%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7&amp;rft.pages=341&amp;rft.pub=%E6%96%87%E5%BD%99%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-7805315430&amp;rft.aulast=%E7%AB%A0&amp;rft.aufirst=%E5%A3%AB%E9%87%97&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPomfret2011" class="citation news">Pomfret, James (27 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/27/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627">"China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=China%27s+Wen+calls+for+greater+democracy%2C+reforms&amp;rft.date=2011-06-27&amp;rft.aulast=Pomfret&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2F2011%2F06%2F27%2Fus-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Yomiuri_Shimbun2011" class="citation web">The Yomiuri Shimbun (14 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/editorial/T111013004821.htm">"100 years on, China far from democracy: Editorial: DAILY YOMIURI ONLINE (The Daily Yomiuri)"</a>. Yomiuri.co.jp<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=100+years+on%2C+China+far+from+democracy%3A+Editorial%3A+DAILY+YOMIURI+ONLINE+%28The+Daily+Yomiuri%29&amp;rft.pub=Yomiuri.co.jp&amp;rft.date=2011-10-14&amp;rft.au=The+Yomiuri+Shimbun&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yomiuri.co.jp%2Fdy%2Feditorial%2FT111013004821.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geo-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-geo_181-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geo_181-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm">"China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on"</a>. GEO.tv<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=China+grapples+with+revolutionary+past%2C+100+years+on&amp;rft.pub=GEO.tv&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geo.tv%2F10-9-2011%2F87338.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hrichina-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hrichina_182-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hrichina_182-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879">"Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence &#124; Human Rights in China 中国人权"</a>. Hrichina.org. 29 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Democracy+Activist+Qin+Yongmin+Released+from+Prison+after+12-Year+Sentence+%26%23124%3B+Human+Rights+in+China+%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%83&amp;rft.pub=Hrichina.org&amp;rft.date=2010-11-29&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrichina.org%2Fcontent%2F4879&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on/">"China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on"</a>. <i>The West Australian</i>. Au.news.yahoo.com. 9 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+West+Australian&amp;rft.atitle=China+grapples+with+revolutionary+past%2C+100+years+on&amp;rft.date=2011-10-09&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fau.news.yahoo.com%2Fthewest%2Flifestyle%2Fa%2F-%2Flifestyle%2F10429558%2Fchina-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> </ol></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=73" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=74" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin reflist" style=""> <ul><li>Wu Xinghan (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>&#58; <span lang="zh">吳醒漢</span>), <i>Three Day Journal of Wuchang Uprising</i> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>&#58; <span lang="zh">武昌起義三日記</span>).</li></ul> </div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Contemporary_accounts">Contemporary accounts</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=75" title="Edit section: Contemporary accounts">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin reflist" style=""> <ul><li><cite id="CITEREFDingle1912" class="citation book">Dingle, Edwin J. (1912). <i>China's Revolution: 1911–1912. A Historical and Political Record of the Civil War</i>. Shanghai, China: Commercial Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=China%27s+Revolution%3A+1911%E2%80%931912.+A+Historical+and+Political+Record+of+the+Civil+War&amp;rft.place=Shanghai%2C+China&amp;rft.pub=Commercial+Press&amp;rft.date=1912&amp;rft.aulast=Dingle&amp;rft.aufirst=Edwin+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFKent1912" class="citation book">Kent, P. H. B. (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941"><i>The Passing of the Manchus</i></a>. London: E. Arnold.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Passing+of+the+Manchus&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pub=E.+Arnold&amp;rft.date=1912&amp;rft.aulast=Kent&amp;rft.aufirst=P.+H.+B.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.95941&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li></ul> </div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Scholarly_secondary_sources">Scholarly secondary sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=76" title="Edit section: Scholarly secondary sources">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <dl><dt>English</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin reflist" style=""> <ul><li><cite id="CITEREFEsherick1976" class="citation book">Esherick, Joseph W. (1976). <i>Reform and revolution in China: the 1911 revolution in Hunan and Hubei</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03084-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03084-8"><bdi>978-0-520-03084-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Reform+and+revolution+in+China%3A+the+1911+revolution+in+Hunan+and+Hubei&amp;rft.place=Berkeley&amp;rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&amp;rft.date=1976&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-520-03084-8&amp;rft.aulast=Esherick&amp;rft.aufirst=Joseph+W.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFFung1980" class="citation book">Fung, Edmund S. K. (1980). <i>The military dimension of the Chinese revolution: The New Army and its role in the revolution of 1911</i>. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0129-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0129-4"><bdi>978-0-7748-0129-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+military+dimension+of+the+Chinese+revolution%3A+The+New+Army+and+its+role+in+the+revolution+of+1911&amp;rft.place=Vancouver&amp;rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&amp;rft.date=1980&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0129-4&amp;rft.aulast=Fung&amp;rft.aufirst=Edmund+S.+K.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1991" class="citation book">Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1991). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernt00melv"><i>A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist state</i></a></span>. University of California Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07590-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07590-0"><bdi>978-0-520-07590-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Tibet%2C+1913%E2%80%931951%3A+The+Demise+of+the+Lamaist+state&amp;rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-520-07590-0&amp;rft.aulast=Goldstein&amp;rft.aufirst=Melvyn+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmodernt00melv&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFHsieh1975" class="citation book">Hsieh, Winston (1975). <i>Chinese historiography on the Revolution of 1911: a critical survey and a selected bibliography</i>. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-3341-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-3341-8"><bdi>978-0-8179-3341-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Chinese+historiography+on+the+Revolution+of+1911%3A+a+critical+survey+and+a+selected+bibliography&amp;rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif.&amp;rft.pub=Hoover+Institution+Press%2C+Stanford+University&amp;rft.date=1975&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8179-3341-8&amp;rft.aulast=Hsieh&amp;rft.aufirst=Winston&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFKaplan2010" class="citation book">Kaplan, Lawrence M. (2010). <i>Homer Lea: American Soldier of Fortune</i>. Lexington.: University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2616-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2616-6"><bdi>978-0-8131-2616-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Homer+Lea%3A+American+Soldier+of+Fortune&amp;rft.place=Lexington.&amp;rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8131-2616-6&amp;rft.aulast=Kaplan&amp;rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFKit-ching1978" class="citation book">Kit-ching, Chan Lau (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.de/books?id=NpBlT5nnKecC&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false"><i>Anglo-Chinese Diplomacy 1906-1920: In the Careers of Sir John Jordan and Yüan Shih-kai</i></a> (in German). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hong_Kong_University_Press" title="Hong Kong University Press">Hong Kong University Press</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-209-010-9" title="Special:BookSources/962-209-010-9"><bdi>962-209-010-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Anglo-Chinese+Diplomacy+1906-1920%3A+In+the+Careers+of+Sir+John+Jordan+and+Y%C3%BCan+Shih-kai&amp;rft.place=Hong+Kong&amp;rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1978&amp;rft.isbn=962-209-010-9&amp;rft.aulast=Kit-ching&amp;rft.aufirst=Chan+Lau&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.de%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNpBlT5nnKecC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: ref=harv (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_ref%3Dharv" title="Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMa1990" class="citation book">Ma, L. Eve Armentrout (1990). <i>Revolutionaries, monarchists, and Chinatowns: Chinese politics in the Americas and the 1911 revolution</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1239-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1239-3"><bdi>978-0-8248-1239-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Revolutionaries%2C+monarchists%2C+and+Chinatowns%3A+Chinese+politics+in+the+Americas+and+the+1911+revolution&amp;rft.place=Honolulu&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1239-3&amp;rft.aulast=Ma&amp;rft.aufirst=L.+Eve+Armentrout&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRankin1986" class="citation book">Rankin, Mary Backus (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eliteactivismpol0000rank"><i>Elite activism and political transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911</i></a>. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1321-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1321-4"><bdi>978-0-8047-1321-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Elite+activism+and+political+transformation+in+China%3A+Zhejiang+Province%2C+1865%E2%80%931911&amp;rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif.&amp;rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8047-1321-4&amp;rft.aulast=Rankin&amp;rft.aufirst=Mary+Backus&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feliteactivismpol0000rank&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li>Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2018). <i>Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal</i> (U of British Columbia Press). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780774837781" title="Special:BookSources/9780774837781">9780774837781</a>.</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFShinkichiSchiffrin,_Harold_Z.1994" class="citation book">Shinkichi, / edited Eto; Schiffrin, Harold Z. (1994). <i>China's republican revolution</i>. [Tokyo]: University of Tokyo Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-13-027030-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-13-027030-4"><bdi>978-4-13-027030-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=China%27s+republican+revolution&amp;rft.place=%5BTokyo%5D&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Tokyo+Press&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.isbn=978-4-13-027030-4&amp;rft.aulast=Shinkichi&amp;rft.aufirst=%2F+edited+Eto&amp;rft.au=Schiffrin%2C+Harold+Z.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFWright1978" class="citation book"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mary_C._Wright" title="Mary C. Wright">Wright, Mary Clabaugh</a> (1978). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinainrevolutio0000unse"><i>China in revolution: the first phase 1900–1913</i></a></span>. New Haven: Yale UP. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-01460-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-01460-0"><bdi>978-0-300-01460-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=China+in+revolution%3A+the+first+phase+1900%E2%80%931913&amp;rft.place=New+Haven&amp;rft.pub=Yale+UP&amp;rft.date=1978&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-300-01460-0&amp;rft.aulast=Wright&amp;rft.aufirst=Mary+Clabaugh&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinainrevolutio0000unse&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFYoung1977" class="citation book">Young, Ernest P. (1977). <i>The Presidency of Yuan Shih-K'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, Michigan Studies on China.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Yuan+Shih-K%27ai%3A+Liberalism+and+Dictatorship+in+Early+Republican+China&amp;rft.place=Ann+Arbor&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press%2C+Michigan+Studies+on+China&amp;rft.date=1977&amp;rft.aulast=Young&amp;rft.aufirst=Ernest+P.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li>Yu, George T. "The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future," <i>Asian Survey</i>, 31#10 (1991), pp.&#160;895–904, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645062">online</a> historiography</li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Chinese</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin reflist" style=""> <ul><li><cite id="CITEREFTang_(唐)1998" class="citation book">Tang (唐), Degang (德剛) (1998). <i>The Late 50 years of Qing: Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen and Xinhai Revolution</i>. Taipei: Yuanliu (遠流). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-957-32-3513-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-957-32-3513-2"><bdi>978-957-32-3513-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Late+50+years+of+Qing%3A+Yuan+Shikai%2C+Sun+Yat-sen+and+Xinhai+Revolution&amp;rft.pub=Taipei%3A+Yuanliu+%28%E9%81%A0%E6%B5%81%29&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-957-32-3513-2&amp;rft.aulast=Tang+%28%E5%94%90%29&amp;rft.aufirst=Degang+%28%E5%BE%B7%E5%89%9B%29&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFTang_(唐)2002" class="citation book">Tang (唐), Degang (德剛) (2002). <bdi lang="zh">袁氏當國</bdi> &#91;<i>The Rule of Yuan Shikai</i>&#93;. Taipei: Yuanliu (遠流). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-957-32-4680-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-957-32-4680-0"><bdi>978-957-32-4680-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=%E8%A2%81%E6%B0%8F%E7%95%B6%E5%9C%8B&amp;rft.pub=Taipei%3A+Yuanliu+%28%E9%81%A0%E6%B5%81%29&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-957-32-4680-0&amp;rft.aulast=Tang+%28%E5%94%90%29&amp;rft.aufirst=Degang+%28%E5%BE%B7%E5%89%9B%29&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFZhang_(張)1998" class="citation book">Zhang (張), Yufa (玉法) (1998). <bdi lang="zh">中華民國史稿</bdi> &#91;<i>The History of the Republic of China</i>&#93;. Taipei: Lianjin (聯經). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-957-08-1826-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-957-08-1826-0"><bdi>978-957-08-1826-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%8F%B2%E7%A8%BF&amp;rft.pub=Taipei%3A+Lianjin+%28%E8%81%AF%E7%B6%93%29&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-957-08-1826-0&amp;rft.aulast=Zhang+%28%E5%BC%B5%29&amp;rft.aufirst=Yufa+%28%E7%8E%89%E6%B3%95%29&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFLin_(林)1983" class="citation book">Lin (林), Yusheng (毓生) (1983). <bdi lang="zh">&lt;五四時代的激烈反傳統思想與中國自由主義的前途&gt; 收入"思想與人物"</bdi> &#91;<i>The Anti-tradition Trends of May Forth Era and the Future of Libertarianism in China included in "Personage and their thoughts"</i>&#93;. Taipei: Lianjin (聯經). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-957-08-0384-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-957-08-0384-6"><bdi>978-957-08-0384-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=%3C%E4%BA%94%E5%9B%9B%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E7%9A%84%E6%BF%80%E7%83%88%E5%8F%8D%E5%82%B3%E7%B5%B1%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E8%88%87%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9%E7%9A%84%E5%89%8D%E9%80%94%3E+%E6%94%B6%E5%85%A5%22%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E8%88%87%E4%BA%BA%E7%89%A9%22&amp;rft.pub=Taipei%3A+Lianjin+%28%E8%81%AF%E7%B6%93%29&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft.isbn=978-957-08-0384-6&amp;rft.aulast=Lin+%28%E6%9E%97%29&amp;rft.aufirst=Yusheng+%28%E6%AF%93%E7%94%9F%29&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFZhou_(周)Tang_(唐)2002" class="citation book">Zhou (周), Weimin (伟民); Tang (唐), Linlin (玲玲) (2002). <bdi lang="zh">中国和马来西亚文化交流史</bdi> &#91;<i>The History of Cultural Interactions of China and Malaysia</i>&#93;. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haikou" title="Haikou">Haikou</a>: Hainan (海南). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5443-0682-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5443-0682-9"><bdi>978-7-5443-0682-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%92%8C%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E4%BA%A4%E6%B5%81%E5%8F%B2&amp;rft.pub=Haikou%3A+Hainan+%28%E6%B5%B7%E5%8D%97%29&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-7-5443-0682-9&amp;rft.aulast=Zhou+%28%E5%91%A8%29&amp;rft.aufirst=Weimin+%28%E4%BC%9F%E6%B0%91%29&amp;rft.au=Tang+%28%E5%94%90%29%2C+Linlin+%28%E7%8E%B2%E7%8E%B2%29&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFLi_(李)Liu_(劉),_Zhaifu_(再復)1999" class="citation book">Li (李), Zehou (澤厚); Liu (劉), Zhaifu (再復) (1999). <bdi lang="zh">告別革命－二十世紀中國對談錄</bdi> &#91;<i>A Farewell to the Revolutions: Records of Discussions in 20th century China</i>&#93;. Taipei: Maitian (麥田). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-957-708-735-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-957-708-735-5"><bdi>978-957-708-735-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=%E5%91%8A%E5%88%A5%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%EF%BC%8D%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%87%E9%8C%84&amp;rft.pub=Taipei%3A+Maitian+%28%E9%BA%A5%E7%94%B0%29&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=978-957-708-735-5&amp;rft.aulast=Li+%28%E6%9D%8E%29&amp;rft.aufirst=Zehou+%28%E6%BE%A4%E5%8E%9A%29&amp;rft.au=Liu+%28%E5%8A%89%29%2C+Zhaifu+%28%E5%86%8D%E5%BE%A9%29&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1911+Revolution+%28China%29" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li></ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=1911_Revolution_(China)&amp;action=edit&amp;section=77" title="Edit section: External links">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Xinhai_Revolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Xinhai Revolution"><span style="">Xinhai Revolution</span></a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div 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href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic <span style="font-size:85%;">(1912&#8211;1949)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People&#39;s Republic of China">People's Republic <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949–present)</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)" title="History of the People&#39;s Republic of China (1949–1976)">1949–1976</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1976%E2%80%931989)" title="History of the People&#39;s Republic of China (1976–1989)">1976–1989</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1989%E2%80%932002)" title="History of the People&#39;s Republic of China (1989–2002)">1989–2002</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the People&#39;s Republic of China (2002–present)">2002–present</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="List of years in the People&#39;s Republic of China">Chronology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days&#39; Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">War of Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform and opening</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests">1989 Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Chinese space program</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Borders_of_China" title="Borders of China">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extreme_points_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme points of China">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geology_of_China" title="Geology of China">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_China" title="Natural disasters in China">Natural disasters</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Central_China" title="South Central China">South Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northwest_China" title="Northwest China">Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southwest_China" title="Southwest China">Southwest</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Terrain</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Bays_of_China" title="Category:Bays of China">Bays</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Canyons_and_gorges_of_China" title="Category:Canyons and gorges of China">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Caves_of_China" title="Category:Caves of China">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_China" title="Category:Deserts of China">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Grasslands_of_China" title="Category:Grasslands of China">Grasslands</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Hills_of_China" title="Category:Hills of China">Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_islands_of_China" title="List of islands of China">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_China" title="Category:Mountains of China">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_China" title="Category:Mountain ranges of China">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Mountain_passes_of_China" title="Category:Mountain passes of China">passes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Peninsulas_of_China" title="Category:Peninsulas of China">Peninsulas</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northeast_China_Plain" title="Northeast China Plain">Northeast</a>&#160;/ <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North</a>&#160;/ <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Plain_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Plain (China)">Central Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_China" title="Category:Valleys of China">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_China" title="List of volcanoes in China">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Canals_in_China" title="Category:Canals in China">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_China" title="List of lakes of China">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_China" title="List of rivers of China">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_China" title="Category:Waterfalls of China">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Wetlands_of_China" title="Category:Wetlands of China">Wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_resources_of_China" title="Water resources of China">Water resources</a></li> <li>Seas <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bohai_Sea" title="Bohai Sea">Bohai</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Ecosystem</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_China" title="List of protected areas of China">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_China" title="List of national parks of China">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Nature_reserves_in_China" title="Category:Nature reserves in China">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_UNESCO_Biosphere_Reserves_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in China">UNESCO Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wildlife_of_China" title="Wildlife of China">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fauna_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna of China">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flora_of_China" title="Flora of China">Flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baselines_of_the_Chinese_territorial_sea" title="Baselines of the Chinese territorial sea">Baseline islands</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Border_crossings_of_China" title="Category:Border crossings of China">Border crossings</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_cities_in_China" title="List of cities in China">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Province-level subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Law" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of China">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Homosexuality_in_China" title="Homosexuality in China">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naming_laws_in_China" title="Naming laws in China">Naming laws</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nationality_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationality law of China">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Penal system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Civil Service of the People&#39;s Republic of China">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the People&#39;s Republic of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People&#39;s Congress">National People's Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People&#39;s Congress">Standing Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_security_of_China" title="National security of China">National security</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China" title="List of political parties in China">Political parties and movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China" title="Communist Party of China">Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of China">General Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of China">Politburo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Front_(China)" title="United Front (China)">Democratic Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_skepticism_of_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese skepticism of democracy">Anti-democratisation</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" title="Chinese democracy movement">Pro-democratisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="President of the People&#39;s Republic of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Vice President of the People&#39;s Republic of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People&#39;s Republic of China">State Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Premier of the People&#39;s Republic of China">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Vice Premier of the People&#39;s Republic of China">Vice Premier</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of China">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People&#39;s Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force" title="People&#39;s Liberation Army Ground Force">Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy" title="People&#39;s Liberation Army Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Air_Force" title="People&#39;s Liberation Army Air Force">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force" title="People&#39;s Liberation Army Rocket Force">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People&#39;s Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">Strategic Support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People&#39;s Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Coast_Guard" title="China Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">Militia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People&#39;s Bank of China">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_financial_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese financial system">Finance system</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid received</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_foreign_aid" title="Chinese foreign aid">Foreign aid program</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Renminbi <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special_Economic_Zones_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Economic Zones of China">Special Economic Zones (SEZs)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in China">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Archaeology_of_China" title="Category:Archaeology of China">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archives_in_China" title="Archives in China">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dance_in_China" title="Dance in China">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Gardens_in_China" title="Category:Gardens in China">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Libraries_in_China" title="Libraries in China">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Media_of_China" title="Media of China">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Parks_in_China" title="Category:Parks in China">Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sport_in_China" title="Sport in China">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_variety_art" title="Chinese variety art">Variety arts</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Major_Historical_and_Cultural_Site_Protected_at_the_National_Level" title="Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level">Historical and Cultural Site</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China" title="List of World Heritage Sites in China">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Society" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Society</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="National Emblem of the People&#39;s Republic of China">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_China" title="Flag of China">Flag</a></li> <li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/China%27s_Generation_Y" class="mw-redirect" title="China&#39;s Generation Y">Generation Y</a>"</li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harmonious_Socialist_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmonious Socialist Society">Harmonious Socialist Society</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_intellectualism" title="Chinese intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Public health</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">food safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">incidents</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_holidays_in_China" title="Public holidays in China">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rural_society_in_China" title="Rural society in China">Rural life</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexuality_in_China" title="Sexuality in China">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_issues_in_China" title="Social issues in China">Social issues</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_social_relations" title="Chinese social relations">Social relations</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_social_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_welfare_in_China" title="Social welfare in China">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suicide_in_China" title="Suicide in China">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Terrorism_in_China" title="Terrorism in China">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Time_in_China" title="Time in China">Time zones</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urban_society_in_China" title="Urban society in China">Urban life</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xiaokang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiaokang"><i>Xiaokang</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(middle-class)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">Primary stage of socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Outline</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:China" title="Category:China">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Qing_dynasty_topics&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">History</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:90%;">(1616&#8211;1683)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">Great Clearance</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a> <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:90%;">(1683&#8211;1839)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%9336)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–36)">Miao Rebellion (1735–36)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Altishahr_Khojas" title="Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas">Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C4%80f%C4%81q%C4%AB_Khoja_Holy_War" title="Āfāqī Khoja Holy War">Āfāqī Khoja Holy War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War_(1765%E2%80%931769)" title="Sino-Burmese War (1765–1769)">Sino-Burmese War (1765–1769)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1795%E2%80%931806)" title="Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)">Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Late <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:90%;">(1840&#8211;1912)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_War" title="Dogra–Tibetan War">Dogra–Tibetan War (Sino-Sikh War)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931856)" title="Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)">Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Da_Cheng_Rebellion" title="Da Cheng Rebellion">Da Cheng Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Small_Swords_Society" title="Small Swords Society">Small Swords Society</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nepalese%E2%80%93Tibetan_War" title="Nepalese–Tibetan War">Nepalese–Tibetan War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amur_Acquisition" title="Amur Acquisition">Amur Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mudan_incident" title="Mudan incident">Mudan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Margary_Affair" title="Margary Affair">Margary Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jindandao_incident" title="Jindandao incident">Jindandao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gongche_Shangshu_movement" title="Gongche Shangshu movement">Gongche Shangshu movement</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dungan_revolt_(1895%E2%80%9396)" title="Dungan revolt (1895–96)">Dungan revolt (1895–96)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days&#39; Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Lanterns_(Boxer_Uprising)" title="Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)">Red Lanterns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1905_Tibetan_Rebellion" title="1905 Tibetan Rebellion">1905 Tibetan Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1909_Chinese_provincial_elections" title="1909 Chinese provincial elections">1909 Provincial Assembly elections</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution_in_Xinjiang" title="Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang">Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Government</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cup_of_Solid_Gold" title="Cup of Solid Gold">Cup of Solid Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Posts_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Posts and Communications">Ministry of Posts and Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">Provincial military commander</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Principles of the Constitution (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ta-Ching_Government_Bank" title="Ta-Ching Government Bank">Ta-Ching Government Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaan-Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangjiang" title="Viceroy of Liangjiang">Liangjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Huguang</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Sichuan" title="Viceroy of Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Min-Zhe" title="Viceroy of Min-Zhe">Min-Zhe</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Liangguang</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Yun-Gui" title="Viceroy of Yun-Gui">Yun-Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Northeast_Provinces" title="Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces">Three Northeast Provinces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chu_Army" title="Chu Army">Chu Army</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_China)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing China)">Imperial Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shuishiying" title="Shuishiying">Shuishiying</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Special regions</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Qing dynasty in Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia under Qing rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mongolia_during_Qing" title="Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing">Administrative divisions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet under Qing rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Qing_imperial_residents_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing imperial residents in Tibet">List of imperial residents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang under Qing rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_of_Ili" title="General of Ili">General of Ili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan under Qing rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_Dynasty_Taiwan_Provincial_Administration_Hall" title="Qing Dynasty Taiwan Provincial Administration Hall">Provincial Administration Hall</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces &amp;<br />mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">Chengde Mountain Resort</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fuling_Mausoleum" title="Fuling Mausoleum">Fuling Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhao_Mausoleum_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)">Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Qing_tombs" title="Western Qing tombs">Western Qing tombs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society &amp;<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Changzhou_School_of_Thought" title="Changzhou School of Thought">Changzhou School of Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dibao" title="Dibao">Dibao</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gujin_Tushu_Jicheng" title="Gujin Tushu Jicheng">Gujin Tushu Jicheng</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Islam during the Qing dynasty">Islam during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">Kaozheng</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" title="Manchu Han Imperial Feast">Manchu Han Imperial Feast</a></li> <li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peiwen_Yunfu" title="Peiwen Yunfu">Peiwen Yunfu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pentaglot_Dictionary" title="Pentaglot Dictionary">Pentaglot Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_official_headwear" title="Qing official headwear">Qing official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Qing poetry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quan_Tangshi" title="Quan Tangshi">Quan Tangshi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">Queue</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Researches_on_Manchu_Origins" title="Researches on Manchu Origins">Researches on Manchu Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sacred_Edict_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor">Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shamanism_in_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism in the Qing dynasty">Shamanism in the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Siku Quanshu</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siku_Quanshu_Zongmu_Tiyao" title="Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao"><i>Zongmu Tiyao</i></a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Treaties<br /></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unequal_treaty" title="Unequal treaty">Unequal treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chefoo_Convention" title="Chefoo Convention">Chefoo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Lobanov_Treaty" title="Li–Lobanov Treaty">Li–Lobanov Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Treaty_of_Peking" title="Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking">Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Canton" title="Treaty of Canton">Treaty of Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Kulja" title="Treaty of Kulja">Treaty of Kulja</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Tarbagatai" title="Treaty of Tarbagatai">Treaty of Tarbagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhiqian" title="Zhiqian">Zhiqian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kangxi_Tongbao" title="Kangxi Tongbao">Kangxi Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hongqian" title="Hongqian">Hongqian</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Da-Qing_Tongbi" title="Da-Qing Tongbi">Da-Qing Tongbi</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Da-Qing_Jinbi" title="Da-Qing Jinbi">Da-Qing Jinbi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Da-Qing_Baochao" title="Da-Qing Baochao">Da-Qing Baochao</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hubu_Guanpiao" title="Hubu Guanpiao">Hubu Guanpiao</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Ta-Ching_Government_Bank" title="Banknotes of the Ta-Ching Government Bank">Banknotes of the Ta-Ching Government Bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chuang_Guandong" title="Chuang Guandong">Chuang Guandong</a></li> <li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></i></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu people</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Names of the Qing dynasty">Names of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_conquest_theory" title="Qing conquest theory">Qing conquest theory</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_late_anti-Qing_rebellions" title="Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions">Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">Treaty ports</a></li> <li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Willow_Palisade" title="Willow Palisade">Willow Palisade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless_&amp;#124;text-top_&amp;#124;10px_&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190517&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Authority_control_frameless_&amp;#124;text-top_&amp;#124;10px_&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190517&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190517" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85024103">sh85024103</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571018">00571018</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw1321 Cached time: 20200530064537 Cache expiry: 2592000 Dynamic content: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1] CPU time usage: 3.328 seconds Real time usage: 3.766 seconds Preprocessor visited node 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Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node)
false
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp)
1590821137
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:AbuseLog/26879318"