Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '[[File:DOWNTOWN_BUFFALO_LOOKING_NORTH_-_NARA_-_549477.jpg|thumb|Downtown Buffalo in 1973, showing the then-[[One Seneca Tower|Marine Midland Tower]], [[Niagara River]] and Buffalo's [[Lower West Side, Buffalo|Lower West Side]].]]
[[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] is the county seat of [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]], and the second most populous [[city]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[New York (state)|New York]], after [[New York City]]. Originating around 1789 as a small trading community inhabited by the [[Neutral Nation]] near the mouth of [[Buffalo River (New York)|Buffalo Creek]], the city, then a town, grew quickly after the opening of the [[Erie Canal]] in 1825, with the city at its western terminus. Its position at the eastern end of [[Lake Erie]] strengthened the economy, based on [[Gristmill|grain milling]] and [[Steelmaking|steel production]] along the southern shores and in nearby [[Lackawanna, New York|Lackawanna]].
In the dawn of the 20th century, Buffalo was one of the most populous cities in the United States. It had hosted the [[Pan-American Exposition]] in 1901 and later became a center for the [[Automotive industry in the United States|automotive industry]].
Later, the opening of the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] combined with the effects of [[suburbanization]], [[deindustrialization]], and [[globalization]] led to the decline of the city's chief industries. The city lost over half of its population from 1950 to 2010. Buffalo retains many industries and has developed a diverse economy based upon advanced manufacturing, healthcare and education.
==Origin of name==
{{more citations needed section|date=August 2015}}
{{US Census population
| 1830= 8668
| 1840= 18213
| 1850= 42261
| 1860= 81129
| 1870= 117714
| 1880= 155134
| 1890= 255664
| 1900= 352387
| 1910= 423715
| 1920= 506775
| 1930= 573076
| 1940= 575901
| 1950= 580132
| 1960= 532759
| 1970= 462768
| 1980= 357870
| 1990= 328123
| 2000= 292648
| 2010= 261310
| footnote=source:<ref name="census">[https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html US Population of the 100 Largest Cities and other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314031958/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html |date=2007-03-14 }} [[Census.gov]]</ref>
}}
[[Image:Buffalo, New York from I-190 North entering downtown.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Buffalo 2006]]
The City of Buffalo, formerly known as Buffalo Creek, received its name from the [[stream|creek]] that flows through it. However, the origin of the creek's name is unclear, with several unproven theories existing. Early French explorers reported the abundance of [[American Bison|buffalo]] on the Eastern shore of Lake Erie, but their presence on the banks of [[Buffalo River (New York)|Buffalo Creek]] is still a matter of debate, although American Bison did range into western NY state at one time. Neither the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] name ''Teyohoseroron'' (the Place of the Basswoods) nor the French name ''Riviere aux Chevaux'' (River of Horses) survived, so the current name likely dates to the British occupation which began with the capture of [[Fort Niagara]] in 1759.
Another theory holds that a [[Seneca nation|Seneca]] Indian lived there, either whose name meant buffalo, or who had the physical characteristics of a buffalo, and was translated as such by the English settlers. The stream where he lived became Buffalo's Creek. Unlike other nearby creeks such as Scajaquada Creek and Smoke's Creek which were named after actual historic figures, there is no known reference to any Native American named Buffalo. Also given credence by local historians at one time was the possibility that an interpreter mistranslated the Native American word for "[[beaver]]" as "buffalo," the words being very similar, at a treaty-signing at present-day [[Rome, New York]] in 1784. The theory assumes that because there were beaver here, the creek was probably called Beaver Creek rather than Buffalo Creek.[[Image:Buffalo Panorama 1911.jpg|thumb|400px|Buffalo panorama circa 1911]]Another theory holds that the name is an [[Anglicisation|anglicized]] form of the [[France|French]] name ''Beau Fleuve'' (beautiful river), which was supposedly an exclamation uttered by [[Louis Hennepin]] when he first saw the Niagara River. This is a relatively recently proposed theory (1909) and is unlikely, as no period sources contain this quote. The earliest known name origin theory is an anecdote told to Captain Daniel Dobbins by Cornelius Winney in 1795 and also found with variations in Sheldon Ball's History of Buffalo (1825) and other sources, about a party of hunters whose guide shoots a horse and passes it off as bison meat, thereafter the origin of the term "buffaloed."
Despite many years of speculation and garbling of previous debate, more recently available sources indicate that the name Buffalo Creek was in common use on the Niagara Frontier by 1764, as [[John Montresor]] referenced 'Buffalo Creek' in his journal of that year.<ref name=Montresor_BuffaloCreek>{{cite book |title=Buffalo Historical Society Publications |chapter=The Achievements of Captain John Montresor |author=Severance, Frank H. |editor=Buffalo Historical Society |location=Buffalo, NY |date=1902 |publisher=Bigelow Brothers |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBs8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15 |page=15 |access-date=August 14, 2015}}</ref> The name may have originated with an English speaking person sometime between 1759 and 1764, possibly after seeing animal bones, thought to be bison but possibly elk or moose or domesticated cattle, at the salt lick called Sour Springs located at the head of navigation about 6 miles up the creek.
An alternate explanation put forward in late 2020, is that the origin comes from the French “Riviere du Bois Blanc” meaning “River of White Wood” being used to describe the creek. Bois Blanc pronounced “Boblo” or “Bob Low” around the Great Lakes , morphed into “Buffalo” when the British took control of the region in 1759-1760.
==Pre-colonization==
===Amerindian Crossroads===
The societies of the Native Forest dwellers we know as Native Americans, Amerindians, or First Nations made highways of the Great Lakes, streams and were far more social than their reputed penchant for warfare, cruelty, and collecting scalps would suggest. Their canoes were built from lightweight birch bark, or far more often, Elm, the farther south the tribe, the more likely Elm was the material used for many purposes including the canoes. Buffalo, near the throat of the Niagara River, was a popular campsite for voyaging tribesmen, in a culture which often went on walk-abouts, touring neighboring lands and conducting the widespread practice of boy-meets-girl, trading of regional commodities.{{efn
| Obsidian from Canada, Flint, shells, plants are all known to have traveled hundreds-to-thousands of miles carried by a sociable people that often met recreationally as well for competitions—for [[Lacrosse]]—the picture of the Amerindian tribes as blood thirsty savages would never have lasted in the light of day, had the natives not been cut down by diseases they had little resistance to.
}}
[[Image:Wenro-Territorium um 1630.png|thumb|left|320px<!--
--->|alt=:Wenro-Territorium um 1630.png|1630s: The French report the '''Wenro''''s territory was north and east of the [[Erie people]]s, East of the [[Neutral people]] across the [[Niagara River]] and west of the [[Genesee River]] valley and the ''Genesee Gorge'' across which the Seneca people had their home.]]
Prior to European colonization by French settlers, the region's inhabitants were an [[Iroquoian language|Iroquoian-speaking]] tribal offshoot called the [[Wenro people]] or'' 'Wenrohronon','' who lived along the south shore of [[Lake Ontario]] and east end of Lake Erie and a bit of its southern shore. The population of the Wenro was small by comparison to other Iroquoian tribes the French encountered and reported upon, possibly because they'd only recently split off from other groups or because they'd suffered the misfortunes of war. They were possibly (most likely) a sub-group of the main [[Neutral Nation|''Neutral Confederacy'']] which had colonized the opposite shore, or possibly relatives of the great abutting neighboring [[Erie Nation]],{{efn
| It is also possible they were a combination of clan groups from differing peoples. The Iroquoian culture was one with a matrilineal clan basis, the women selecting the leading men. It would be odd if at such a prime meeting place as the river-Lake outlet area that a people which by all accounts traveled often, that men and women and whole tribal groups didn't meet and mingle in such a idyllic surround.
}} which extended southwesterly through most of present-day [[Ohio]], [[Western Pennsylvania]] and [[West Virginia]].
The American Heritage Book of Indians points out there are opposing (on the surface) contradictory theories{{efn
|Amerindian studies scholars believe the known Iroquoian nations coalesced about 1300 and either migrated from the Carolina's to the Great Lakes, or originated along the St. Lawrence and moved westward and south. Either way, by 300 years later the various Iroquoian peoples dominated the area of the right bank St. Lawrence River to the Eastern side of [[Lake Huron]] dominating half the shores of the [[Great Lakes]] from the tip of present-day Northern [[Maine]] and [[New England]] nearly to Western Ohio, and extended southerly from the northern shores beyond [[Lake Huron]]'s [[Georgian Bay]] (Huron) down along the [[Susquehanna River|Susquehanna]] and parts of [[Chesapeake Bay]]. Concurrently as the 1600s brought European [[fur trade]]rs and then colonies, two large Iroquoian nations, the [[Tuscarora people]] and the [[Cherokee people]] occupied lands south of the [[Province of Virginia]] on either side of the [[Appalachians]] [[barrier range]]; west of the lower Appalachians, the [[Cherokee]] held territory in Kentucky and Tennessee.
}} of the origination and the migration of the Iroquois and Iroquoian peoples that came to inhabit the region around Buffalo and the Niagara River.{{
efn
|[[New France|French]] [[colonialism]] and the process of settlements used the [[Kingdom of England|English]] were very different modalities; the French Crown monopolized American economic activity: traders, and a relatively few number of settlers danced to the Crown's policies, and cultivated good relations with Amerindian tribe and nations. In the French, Dutch, and English disputes that followed, the undermanned French were dependent upon their Amerindian allies for manpower, and most military power.
In contrast, the English [[mercantilism]] driven [[colonialism]]—later in the 1700s, [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]]—almost universally established an initial tolerance seguing soon after settlements became well established to an mode of oft ruthless exploitation and patterns of confrontation, racial prejudice, and land grabs; the English/British class-conscience culture almost uniformly ended up in frontier tension and eventual interracial conflict leading to a succession of wars, of displaced [[Indigenous peoples of North America|Native American]] tribes. The English modality had little direct frontier impact effect around Buffalo but the Indian vs. Indian events in the region are illustrative of both Kingdoms practices and the Iroquois grudge against the French.
}}
The [[Kingdom of France|French]] found the Neutral groups helpful in mediating disputes with other tribes—in particular the [[League of the Iroquois]] which became sworn enemies of the French from their first meeting in 1609.{{efn
| In 1609 Champlain assisting a mixed war party of Huron and Algonquian raiding the Mohawk Nation, along the lake now named for him, killed two of three Mohawk war sachems, wounding the third and built up an enmity from the Iroquois that lasted 150 years, until the end of the [[French and Indian War]] (1756-1763) drove the French from North America. This encounter is an [[Epoch (reference date)|epoch]], beginning a period now loosely referred to as the [[Beaver Wars]] in which over 60 years of internecine Amerindian on Indian battles, giving the Iroquois the balance of North American political power for the next hundred. The Beaver Wars for many years were believed to be mainly economic. Recent scholarship has posed several other factors, most steeped in the culture and religious beliefs of the disparate Iroquoian peoples.
}} By comparison, the Huron also an Iroquoian people, were often at odds with the Iroquois once European traders offered highly desired goods for furs, especially water proof [[Beaver]] pelts{{efn
|the Huron territory started in the upper St. Lawrence valley, and the Iroquois claimed virtually all of the opposite bank; so were in competition in the European Goods sweepstakes.
}} About 1651 the [[Iroquois Confederacy]] declared war on the Neutrals; by 1653, the Confederacy, particularly the [[Seneca people|Senecas]], had practically annihilated the Neutrals<ref name="newadvent">[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07565a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', "The Hurons"]</ref><ref>Reville 1920, p.20.</ref> and the splinter tribe of [[Wenro people]]. The Wenro's area was subsequently populated by the Seneca tribe.
Also in 1653 the large and populous Erie tribe, having taken in survivors of the Huron, Neutral, Wenro, and [[Tabacco people]]s—Iroquoian peoples one and all, with traditions of adopting outsiders—received demands to send Neutrals to the Iroquois and instead launched an preemptive attack on the League, kicking off three years of desperate warfare that eventually shattered the Erie and bled the Iroquois of much of their strength.{{efn
|One of the Iroquois few periods of peace occurred, giving evidence of the savvy political sophistication the Iroquois would now become famous for having; a similar peace was negotiated when the Susquehannock and Iroquois fought—the council ruling the Iroquois did not want Algonkian raiding while taking on militarily strong opponents.
}} Ohio and Western Pennsylvania became nearly vacant Iroquois hunting grounds, exploited for furs, but ten years later the Iroquois, having also adopted tribal members of peoples they'd recently thrashed, found themselves in a new war with the [[Susquehannock]]s who lived down below the [[Allegheny Front]], the [[escarpment]] above most of today's [[central Pennsylvania]] along the [[Susquehanna River]] valleys—another people believed to have significantly outnumbered the Iroquois{{efn
|The American Heritage Book of Indians discuss a French report (New France was a direct venture of the King, the Jesuits sent back reports every year for decades) ca. 1660s-1670s that ''the adopted Iroquois'' outnumbered the Native Iroquois in that period.
}} —so warring along the Susquehanna Valley from lower New York to Maryland through central Pennsylvania. In 1667-68 the Susquehannocks nearly wiped out two of the Five Iroquois people. At that point the Susquehannock's suffered one or more horrendous plagues, losing up to 90% of their population and military capabilities, and by 1672 the Iroquois became the proverbial'' 'Last Man Standing' ''in the Northern Beaver Wars.
===First Europeans, 1758–1793===
Most of [[western New York]] was granted by [[Charles II of England]] to the [[Duke of York]] (later King [[James II of England|James II & VII]]), but the first European settlement in what is now [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]] was by the French, at the mouth of [[Buffalo River (New York)|Buffalo Creek]] in 1758. Its buildings were destroyed a year later by the evacuating French after the British captured Fort Niagara. The British took control of the entire region in 1763, at the conclusion of the [[French and Indian War]]. In 1764, British military engineer [[John Montresor]] made an inspection tour of [[Buffalo River (New York)|Buffalo Creek]] before determining on a site for a fortification on the opposite shore. After the 1779 Sullivan Expedition, the British settled Seneca refugees in several villages on [[Buffalo River (New York)|Buffalo Creek]] in the spring of 1780.
The first white settlers along the creek were prisoners captured during the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]].{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=106–107}} The first resident and landowner of Buffalo with a permanent presence was [[William Johnson (Royal Navy officer)|Captain William Johnston]],{{Sfn|Ketchum|1865|p=141}} a white Iroquois interpreter who had been in the area since the days after the Revolutionary War and who the Senecas granted creekside land as a gift of appreciation. His house stood at present-day Washington and Seneca streets.{{Sfn|Bingham|1931|pp=132–134}} Former enslaved man Joseph "Black Joe" Hodges,{{Sfn|Becker|1906|pp=106–108}}{{sfn|Bingham|1931|pp=137–138}} and Cornelius Winney, a Dutch trader from [[Albany, New York|Albany]] who arrived in 1789, were early settlers along the mouth of Buffalo Creek.{{Sfn|Sprague|1882|pp=20, 21}} They set up a log cabin store there in 1789 for trading with the Native American community. The British retained control of the area and prevented further settlement by Americans until their evacuation of Fort Niagara in 1796.
==Founding and 19th century==
===Holland Land Purchase, 1793–1825===
[[File:Buffalo 1813.jpg|thumb|300px|Buffalo in 1813<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lossing |first=Benson |title=The Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812 |url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_29136 |publisher=Harper & Brothers, Publishers |year=1868 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cihm_29136/page/n398 380]}}</ref>]]
On July 20, 1793, the [[Holland Land Purchase]], including the land of present-day Buffalo, was completed with land being acquired from the Seneca Indians and brokered by [[Netherlands|Dutch]] investors from [[Holland]].{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=401}} The [[Treaty of Big Tree]] removed Iroquois title to lands west of the [[Genesee River]] in 1797.{{sfn|Bingham|1931|p=145}} Although other Senecas were involved in ceding their land, the most famous today is [[Red Jacket]], who died in Buffalo in 1830. His grave is in [[Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo|Forest Lawn Cemetery]].
In the fall of 1797, [[Joseph Ellicott]], the architect who helped survey [[Washington, D.C.]] with brother [[Andrew Ellicott|Andrew]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Recalling Pioneer Days|last=Bartlett|first=George Hunter|publisher=The Buffalo Historical Society|year=1922|pages=3|hdl = 2027/wu.89065904492}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=John|date=1899|title=Early Maps and Surveyors of the City of Washington, D. C.|jstor=40066723|journal=Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C.|volume=2|pages=48–71}}</ref> was appointed as the Chief of Survey for the [[Holland Land Company]].{{Sfn|Bingham|1931|p=146}} Over the next year, he began to survey the tract of land at the mouth of Buffalo Creek. This was completed in 1803,{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=111}} and the new village boundaries extended from the creekside in the south to present-day Chippewa Street in the north and Carolina Street to the west,<ref name="Fernald1910">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/indexguidetobuff00fern|title=The index guide to Buffalo and Niagara Falls|last=Fernald|first=Frederik Atherton|date=1910|publisher=Buffalo, N.Y., F.A. Fernald|others=The Library of Congress|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indexguidetobuff00fern/page/21 21]|access-date=November 30, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326204401/https://archive.org/details/indexguidetobuff00fern|archive-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> which is where most settlers remained for the first decade of the 19th century.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}
Starting in 1801, parcels were sold through the [[Holland Land Company|Holland Land Companies]] office in [[Batavia, New York]]. The settlement was initially called Lake Erie, then Buffalo Creek, soon shortened to Buffalo. Although the company named the settlement "New Amsterdam," the name did not catch on, reverting to Buffalo within ten years.<ref name="Buff_Dir_p16">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooMUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA16|title=Thomas' Buffalo City Directory for 1862, to which is Prefixed a Sketch of the Early History of Buffalo<!--, Followed by a Glance at its Progress down to the Present Time -->|last1=Clinton|first1=George W.|last2=Hunt|first2=Sanford B.|date=1862|publisher=E.A. Thomas, Franklin Steam Printing House|location=Buffalo, NY|page=16|access-date=August 31, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925053611/https://books.google.com/books?id=ooMUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=September 25, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Fernald1910" /> Buffalo had the first road to [[Pennsylvania]] built in 1802 for migrants passing through to the [[Connecticut Western Reserve]] in Ohio.{{Sfn|French|Place|1860|p=210}}
In 1804, Ellicott designed a radial [[grid plan]] that would branch out from the village forming bicycle-like spokes, interrupted by diagonals, like the system used in the nation's capital.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elmendorf|first=Dwight L.|date=March 1913|title=Washington the Capital|journal=The Mentor|volume=1|page=2}}</ref> It is one of only three radial street patterns in the US {{Citation needed|date=December 2015}}. In the middle of the village was the intersection of eight streets, in what would become [[Niagara Square]]. Several blocks to the southeast he designed a semicircle fronting Main Street with an elongated park green, formerly his estate.{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=439}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Design of Discord: Studies of Anomie|last=Powell|first=Elwin Humphreys|date=January 1, 1988|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=9781412836494|pages=59|language=en}}</ref> This would be known as Shelton Square,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buffalo|last=Myers|first=Stephen G.|date=2012|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=9780738591650|pages=25|language=en}}</ref> at that time the center of the city (which would be dramatically altered in the mid-20th century),<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buffalo|last=Myers|first=Stephen G.|date=2012|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=9780738591650|language=en}}</ref> with the intersecting streets bearing the names of Dutch Holland Land Company members,<ref name="Sprague1882">{{Cite book|title=Semi-centennial Celebration of the City of Buffalo: Address of the Hon. E.C. Sprague Before the Buffalo Historical Society, July 3, 1882|last=Buffalo Historical Society|publisher=Buffalo Historical Society|year=1882|location=Buffalo, N.Y.|pages=20, 21|language=en}}</ref>{{Efn|Formerly known as Stadtnitski, Vollenhoven and Schimmelpennick Avenues, removed after backlash by village residents.}} today Erie, Church and Niagara streets.{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=439}} [[Lafayette Square (Buffalo)|Lafayette Square]] also lies one block to the north, which was then bounded by streets bearing Iroquois names.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=111}}
In 1804, Buffalo's population was estimated at 400, similar to [[Batavia, New York|Batavia]], but Erie County's growth was behind [[Chautauqua County, New York|Chautauqua]], [[Genesee County, New York|Genesee]] and [[Wyoming County, New York|Wyoming]] counties.{{Sfn|Thompson|1977|p=152}} Neighboring village [[Black Rock, New York|Black Rock]] to the northwest (today a Buffalo neighborhood) was also an important center.{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=439}} Horatio J. Spafford noted in ''A Gazetteer of the State of New York'' that in fact, despite the growth the village of Buffalo had, Black Rock "is deemed a better trading site for a great trading town than that of Buffalo," especially when considering the regional profile of mundane roads extending eastward.{{Sfn|Thompson|1977|p=152}} Before the east-to-west turnpike{{Explain|date=December 2017}} was completed, travelling from Albany to Buffalo would take a week,{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=494}} while even a trip from nearby [[Williamsville, New York|Williamsville]] to Batavia could take upwards of three days.{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=495}}{{Efn|When travelling with an ox and wagon team.}}
According to an early resident, the village had sixteen residences, a schoolhouse and two stores in 1806, primarily near Main, Swan and Seneca streets.{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=498}} There were also blacksmith shops, a tavern and a drugstore.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=114–115}} The streets were small at 40 feet wide, and the village was still surrounded by woods.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|pp=111, 118}} The first lot sold by the Holland Land Company was on September 11, 1806, to Zerah Phelps.{{Sfn|Bingham|1931|p=493}} By 1808, lots would sell from $25 to $50.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=115}}
Although [[History of slavery in New York|slavery was rare in the state]], limited instances of slavery had taken place in Buffalo during the early part of the 19th century. General [[Peter Buell Porter]] is said to have had five slaves during his time in Black Rock, and several news ads also advertised slaves for sale.{{Sfn|Bingham|1931|pp=356–357}}
In 1808, [[Niagara County, New York|Niagara County]] was established with Buffalo as its county seat. In 1810, the Town of Buffalo was formed from the western part of the [[Clarence, New York|Town of Clarence]]. Also in 1810, a courthouse was built. By 1811, the population was 500, with many people farming or doing manual labor.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=115, 118}} The first newspaper to be published was the ''Buffalo Gazette'' in October that same year.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=115}}
On December 30, 1813, during the [[War of 1812]], British troops and their Native American allies first captured the village of [[Black Rock, Buffalo, New York|Black Rock]], and then the rest of Buffalo. On December 31, 1813, most of Buffalo and the village of Black Rock were burned by the British after the [[Battle of Buffalo]].<ref>{{Cite book|title = The U.S. Army in the War of 1812: An Operational and Command Study|last = Quimby|first = Robert|publisher = Michigan State University Press|year = 1997|isbn = 978-0-87013-441-8|location = East Lansing, MI|pages = 355}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://buffalonews.com/2013/12/30/200-years-ago-the-village-of-buffalo-burned/|title=200 years ago, the village of Buffalo burned|last=Gee|first=Denise Jewell|date=December 30, 2013|website=The Buffalo News|access-date=February 26, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227063815/http://buffalonews.com/2013/12/30/200-years-ago-the-village-of-buffalo-burned/|archive-date=February 27, 2017}}</ref> The battle and subsequent fire was in response to the unprovoked destruction of [[Niagara-on-the-Lake]], then known as "Newark," by American forces.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://buffalonews.com/2017/11/29/the-buffalo-of-yesteryear-chictawauga-scajaquady-and-other-oddities-of-the-year-1860/|title=The Buffalo of Yesteryear: Chictawauga, Scajaquady and the 'morass' that was Buffalo|date=November 29, 2017|work=The Buffalo News|access-date=November 29, 2017|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129200743/http://buffalonews.com/2017/11/29/the-buffalo-of-yesteryear-chictawauga-scajaquady-and-other-oddities-of-the-year-1860/|archive-date=November 29, 2017}}</ref>{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=125–126}} On August 4, 1814, British forces under Lt. Colonel John Tucker and Lt. Colonel William Drummond, General [[Gordon Drummond]]'s nephew, attempted to raid Black Rock and Buffalo as part of a diversion to force an early surrender [[Siege of Fort Erie|at Fort Erie]] the next day, but were defeated by a small force of American riflemen under Major Lodwick Morgan at the [[Battle of Conjocta Creek]], and withdrew back into Canada. Consequently, Fort Erie's siege under Gordon Drummond later failed, and British forces withdrew. Though only three buildings remained in the village, rebuilding was swift, finishing in 1815.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/publicationsofbu09seve|title=Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society|last=Severance|first=Frank H.|publisher=Buffalo : Bigelow Bros.|others=Harold B. Lee Library|year=1879|pages=334–356|chapter=Papers relating to the Burning of Buffalo}}</ref>{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=132}}
Buffalo gradually rebuilt itself and by 1816 had a new courthouse. In 1818, the eastern part of the town was lost to form the [[Amherst, New York|Town of Amherst]]. Erie County was formed out of Niagara County in 1821, retaining Buffalo as the county seat.
===Erie Canal, 1825–1850===
[[File:Buffalo Canal Houses of Ill Fame.svg|thumb|The Erie Canal's harbor was very active in the 19th century.]]
On October 26, 1825,<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/erie-canal-opens|title = Erie Canal opens|access-date = October 29, 2014|website = The History Channel website|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141014040307/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/erie-canal-opens|archive-date = October 14, 2014|df = mdy-all}}</ref> the [[Erie Canal]] was completed, formed from part of Buffalo Creek,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Proceedings of the Common Council of the City of Buffalo|date=1909|publisher=James D. Warren's Sons Co.|pages=2262|language=en}}</ref> with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.canals.ny.gov/history/history.html|title = Canal History|access-date = October 29, 2014|website = New York State Canals|publisher = New York State Canal Corporation|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160307182046/http://www.canals.ny.gov/history/history.html|archive-date = March 7, 2016|df = mdy-all}}</ref> Buffalo became the western end of the 524-mile waterway starting at [[New York City]]. At the time, the population was about 2,400.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-3470cla?view=text|title = John W. Clark papers|date = April 2003|access-date = October 29, 2014|website = William L. Clements Library|publisher = University of Michigan|last = Champieux|first = Robin|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141029184320/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-3470cla?view=text|archive-date = October 29, 2014|df = mdy-all}}</ref> By 1826, the 130 sq. mile Buffalo Creek Reservation at the western border of the village was transferred to Buffalo.{{Sfn|Brush|1901|p=87}} The Erie Canal brought a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://history.buffalonet.org/charter.html|title=Original Charter of the City of Buffalo 1832|website=history.buffalonet.org|access-date=2017-05-12}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.nps.gov/thri/buffalotimeline.htm|title = A Brief Chronology of the Development of the City of Buffalo|access-date = October 29, 2014|website = National Park Service|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141104091901/http://www.nps.gov/thri/buffalotimeline.htm|archive-date = November 4, 2014|df = mdy-all}}</ref> The population in 1840 was 18,213.<ref>''The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol.III'', London (1847), Charles Knight, p.915</ref> The canal area was mature by 1847, with passenger and cargo ship activity leading to congestion in the harbor.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Manufacturing Interests of the City of Buffalo: Including Sketches of the History of Buffalo. With Notices of Its Principal Manufacturing Establishments|date=1866|publisher=C.F.S. Thomas|pages=13|language=en}}</ref>
On 1 June 1843, the world's first steam-powered [[grain elevator]] was put into service by a local merchant, Joseph Dart, Jr., and an engineer, Robert Dunbar. The "Dart Elevator" would remain standing until 1862, when it burned down. During the 1840s and 1850s, more than a dozen grain elevators were built in Buffalo's harbor, most of them designed by Dunbar.<ref name="American Colossus">[http://www.american-colossus.com/ American Colossus: the Grain Elevator 1843-1943 (Colossus Books, 2009)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702231021/http://www.american-colossus.com/ |date=2012-07-02 }} ''www.american-colossus.com''</ref>
As the anti-slavery movement grew in the U.S., Buffalo also emerged as a gathering place for abolitionists. In 1843, the city served as the site of the Liberty Party<ref name="Liberty Party">[http://www.americanabolitionists.com/liberty-party.html Liberty Party]</ref> convention and the National Convention of Colored Citizens.<ref name="National Convention of Colored Citizens">[http://coloredconventions.org/items/show/278 National Convention of Colored Citizens: 1843]</ref>
The mid-1800s saw a population boom, with the city doubling in size from 1845 to 1855.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|p=72}} In 1855, almost two-thirds of the city's population were foreign-born immigrants, largely a mix of unskilled or educated [[Irish Americans|Irish]] and [[German Americans|German]] [[Catholic Church|Catholics]], who began self-segregating in different parts of the city. The Irish immigrants planted their roots along the railroad-heavy Buffalo River and Erie Canal to the southeast, to which there is still a heavy presence today; German immigrants found their way to the East Side, living a more laid-back, residential life.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|pp=72–74}} Some immigrants were apprehensive about the change of environment and left the city for the western region, while others tried to stay behind in the hopes of expanding their native cultures.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|pp=75–76}}
[[Fugitive slaves in the United States|Fugitive black slaves]] began to make their way northward to Buffalo in the 1840s, and many of them settled on the city's East Side.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|p=87}} Buffalo was a terminus of the [[Underground Railroad]], an informal series of safe houses for [[African-Americans]] escaping slavery in the mid-19th century. Buffalonians helped many fugitives cross the [[Niagara River]] to [[Fort Erie, Ontario]], Canada and freedom.
In 1845, construction began on the [[Macedonia Baptist Church (Buffalo, New York)|Macedonia Baptist Church]], a meeting spot in the Michigan and William Street neighborhood where blacks first settled.<ref>{{Cite book|title=African American Historic Places|last1=Savage|first1=Beth L.|last2=Shull|first2=Carol D.|publisher=Preservation Press|year=1994|isbn=9780471143451|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=346–347|language=en|lccn=94033218|oclc=30976865}}</ref> Political activity surrounding the anti-slavery movement took place in Buffalo during this time, including conventions held by the National Convention of Colored Citizens and the [[Liberty Party (United States, 1840)|Liberty Party]] and its offshoots.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wesley |first1=Charles H. |title=The Participation of Negroes in Anti-Slavery Political Parties |journal=The Journal of Negro History |date=Jan 1944 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=43–44, 51–52, 55, 65 |jstor=2714753 |doi=10.2307/2714753 |s2cid=149675414 }}</ref> Buffalo was a terminus point of the [[Underground Railroad]] with many [[Fugitive slaves in the United States|fugitive slaves]] crossing the [[Niagara River]] to [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] in search of freedom.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Underground Railroad in New York and New Jersey|publisher = Stackpole Books|date = May 14, 2014|isbn = 9780811746298|first = William J.|last = Switala|page = 126}}</ref>
[[File:Lars Gustaf Sellstedt - Buffalo Harbor, 1871.jpg|thumb|Buffalo harbor from the foot of Porter Avenue, 1871]]
During the 1840s, Buffalo's port continued to develop. Both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo.<ref name="The City of Buffalo 1840–1850">{{cite web |last = Priebe Jr. |first = J. Henry |title= The City of Buffalo 1840–1850 |url = http://history.buffalonet.org/1840-50.html |access-date = September 9, 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130905173951/http://history.buffalonet.org/1840-50.html |archive-date = September 5, 2013}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=September 2015}} Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor.{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} In 1843, the world's first steam-powered [[grain elevator]] was constructed by local merchant [[Joseph Dart]] and engineer [[Robert Dunbar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://bechsed.nylearns.org/pdf/Buffalos_Grain_Elevators.pdf|title = Grain Elevators|access-date = October 29, 2014|website = Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society|publisher = Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society|last = Baxter|first = Henry|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141013021637/http://bechsed.nylearns.org/pdf/Buffalos_Grain_Elevators.pdf|archive-date = October 13, 2014|df = mdy-all}}</ref> "[[Dart's Elevator]]" enabled faster unloading of [[lake freighter]]s along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, and rail cars.<ref name=Recon_Concrete>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://regional-institute.buffalo.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2014/06/Reconsidering-Concrete-Atlantis-Buffalo-Grain-Elevators1.pdf |title=Reconsidering Concrete Atlantis: Buffalo Grain Elevators |date=2006 |publisher=The Urban Design Project, School of Architecture and Planning, University at Buffalo |pages=24–25 |editor=Schneekloth, Lynda H. |chapter=Monuments of a Vanished Prosperity: Buffalo's Grain Elevators and the Rise and Fall of the Great Transnational System of Grain Transport |author=Kowsky, Francis R. |access-date=September 25, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927102835/http://regional-institute.buffalo.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2014/06/Reconsidering-Concrete-Atlantis-Buffalo-Grain-Elevators1.pdf |archive-date=September 27, 2016 }}</ref>
'''[[Millard Fillmore]]''', who had taken up permanent residence in Buffalo in 1822 and represented the area in Congress on and off from 1832–42, became the first chancellor of the University of Buffalo upon its founding in 1846, now known as [[University at Buffalo, The State University of New York|SUNY University at Buffalo]]. Fillmore would be elected Vice President in the [[1848 United States presidential election|election of 1848]] and would eventually become the 13th [[President of the United States]] upon the death of [[Zachary Taylor]] in 1850.
===Railroads and industry, 1850–1900===
[[File:City of Buffalo.jpg|thumb|1872 engraving of Buffalo|alt=Aerial engraving of a 19th-century city with trees and homes|right]]
By 1850, the city's population was 81,000.<ref name=":0"/> In 1853, Buffalo annexed Black Rock, which had been Buffalo's fierce rival for the canal terminus. During the 19th century, thousands of pioneers going to the western United States debarked from canal boats to continue their journey out of Buffalo by lake or [[rail transport]]. During their stopover, many experienced the pleasures and dangers of Buffalo's notorious [[Canal Street (Buffalo)|Canal district]]. The Erie Canal's peak year was 1855, when 33,000 commercial shipments took place.
In 1860, many railway companies and lines crossed through and terminated in Buffalo. Major ones were the [[Buffalo, Bradford and Pittsburgh Railroad]] (1859), [[Buffalo and Erie Railroad]] and the [[New York Central Railroad]] (1853).{{Sfn|French|Place|1860|p=|pp=66–74}} During this time, Buffalonians controlled a quarter of all shipping traffic on Lake Erie, and shipbuilding was a thriving industry for the city.{{Sfn|French|Place|1860|p=286}} Later, the [[Lehigh Valley Railroad]] would have its line terminate at Buffalo in 1867.
Buffalo was part of and the seat of [[Niagara County]] until the legislature passed an act separating the two on April 2, 1861.{{Sfn|Bingham|1931|p=385}}
'''[[Grover Cleveland]]''' lived in Buffalo from 1854 until 1882, and served as [[List of mayors of Buffalo, New York|Buffalo's mayor]] from 1882 until 1883 before eventually becoming the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, winning the popular vote in 1884, 1888, and 1892.
==The 20th century==
===City of Light, 1900–1957===
[[File:Main Street - Buffalo, New York.jpg|thumb|right|Main Street in Buffalo, ca. 1900]]
Around the start of the 20th century, Buffalo was a growing city with a burgeoning [[economy]]. Immigrants came from [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Germany]], and [[Poland]] to work in the [[Steel mill|steel]] and [[grain mill]]s which had taken advantage of the city's critical location at the junction of the [[Great Lakes]] and the Erie Canal. [[Hydroelectric power]] harnessed from nearby [[Niagara Falls]] made Buffalo the first American city to have widespread [[Incandescent light bulb|electric lighting]] yielding it the nickname, the "''City of Light''". Electricity was used to dramatic effect at the [[Pan-American Exposition]] in 1901.
[[File:McKinley's last address wide2.jpg|right|thumb|[[William McKinley|McKinley's]] last speech delivered September 5, 1901 at the Pan-American Exposition]]
The Pan-American was also notable for being the scene of the assassination of [[President of the United States|United States President]] [[William McKinley]]. He was shot by [[Leon Czolgosz]] on September 6, 1901 at the Exposition, and [[William McKinley assassination|died in Buffalo]] on the 14th. [[Theodore Roosevelt]] was then [[First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt|sworn in]] on September 14, 1901 at the Ansley Wilcox Mansion, now the [[Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site]], becoming one of the few presidents to be sworn in outside of [[Washington, D.C.]]
In 1918, the upgrade of the Erie Canal into the [[New York State Canal System|New York State Barge Canal]] meant that the canal now ended where [[Tonawanda Creek]] met the [[Niagara River]]. The advent of powered tugboats meant that barges could more easily move upstream in the upper portion of the river. As a result, the final section of the old canal, which had run alongside the river from [[Tonawanda (city), New York|Tonawanda]] to Buffalo – and which had been so critical to the city's growth nearly a century earlier – became obsolete and was gradually filled in over time.<ref>John W. Percy, [https://buffaloah.com/h/erieC/percy/percy.html ''The Erie Canal: From Lockport to Buffalo''], 1979 (rev. 2002).</ref>
The opening of the [[Peace Bridge]] linking Buffalo with [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] on August 7, 1927 was an occasion for significant celebrations. When it opened, Buffalo and Fort Erie each became the chief port of entry to their respective countries from the other. The bridge remains one of [[North America]]'s important commercial ports with four thousand trucks crossing it daily.
The Great Depression of 1929-39 saw severe unemployment, especially among working-class men. The [[New Deal]] relief programs operated full force. The city became a stronghold of labor unions and the Democratic Party.<ref>Lewis Lansky, "Buffalo and the Great Depression, 1929-1933," in Milton Plesur, ed., ''American Historian: Essays to Honor Selig Adler'' (1980), pp 204-13</ref>
Buffalo's [[Buffalo City Hall|City Hall]], an [[Art Deco]] masterpiece, was dedicated on July 1, 1932.
During [[World War II]], Buffalo saw the return of prosperity and full employment due to its position as a manufacturing center.<ref>{{cite web|title = 1941–1945|work = History|publisher =Parkside Community Association|url = http://www.parksidebuffalo.org/history.html|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20100708014105/http://www.parksidebuffalo.org/history.html|archive-date =July 8, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last = Rizzo|first = Michael|title = Joseph J. Kelly 1942–1945|work = Through The Mayor's Eyes|publisher =The Buffalonian|url = http://www.buffalonian.com/history/industry/mayors/Kelly.htm|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110926220745/http://www.buffalonian.com/history/industry/mayors/Kelly.htm|archive-date =September 26, 2011}}</ref> As one of the [[1950 United States Census#city rankings|most populous cities of the 1950s]], Buffalo's economy revolved almost entirely on its manufacturing base. Major companies such as [[Republic Steel]] and [[Lackawanna Steel Company|Lackawanna Steel]] employed tens of thousands of Buffalonians. Integrated national shipping routes would use the [[Soo Locks]] near [[Lake Superior]] and a vast network of railroads and yards that crossed the city.
===Suburbanization and decline, 1957–2010===
The city's population gradually began to decline in the decades after World War II. A key cause was [[Suburbanization|suburban migration]], which was a major national trend at the time. [[Buffalo riot of 1967|Race riots]] rocked the city in 1967.,<ref name="Circle">[http://www.math.buffalo.edu/~sww/0history/1935-1970.html "The Circle Association's African American History of Western New York State, 1935 to 1970"]</ref> and while the city's population declined in the 1960 census for the first time in its history, [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]] as a whole continued growing through the 1970 census.
Another factor was the opening of the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]] in 1957. Goods which had previously passed through Buffalo could now bypass it using a series of canals and locks, reaching the ocean via the [[St. Lawrence River]]. Lobbying by local businesses and interest groups against the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]] began in the 1920s, long before its construction.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|p=270}} Shipbuilding in Buffalo, such as the [[American Ship Building Company]], shut down in 1962, ending an industry that had been a sector of the city's economy since 1812, and a direct result of reduced waterfront activity.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|p=271}}The city, which boasted over half a million people at its peak, saw its population decline by some 50% by 2010 as industries shut down and people left the [[Rust Belt]] for the employment opportunities of the South and West. Erie Country has lost population in every census year since 1970.
The post-war rise of the automobile also saw the city's landscape re-shaped. The Buffalo Skyway opened in 1953 and the first portion of the [[Interstate 190 (New York)|Niagara Thruway]] opened in 1959, using much of the route of the old Erie Canal alongside the river. Meanwhile, the region obtained a professional football franchise, the [[Buffalo Bills]], that began play in 1960, and a professional hockey franchise, the [[Buffalo Sabres]], that began play in 1970. A basketball franchise, the [[Buffalo Braves]], called the city home from 1970–78, and the city opened a new [[Sahlen Field|baseball stadium in 1988]] in an unsuccessful effort to attract a major-league baseball team.
On July 3, 2003, at the climax of a fiscal crisis, the [[Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority]] was established<ref name="bfsa">[http://www.bfsa.state.ny.us/ Official Site of the Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority] ''www.bfsa.state.ny.us''</ref> to oversee the finances of the city. As a "hard control board," they have frozen the wages of city employees and must approve or reject all major expenditures. After a period of severe financial stress, Erie County, where Buffalo resides, was assigned a Fiscal Stability Authority on July 12, 2005. As a "soft control board," however, they act only in an advisory capacity.<ref name="ECFSA">[http://www.ecfsa.state.ny.us Erie County Fiscal Stability Authority] ''www.ecfsa.state.ny.us''</ref> Both Authorities were established by [[New York State]].
In November 2005, [[Byron Brown]] was elected Mayor of Buffalo. He is the first African-American to hold this office.
==The 21st century==
===Signs of recovery, 2010–present===
[[Image:20080310 Lafayette Square.JPG|thumb|right|[[Lafayette Square, Buffalo|Lafayette Square]] in 2008]]
As of 2020, there are significant signs that Buffalo's decline may have bottomed out over the past decade, and there are increasing signs of growth in the city and region.
The area was not as significantly affected by the [[Great Recession in the United States|Great Recession]] from 2007-2009 as much of the nation, in part because the city never experienced the major [[United States housing bubble|housing bubble]] that other cities did. The [[Canalside]] neighborhood started developing in 2010, with an uptick in construction projects including the [[LECOM Harborcenter]]. New York Governor [[Andrew Cuomo]] announced the [[Buffalo Billion]] initiative in 2012 to help change the "psychology" in the region, and [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] now operates the [[Giga New York]] factory that was completed in 2016-17. The [[Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus]] has become a significant employer in the city.
The city has also apparently had more success in recent years in retaining or attracting younger residents, with the low cost of living being seen as a factor. As of 2018, population estimates suggest that the city's population decline, although still down slightly from 2010, may be leveling off.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} A survey of Western New York residents in December 2018 found that a remarkable 87 percent of residents believed the area was generally headed in the right direction.<ref>G. Scott Thomas, [https://www.bizjournals.com/buffalo/news/2020/02/20/why-isnt-buffalo-growing.html ''Why isn't Buffalo growing?''], Buffalo Business First, Feb. 20, 2020.</ref>
==See also==
* [[Timeline of Buffalo, New York]]
*[[National Register of Historic Places listings in Buffalo, New York]]
*[[C. Person's Sons]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
[[Image:City of Buffalo.jpg|thumb|''City of Buffalo'', 1873, a [[steel engraving]] drawn by A. C. Warren]]{{reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
* Smith, H. Perry. (1884). ''[https://archive.org/details/historyofcityofb01smit History of the city of Buffalo and Erie County : with ... biographical sketches of some of its prominent men and pioneers ...]'' Syracuse, NY: D. Mason & Co.
==Further reading==
{{see also|Timeline of Buffalo, New York#Bibliography}}
* Coffey, Brian, and Allen G. Noble. "Mid-nineteenth century housing in Buffalo, New York." ''Material Culture'' 28.3 (1996): 1-16. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/29764018 in JSTOR]
* Gerber, David A. ''The Making of an American Pluralism: Buffalo, New York, 1825-60'' (Univ of Illinois Press, 1989).
* Jenkins, William. "In Search of the Lace Curtain: Residential Mobility, Class Transformation, and Everyday Practice among Buffalo’s Irish, 1880—1910." ''Journal of Urban History'' 35.7 (2009): 970–997.
* Kohler, C. Douglas, and Julianna L. Woite. ''Clarence'' (Arcadia Publishing, 2012), a suburb
* Rizzo, Michael F. ''Through the Mayors' Eyes: Buffalo, New York 1832-2005'' (Lulu.com, 2005).
* Rockwell, Mary Rech. "Elite Women and Class Formation." in by Julia B. Rosenbaum and Sven Beckert, eds. ''The American Bourgeoisie: Distinction and Identity in the Nineteenth Century'' (Palgrave Macmillan US, 2010). 153–166.
* Smith, Henry Perry. ''History of the City of Buffalo and Erie County'' (2 vol. 1884).
* Taylor, Steven J.L. ''Desegregation in Boston and Buffalo: The influence of local leaders'' (SUNY Press, 1998).
* Williams, Lillian Serece. ''Strangers in the Land of Paradise: The Creation of an African American Community in Buffalo, New York, 1900-1940'' (Indiana University Press, 2000).
===Old primary sources===
* {{Citation |publisher = L.P. Crary |location = Buffalo |title = A directory for the city of Buffalo |date = 1832 |oclc = 35591891 |ol = 7055402M }}
*[http://www.niagara.edu/library/buffhist/eriehome.html History of the City of Buffalo and Erie County, 1884]
* {{Citation |publisher = Kraft & Stern, printers |location = Buffalo, N.Y |author = Kuebler, Albert J. |title = Knights of Pythias directory and Buffalo street directory and guide ... |date = 1894 |ol = 25229892M }}
== External links ==
* [https://www.ci.buffalo.ny.us City of Buffalo official website]
{{City of Buffalo, New York}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Buffalo, New York}}
[[Category:History of Buffalo, New York| ]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | 'hiii :P my name is ana forgien exchange student lol look it is little mexican burrito: *woof*
ignore this:
In the dawn of the 20th century, Buffalo was one of the most populous cities in the United States. It had hosted the [[Pan-American Exposition]] in 1901 and later became a center for the [[Automotive industry in the United States|automotive industry]].
Later, the opening of the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] combined with the effects of [[suburbanization]], [[deindustrialization]], and [[globalization]] led to the decline of the city's chief industries. The city lost over half of its population from 1950 to 2010. Buffalo retains many industries and has developed a diverse economy based upon advanced manufacturing, healthcare and education.
==Origin of name==
{{more citations needed section|date=August 2015}}
{{US Census population
| 1830= 8668
| 1840= 18213
| 1850= 42261
| 1860= 81129
| 1870= 117714
| 1880= 155134
| 1890= 255664
| 1900= 352387
| 1910= 423715
| 1920= 506775
| 1930= 573076
| 1940= 575901
| 1950= 580132
| 1960= 532759
| 1970= 462768
| 1980= 357870
| 1990= 328123
| 2000= 292648
| 2010= 261310
| footnote=source:<ref name="census">[https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html US Population of the 100 Largest Cities and other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314031958/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html |date=2007-03-14 }} [[Census.gov]]</ref>
}}
[[Image:Buffalo, New York from I-190 North entering downtown.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Buffalo 2006]]
The City of Buffalo, formerly known as Buffalo Creek, received its name from the [[stream|creek]] that flows through it. However, the origin of the creek's name is unclear, with several unproven theories existing. Early French explorers reported the abundance of [[American Bison|buffalo]] on the Eastern shore of Lake Erie, but their presence on the banks of [[Buffalo River (New York)|Buffalo Creek]] is still a matter of debate, although American Bison did range into western NY state at one time. Neither the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] name ''Teyohoseroron'' (the Place of the Basswoods) nor the French name ''Riviere aux Chevaux'' (River of Horses) survived, so the current name likely dates to the British occupation which began with the capture of [[Fort Niagara]] in 1759.
Another theory holds that a [[Seneca nation|Seneca]] Indian lived there, either whose name meant buffalo, or who had the physical characteristics of a buffalo, and was translated as such by the English settlers. The stream where he lived became Buffalo's Creek. Unlike other nearby creeks such as Scajaquada Creek and Smoke's Creek which were named after actual historic figures, there is no known reference to any Native American named Buffalo. Also given credence by local historians at one time was the possibility that an interpreter mistranslated the Native American word for "[[beaver]]" as "buffalo," the words being very similar, at a treaty-signing at present-day [[Rome, New York]] in 1784. The theory assumes that because there were beaver here, the creek was probably called Beaver Creek rather than Buffalo Creek.[[Image:Buffalo Panorama 1911.jpg|thumb|400px|Buffalo panorama circa 1911]]Another theory holds that the name is an [[Anglicisation|anglicized]] form of the [[France|French]] name ''Beau Fleuve'' (beautiful river), which was supposedly an exclamation uttered by [[Louis Hennepin]] when he first saw the Niagara River. This is a relatively recently proposed theory (1909) and is unlikely, as no period sources contain this quote. The earliest known name origin theory is an anecdote told to Captain Daniel Dobbins by Cornelius Winney in 1795 and also found with variations in Sheldon Ball's History of Buffalo (1825) and other sources, about a party of hunters whose guide shoots a horse and passes it off as bison meat, thereafter the origin of the term "buffaloed."
Despite many years of speculation and garbling of previous debate, more recently available sources indicate that the name Buffalo Creek was in common use on the Niagara Frontier by 1764, as [[John Montresor]] referenced 'Buffalo Creek' in his journal of that year.<ref name=Montresor_BuffaloCreek>{{cite book |title=Buffalo Historical Society Publications |chapter=The Achievements of Captain John Montresor |author=Severance, Frank H. |editor=Buffalo Historical Society |location=Buffalo, NY |date=1902 |publisher=Bigelow Brothers |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBs8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15 |page=15 |access-date=August 14, 2015}}</ref> The name may have originated with an English speaking person sometime between 1759 and 1764, possibly after seeing animal bones, thought to be bison but possibly elk or moose or domesticated cattle, at the salt lick called Sour Springs located at the head of navigation about 6 miles up the creek.
An alternate explanation put forward in late 2020, is that the origin comes from the French “Riviere du Bois Blanc” meaning “River of White Wood” being used to describe the creek. Bois Blanc pronounced “Boblo” or “Bob Low” around the Great Lakes , morphed into “Buffalo” when the British took control of the region in 1759-1760.
==Pre-colonization==
===Amerindian Crossroads===
The societies of the Native Forest dwellers we know as Native Americans, Amerindians, or First Nations made highways of the Great Lakes, streams and were far more social than their reputed penchant for warfare, cruelty, and collecting scalps would suggest. Their canoes were built from lightweight birch bark, or far more often, Elm, the farther south the tribe, the more likely Elm was the material used for many purposes including the canoes. Buffalo, near the throat of the Niagara River, was a popular campsite for voyaging tribesmen, in a culture which often went on walk-abouts, touring neighboring lands and conducting the widespread practice of boy-meets-girl, trading of regional commodities.{{efn
| Obsidian from Canada, Flint, shells, plants are all known to have traveled hundreds-to-thousands of miles carried by a sociable people that often met recreationally as well for competitions—for [[Lacrosse]]—the picture of the Amerindian tribes as blood thirsty savages would never have lasted in the light of day, had the natives not been cut down by diseases they had little resistance to.
}}
[[Image:Wenro-Territorium um 1630.png|thumb|left|320px<!--
--->|alt=:Wenro-Territorium um 1630.png|1630s: The French report the '''Wenro''''s territory was north and east of the [[Erie people]]s, East of the [[Neutral people]] across the [[Niagara River]] and west of the [[Genesee River]] valley and the ''Genesee Gorge'' across which the Seneca people had their home.]]
Prior to European colonization by French settlers, the region's inhabitants were an [[Iroquoian language|Iroquoian-speaking]] tribal offshoot called the [[Wenro people]] or'' 'Wenrohronon','' who lived along the south shore of [[Lake Ontario]] and east end of Lake Erie and a bit of its southern shore. The population of the Wenro was small by comparison to other Iroquoian tribes the French encountered and reported upon, possibly because they'd only recently split off from other groups or because they'd suffered the misfortunes of war. They were possibly (most likely) a sub-group of the main [[Neutral Nation|''Neutral Confederacy'']] which had colonized the opposite shore, or possibly relatives of the great abutting neighboring [[Erie Nation]],{{efn
| It is also possible they were a combination of clan groups from differing peoples. The Iroquoian culture was one with a matrilineal clan basis, the women selecting the leading men. It would be odd if at such a prime meeting place as the river-Lake outlet area that a people which by all accounts traveled often, that men and women and whole tribal groups didn't meet and mingle in such a idyllic surround.
}} which extended southwesterly through most of present-day [[Ohio]], [[Western Pennsylvania]] and [[West Virginia]].
The American Heritage Book of Indians points out there are opposing (on the surface) contradictory theories{{efn
|Amerindian studies scholars believe the known Iroquoian nations coalesced about 1300 and either migrated from the Carolina's to the Great Lakes, or originated along the St. Lawrence and moved westward and south. Either way, by 300 years later the various Iroquoian peoples dominated the area of the right bank St. Lawrence River to the Eastern side of [[Lake Huron]] dominating half the shores of the [[Great Lakes]] from the tip of present-day Northern [[Maine]] and [[New England]] nearly to Western Ohio, and extended southerly from the northern shores beyond [[Lake Huron]]'s [[Georgian Bay]] (Huron) down along the [[Susquehanna River|Susquehanna]] and parts of [[Chesapeake Bay]]. Concurrently as the 1600s brought European [[fur trade]]rs and then colonies, two large Iroquoian nations, the [[Tuscarora people]] and the [[Cherokee people]] occupied lands south of the [[Province of Virginia]] on either side of the [[Appalachians]] [[barrier range]]; west of the lower Appalachians, the [[Cherokee]] held territory in Kentucky and Tennessee.
}} of the origination and the migration of the Iroquois and Iroquoian peoples that came to inhabit the region around Buffalo and the Niagara River.{{
efn
|[[New France|French]] [[colonialism]] and the process of settlements used the [[Kingdom of England|English]] were very different modalities; the French Crown monopolized American economic activity: traders, and a relatively few number of settlers danced to the Crown's policies, and cultivated good relations with Amerindian tribe and nations. In the French, Dutch, and English disputes that followed, the undermanned French were dependent upon their Amerindian allies for manpower, and most military power.
In contrast, the English [[mercantilism]] driven [[colonialism]]—later in the 1700s, [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]]—almost universally established an initial tolerance seguing soon after settlements became well established to an mode of oft ruthless exploitation and patterns of confrontation, racial prejudice, and land grabs; the English/British class-conscience culture almost uniformly ended up in frontier tension and eventual interracial conflict leading to a succession of wars, of displaced [[Indigenous peoples of North America|Native American]] tribes. The English modality had little direct frontier impact effect around Buffalo but the Indian vs. Indian events in the region are illustrative of both Kingdoms practices and the Iroquois grudge against the French.
}}
The [[Kingdom of France|French]] found the Neutral groups helpful in mediating disputes with other tribes—in particular the [[League of the Iroquois]] which became sworn enemies of the French from their first meeting in 1609.{{efn
| In 1609 Champlain assisting a mixed war party of Huron and Algonquian raiding the Mohawk Nation, along the lake now named for him, killed two of three Mohawk war sachems, wounding the third and built up an enmity from the Iroquois that lasted 150 years, until the end of the [[French and Indian War]] (1756-1763) drove the French from North America. This encounter is an [[Epoch (reference date)|epoch]], beginning a period now loosely referred to as the [[Beaver Wars]] in which over 60 years of internecine Amerindian on Indian battles, giving the Iroquois the balance of North American political power for the next hundred. The Beaver Wars for many years were believed to be mainly economic. Recent scholarship has posed several other factors, most steeped in the culture and religious beliefs of the disparate Iroquoian peoples.
}} By comparison, the Huron also an Iroquoian people, were often at odds with the Iroquois once European traders offered highly desired goods for furs, especially water proof [[Beaver]] pelts{{efn
|the Huron territory started in the upper St. Lawrence valley, and the Iroquois claimed virtually all of the opposite bank; so were in competition in the European Goods sweepstakes.
}} About 1651 the [[Iroquois Confederacy]] declared war on the Neutrals; by 1653, the Confederacy, particularly the [[Seneca people|Senecas]], had practically annihilated the Neutrals<ref name="newadvent">[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07565a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', "The Hurons"]</ref><ref>Reville 1920, p.20.</ref> and the splinter tribe of [[Wenro people]]. The Wenro's area was subsequently populated by the Seneca tribe.
Also in 1653 the large and populous Erie tribe, having taken in survivors of the Huron, Neutral, Wenro, and [[Tabacco people]]s—Iroquoian peoples one and all, with traditions of adopting outsiders—received demands to send Neutrals to the Iroquois and instead launched an preemptive attack on the League, kicking off three years of desperate warfare that eventually shattered the Erie and bled the Iroquois of much of their strength.{{efn
|One of the Iroquois few periods of peace occurred, giving evidence of the savvy political sophistication the Iroquois would now become famous for having; a similar peace was negotiated when the Susquehannock and Iroquois fought—the council ruling the Iroquois did not want Algonkian raiding while taking on militarily strong opponents.
}} Ohio and Western Pennsylvania became nearly vacant Iroquois hunting grounds, exploited for furs, but ten years later the Iroquois, having also adopted tribal members of peoples they'd recently thrashed, found themselves in a new war with the [[Susquehannock]]s who lived down below the [[Allegheny Front]], the [[escarpment]] above most of today's [[central Pennsylvania]] along the [[Susquehanna River]] valleys—another people believed to have significantly outnumbered the Iroquois{{efn
|The American Heritage Book of Indians discuss a French report (New France was a direct venture of the King, the Jesuits sent back reports every year for decades) ca. 1660s-1670s that ''the adopted Iroquois'' outnumbered the Native Iroquois in that period.
}} —so warring along the Susquehanna Valley from lower New York to Maryland through central Pennsylvania. In 1667-68 the Susquehannocks nearly wiped out two of the Five Iroquois people. At that point the Susquehannock's suffered one or more horrendous plagues, losing up to 90% of their population and military capabilities, and by 1672 the Iroquois became the proverbial'' 'Last Man Standing' ''in the Northern Beaver Wars.
===First Europeans, 1758–1793===
Most of [[western New York]] was granted by [[Charles II of England]] to the [[Duke of York]] (later King [[James II of England|James II & VII]]), but the first European settlement in what is now [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]] was by the French, at the mouth of [[Buffalo River (New York)|Buffalo Creek]] in 1758. Its buildings were destroyed a year later by the evacuating French after the British captured Fort Niagara. The British took control of the entire region in 1763, at the conclusion of the [[French and Indian War]]. In 1764, British military engineer [[John Montresor]] made an inspection tour of [[Buffalo River (New York)|Buffalo Creek]] before determining on a site for a fortification on the opposite shore. After the 1779 Sullivan Expedition, the British settled Seneca refugees in several villages on [[Buffalo River (New York)|Buffalo Creek]] in the spring of 1780.
The first white settlers along the creek were prisoners captured during the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]].{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=106–107}} The first resident and landowner of Buffalo with a permanent presence was [[William Johnson (Royal Navy officer)|Captain William Johnston]],{{Sfn|Ketchum|1865|p=141}} a white Iroquois interpreter who had been in the area since the days after the Revolutionary War and who the Senecas granted creekside land as a gift of appreciation. His house stood at present-day Washington and Seneca streets.{{Sfn|Bingham|1931|pp=132–134}} Former enslaved man Joseph "Black Joe" Hodges,{{Sfn|Becker|1906|pp=106–108}}{{sfn|Bingham|1931|pp=137–138}} and Cornelius Winney, a Dutch trader from [[Albany, New York|Albany]] who arrived in 1789, were early settlers along the mouth of Buffalo Creek.{{Sfn|Sprague|1882|pp=20, 21}} They set up a log cabin store there in 1789 for trading with the Native American community. The British retained control of the area and prevented further settlement by Americans until their evacuation of Fort Niagara in 1796.
==Founding and 19th century==
===Holland Land Purchase, 1793–1825===
[[File:Buffalo 1813.jpg|thumb|300px|Buffalo in 1813<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lossing |first=Benson |title=The Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812 |url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_29136 |publisher=Harper & Brothers, Publishers |year=1868 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cihm_29136/page/n398 380]}}</ref>]]
On July 20, 1793, the [[Holland Land Purchase]], including the land of present-day Buffalo, was completed with land being acquired from the Seneca Indians and brokered by [[Netherlands|Dutch]] investors from [[Holland]].{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=401}} The [[Treaty of Big Tree]] removed Iroquois title to lands west of the [[Genesee River]] in 1797.{{sfn|Bingham|1931|p=145}} Although other Senecas were involved in ceding their land, the most famous today is [[Red Jacket]], who died in Buffalo in 1830. His grave is in [[Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo|Forest Lawn Cemetery]].
In the fall of 1797, [[Joseph Ellicott]], the architect who helped survey [[Washington, D.C.]] with brother [[Andrew Ellicott|Andrew]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Recalling Pioneer Days|last=Bartlett|first=George Hunter|publisher=The Buffalo Historical Society|year=1922|pages=3|hdl = 2027/wu.89065904492}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=John|date=1899|title=Early Maps and Surveyors of the City of Washington, D. C.|jstor=40066723|journal=Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C.|volume=2|pages=48–71}}</ref> was appointed as the Chief of Survey for the [[Holland Land Company]].{{Sfn|Bingham|1931|p=146}} Over the next year, he began to survey the tract of land at the mouth of Buffalo Creek. This was completed in 1803,{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=111}} and the new village boundaries extended from the creekside in the south to present-day Chippewa Street in the north and Carolina Street to the west,<ref name="Fernald1910">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/indexguidetobuff00fern|title=The index guide to Buffalo and Niagara Falls|last=Fernald|first=Frederik Atherton|date=1910|publisher=Buffalo, N.Y., F.A. Fernald|others=The Library of Congress|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indexguidetobuff00fern/page/21 21]|access-date=November 30, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326204401/https://archive.org/details/indexguidetobuff00fern|archive-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> which is where most settlers remained for the first decade of the 19th century.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}
Starting in 1801, parcels were sold through the [[Holland Land Company|Holland Land Companies]] office in [[Batavia, New York]]. The settlement was initially called Lake Erie, then Buffalo Creek, soon shortened to Buffalo. Although the company named the settlement "New Amsterdam," the name did not catch on, reverting to Buffalo within ten years.<ref name="Buff_Dir_p16">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooMUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA16|title=Thomas' Buffalo City Directory for 1862, to which is Prefixed a Sketch of the Early History of Buffalo<!--, Followed by a Glance at its Progress down to the Present Time -->|last1=Clinton|first1=George W.|last2=Hunt|first2=Sanford B.|date=1862|publisher=E.A. Thomas, Franklin Steam Printing House|location=Buffalo, NY|page=16|access-date=August 31, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925053611/https://books.google.com/books?id=ooMUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=September 25, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Fernald1910" /> Buffalo had the first road to [[Pennsylvania]] built in 1802 for migrants passing through to the [[Connecticut Western Reserve]] in Ohio.{{Sfn|French|Place|1860|p=210}}
In 1804, Ellicott designed a radial [[grid plan]] that would branch out from the village forming bicycle-like spokes, interrupted by diagonals, like the system used in the nation's capital.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elmendorf|first=Dwight L.|date=March 1913|title=Washington the Capital|journal=The Mentor|volume=1|page=2}}</ref> It is one of only three radial street patterns in the US {{Citation needed|date=December 2015}}. In the middle of the village was the intersection of eight streets, in what would become [[Niagara Square]]. Several blocks to the southeast he designed a semicircle fronting Main Street with an elongated park green, formerly his estate.{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=439}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Design of Discord: Studies of Anomie|last=Powell|first=Elwin Humphreys|date=January 1, 1988|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=9781412836494|pages=59|language=en}}</ref> This would be known as Shelton Square,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buffalo|last=Myers|first=Stephen G.|date=2012|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=9780738591650|pages=25|language=en}}</ref> at that time the center of the city (which would be dramatically altered in the mid-20th century),<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buffalo|last=Myers|first=Stephen G.|date=2012|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=9780738591650|language=en}}</ref> with the intersecting streets bearing the names of Dutch Holland Land Company members,<ref name="Sprague1882">{{Cite book|title=Semi-centennial Celebration of the City of Buffalo: Address of the Hon. E.C. Sprague Before the Buffalo Historical Society, July 3, 1882|last=Buffalo Historical Society|publisher=Buffalo Historical Society|year=1882|location=Buffalo, N.Y.|pages=20, 21|language=en}}</ref>{{Efn|Formerly known as Stadtnitski, Vollenhoven and Schimmelpennick Avenues, removed after backlash by village residents.}} today Erie, Church and Niagara streets.{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=439}} [[Lafayette Square (Buffalo)|Lafayette Square]] also lies one block to the north, which was then bounded by streets bearing Iroquois names.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=111}}
In 1804, Buffalo's population was estimated at 400, similar to [[Batavia, New York|Batavia]], but Erie County's growth was behind [[Chautauqua County, New York|Chautauqua]], [[Genesee County, New York|Genesee]] and [[Wyoming County, New York|Wyoming]] counties.{{Sfn|Thompson|1977|p=152}} Neighboring village [[Black Rock, New York|Black Rock]] to the northwest (today a Buffalo neighborhood) was also an important center.{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=439}} Horatio J. Spafford noted in ''A Gazetteer of the State of New York'' that in fact, despite the growth the village of Buffalo had, Black Rock "is deemed a better trading site for a great trading town than that of Buffalo," especially when considering the regional profile of mundane roads extending eastward.{{Sfn|Thompson|1977|p=152}} Before the east-to-west turnpike{{Explain|date=December 2017}} was completed, travelling from Albany to Buffalo would take a week,{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=494}} while even a trip from nearby [[Williamsville, New York|Williamsville]] to Batavia could take upwards of three days.{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=495}}{{Efn|When travelling with an ox and wagon team.}}
According to an early resident, the village had sixteen residences, a schoolhouse and two stores in 1806, primarily near Main, Swan and Seneca streets.{{Sfn|Turner|1849|p=498}} There were also blacksmith shops, a tavern and a drugstore.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=114–115}} The streets were small at 40 feet wide, and the village was still surrounded by woods.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|pp=111, 118}} The first lot sold by the Holland Land Company was on September 11, 1806, to Zerah Phelps.{{Sfn|Bingham|1931|p=493}} By 1808, lots would sell from $25 to $50.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=115}}
Although [[History of slavery in New York|slavery was rare in the state]], limited instances of slavery had taken place in Buffalo during the early part of the 19th century. General [[Peter Buell Porter]] is said to have had five slaves during his time in Black Rock, and several news ads also advertised slaves for sale.{{Sfn|Bingham|1931|pp=356–357}}
In 1808, [[Niagara County, New York|Niagara County]] was established with Buffalo as its county seat. In 1810, the Town of Buffalo was formed from the western part of the [[Clarence, New York|Town of Clarence]]. Also in 1810, a courthouse was built. By 1811, the population was 500, with many people farming or doing manual labor.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=115, 118}} The first newspaper to be published was the ''Buffalo Gazette'' in October that same year.{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=115}}
On December 30, 1813, during the [[War of 1812]], British troops and their Native American allies first captured the village of [[Black Rock, Buffalo, New York|Black Rock]], and then the rest of Buffalo. On December 31, 1813, most of Buffalo and the village of Black Rock were burned by the British after the [[Battle of Buffalo]].<ref>{{Cite book|title = The U.S. Army in the War of 1812: An Operational and Command Study|last = Quimby|first = Robert|publisher = Michigan State University Press|year = 1997|isbn = 978-0-87013-441-8|location = East Lansing, MI|pages = 355}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://buffalonews.com/2013/12/30/200-years-ago-the-village-of-buffalo-burned/|title=200 years ago, the village of Buffalo burned|last=Gee|first=Denise Jewell|date=December 30, 2013|website=The Buffalo News|access-date=February 26, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227063815/http://buffalonews.com/2013/12/30/200-years-ago-the-village-of-buffalo-burned/|archive-date=February 27, 2017}}</ref> The battle and subsequent fire was in response to the unprovoked destruction of [[Niagara-on-the-Lake]], then known as "Newark," by American forces.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://buffalonews.com/2017/11/29/the-buffalo-of-yesteryear-chictawauga-scajaquady-and-other-oddities-of-the-year-1860/|title=The Buffalo of Yesteryear: Chictawauga, Scajaquady and the 'morass' that was Buffalo|date=November 29, 2017|work=The Buffalo News|access-date=November 29, 2017|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129200743/http://buffalonews.com/2017/11/29/the-buffalo-of-yesteryear-chictawauga-scajaquady-and-other-oddities-of-the-year-1860/|archive-date=November 29, 2017}}</ref>{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=125–126}} On August 4, 1814, British forces under Lt. Colonel John Tucker and Lt. Colonel William Drummond, General [[Gordon Drummond]]'s nephew, attempted to raid Black Rock and Buffalo as part of a diversion to force an early surrender [[Siege of Fort Erie|at Fort Erie]] the next day, but were defeated by a small force of American riflemen under Major Lodwick Morgan at the [[Battle of Conjocta Creek]], and withdrew back into Canada. Consequently, Fort Erie's siege under Gordon Drummond later failed, and British forces withdrew. Though only three buildings remained in the village, rebuilding was swift, finishing in 1815.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/publicationsofbu09seve|title=Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society|last=Severance|first=Frank H.|publisher=Buffalo : Bigelow Bros.|others=Harold B. Lee Library|year=1879|pages=334–356|chapter=Papers relating to the Burning of Buffalo}}</ref>{{Sfn|Becker|1906|p=132}}
Buffalo gradually rebuilt itself and by 1816 had a new courthouse. In 1818, the eastern part of the town was lost to form the [[Amherst, New York|Town of Amherst]]. Erie County was formed out of Niagara County in 1821, retaining Buffalo as the county seat.
===Erie Canal, 1825–1850===
[[File:Buffalo Canal Houses of Ill Fame.svg|thumb|The Erie Canal's harbor was very active in the 19th century.]]
On October 26, 1825,<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/erie-canal-opens|title = Erie Canal opens|access-date = October 29, 2014|website = The History Channel website|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141014040307/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/erie-canal-opens|archive-date = October 14, 2014|df = mdy-all}}</ref> the [[Erie Canal]] was completed, formed from part of Buffalo Creek,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Proceedings of the Common Council of the City of Buffalo|date=1909|publisher=James D. Warren's Sons Co.|pages=2262|language=en}}</ref> with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.canals.ny.gov/history/history.html|title = Canal History|access-date = October 29, 2014|website = New York State Canals|publisher = New York State Canal Corporation|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160307182046/http://www.canals.ny.gov/history/history.html|archive-date = March 7, 2016|df = mdy-all}}</ref> Buffalo became the western end of the 524-mile waterway starting at [[New York City]]. At the time, the population was about 2,400.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-3470cla?view=text|title = John W. Clark papers|date = April 2003|access-date = October 29, 2014|website = William L. Clements Library|publisher = University of Michigan|last = Champieux|first = Robin|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141029184320/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-3470cla?view=text|archive-date = October 29, 2014|df = mdy-all}}</ref> By 1826, the 130 sq. mile Buffalo Creek Reservation at the western border of the village was transferred to Buffalo.{{Sfn|Brush|1901|p=87}} The Erie Canal brought a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://history.buffalonet.org/charter.html|title=Original Charter of the City of Buffalo 1832|website=history.buffalonet.org|access-date=2017-05-12}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.nps.gov/thri/buffalotimeline.htm|title = A Brief Chronology of the Development of the City of Buffalo|access-date = October 29, 2014|website = National Park Service|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141104091901/http://www.nps.gov/thri/buffalotimeline.htm|archive-date = November 4, 2014|df = mdy-all}}</ref> The population in 1840 was 18,213.<ref>''The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol.III'', London (1847), Charles Knight, p.915</ref> The canal area was mature by 1847, with passenger and cargo ship activity leading to congestion in the harbor.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Manufacturing Interests of the City of Buffalo: Including Sketches of the History of Buffalo. With Notices of Its Principal Manufacturing Establishments|date=1866|publisher=C.F.S. Thomas|pages=13|language=en}}</ref>
On 1 June 1843, the world's first steam-powered [[grain elevator]] was put into service by a local merchant, Joseph Dart, Jr., and an engineer, Robert Dunbar. The "Dart Elevator" would remain standing until 1862, when it burned down. During the 1840s and 1850s, more than a dozen grain elevators were built in Buffalo's harbor, most of them designed by Dunbar.<ref name="American Colossus">[http://www.american-colossus.com/ American Colossus: the Grain Elevator 1843-1943 (Colossus Books, 2009)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702231021/http://www.american-colossus.com/ |date=2012-07-02 }} ''www.american-colossus.com''</ref>
As the anti-slavery movement grew in the U.S., Buffalo also emerged as a gathering place for abolitionists. In 1843, the city served as the site of the Liberty Party<ref name="Liberty Party">[http://www.americanabolitionists.com/liberty-party.html Liberty Party]</ref> convention and the National Convention of Colored Citizens.<ref name="National Convention of Colored Citizens">[http://coloredconventions.org/items/show/278 National Convention of Colored Citizens: 1843]</ref>
The mid-1800s saw a population boom, with the city doubling in size from 1845 to 1855.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|p=72}} In 1855, almost two-thirds of the city's population were foreign-born immigrants, largely a mix of unskilled or educated [[Irish Americans|Irish]] and [[German Americans|German]] [[Catholic Church|Catholics]], who began self-segregating in different parts of the city. The Irish immigrants planted their roots along the railroad-heavy Buffalo River and Erie Canal to the southeast, to which there is still a heavy presence today; German immigrants found their way to the East Side, living a more laid-back, residential life.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|pp=72–74}} Some immigrants were apprehensive about the change of environment and left the city for the western region, while others tried to stay behind in the hopes of expanding their native cultures.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|pp=75–76}}
[[Fugitive slaves in the United States|Fugitive black slaves]] began to make their way northward to Buffalo in the 1840s, and many of them settled on the city's East Side.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|p=87}} Buffalo was a terminus of the [[Underground Railroad]], an informal series of safe houses for [[African-Americans]] escaping slavery in the mid-19th century. Buffalonians helped many fugitives cross the [[Niagara River]] to [[Fort Erie, Ontario]], Canada and freedom.
In 1845, construction began on the [[Macedonia Baptist Church (Buffalo, New York)|Macedonia Baptist Church]], a meeting spot in the Michigan and William Street neighborhood where blacks first settled.<ref>{{Cite book|title=African American Historic Places|last1=Savage|first1=Beth L.|last2=Shull|first2=Carol D.|publisher=Preservation Press|year=1994|isbn=9780471143451|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=346–347|language=en|lccn=94033218|oclc=30976865}}</ref> Political activity surrounding the anti-slavery movement took place in Buffalo during this time, including conventions held by the National Convention of Colored Citizens and the [[Liberty Party (United States, 1840)|Liberty Party]] and its offshoots.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wesley |first1=Charles H. |title=The Participation of Negroes in Anti-Slavery Political Parties |journal=The Journal of Negro History |date=Jan 1944 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=43–44, 51–52, 55, 65 |jstor=2714753 |doi=10.2307/2714753 |s2cid=149675414 }}</ref> Buffalo was a terminus point of the [[Underground Railroad]] with many [[Fugitive slaves in the United States|fugitive slaves]] crossing the [[Niagara River]] to [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] in search of freedom.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Underground Railroad in New York and New Jersey|publisher = Stackpole Books|date = May 14, 2014|isbn = 9780811746298|first = William J.|last = Switala|page = 126}}</ref>
[[File:Lars Gustaf Sellstedt - Buffalo Harbor, 1871.jpg|thumb|Buffalo harbor from the foot of Porter Avenue, 1871]]
During the 1840s, Buffalo's port continued to develop. Both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo.<ref name="The City of Buffalo 1840–1850">{{cite web |last = Priebe Jr. |first = J. Henry |title= The City of Buffalo 1840–1850 |url = http://history.buffalonet.org/1840-50.html |access-date = September 9, 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130905173951/http://history.buffalonet.org/1840-50.html |archive-date = September 5, 2013}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=September 2015}} Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor.{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} In 1843, the world's first steam-powered [[grain elevator]] was constructed by local merchant [[Joseph Dart]] and engineer [[Robert Dunbar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://bechsed.nylearns.org/pdf/Buffalos_Grain_Elevators.pdf|title = Grain Elevators|access-date = October 29, 2014|website = Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society|publisher = Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society|last = Baxter|first = Henry|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141013021637/http://bechsed.nylearns.org/pdf/Buffalos_Grain_Elevators.pdf|archive-date = October 13, 2014|df = mdy-all}}</ref> "[[Dart's Elevator]]" enabled faster unloading of [[lake freighter]]s along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, and rail cars.<ref name=Recon_Concrete>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://regional-institute.buffalo.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2014/06/Reconsidering-Concrete-Atlantis-Buffalo-Grain-Elevators1.pdf |title=Reconsidering Concrete Atlantis: Buffalo Grain Elevators |date=2006 |publisher=The Urban Design Project, School of Architecture and Planning, University at Buffalo |pages=24–25 |editor=Schneekloth, Lynda H. |chapter=Monuments of a Vanished Prosperity: Buffalo's Grain Elevators and the Rise and Fall of the Great Transnational System of Grain Transport |author=Kowsky, Francis R. |access-date=September 25, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927102835/http://regional-institute.buffalo.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2014/06/Reconsidering-Concrete-Atlantis-Buffalo-Grain-Elevators1.pdf |archive-date=September 27, 2016 }}</ref>
'''[[Millard Fillmore]]''', who had taken up permanent residence in Buffalo in 1822 and represented the area in Congress on and off from 1832–42, became the first chancellor of the University of Buffalo upon its founding in 1846, now known as [[University at Buffalo, The State University of New York|SUNY University at Buffalo]]. Fillmore would be elected Vice President in the [[1848 United States presidential election|election of 1848]] and would eventually become the 13th [[President of the United States]] upon the death of [[Zachary Taylor]] in 1850.
===Railroads and industry, 1850–1900===
[[File:City of Buffalo.jpg|thumb|1872 engraving of Buffalo|alt=Aerial engraving of a 19th-century city with trees and homes|right]]
By 1850, the city's population was 81,000.<ref name=":0"/> In 1853, Buffalo annexed Black Rock, which had been Buffalo's fierce rival for the canal terminus. During the 19th century, thousands of pioneers going to the western United States debarked from canal boats to continue their journey out of Buffalo by lake or [[rail transport]]. During their stopover, many experienced the pleasures and dangers of Buffalo's notorious [[Canal Street (Buffalo)|Canal district]]. The Erie Canal's peak year was 1855, when 33,000 commercial shipments took place.
In 1860, many railway companies and lines crossed through and terminated in Buffalo. Major ones were the [[Buffalo, Bradford and Pittsburgh Railroad]] (1859), [[Buffalo and Erie Railroad]] and the [[New York Central Railroad]] (1853).{{Sfn|French|Place|1860|p=|pp=66–74}} During this time, Buffalonians controlled a quarter of all shipping traffic on Lake Erie, and shipbuilding was a thriving industry for the city.{{Sfn|French|Place|1860|p=286}} Later, the [[Lehigh Valley Railroad]] would have its line terminate at Buffalo in 1867.
Buffalo was part of and the seat of [[Niagara County]] until the legislature passed an act separating the two on April 2, 1861.{{Sfn|Bingham|1931|p=385}}
'''[[Grover Cleveland]]''' lived in Buffalo from 1854 until 1882, and served as [[List of mayors of Buffalo, New York|Buffalo's mayor]] from 1882 until 1883 before eventually becoming the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, winning the popular vote in 1884, 1888, and 1892.
==The 20th century==
===City of Light, 1900–1957===
[[File:Main Street - Buffalo, New York.jpg|thumb|right|Main Street in Buffalo, ca. 1900]]
Around the start of the 20th century, Buffalo was a growing city with a burgeoning [[economy]]. Immigrants came from [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Germany]], and [[Poland]] to work in the [[Steel mill|steel]] and [[grain mill]]s which had taken advantage of the city's critical location at the junction of the [[Great Lakes]] and the Erie Canal. [[Hydroelectric power]] harnessed from nearby [[Niagara Falls]] made Buffalo the first American city to have widespread [[Incandescent light bulb|electric lighting]] yielding it the nickname, the "''City of Light''". Electricity was used to dramatic effect at the [[Pan-American Exposition]] in 1901.
[[File:McKinley's last address wide2.jpg|right|thumb|[[William McKinley|McKinley's]] last speech delivered September 5, 1901 at the Pan-American Exposition]]
The Pan-American was also notable for being the scene of the assassination of [[President of the United States|United States President]] [[William McKinley]]. He was shot by [[Leon Czolgosz]] on September 6, 1901 at the Exposition, and [[William McKinley assassination|died in Buffalo]] on the 14th. [[Theodore Roosevelt]] was then [[First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt|sworn in]] on September 14, 1901 at the Ansley Wilcox Mansion, now the [[Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site]], becoming one of the few presidents to be sworn in outside of [[Washington, D.C.]]
In 1918, the upgrade of the Erie Canal into the [[New York State Canal System|New York State Barge Canal]] meant that the canal now ended where [[Tonawanda Creek]] met the [[Niagara River]]. The advent of powered tugboats meant that barges could more easily move upstream in the upper portion of the river. As a result, the final section of the old canal, which had run alongside the river from [[Tonawanda (city), New York|Tonawanda]] to Buffalo – and which had been so critical to the city's growth nearly a century earlier – became obsolete and was gradually filled in over time.<ref>John W. Percy, [https://buffaloah.com/h/erieC/percy/percy.html ''The Erie Canal: From Lockport to Buffalo''], 1979 (rev. 2002).</ref>
The opening of the [[Peace Bridge]] linking Buffalo with [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] on August 7, 1927 was an occasion for significant celebrations. When it opened, Buffalo and Fort Erie each became the chief port of entry to their respective countries from the other. The bridge remains one of [[North America]]'s important commercial ports with four thousand trucks crossing it daily.
The Great Depression of 1929-39 saw severe unemployment, especially among working-class men. The [[New Deal]] relief programs operated full force. The city became a stronghold of labor unions and the Democratic Party.<ref>Lewis Lansky, "Buffalo and the Great Depression, 1929-1933," in Milton Plesur, ed., ''American Historian: Essays to Honor Selig Adler'' (1980), pp 204-13</ref>
Buffalo's [[Buffalo City Hall|City Hall]], an [[Art Deco]] masterpiece, was dedicated on July 1, 1932.
During [[World War II]], Buffalo saw the return of prosperity and full employment due to its position as a manufacturing center.<ref>{{cite web|title = 1941–1945|work = History|publisher =Parkside Community Association|url = http://www.parksidebuffalo.org/history.html|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20100708014105/http://www.parksidebuffalo.org/history.html|archive-date =July 8, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last = Rizzo|first = Michael|title = Joseph J. Kelly 1942–1945|work = Through The Mayor's Eyes|publisher =The Buffalonian|url = http://www.buffalonian.com/history/industry/mayors/Kelly.htm|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110926220745/http://www.buffalonian.com/history/industry/mayors/Kelly.htm|archive-date =September 26, 2011}}</ref> As one of the [[1950 United States Census#city rankings|most populous cities of the 1950s]], Buffalo's economy revolved almost entirely on its manufacturing base. Major companies such as [[Republic Steel]] and [[Lackawanna Steel Company|Lackawanna Steel]] employed tens of thousands of Buffalonians. Integrated national shipping routes would use the [[Soo Locks]] near [[Lake Superior]] and a vast network of railroads and yards that crossed the city.
===Suburbanization and decline, 1957–2010===
The city's population gradually began to decline in the decades after World War II. A key cause was [[Suburbanization|suburban migration]], which was a major national trend at the time. [[Buffalo riot of 1967|Race riots]] rocked the city in 1967.,<ref name="Circle">[http://www.math.buffalo.edu/~sww/0history/1935-1970.html "The Circle Association's African American History of Western New York State, 1935 to 1970"]</ref> and while the city's population declined in the 1960 census for the first time in its history, [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]] as a whole continued growing through the 1970 census.
Another factor was the opening of the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]] in 1957. Goods which had previously passed through Buffalo could now bypass it using a series of canals and locks, reaching the ocean via the [[St. Lawrence River]]. Lobbying by local businesses and interest groups against the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]] began in the 1920s, long before its construction.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|p=270}} Shipbuilding in Buffalo, such as the [[American Ship Building Company]], shut down in 1962, ending an industry that had been a sector of the city's economy since 1812, and a direct result of reduced waterfront activity.{{Sfn|Goldman|1983|p=271}}The city, which boasted over half a million people at its peak, saw its population decline by some 50% by 2010 as industries shut down and people left the [[Rust Belt]] for the employment opportunities of the South and West. Erie Country has lost population in every census year since 1970.
The post-war rise of the automobile also saw the city's landscape re-shaped. The Buffalo Skyway opened in 1953 and the first portion of the [[Interstate 190 (New York)|Niagara Thruway]] opened in 1959, using much of the route of the old Erie Canal alongside the river. Meanwhile, the region obtained a professional football franchise, the [[Buffalo Bills]], that began play in 1960, and a professional hockey franchise, the [[Buffalo Sabres]], that began play in 1970. A basketball franchise, the [[Buffalo Braves]], called the city home from 1970–78, and the city opened a new [[Sahlen Field|baseball stadium in 1988]] in an unsuccessful effort to attract a major-league baseball team.
On July 3, 2003, at the climax of a fiscal crisis, the [[Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority]] was established<ref name="bfsa">[http://www.bfsa.state.ny.us/ Official Site of the Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority] ''www.bfsa.state.ny.us''</ref> to oversee the finances of the city. As a "hard control board," they have frozen the wages of city employees and must approve or reject all major expenditures. After a period of severe financial stress, Erie County, where Buffalo resides, was assigned a Fiscal Stability Authority on July 12, 2005. As a "soft control board," however, they act only in an advisory capacity.<ref name="ECFSA">[http://www.ecfsa.state.ny.us Erie County Fiscal Stability Authority] ''www.ecfsa.state.ny.us''</ref> Both Authorities were established by [[New York State]].
In November 2005, [[Byron Brown]] was elected Mayor of Buffalo. He is the first African-American to hold this office.
==The 21st century==
===Signs of recovery, 2010–present===
[[Image:20080310 Lafayette Square.JPG|thumb|right|[[Lafayette Square, Buffalo|Lafayette Square]] in 2008]]
As of 2020, there are significant signs that Buffalo's decline may have bottomed out over the past decade, and there are increasing signs of growth in the city and region.
The area was not as significantly affected by the [[Great Recession in the United States|Great Recession]] from 2007-2009 as much of the nation, in part because the city never experienced the major [[United States housing bubble|housing bubble]] that other cities did. The [[Canalside]] neighborhood started developing in 2010, with an uptick in construction projects including the [[LECOM Harborcenter]]. New York Governor [[Andrew Cuomo]] announced the [[Buffalo Billion]] initiative in 2012 to help change the "psychology" in the region, and [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]] now operates the [[Giga New York]] factory that was completed in 2016-17. The [[Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus]] has become a significant employer in the city.
The city has also apparently had more success in recent years in retaining or attracting younger residents, with the low cost of living being seen as a factor. As of 2018, population estimates suggest that the city's population decline, although still down slightly from 2010, may be leveling off.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} A survey of Western New York residents in December 2018 found that a remarkable 87 percent of residents believed the area was generally headed in the right direction.<ref>G. Scott Thomas, [https://www.bizjournals.com/buffalo/news/2020/02/20/why-isnt-buffalo-growing.html ''Why isn't Buffalo growing?''], Buffalo Business First, Feb. 20, 2020.</ref>
==See also==
* [[Timeline of Buffalo, New York]]
*[[National Register of Historic Places listings in Buffalo, New York]]
*[[C. Person's Sons]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
[[Image:City of Buffalo.jpg|thumb|''City of Buffalo'', 1873, a [[steel engraving]] drawn by A. C. Warren]]{{reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
* Smith, H. Perry. (1884). ''[https://archive.org/details/historyofcityofb01smit History of the city of Buffalo and Erie County : with ... biographical sketches of some of its prominent men and pioneers ...]'' Syracuse, NY: D. Mason & Co.
==Further reading==
{{see also|Timeline of Buffalo, New York#Bibliography}}
* Coffey, Brian, and Allen G. Noble. "Mid-nineteenth century housing in Buffalo, New York." ''Material Culture'' 28.3 (1996): 1-16. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/29764018 in JSTOR]
* Gerber, David A. ''The Making of an American Pluralism: Buffalo, New York, 1825-60'' (Univ of Illinois Press, 1989).
* Jenkins, William. "In Search of the Lace Curtain: Residential Mobility, Class Transformation, and Everyday Practice among Buffalo’s Irish, 1880—1910." ''Journal of Urban History'' 35.7 (2009): 970–997.
* Kohler, C. Douglas, and Julianna L. Woite. ''Clarence'' (Arcadia Publishing, 2012), a suburb
* Rizzo, Michael F. ''Through the Mayors' Eyes: Buffalo, New York 1832-2005'' (Lulu.com, 2005).
* Rockwell, Mary Rech. "Elite Women and Class Formation." in by Julia B. Rosenbaum and Sven Beckert, eds. ''The American Bourgeoisie: Distinction and Identity in the Nineteenth Century'' (Palgrave Macmillan US, 2010). 153–166.
* Smith, Henry Perry. ''History of the City of Buffalo and Erie County'' (2 vol. 1884).
* Taylor, Steven J.L. ''Desegregation in Boston and Buffalo: The influence of local leaders'' (SUNY Press, 1998).
* Williams, Lillian Serece. ''Strangers in the Land of Paradise: The Creation of an African American Community in Buffalo, New York, 1900-1940'' (Indiana University Press, 2000).
===Old primary sources===
* {{Citation |publisher = L.P. Crary |location = Buffalo |title = A directory for the city of Buffalo |date = 1832 |oclc = 35591891 |ol = 7055402M }}
*[http://www.niagara.edu/library/buffhist/eriehome.html History of the City of Buffalo and Erie County, 1884]
* {{Citation |publisher = Kraft & Stern, printers |location = Buffalo, N.Y |author = Kuebler, Albert J. |title = Knights of Pythias directory and Buffalo street directory and guide ... |date = 1894 |ol = 25229892M }}
== External links ==
* [https://www.ci.buffalo.ny.us City of Buffalo official website]
{{City of Buffalo, New York}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Buffalo, New York}}
[[Category:History of Buffalo, New York| ]]' |
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</p><p>In the dawn of the 20th century, Buffalo was one of the most populous cities in the United States. It had hosted the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pan-American_Exposition" title="Pan-American Exposition">Pan-American Exposition</a> in 1901 and later became a center for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Automotive industry in the United States">automotive industry</a>.
</p><p>Later, the opening of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_Seaway" title="Saint Lawrence Seaway">Saint Lawrence Seaway</a> combined with the effects of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburbanization</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">deindustrialization</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> led to the decline of the city's chief industries. The city lost over half of its population from 1950 to 2010. Buffalo retains many industries and has developed a diverse economy based upon advanced manufacturing, healthcare and education.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Origin_of_name"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Origin of name</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Pre-colonization"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Pre-colonization</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Amerindian_Crossroads"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Amerindian Crossroads</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#First_Europeans,_1758–1793"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">First Europeans, 1758–1793</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Founding_and_19th_century"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Founding and 19th century</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Holland_Land_Purchase,_1793–1825"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Holland Land Purchase, 1793–1825</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Erie_Canal,_1825–1850"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Erie Canal, 1825–1850</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Railroads_and_industry,_1850–1900"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Railroads and industry, 1850–1900</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#The_20th_century"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">The 20th century</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#City_of_Light,_1900–1957"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">City of Light, 1900–1957</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Suburbanization_and_decline,_1957–2010"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Suburbanization and decline, 1957–2010</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#The_21st_century"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">The 21st century</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Signs_of_recovery,_2010–present"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Signs of recovery, 2010–present</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Old_primary_sources"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">Old primary sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Origin_of_name">Origin of name</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin of name">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2015</span>)</i></small><small class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table class="toccolours" style="border-spacing: 1px; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:right">
<tbody><tr>
<th colspan="4" class="navbox-title" style="padding-right:3px; padding-left:3px; font-size:110%; text-align:center">Historical population
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black">Census</th>
<th style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black"><abbr title="Population">Pop.</abbr></th>
<th style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black"></th>
<th style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black"><abbr title="Percent change">%±</abbr>
</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1830_United_States_census" title="1830 United States census">1830</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">8,668</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">—</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1840_United_States_census" title="1840 United States census">1840</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">18,213</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">110.1%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1850_United_States_census" title="1850 United States census">1850</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">42,261</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">132.0%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1860_United_States_census" title="1860 United States census">1860</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">81,129</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">92.0%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1870_United_States_census" title="1870 United States census">1870</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">117,714</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">45.1%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1880_United_States_census" title="1880 United States census">1880</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">155,134</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">31.8%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1890_United_States_census" title="1890 United States census">1890</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">255,664</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">64.8%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1900_United_States_census" title="1900 United States census">1900</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">352,387</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">37.8%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1910_United_States_census" title="1910 United States census">1910</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">423,715</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">20.2%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1920_United_States_census" title="1920 United States census">1920</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">506,775</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">19.6%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1930_United_States_census" title="1930 United States census">1930</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">573,076</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">13.1%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1940_United_States_census" title="1940 United States census">1940</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">575,901</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">0.5%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1950_United_States_census" title="1950 United States census">1950</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">580,132</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">0.7%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1960_United_States_census" title="1960 United States census">1960</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">532,759</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">−8.2%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1970_United_States_census" title="1970 United States census">1970</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">462,768</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">−13.1%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1980_United_States_census" title="1980 United States census">1980</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">357,870</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">−22.7%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1990_United_States_census" title="1990 United States census">1990</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">328,123</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">−8.3%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2000_United_States_census" title="2000 United States census">2000</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">292,648</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">−10.8%</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2010_United_States_census" title="2010 United States census">2010</a></b></td><td style="padding-left:8px; border-right:none; padding-right:0; text-align:right;">261,310</td><td style="border-left:none; padding-left:0; text-align:left;"></td><td style="padding-left:8px; text-align: right;">−10.7%</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="border-top:1px solid black; font-size:85%; text-align:center">source:<sup id="cite_ref-census_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-census-1">[1]</a></sup></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Buffalo,_New_York_from_I-190_North_entering_downtown.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Buffalo%2C_New_York_from_I-190_North_entering_downtown.jpg/400px-Buffalo%2C_New_York_from_I-190_North_entering_downtown.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="75" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Buffalo%2C_New_York_from_I-190_North_entering_downtown.jpg/600px-Buffalo%2C_New_York_from_I-190_North_entering_downtown.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Buffalo%2C_New_York_from_I-190_North_entering_downtown.jpg/800px-Buffalo%2C_New_York_from_I-190_North_entering_downtown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2396" data-file-height="449" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Buffalo,_New_York_from_I-190_North_entering_downtown.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Buffalo 2006</div></div></div>
<p>The City of Buffalo, formerly known as Buffalo Creek, received its name from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">creek</a> that flows through it. However, the origin of the creek's name is unclear, with several unproven theories existing. Early French explorers reported the abundance of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Bison" class="mw-redirect" title="American Bison">buffalo</a> on the Eastern shore of Lake Erie, but their presence on the banks of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_River_(New_York)" title="Buffalo River (New York)">Buffalo Creek</a> is still a matter of debate, although American Bison did range into western NY state at one time. Neither the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> name <i>Teyohoseroron</i> (the Place of the Basswoods) nor the French name <i>Riviere aux Chevaux</i> (River of Horses) survived, so the current name likely dates to the British occupation which began with the capture of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fort_Niagara" title="Fort Niagara">Fort Niagara</a> in 1759.
</p><p>
Another theory holds that a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seneca_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Seneca nation">Seneca</a> Indian lived there, either whose name meant buffalo, or who had the physical characteristics of a buffalo, and was translated as such by the English settlers. The stream where he lived became Buffalo's Creek. Unlike other nearby creeks such as Scajaquada Creek and Smoke's Creek which were named after actual historic figures, there is no known reference to any Native American named Buffalo. Also given credence by local historians at one time was the possibility that an interpreter mistranslated the Native American word for "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beaver" title="Beaver">beaver</a>" as "buffalo," the words being very similar, at a treaty-signing at present-day <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rome,_New_York" title="Rome, New York">Rome, New York</a> in 1784. The theory assumes that because there were beaver here, the creek was probably called Beaver Creek rather than Buffalo Creek.</p><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Buffalo_Panorama_1911.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Buffalo_Panorama_1911.jpg/400px-Buffalo_Panorama_1911.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="99" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Buffalo_Panorama_1911.jpg/600px-Buffalo_Panorama_1911.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Buffalo_Panorama_1911.jpg/800px-Buffalo_Panorama_1911.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2661" data-file-height="657" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Buffalo_Panorama_1911.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Buffalo panorama circa 1911</div></div></div><p>Another theory holds that the name is an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anglicisation" title="Anglicisation">anglicized</a> form of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> name <i>Beau Fleuve</i> (beautiful river), which was supposedly an exclamation uttered by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_Hennepin" title="Louis Hennepin">Louis Hennepin</a> when he first saw the Niagara River. This is a relatively recently proposed theory (1909) and is unlikely, as no period sources contain this quote. The earliest known name origin theory is an anecdote told to Captain Daniel Dobbins by Cornelius Winney in 1795 and also found with variations in Sheldon Ball's History of Buffalo (1825) and other sources, about a party of hunters whose guide shoots a horse and passes it off as bison meat, thereafter the origin of the term "buffaloed."
</p><p>Despite many years of speculation and garbling of previous debate, more recently available sources indicate that the name Buffalo Creek was in common use on the Niagara Frontier by 1764, as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Montresor" title="John Montresor">John Montresor</a> referenced 'Buffalo Creek' in his journal of that year.<sup id="cite_ref-Montresor_BuffaloCreek_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montresor_BuffaloCreek-2">[2]</a></sup> The name may have originated with an English speaking person sometime between 1759 and 1764, possibly after seeing animal bones, thought to be bison but possibly elk or moose or domesticated cattle, at the salt lick called Sour Springs located at the head of navigation about 6 miles up the creek.
</p><p>An alternate explanation put forward in late 2020, is that the origin comes from the French “Riviere du Bois Blanc” meaning “River of White Wood” being used to describe the creek.  Bois Blanc pronounced “Boblo” or “Bob Low” around the Great Lakes , morphed into “Buffalo” when the British took control of the region in 1759-1760.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Pre-colonization">Pre-colonization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pre-colonization">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Amerindian_Crossroads">Amerindian Crossroads</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Amerindian Crossroads">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The societies of the Native Forest dwellers we know as Native Americans, Amerindians, or First Nations made highways of the Great Lakes, streams and were far more social than their reputed penchant for warfare, cruelty, and collecting scalps would suggest. Their canoes were built from lightweight birch bark, or far more often, Elm, the farther south the tribe, the more likely Elm was the material used for many purposes including the canoes. Buffalo, near the throat of the Niagara River, was a popular campsite for voyaging tribesmen, in a culture which often went on walk-abouts, touring neighboring lands and conducting the widespread practice of boy-meets-girl, trading of regional commodities.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:322px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wenro-Territorium_um_1630.png" class="image"><img alt=":Wenro-Territorium um 1630.png" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Wenro-Territorium_um_1630.png/320px-Wenro-Territorium_um_1630.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="206" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Wenro-Territorium_um_1630.png/480px-Wenro-Territorium_um_1630.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Wenro-Territorium_um_1630.png/640px-Wenro-Territorium_um_1630.png 2x" data-file-width="1134" data-file-height="730" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wenro-Territorium_um_1630.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>1630s: The French report the <b>Wenro'</b>s territory was north and east of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erie_people" title="Erie people">Erie peoples</a>, East of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutral_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutral people">Neutral people</a> across the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara_River" title="Niagara River">Niagara River</a> and west of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genesee_River" title="Genesee River">Genesee River</a> valley and the <i>Genesee Gorge</i> across which the Seneca people had their home.</div></div></div>
<p>Prior to European colonization by French settlers, the region's inhabitants were an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iroquoian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroquoian language">Iroquoian-speaking</a> tribal offshoot called the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wenro_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenro people">Wenro people</a> or<i> 'Wenrohronon',</i> who lived along the south shore of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lake_Ontario" title="Lake Ontario">Lake Ontario</a> and east end of Lake Erie and a bit of its southern shore. The population of the Wenro was small by comparison to other Iroquoian tribes the French encountered and reported upon, possibly because they'd only recently split off from other groups or because they'd suffered the misfortunes of war. They were possibly (most likely) a sub-group of the main <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutral_Nation" title="Neutral Nation"><i>Neutral Confederacy</i></a> which had colonized the opposite shore, or possibly relatives of the great abutting neighboring <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erie_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Erie Nation">Erie Nation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[b]</a></sup> which extended southwesterly through most of present-day <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Pennsylvania" title="Western Pennsylvania">Western Pennsylvania</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a>.
</p><p>The American Heritage Book of Indians points out there are opposing (on the surface) contradictory theories<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[c]</a></sup> of the origination and the migration of the Iroquois and Iroquoian peoples that came to inhabit the region around Buffalo and the Niagara River.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[d]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">French</a> found the Neutral groups helpful in mediating disputes with other tribes—in particular the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/League_of_the_Iroquois" class="mw-redirect" title="League of the Iroquois">League of the Iroquois</a> which became sworn enemies of the French from their first meeting in 1609.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[e]</a></sup> By comparison, the Huron also an Iroquoian people, were often at odds with the Iroquois once European traders offered highly desired goods for furs, especially water proof <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beaver" title="Beaver">Beaver</a> pelts<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[f]</a></sup> About 1651 the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iroquois_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroquois Confederacy">Iroquois Confederacy</a> declared war on the Neutrals; by 1653, the Confederacy, particularly the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seneca_people" title="Seneca people">Senecas</a>, had practically annihilated the Neutrals<sup id="cite_ref-newadvent_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newadvent-9">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[4]</a></sup> and the splinter tribe of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wenro_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenro people">Wenro people</a>. The Wenro's area was subsequently populated by the Seneca tribe.
</p><p>Also in 1653 the large and populous Erie tribe, having taken in survivors of the Huron, Neutral, Wenro, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tabacco_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabacco people">Tabacco peoples</a>—Iroquoian peoples one and all, with traditions of adopting outsiders—received demands to send Neutrals to the Iroquois and instead launched an preemptive attack on the League, kicking off three years of desperate warfare that eventually shattered the Erie and bled the Iroquois of much of their strength.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[g]</a></sup> Ohio and Western Pennsylvania became nearly vacant Iroquois hunting grounds, exploited for furs, but ten years later the Iroquois, having also adopted tribal members of peoples they'd recently thrashed, found themselves in a new war with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Susquehannock" title="Susquehannock">Susquehannocks</a> who lived down below the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allegheny_Front" title="Allegheny Front">Allegheny Front</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Escarpment" title="Escarpment">escarpment</a> above most of today's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Pennsylvania">central Pennsylvania</a> along the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Susquehanna_River" title="Susquehanna River">Susquehanna River</a> valleys—another people believed to have significantly outnumbered the Iroquois<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[h]</a></sup> —so warring along the Susquehanna Valley from lower New York to Maryland through central Pennsylvania. In 1667-68 the Susquehannocks nearly wiped out two of the Five Iroquois people. At that point the Susquehannock's suffered one or more horrendous plagues, losing up to 90% of their population and military capabilities, and by 1672 the Iroquois became the proverbial<i> 'Last Man Standing' </i>in the Northern Beaver Wars.
</p>
<h3><span id="First_Europeans.2C_1758.E2.80.931793"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="First_Europeans,_1758–1793">First Europeans, 1758–1793</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: First Europeans, 1758–1793">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Most of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_New_York" title="Western New York">western New York</a> was granted by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II of England</a> to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duke_of_York" title="Duke of York">Duke of York</a> (later King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II & VII</a>), but the first European settlement in what is now <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erie_County,_New_York" title="Erie County, New York">Erie County</a> was by the French, at the mouth of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_River_(New_York)" title="Buffalo River (New York)">Buffalo Creek</a> in 1758. Its buildings were destroyed a year later by the evacuating French after the British captured Fort Niagara. The British took control of the entire region in 1763, at the conclusion of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>. In 1764, British military engineer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Montresor" title="John Montresor">John Montresor</a> made an inspection tour of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_River_(New_York)" title="Buffalo River (New York)">Buffalo Creek</a> before determining on a site for a fortification on the opposite shore. After the 1779 Sullivan Expedition, the British settled Seneca refugees in several villages on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_River_(New_York)" title="Buffalo River (New York)">Buffalo Creek</a> in the spring of 1780.
</p><p>The first white settlers along the creek were prisoners captured during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906106–107_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906106–107-13">[5]</a></sup> The first resident and landowner of Buffalo with a permanent presence was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Johnson_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="William Johnson (Royal Navy officer)">Captain William Johnston</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKetchum1865141_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKetchum1865141-14">[6]</a></sup> a white Iroquois interpreter who had been in the area since the days after the Revolutionary War and who the Senecas granted creekside land as a gift of appreciation. His house stood at present-day Washington and Seneca streets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931132–134_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931132–134-15">[7]</a></sup> Former enslaved man Joseph "Black Joe" Hodges,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906106–108_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906106–108-16">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931137–138_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931137–138-17">[9]</a></sup> and Cornelius Winney, a Dutch trader from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Albany,_New_York" title="Albany, New York">Albany</a> who arrived in 1789, were early settlers along the mouth of Buffalo Creek.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESprague188220,_21_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESprague188220,_21-18">[10]</a></sup> They set up a log cabin store there in 1789 for trading with the Native American community. The British retained control of the area and prevented further settlement by Americans until their evacuation of Fort Niagara in 1796.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Founding_and_19th_century">Founding and 19th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Founding and 19th century">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span id="Holland_Land_Purchase.2C_1793.E2.80.931825"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Holland_Land_Purchase,_1793–1825">Holland Land Purchase, 1793–1825</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Holland Land Purchase, 1793–1825">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Buffalo_1813.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Buffalo_1813.jpg/300px-Buffalo_1813.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Buffalo_1813.jpg/450px-Buffalo_1813.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Buffalo_1813.jpg/600px-Buffalo_1813.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5312" data-file-height="2988" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Buffalo_1813.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Buffalo in 1813<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[11]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>On July 20, 1793, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holland_Land_Purchase" class="mw-redirect" title="Holland Land Purchase">Holland Land Purchase</a>, including the land of present-day Buffalo, was completed with land being acquired from the Seneca Indians and brokered by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> investors from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849401_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849401-20">[12]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_of_Big_Tree" title="Treaty of Big Tree">Treaty of Big Tree</a> removed Iroquois title to lands west of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genesee_River" title="Genesee River">Genesee River</a> in 1797.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931145_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931145-21">[13]</a></sup> Although other Senecas were involved in ceding their land, the most famous today is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Jacket" title="Red Jacket">Red Jacket</a>, who died in Buffalo in 1830. His grave is in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forest_Lawn_Cemetery,_Buffalo" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo">Forest Lawn Cemetery</a>.
</p><p>In the fall of 1797, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Ellicott" title="Joseph Ellicott">Joseph Ellicott</a>, the architect who helped survey <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> with brother <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Andrew_Ellicott" title="Andrew Ellicott">Andrew</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[15]</a></sup> was appointed as the Chief of Survey for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holland_Land_Company" title="Holland Land Company">Holland Land Company</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931146_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931146-24">[16]</a></sup> Over the next year, he began to survey the tract of land at the mouth of Buffalo Creek. This was completed in 1803,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111-25">[17]</a></sup> and the new village boundaries extended from the creekside in the south to present-day Chippewa Street in the north and Carolina Street to the west,<sup id="cite_ref-Fernald1910_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fernald1910-26">[18]</a></sup> which is where most settlers remained for the first decade of the 19th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Starting in 1801, parcels were sold through the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holland_Land_Company" title="Holland Land Company">Holland Land Companies</a> office in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Batavia,_New_York" title="Batavia, New York">Batavia, New York</a>. The settlement was initially called Lake Erie, then Buffalo Creek, soon shortened to Buffalo. Although the company named the settlement "New Amsterdam," the name did not catch on, reverting to Buffalo within ten years.<sup id="cite_ref-Buff_Dir_p16_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buff_Dir_p16-27">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fernald1910_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fernald1910-26">[18]</a></sup> Buffalo had the first road to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> built in 1802 for migrants passing through to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Connecticut_Western_Reserve" title="Connecticut Western Reserve">Connecticut Western Reserve</a> in Ohio.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace1860210_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace1860210-28">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1804, Ellicott designed a radial <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grid_plan" title="Grid plan">grid plan</a> that would branch out from the village forming bicycle-like spokes, interrupted by diagonals, like the system used in the nation's capital.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[21]</a></sup> It is one of only three radial street patterns in the US<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. In the middle of the village was the intersection of eight streets, in what would become <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara_Square" title="Niagara Square">Niagara Square</a>. Several blocks to the southeast he designed a semicircle fronting Main Street with an elongated park green, formerly his estate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849439_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849439-30">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[23]</a></sup> This would be known as Shelton Square,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[24]</a></sup> at that time the center of the city (which would be dramatically altered in the mid-20th century),<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[25]</a></sup> with the intersecting streets bearing the names of Dutch Holland Land Company members,<sup id="cite_ref-Sprague1882_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sprague1882-34">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[i]</a></sup> today Erie, Church and Niagara streets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849439_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849439-30">[22]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lafayette_Square_(Buffalo)" title="Lafayette Square (Buffalo)">Lafayette Square</a> also lies one block to the north, which was then bounded by streets bearing Iroquois names.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111-25">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1804, Buffalo's population was estimated at 400, similar to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Batavia,_New_York" title="Batavia, New York">Batavia</a>, but Erie County's growth was behind <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chautauqua_County,_New_York" title="Chautauqua County, New York">Chautauqua</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genesee_County,_New_York" title="Genesee County, New York">Genesee</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wyoming_County,_New_York" title="Wyoming County, New York">Wyoming</a> counties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1977152_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1977152-36">[27]</a></sup> Neighboring village <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Rock,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Rock, New York">Black Rock</a> to the northwest (today a Buffalo neighborhood) was also an important center.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849439_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849439-30">[22]</a></sup> Horatio J. Spafford noted in <i>A Gazetteer of the State of New York</i> that in fact, despite the growth the village of Buffalo had, Black Rock "is deemed a better trading site for a great trading town than that of Buffalo," especially when considering the regional profile of mundane roads extending eastward.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1977152_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1977152-36">[27]</a></sup> Before the east-to-west turnpike<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (December 2017)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> was completed, travelling from Albany to Buffalo would take a week,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849494_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849494-37">[28]</a></sup> while even a trip from nearby <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Williamsville,_New_York" title="Williamsville, New York">Williamsville</a> to Batavia could take upwards of three days.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849495_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849495-38">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[j]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to an early resident, the village had sixteen residences, a schoolhouse and two stores in 1806, primarily near Main, Swan and Seneca streets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849498_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849498-40">[30]</a></sup> There were also blacksmith shops, a tavern and a drugstore.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906114–115_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906114–115-41">[31]</a></sup> The streets were small at 40 feet wide, and the village was still surrounded by woods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111,_118_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111,_118-42">[32]</a></sup> The first lot sold by the Holland Land Company was on September 11, 1806, to Zerah Phelps.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931493_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931493-43">[33]</a></sup> By 1808, lots would sell from $25 to $50.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115-44">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New York">slavery was rare in the state</a>, limited instances of slavery had taken place in Buffalo during the early part of the 19th century. General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Buell_Porter" title="Peter Buell Porter">Peter Buell Porter</a> is said to have had five slaves during his time in Black Rock, and several news ads also advertised slaves for sale.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931356–357_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931356–357-45">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1808, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara_County,_New_York" title="Niagara County, New York">Niagara County</a> was established with Buffalo as its county seat. In 1810, the Town of Buffalo was formed from the western part of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clarence,_New_York" title="Clarence, New York">Town of Clarence</a>. Also in 1810, a courthouse was built. By 1811, the population was 500, with many people farming or doing manual labor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115,_118_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115,_118-46">[36]</a></sup> The first newspaper to be published was the <i>Buffalo Gazette</i> in October that same year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115-44">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>On December 30, 1813, during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, British troops and their Native American allies first captured the village of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Rock,_Buffalo,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Rock, Buffalo, New York">Black Rock</a>, and then the rest of Buffalo. On December 31, 1813, most of Buffalo and the village of Black Rock were burned by the British after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Buffalo" title="Battle of Buffalo">Battle of Buffalo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[38]</a></sup> The battle and subsequent fire was in response to the unprovoked destruction of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara-on-the-Lake" title="Niagara-on-the-Lake">Niagara-on-the-Lake</a>, then known as "Newark," by American forces.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906125–126_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906125–126-50">[40]</a></sup> On August 4, 1814, British forces under Lt. Colonel John Tucker and Lt. Colonel William Drummond, General <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gordon_Drummond" title="Gordon Drummond">Gordon Drummond</a>'s nephew, attempted to raid Black Rock and Buffalo as part of a diversion to force an early surrender <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Erie" title="Siege of Fort Erie">at Fort Erie</a> the next day, but were defeated by a small force of American riflemen under Major Lodwick Morgan at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Conjocta_Creek" title="Battle of Conjocta Creek">Battle of Conjocta Creek</a>, and withdrew back into Canada. Consequently, Fort Erie's siege under Gordon Drummond later failed, and British forces withdrew. Though only three buildings remained in the village, rebuilding was swift, finishing in 1815.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-51">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906132_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906132-52">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>Buffalo gradually rebuilt itself and by 1816 had a new courthouse. In 1818, the eastern part of the town was lost to form the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amherst,_New_York" title="Amherst, New York">Town of Amherst</a>. Erie County was formed out of Niagara County in 1821, retaining Buffalo as the county seat.
</p>
<h3><span id="Erie_Canal.2C_1825.E2.80.931850"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Erie_Canal,_1825–1850">Erie Canal, 1825–1850</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Erie Canal, 1825–1850">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Buffalo_Canal_Houses_of_Ill_Fame.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Buffalo_Canal_Houses_of_Ill_Fame.svg/220px-Buffalo_Canal_Houses_of_Ill_Fame.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Buffalo_Canal_Houses_of_Ill_Fame.svg/330px-Buffalo_Canal_Houses_of_Ill_Fame.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Buffalo_Canal_Houses_of_Ill_Fame.svg/440px-Buffalo_Canal_Houses_of_Ill_Fame.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1046" data-file-height="741" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Buffalo_Canal_Houses_of_Ill_Fame.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Erie Canal's harbor was very active in the 19th century.</div></div></div>
<p>On October 26, 1825,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[43]</a></sup> the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erie_Canal" title="Erie Canal">Erie Canal</a> was completed, formed from part of Buffalo Creek,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[44]</a></sup> with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[45]</a></sup> Buffalo became the western end of the 524-mile waterway starting at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. At the time, the population was about 2,400.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[46]</a></sup> By 1826, the 130 sq. mile Buffalo Creek Reservation at the western border of the village was transferred to Buffalo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrush190187_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrush190187-57">[47]</a></sup> The Erie Canal brought a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-59">[49]</a></sup> The population in 1840 was 18,213.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[50]</a></sup> The canal area was mature by 1847, with passenger and cargo ship activity leading to congestion in the harbor.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[51]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 1 June 1843, the world's first steam-powered <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grain_elevator" title="Grain elevator">grain elevator</a> was put into service by a local merchant, Joseph Dart, Jr., and an engineer, Robert Dunbar. The "Dart Elevator" would remain standing until 1862, when it burned down. During the 1840s and 1850s, more than a dozen grain elevators were built in Buffalo's harbor, most of them designed by Dunbar.<sup id="cite_ref-American_Colossus_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Colossus-62">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>As the anti-slavery movement grew in the U.S., Buffalo also emerged as a gathering place for abolitionists. In 1843, the city served as the site of the Liberty Party<sup id="cite_ref-Liberty_Party_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liberty_Party-63">[53]</a></sup> convention and the National Convention of Colored Citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Convention_of_Colored_Citizens_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Convention_of_Colored_Citizens-64">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>The mid-1800s saw a population boom, with the city doubling in size from 1845 to 1855.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman198372_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman198372-65">[55]</a></sup> In 1855, almost two-thirds of the city's population were foreign-born immigrants, largely a mix of unskilled or educated <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irish_Americans" title="Irish Americans">Irish</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a>, who began self-segregating in different parts of the city. The Irish immigrants planted their roots along the railroad-heavy Buffalo River and Erie Canal to the southeast, to which there is still a heavy presence today; German immigrants found their way to the East Side, living a more laid-back, residential life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman198372–74_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman198372–74-66">[56]</a></sup> Some immigrants were apprehensive about the change of environment and left the city for the western region, while others tried to stay behind in the hopes of expanding their native cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman198375–76_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman198375–76-67">[57]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive black slaves</a> began to make their way northward to Buffalo in the 1840s, and many of them settled on the city's East Side.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman198387_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman198387-68">[58]</a></sup> Buffalo was a terminus of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>, an informal series of safe houses for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African-Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="African-Americans">African-Americans</a> escaping slavery in the mid-19th century. Buffalonians helped many fugitives cross the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara_River" title="Niagara River">Niagara River</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fort_Erie,_Ontario" title="Fort Erie, Ontario">Fort Erie, Ontario</a>, Canada and freedom.
</p><p>In 1845, construction began on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macedonia_Baptist_Church_(Buffalo,_New_York)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonia Baptist Church (Buffalo, New York)">Macedonia Baptist Church</a>, a meeting spot in the Michigan and William Street neighborhood where blacks first settled.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[59]</a></sup> Political activity surrounding the anti-slavery movement took place in Buffalo during this time, including conventions held by the National Convention of Colored Citizens and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberty_Party_(United_States,_1840)" title="Liberty Party (United States, 1840)">Liberty Party</a> and its offshoots.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[60]</a></sup> Buffalo was a terminus point of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> with many <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">fugitive slaves</a> crossing the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara_River" title="Niagara River">Niagara River</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fort_Erie,_Ontario" title="Fort Erie, Ontario">Fort Erie, Ontario</a> in search of freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[61]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Lars_Gustaf_Sellstedt_-_Buffalo_Harbor,_1871.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Lars_Gustaf_Sellstedt_-_Buffalo_Harbor%2C_1871.jpg/220px-Lars_Gustaf_Sellstedt_-_Buffalo_Harbor%2C_1871.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Lars_Gustaf_Sellstedt_-_Buffalo_Harbor%2C_1871.jpg/330px-Lars_Gustaf_Sellstedt_-_Buffalo_Harbor%2C_1871.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Lars_Gustaf_Sellstedt_-_Buffalo_Harbor%2C_1871.jpg/440px-Lars_Gustaf_Sellstedt_-_Buffalo_Harbor%2C_1871.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="914" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Lars_Gustaf_Sellstedt_-_Buffalo_Harbor,_1871.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Buffalo harbor from the foot of Porter Avenue, 1871</div></div></div>
<p>During the 1840s, Buffalo's port continued to develop. Both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo.<sup id="cite_ref-The_City_of_Buffalo_1840–1850_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_City_of_Buffalo_1840–1850-72">[62]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (September 2015)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1843, the world's first steam-powered <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grain_elevator" title="Grain elevator">grain elevator</a> was constructed by local merchant <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Dart" title="Joseph Dart">Joseph Dart</a> and engineer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Dunbar" title="Robert Dunbar">Robert Dunbar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[63]</a></sup> "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dart%27s_Elevator" title="Dart's Elevator">Dart's Elevator</a>" enabled faster unloading of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lake_freighter" title="Lake freighter">lake freighters</a> along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, and rail cars.<sup id="cite_ref-Recon_Concrete_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Recon_Concrete-74">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a></b>, who had taken up permanent residence in Buffalo in 1822 and represented the area in Congress on and off from 1832–42, became the first chancellor of the University of Buffalo upon its founding in 1846, now known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_at_Buffalo,_The_State_University_of_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="University at Buffalo, The State University of New York">SUNY University at Buffalo</a>. Fillmore would be elected Vice President in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1848_United_States_presidential_election" title="1848 United States presidential election">election of 1848</a> and would eventually become the 13th <a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> upon the death of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> in 1850.
</p>
<h3><span id="Railroads_and_industry.2C_1850.E2.80.931900"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Railroads_and_industry,_1850–1900">Railroads and industry, 1850–1900</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Railroads and industry, 1850–1900">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:City_of_Buffalo.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Aerial engraving of a 19th-century city with trees and homes" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/City_of_Buffalo.jpg/220px-City_of_Buffalo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/City_of_Buffalo.jpg/330px-City_of_Buffalo.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/City_of_Buffalo.jpg/440px-City_of_Buffalo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="575" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:City_of_Buffalo.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>1872 engraving of Buffalo</div></div></div>
<p>By 1850, the city's population was 81,000.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-59">[49]</a></sup> In 1853, Buffalo annexed Black Rock, which had been Buffalo's fierce rival for the canal terminus. During the 19th century, thousands of pioneers going to the western United States debarked from canal boats to continue their journey out of Buffalo by lake or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">rail transport</a>. During their stopover, many experienced the pleasures and dangers of Buffalo's notorious <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canal_Street_(Buffalo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canal Street (Buffalo)">Canal district</a>. The Erie Canal's peak year was 1855, when 33,000 commercial shipments took place.
</p><p>In 1860, many railway companies and lines crossed through and terminated in Buffalo. Major ones were the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo,_Bradford_and_Pittsburgh_Railroad" title="Buffalo, Bradford and Pittsburgh Railroad">Buffalo, Bradford and Pittsburgh Railroad</a> (1859), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_and_Erie_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Buffalo and Erie Railroad">Buffalo and Erie Railroad</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroad" title="New York Central Railroad">New York Central Railroad</a> (1853).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace186066–74_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace186066–74-75">[65]</a></sup> During this time, Buffalonians controlled a quarter of all shipping traffic on Lake Erie, and shipbuilding was a thriving industry for the city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace1860286_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace1860286-76">[66]</a></sup> Later, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lehigh_Valley_Railroad" title="Lehigh Valley Railroad">Lehigh Valley Railroad</a> would have its line terminate at Buffalo in 1867.
</p><p>Buffalo was part of and the seat of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Niagara County">Niagara County</a> until the legislature passed an act separating the two on April 2, 1861.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931385_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931385-77">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></b> lived in Buffalo from 1854 until 1882, and served as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="List of mayors of Buffalo, New York">Buffalo's mayor</a> from 1882 until 1883 before eventually becoming the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, winning the popular vote in 1884, 1888, and 1892.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="The_20th_century">The 20th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The 20th century">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span id="City_of_Light.2C_1900.E2.80.931957"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="City_of_Light,_1900–1957">City of Light, 1900–1957</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: City of Light, 1900–1957">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Main_Street_-_Buffalo,_New_York.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Main_Street_-_Buffalo%2C_New_York.jpg/220px-Main_Street_-_Buffalo%2C_New_York.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Main_Street_-_Buffalo%2C_New_York.jpg/330px-Main_Street_-_Buffalo%2C_New_York.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Main_Street_-_Buffalo%2C_New_York.jpg/440px-Main_Street_-_Buffalo%2C_New_York.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6758" data-file-height="4496" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Main_Street_-_Buffalo,_New_York.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Main Street in Buffalo, ca. 1900</div></div></div>
<p>Around the start of the 20th century, Buffalo was a growing city with a burgeoning <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a>. Immigrants came from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> to work in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">steel</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grain_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Grain mill">grain mills</a> which had taken advantage of the city's critical location at the junction of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> and the Erie Canal. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hydroelectric_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric power">Hydroelectric power</a> harnessed from nearby <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara_Falls" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls</a> made Buffalo the first American city to have widespread <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">electric lighting</a> yielding it the nickname, the "<i>City of Light</i>". Electricity was used to dramatic effect at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pan-American_Exposition" title="Pan-American Exposition">Pan-American Exposition</a> in 1901.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:McKinley%27s_last_address_wide2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/McKinley%27s_last_address_wide2.jpg/220px-McKinley%27s_last_address_wide2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/McKinley%27s_last_address_wide2.jpg/330px-McKinley%27s_last_address_wide2.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/McKinley%27s_last_address_wide2.jpg/440px-McKinley%27s_last_address_wide2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3621" data-file-height="2777" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:McKinley%27s_last_address_wide2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley's</a> last speech delivered September 5, 1901 at the Pan-American Exposition</div></div></div>
<p>The Pan-American was also notable for being the scene of the assassination of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">United States President</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a>. He was shot by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leon_Czolgosz" title="Leon Czolgosz">Leon Czolgosz</a> on September 6, 1901 at the Exposition, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_McKinley_assassination" class="mw-redirect" title="William McKinley assassination">died in Buffalo</a> on the 14th. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> was then <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt">sworn in</a> on September 14, 1901 at the Ansley Wilcox Mansion, now the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Inaugural_National_Historic_Site" title="Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site">Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site</a>, becoming one of the few presidents to be sworn in outside of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>
</p><p>In 1918, the upgrade of the Erie Canal into the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_State_Canal_System" title="New York State Canal System">New York State Barge Canal</a> meant that the canal now ended where <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tonawanda_Creek" title="Tonawanda Creek">Tonawanda Creek</a> met the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara_River" title="Niagara River">Niagara River</a>. The advent of powered tugboats meant that barges could more easily move upstream in the upper portion of the river. As a result, the final section of the old canal, which had run alongside the river from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tonawanda_(city),_New_York" title="Tonawanda (city), New York">Tonawanda</a> to Buffalo – and which had been so critical to the city's growth nearly a century earlier – became obsolete and was gradually filled in over time.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>The opening of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peace_Bridge" title="Peace Bridge">Peace Bridge</a> linking Buffalo with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fort_Erie,_Ontario" title="Fort Erie, Ontario">Fort Erie, Ontario</a> on August 7, 1927 was an occasion for significant celebrations. When it opened, Buffalo and Fort Erie each became the chief port of entry to their respective countries from the other. The bridge remains one of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>'s important commercial ports with four thousand trucks crossing it daily.
</p><p>The Great Depression of 1929-39 saw severe unemployment, especially among working-class men. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> relief programs operated full force. The city became a stronghold of labor unions and the Democratic Party.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[69]</a></sup>
Buffalo's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_City_Hall" title="Buffalo City Hall">City Hall</a>, an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a> masterpiece, was dedicated on July 1, 1932.
</p><p>During <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Buffalo saw the return of prosperity and full employment due to its position as a manufacturing center.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[70]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[71]</a></sup> As one of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1950_United_States_Census#city_rankings" class="mw-redirect" title="1950 United States Census">most populous cities of the 1950s</a>, Buffalo's economy revolved almost entirely on its manufacturing base. Major companies such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_Steel" title="Republic Steel">Republic Steel</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lackawanna_Steel_Company" title="Lackawanna Steel Company">Lackawanna Steel</a> employed tens of thousands of Buffalonians. Integrated national shipping routes would use the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soo_Locks" title="Soo Locks">Soo Locks</a> near <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lake_Superior" title="Lake Superior">Lake Superior</a> and a vast network of railroads and yards that crossed the city.
</p>
<h3><span id="Suburbanization_and_decline.2C_1957.E2.80.932010"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Suburbanization_and_decline,_1957–2010">Suburbanization and decline, 1957–2010</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Suburbanization and decline, 1957–2010">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The city's population gradually began to decline in the decades after World War II. A key cause was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburban migration</a>, which was a major national trend at the time. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_riot_of_1967" class="mw-redirect" title="Buffalo riot of 1967">Race riots</a> rocked the city in 1967.,<sup id="cite_ref-Circle_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Circle-82">[72]</a></sup> and while the city's population declined in the 1960 census for the first time in its history, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erie_County,_New_York" title="Erie County, New York">Erie County</a> as a whole continued growing through the 1970 census.
</p><p>Another factor was the opening of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/St._Lawrence_Seaway" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Lawrence Seaway">St. Lawrence Seaway</a> in 1957. Goods which had previously passed through Buffalo could now bypass it using a series of canals and locks, reaching the ocean via the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/St._Lawrence_River" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Lawrence River">St. Lawrence River</a>. Lobbying by local businesses and interest groups against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/St._Lawrence_Seaway" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Lawrence Seaway">St. Lawrence Seaway</a> began in the 1920s, long before its construction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman1983270_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman1983270-83">[73]</a></sup> Shipbuilding in Buffalo, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Ship_Building_Company" title="American Ship Building Company">American Ship Building Company</a>, shut down in 1962, ending an industry that had been a sector of the city's economy since 1812, and a direct result of reduced waterfront activity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman1983271_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman1983271-84">[74]</a></sup>The city, which boasted over half a million people at its peak, saw its population decline by some 50% by 2010 as industries shut down and people left the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rust_Belt" title="Rust Belt">Rust Belt</a> for the employment opportunities of the South and West. Erie Country has lost population in every census year since 1970.
</p><p>The post-war rise of the automobile also saw the city's landscape re-shaped. The Buffalo Skyway opened in 1953 and the first portion of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Interstate_190_(New_York)" title="Interstate 190 (New York)">Niagara Thruway</a> opened in 1959, using much of the route of the old Erie Canal alongside the river. Meanwhile, the region obtained a professional football franchise, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Bills" title="Buffalo Bills">Buffalo Bills</a>, that began play in 1960, and a professional hockey franchise, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Sabres" title="Buffalo Sabres">Buffalo Sabres</a>, that began play in 1970. A basketball franchise, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Braves" title="Buffalo Braves">Buffalo Braves</a>, called the city home from 1970–78, and the city opened a new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sahlen_Field" title="Sahlen Field">baseball stadium in 1988</a> in an unsuccessful effort to attract a major-league baseball team.
</p><p>On July 3, 2003, at the climax of a fiscal crisis, the <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Buffalo_Fiscal_Stability_Authority&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority (page does not exist)">Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority</a> was established<sup id="cite_ref-bfsa_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bfsa-85">[75]</a></sup> to oversee the finances of the city. As a "hard control board," they have frozen the wages of city employees and must approve or reject all major expenditures. After a period of severe financial stress, Erie County, where Buffalo resides, was assigned a Fiscal Stability Authority on July 12, 2005. As a "soft control board," however, they act only in an advisory capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-ECFSA_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECFSA-86">[76]</a></sup> Both Authorities were established by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_State" class="mw-redirect" title="New York State">New York State</a>.
</p><p>In November 2005, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byron_Brown" title="Byron Brown">Byron Brown</a> was elected Mayor of Buffalo. He is the first African-American to hold this office.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="The_21st_century">The 21st century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The 21st century">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span id="Signs_of_recovery.2C_2010.E2.80.93present"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Signs_of_recovery,_2010–present">Signs of recovery, 2010–present</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Signs of recovery, 2010–present">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:20080310_Lafayette_Square.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/20080310_Lafayette_Square.JPG/220px-20080310_Lafayette_Square.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/20080310_Lafayette_Square.JPG/330px-20080310_Lafayette_Square.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/20080310_Lafayette_Square.JPG/440px-20080310_Lafayette_Square.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:20080310_Lafayette_Square.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lafayette_Square,_Buffalo" class="mw-redirect" title="Lafayette Square, Buffalo">Lafayette Square</a> in 2008</div></div></div>
<p>As of 2020, there are significant signs that Buffalo's decline may have bottomed out over the past decade, and there are increasing signs of growth in the city and region.
</p><p>The area was not as significantly affected by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a> from 2007-2009 as much of the nation, in part because the city never experienced the major <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_housing_bubble" title="United States housing bubble">housing bubble</a> that other cities did. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canalside" title="Canalside">Canalside</a> neighborhood started developing in 2010, with an uptick in construction projects including the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/LECOM_Harborcenter" title="LECOM Harborcenter">LECOM Harborcenter</a>. New York Governor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Andrew_Cuomo" title="Andrew Cuomo">Andrew Cuomo</a> announced the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Billion" title="Buffalo Billion">Buffalo Billion</a> initiative in 2012 to help change the "psychology" in the region, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tesla,_Inc." title="Tesla, Inc.">Tesla</a> now operates the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giga_New_York" title="Giga New York">Giga New York</a> factory that was completed in 2016-17. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Niagara_Medical_Campus" title="Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus">Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus</a> has become a significant employer in the city.
</p><p>The city has also apparently had more success in recent years in retaining or attracting younger residents, with the low cost of living being seen as a factor. As of 2018, population estimates suggest that the city's population decline, although still down slightly from 2010, may be leveling off.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A survey of Western New York residents in December 2018 found that a remarkable 87 percent of residents believed the area was generally headed in the right direction.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[77]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Timeline of Buffalo, New York">Timeline of Buffalo, New York</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Buffalo,_New_York" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Buffalo, New York">National Register of Historic Places listings in Buffalo, New York</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/C._Person%27s_Sons" title="C. Person's Sons">C. Person's Sons</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha">
<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Obsidian from Canada, Flint, shells, plants are all known to have traveled hundreds-to-thousands of miles carried by a sociable people that often met recreationally as well for competitions—for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lacrosse" title="Lacrosse">Lacrosse</a>—the picture of the Amerindian tribes as blood thirsty savages would never have lasted in the light of day, had the natives not been cut down by diseases they had little resistance to.
</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> It is also possible they were a combination of clan groups from differing peoples. The Iroquoian culture was one with a matrilineal clan basis, the women selecting the leading men. It would be odd if at such a prime meeting place as the river-Lake outlet area that a people which by all accounts traveled often, that men and women and whole tribal groups didn't meet and mingle in such a idyllic surround.
</span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Amerindian studies scholars believe the known Iroquoian nations coalesced about 1300 and either migrated from the Carolina's to the Great Lakes, or originated along the St. Lawrence and moved westward and south. Either way, by 300 years later the various Iroquoian peoples dominated the area of the right bank St. Lawrence River to the Eastern side of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lake_Huron" title="Lake Huron">Lake Huron</a> dominating half the shores of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> from the tip of present-day Northern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> nearly to Western Ohio, and extended southerly from the northern shores beyond <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lake_Huron" title="Lake Huron">Lake Huron</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgian_Bay" title="Georgian Bay">Georgian Bay</a> (Huron) down along the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Susquehanna_River" title="Susquehanna River">Susquehanna</a> and parts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a>. Concurrently as the 1600s brought European <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">fur traders</a> and then colonies, two large Iroquoian nations, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tuscarora_people" title="Tuscarora people">Tuscarora people</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cherokee_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokee people">Cherokee people</a> occupied lands south of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Province_of_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of Virginia">Province of Virginia</a> on either side of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appalachians" class="mw-redirect" title="Appalachians">Appalachians</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barrier_range" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrier range">barrier range</a>; west of the lower Appalachians, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> held territory in Kentucky and Tennessee. </span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_France" title="New France">French</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> and the process of settlements used the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">English</a> were very different modalities; the French Crown monopolized American economic activity: traders, and a relatively few number of settlers danced to the Crown's policies, and cultivated good relations with Amerindian tribe and nations. In the French, Dutch, and English disputes that followed, the undermanned French were dependent upon their Amerindian allies for manpower, and most military power.
In contrast, the English <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> driven <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>—later in the 1700s, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a>—almost universally established an initial tolerance seguing soon after settlements became well established to an mode of oft ruthless exploitation and patterns of confrontation, racial prejudice, and land grabs; the English/British class-conscience culture almost uniformly ended up in frontier tension and eventual interracial conflict leading to a succession of wars, of displaced <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of North America">Native American</a> tribes. The English modality had little direct frontier impact effect around Buffalo but the Indian vs. Indian events in the region are illustrative of both Kingdoms practices and the Iroquois grudge against the French.
</span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> In 1609 Champlain assisting a mixed war party of Huron and Algonquian raiding the Mohawk Nation, along the lake now named for him, killed two of three Mohawk war sachems, wounding the third and built up an enmity from the Iroquois that lasted 150 years, until the end of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> (1756-1763) drove the French from North America. This encounter is an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epoch_(reference_date)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (reference date)">epoch</a>, beginning a period now loosely referred to as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> in which over 60 years of internecine Amerindian on Indian battles, giving the Iroquois the balance of North American political power for the next hundred. The Beaver Wars for many years were believed to be mainly economic. Recent scholarship has posed several other factors, most steeped in the culture and religious beliefs of the disparate Iroquoian peoples.
</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">the Huron territory started in the upper St. Lawrence valley, and the Iroquois claimed virtually all of the opposite bank; so were in competition in the European Goods sweepstakes.
</span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">One of the Iroquois few periods of peace occurred, giving evidence of the savvy political sophistication the Iroquois would now become famous for having; a similar peace was negotiated when the Susquehannock and Iroquois fought—the council ruling the Iroquois did not want Algonkian raiding while taking on militarily strong opponents.
</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The American Heritage Book of Indians discuss a French report (New France was a direct venture of the King, the Jesuits sent back reports every year for decades) ca. 1660s-1670s that <i>the adopted Iroquois</i> outnumbered the Native Iroquois in that period.
</span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Formerly known as Stadtnitski, Vollenhoven and Schimmelpennick Avenues, removed after backlash by village residents.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">When travelling with an ox and wagon team.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:City_of_Buffalo.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/City_of_Buffalo.jpg/220px-City_of_Buffalo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/City_of_Buffalo.jpg/330px-City_of_Buffalo.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/City_of_Buffalo.jpg/440px-City_of_Buffalo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="575" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:City_of_Buffalo.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><i>City of Buffalo</i>, 1873, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steel_engraving" title="Steel engraving">steel engraving</a> drawn by A. C. Warren</div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734"/><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-census-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-census_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html">US Population of the 100 Largest Cities and other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070314031958/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html">Archived</a> 2007-03-14 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Census.gov" class="mw-redirect" title="Census.gov">Census.gov</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Montresor_BuffaloCreek-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Montresor_BuffaloCreek_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFSeverance,_Frank_H.1902" class="citation book cs1">Severance, Frank H. (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pBs8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15">"The Achievements of Captain John Montresor"</a>. In Buffalo Historical Society (ed.). <i>Buffalo Historical Society Publications</i>. Buffalo, NY: Bigelow Brothers. p. 15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 14,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Achievements+of+Captain+John+Montresor&rft.btitle=Buffalo+Historical+Society+Publications&rft.place=Buffalo%2C+NY&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Bigelow+Brothers&rft.date=1902&rft.au=Severance%2C+Frank+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpBs8AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-newadvent-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-newadvent_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07565a.htm"><i>Catholic Encyclopedia</i>, "The Hurons"</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reville 1920, p.20.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906106–107-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906106–107_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker1906">Becker 1906</a>, p. 106–107.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBecker1906 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKetchum1865141-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKetchum1865141_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKetchum1865">Ketchum 1865</a>, p. 141.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFKetchum1865 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931132–134-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931132–134_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBingham1931">Bingham 1931</a>, pp. 132–134.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBingham1931 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906106–108-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906106–108_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker1906">Becker 1906</a>, pp. 106–108.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBecker1906 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931137–138-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931137–138_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBingham1931">Bingham 1931</a>, pp. 137–138.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBingham1931 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESprague188220,_21-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESprague188220,_21_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSprague1882">Sprague 1882</a>, pp. 20, 21.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFSprague1882 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLossing1868" class="citation book cs1">Lossing, Benson (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cihm_29136"><i>The Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812</i></a>. Harper & Brothers, Publishers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cihm_29136/page/n398">380</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pictorial+Field-Book+of+the+War+of+1812&rft.pages=380&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers%2C+Publishers&rft.date=1868&rft.aulast=Lossing&rft.aufirst=Benson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcihm_29136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849401-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849401_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1849">Turner 1849</a>, p. 401.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFTurner1849 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931145-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931145_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBingham1931">Bingham 1931</a>, p. 145.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBingham1931 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBartlett1922" class="citation book cs1">Bartlett, George Hunter (1922). <i>Recalling Pioneer Days</i>. The Buffalo Historical Society. p. 3. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fwu.89065904492">2027/wu.89065904492</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recalling+Pioneer+Days&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=The+Buffalo+Historical+Society&rft.date=1922&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fwu.89065904492&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=George+Hunter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStewart1899" class="citation journal cs1">Stewart, John (1899). "Early Maps and Surveyors of the City of Washington, D. C.". <i>Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C</i>. <b>2</b>: 48–71. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.jstor.org/stable/40066723">40066723</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Records+of+the+Columbia+Historical+Society%2C+Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.atitle=Early+Maps+and+Surveyors+of+the+City+of+Washington%2C+D.+C.&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=48-71&rft.date=1899&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40066723%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931146-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931146_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBingham1931">Bingham 1931</a>, p. 146.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBingham1931 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker1906">Becker 1906</a>, p. 111.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBecker1906 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Fernald1910-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fernald1910_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fernald1910_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFernald1910" class="citation book cs1">Fernald, Frederik Atherton (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indexguidetobuff00fern"><i>The index guide to Buffalo and Niagara Falls</i></a>. The Library of Congress. Buffalo, N.Y., F.A. Fernald. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indexguidetobuff00fern/page/21">21</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170326204401/https://archive.org/details/indexguidetobuff00fern">Archived</a> from the original on March 26, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 30,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+index+guide+to+Buffalo+and+Niagara+Falls&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Buffalo%2C+N.Y.%2C+F.A.+Fernald&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Fernald&rft.aufirst=Frederik+Atherton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findexguidetobuff00fern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Buff_Dir_p16-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buff_Dir_p16_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFClintonHunt1862" class="citation book cs1">Clinton, George W.; Hunt, Sanford B. (1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ooMUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA16"><i>Thomas' Buffalo City Directory for 1862, to which is Prefixed a Sketch of the Early History of Buffalo</i></a>. Buffalo, NY: E.A. Thomas, Franklin Steam Printing House. p. 16. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925053611/https://books.google.com/books?id=ooMUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on September 25, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 31,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thomas%27+Buffalo+City+Directory+for+1862%2C+to+which+is+Prefixed+a+Sketch+of+the+Early+History+of+Buffalo&rft.place=Buffalo%2C+NY&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=E.A.+Thomas%2C+Franklin+Steam+Printing+House&rft.date=1862&rft.aulast=Clinton&rft.aufirst=George+W.&rft.au=Hunt%2C+Sanford+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DooMUAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace1860210-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace1860210_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrenchPlace1860">French & Place 1860</a>, p. 210.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFFrenchPlace1860 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFElmendorf1913" class="citation journal cs1">Elmendorf, Dwight L. (March 1913). "Washington the Capital". <i>The Mentor</i>. <b>1</b>: 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mentor&rft.atitle=Washington+the+Capital&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1913-03&rft.aulast=Elmendorf&rft.aufirst=Dwight+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849439-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849439_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849439_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849439_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1849">Turner 1849</a>, p. 439.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFTurner1849 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFPowell1988" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Elwin Humphreys (January 1, 1988). <i>The Design of Discord: Studies of Anomie</i>. Transaction Publishers. p. 59. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412836494" title="Special:BookSources/9781412836494"><bdi>9781412836494</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Design+of+Discord%3A+Studies+of+Anomie&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1988-01-01&rft.isbn=9781412836494&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Elwin+Humphreys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMyers2012" class="citation book cs1">Myers, Stephen G. (2012). <i>Buffalo</i>. Arcadia Publishing. p. 25. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780738591650" title="Special:BookSources/9780738591650"><bdi>9780738591650</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buffalo&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Arcadia+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780738591650&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMyers2012" class="citation book cs1">Myers, Stephen G. (2012). <i>Buffalo</i>. Arcadia Publishing. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780738591650" title="Special:BookSources/9780738591650"><bdi>9780738591650</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buffalo&rft.pub=Arcadia+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780738591650&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Sprague1882-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sprague1882_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBuffalo_Historical_Society1882" class="citation book cs1">Buffalo Historical Society (1882). <i>Semi-centennial Celebration of the City of Buffalo: Address of the Hon. E.C. Sprague Before the Buffalo Historical Society, July 3, 1882</i>. Buffalo, N.Y.: Buffalo Historical Society. pp. 20, 21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semi-centennial+Celebration+of+the+City+of+Buffalo%3A+Address+of+the+Hon.+E.C.+Sprague+Before+the+Buffalo+Historical+Society%2C+July+3%2C+1882&rft.place=Buffalo%2C+N.Y.&rft.pages=20%2C+21&rft.pub=Buffalo+Historical+Society&rft.date=1882&rft.au=Buffalo+Historical+Society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1977152-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1977152_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1977152_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1977">Thompson 1977</a>, p. 152.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFThompson1977 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849494-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849494_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1849">Turner 1849</a>, p. 494.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFTurner1849 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849495-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849495_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1849">Turner 1849</a>, p. 495.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFTurner1849 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1849498-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1849498_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1849">Turner 1849</a>, p. 498.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFTurner1849 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906114–115-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906114–115_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker1906">Becker 1906</a>, p. 114–115.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBecker1906 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111,_118-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906111,_118_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker1906">Becker 1906</a>, pp. 111, 118.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBecker1906 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931493-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931493_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBingham1931">Bingham 1931</a>, p. 493.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBingham1931 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker1906">Becker 1906</a>, p. 115.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBecker1906 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931356–357-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931356–357_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBingham1931">Bingham 1931</a>, pp. 356–357.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBingham1931 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115,_118-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906115,_118_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker1906">Becker 1906</a>, p. 115, 118.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBecker1906 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFQuimby1997" class="citation book cs1">Quimby, Robert (1997). <i>The U.S. Army in the War of 1812: An Operational and Command Study</i>. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. p. 355. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87013-441-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87013-441-8"><bdi>978-0-87013-441-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Army+in+the+War+of+1812%3A+An+Operational+and+Command+Study&rft.place=East+Lansing%2C+MI&rft.pages=355&rft.pub=Michigan+State+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-87013-441-8&rft.aulast=Quimby&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFGee2013" class="citation web cs1">Gee, Denise Jewell (December 30, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buffalonews.com/2013/12/30/200-years-ago-the-village-of-buffalo-burned/">"200 years ago, the village of Buffalo burned"</a>. <i>The Buffalo News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170227063815/http://buffalonews.com/2013/12/30/200-years-ago-the-village-of-buffalo-burned/">Archived</a> from the original on February 27, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Buffalo+News&rft.atitle=200+years+ago%2C+the+village+of+Buffalo+burned&rft.date=2013-12-30&rft.aulast=Gee&rft.aufirst=Denise+Jewell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbuffalonews.com%2F2013%2F12%2F30%2F200-years-ago-the-village-of-buffalo-burned%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buffalonews.com/2017/11/29/the-buffalo-of-yesteryear-chictawauga-scajaquady-and-other-oddities-of-the-year-1860/">"The Buffalo of Yesteryear: Chictawauga, Scajaquady and the 'morass' that was Buffalo"</a>. <i>The Buffalo News</i>. November 29, 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171129200743/http://buffalonews.com/2017/11/29/the-buffalo-of-yesteryear-chictawauga-scajaquady-and-other-oddities-of-the-year-1860/">Archived</a> from the original on November 29, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 29,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Buffalo+News&rft.atitle=The+Buffalo+of+Yesteryear%3A+Chictawauga%2C+Scajaquady+and+the+%27morass%27+that+was+Buffalo&rft.date=2017-11-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbuffalonews.com%2F2017%2F11%2F29%2Fthe-buffalo-of-yesteryear-chictawauga-scajaquady-and-other-oddities-of-the-year-1860%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906125–126-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906125–126_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker1906">Becker 1906</a>, p. 125–126.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBecker1906 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:5-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSeverance1879" class="citation book cs1">Severance, Frank H. (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/publicationsofbu09seve">"Papers relating to the Burning of Buffalo"</a>. <i>Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society</i>. Harold B. Lee Library. Buffalo : Bigelow Bros. pp. 334–356.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Papers+relating+to+the+Burning+of+Buffalo&rft.btitle=Publications+of+the+Buffalo+Historical+Society&rft.pages=334-356&rft.pub=Buffalo+%3A+Bigelow+Bros.&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Severance&rft.aufirst=Frank+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpublicationsofbu09seve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker1906132-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker1906132_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker1906">Becker 1906</a>, p. 132.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBecker1906 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/erie-canal-opens">"Erie Canal opens"</a>. <i>The History Channel website</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141014040307/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/erie-canal-opens">Archived</a> from the original on October 14, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 29,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+History+Channel+website&rft.atitle=Erie+Canal+opens&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fthis-day-in-history%2Ferie-canal-opens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Proceedings of the Common Council of the City of Buffalo</i>. James D. Warren's Sons Co. 1909. p. 2262.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+Common+Council+of+the+City+of+Buffalo&rft.pages=2262&rft.pub=James+D.+Warren%27s+Sons+Co.&rft.date=1909&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canals.ny.gov/history/history.html">"Canal History"</a>. <i>New York State Canals</i>. New York State Canal Corporation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307182046/http://www.canals.ny.gov/history/history.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 7, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 29,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+York+State+Canals&rft.atitle=Canal+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.canals.ny.gov%2Fhistory%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFChampieux2003" class="citation web cs1">Champieux, Robin (April 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-3470cla?view=text">"John W. Clark papers"</a>. <i>William L. Clements Library</i>. University of Michigan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141029184320/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-3470cla?view=text">Archived</a> from the original on October 29, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 29,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=William+L.+Clements+Library&rft.atitle=John+W.+Clark+papers&rft.date=2003-04&rft.aulast=Champieux&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fc%2Fclementsmss%2Fumich-wcl-M-3470cla%3Fview%3Dtext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrush190187-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrush190187_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrush1901">Brush 1901</a>, p. 87.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrush1901 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.buffalonet.org/charter.html">"Original Charter of the City of Buffalo 1832"</a>. <i>history.buffalonet.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-05-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.buffalonet.org&rft.atitle=Original+Charter+of+the+City+of+Buffalo+1832&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.buffalonet.org%2Fcharter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/thri/buffalotimeline.htm">"A Brief Chronology of the Development of the City of Buffalo"</a>. <i>National Park Service</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141104091901/http://www.nps.gov/thri/buffalotimeline.htm">Archived</a> from the original on November 4, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 29,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=A+Brief+Chronology+of+the+Development+of+the+City+of+Buffalo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fthri%2Fbuffalotimeline.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol.III</i>, London (1847), Charles Knight, p.915</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Manufacturing Interests of the City of Buffalo: Including Sketches of the History of Buffalo. With Notices of Its Principal Manufacturing Establishments</i>. C.F.S. Thomas. 1866. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manufacturing+Interests+of+the+City+of+Buffalo%3A+Including+Sketches+of+the+History+of+Buffalo.+With+Notices+of+Its+Principal+Manufacturing+Establishments&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=C.F.S.+Thomas&rft.date=1866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-American_Colossus-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-American_Colossus_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.american-colossus.com/">American Colossus: the Grain Elevator 1843-1943 (Colossus Books, 2009)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120702231021/http://www.american-colossus.com/">Archived</a> 2012-07-02 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>www.american-colossus.com</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Liberty_Party-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Liberty_Party_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanabolitionists.com/liberty-party.html">Liberty Party</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-National_Convention_of_Colored_Citizens-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-National_Convention_of_Colored_Citizens_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coloredconventions.org/items/show/278">National Convention of Colored Citizens: 1843</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman198372-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman198372_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldman1983">Goldman 1983</a>, p. 72.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoldman1983 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman198372–74-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman198372–74_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldman1983">Goldman 1983</a>, pp. 72–74.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoldman1983 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman198375–76-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman198375–76_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldman1983">Goldman 1983</a>, pp. 75–76.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoldman1983 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman198387-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman198387_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldman1983">Goldman 1983</a>, p. 87.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoldman1983 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSavageShull1994" class="citation book cs1">Savage, Beth L.; Shull, Carol D. (1994). <i>African American Historic Places</i>. Washington, D.C.: Preservation Press. pp. 346–347. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471143451" title="Special:BookSources/9780471143451"><bdi>9780471143451</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//lccn.loc.gov/94033218">94033218</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/30976865">30976865</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+American+Historic+Places&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=346-347&rft.pub=Preservation+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30976865&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94033218&rft.isbn=9780471143451&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=Beth+L.&rft.au=Shull%2C+Carol+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWesley1944" class="citation journal cs1">Wesley, Charles H. (Jan 1944). "The Participation of Negroes in Anti-Slavery Political Parties". <i>The Journal of Negro History</i>. <b>29</b> (1): 43–44, 51–52, 55, 65. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2714753">10.2307/2714753</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.jstor.org/stable/2714753">2714753</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149675414">149675414</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=The+Participation+of+Negroes+in+Anti-Slavery+Political+Parties&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-44%2C+51-52%2C+55%2C+65&rft.date=1944-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149675414%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2714753%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2714753&rft.aulast=Wesley&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSwitala2014" class="citation book cs1">Switala, William J. (May 14, 2014). <i>Underground Railroad in New York and New Jersey</i>. Stackpole Books. p. 126. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780811746298" title="Special:BookSources/9780811746298"><bdi>9780811746298</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Underground+Railroad+in+New+York+and+New+Jersey&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=2014-05-14&rft.isbn=9780811746298&rft.aulast=Switala&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-The_City_of_Buffalo_1840–1850-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_City_of_Buffalo_1840–1850_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFPriebe_Jr." class="citation web cs1">Priebe Jr., J. Henry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130905173951/http://history.buffalonet.org/1840-50.html">"The City of Buffalo 1840–1850"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.buffalonet.org/1840-50.html">the original</a> on September 5, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 9,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+City+of+Buffalo+1840%E2%80%931850&rft.aulast=Priebe+Jr.&rft.aufirst=J.+Henry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.buffalonet.org%2F1840-50.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBaxter" class="citation web cs1">Baxter, Henry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bechsed.nylearns.org/pdf/Buffalos_Grain_Elevators.pdf">"Grain Elevators"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society</i>. Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141013021637/http://bechsed.nylearns.org/pdf/Buffalos_Grain_Elevators.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 13, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 29,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Buffalo+and+Erie+County+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Grain+Elevators&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbechsed.nylearns.org%2Fpdf%2FBuffalos_Grain_Elevators.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Recon_Concrete-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Recon_Concrete_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKowsky,_Francis_R.2006" class="citation book cs1">Kowsky, Francis R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://regional-institute.buffalo.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2014/06/Reconsidering-Concrete-Atlantis-Buffalo-Grain-Elevators1.pdf">"Monuments of a Vanished Prosperity: Buffalo's Grain Elevators and the Rise and Fall of the Great Transnational System of Grain Transport"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Schneekloth, Lynda H. (ed.). <i>Reconsidering Concrete Atlantis: Buffalo Grain Elevators</i>. The Urban Design Project, School of Architecture and Planning, University at Buffalo. pp. 24–25. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160927102835/http://regional-institute.buffalo.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2014/06/Reconsidering-Concrete-Atlantis-Buffalo-Grain-Elevators1.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on September 27, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 25,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Monuments+of+a+Vanished+Prosperity%3A+Buffalo%27s+Grain+Elevators+and+the+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Great+Transnational+System+of+Grain+Transport&rft.btitle=Reconsidering+Concrete+Atlantis%3A+Buffalo+Grain+Elevators&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=The+Urban+Design+Project%2C+School+of+Architecture+and+Planning%2C+University+at+Buffalo&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Kowsky%2C+Francis+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fregional-institute.buffalo.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F3%2F2014%2F06%2FReconsidering-Concrete-Atlantis-Buffalo-Grain-Elevators1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace186066–74-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace186066–74_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrenchPlace1860">French & Place 1860</a>, pp. 66–74.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFFrenchPlace1860 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace1860286-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenchPlace1860286_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrenchPlace1860">French & Place 1860</a>, p. 286.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFFrenchPlace1860 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBingham1931385-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBingham1931385_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBingham1931">Bingham 1931</a>, p. 385.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBingham1931 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John W. Percy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://buffaloah.com/h/erieC/percy/percy.html"><i>The Erie Canal: From Lockport to Buffalo</i></a>, 1979 (rev. 2002).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis Lansky, "Buffalo and the Great Depression, 1929-1933," in Milton Plesur, ed., <i>American Historian: Essays to Honor Selig Adler</i> (1980), pp 204-13</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100708014105/http://www.parksidebuffalo.org/history.html">"1941–1945"</a>. <i>History</i>. Parkside Community Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parksidebuffalo.org/history.html">the original</a> on July 8, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History&rft.atitle=1941%E2%80%931945&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parksidebuffalo.org%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRizzo" class="citation web cs1">Rizzo, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110926220745/http://www.buffalonian.com/history/industry/mayors/Kelly.htm">"Joseph J. Kelly 1942–1945"</a>. <i>Through The Mayor's Eyes</i>. The Buffalonian. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buffalonian.com/history/industry/mayors/Kelly.htm">the original</a> on September 26, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Through+The+Mayor%27s+Eyes&rft.atitle=Joseph+J.+Kelly+1942%E2%80%931945&rft.aulast=Rizzo&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.buffalonian.com%2Fhistory%2Findustry%2Fmayors%2FKelly.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Circle-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Circle_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.buffalo.edu/~sww/0history/1935-1970.html">"The Circle Association's African American History of Western New York State, 1935 to 1970"</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman1983270-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman1983270_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldman1983">Goldman 1983</a>, p. 270.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoldman1983 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldman1983271-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldman1983271_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldman1983">Goldman 1983</a>, p. 271.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoldman1983 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-bfsa-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bfsa_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bfsa.state.ny.us/">Official Site of the Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority</a> <i>www.bfsa.state.ny.us</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ECFSA-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ECFSA_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecfsa.state.ny.us">Erie County Fiscal Stability Authority</a> <i>www.ecfsa.state.ny.us</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Scott Thomas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bizjournals.com/buffalo/news/2020/02/20/why-isnt-buffalo-growing.html"><i>Why isn't Buffalo growing?</i></a>, Buffalo Business First, Feb. 20, 2020.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>Smith, H. Perry. (1884). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofcityofb01smit">History of the city of Buffalo and Erie County : with ... biographical sketches of some of its prominent men and pioneers ...</a></i> Syracuse, NY: D. Mason & Co.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_Buffalo,_New_York#Bibliography" title="Timeline of Buffalo, New York">Timeline of Buffalo, New York § Bibliography</a></div>
<ul><li>Coffey, Brian, and Allen G. Noble. "Mid-nineteenth century housing in Buffalo, New York." <i>Material Culture</i> 28.3 (1996): 1-16. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29764018">in JSTOR</a></li>
<li>Gerber, David A. <i>The Making of an American Pluralism: Buffalo, New York, 1825-60</i> (Univ of Illinois Press, 1989).</li>
<li>Jenkins, William. "In Search of the Lace Curtain: Residential Mobility, Class Transformation, and Everyday Practice among Buffalo’s Irish, 1880—1910." <i>Journal of Urban History</i> 35.7 (2009): 970–997.</li>
<li>Kohler, C. Douglas, and Julianna L. Woite. <i>Clarence</i> (Arcadia Publishing, 2012), a suburb</li>
<li>Rizzo, Michael F. <i>Through the Mayors' Eyes: Buffalo, New York 1832-2005</i> (Lulu.com, 2005).</li>
<li>Rockwell, Mary Rech. "Elite Women and Class Formation." in by Julia B. Rosenbaum and Sven Beckert, eds. <i>The American Bourgeoisie: Distinction and Identity in the Nineteenth Century</i> (Palgrave Macmillan US, 2010). 153–166.</li>
<li>Smith, Henry Perry. <i>History of the City of Buffalo and Erie County</i> (2 vol. 1884).</li>
<li>Taylor, Steven J.L. <i>Desegregation in Boston and Buffalo: The influence of local leaders</i> (SUNY Press, 1998).</li>
<li>Williams, Lillian Serece. <i>Strangers in the Land of Paradise: The Creation of an African American Community in Buffalo, New York, 1900-1940</i> (Indiana University Press, 2000).</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Old_primary_sources">Old primary sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Old primary sources">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation cs2"><i>A directory for the city of Buffalo</i>, Buffalo: L.P. Crary, 1832, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/35591891">35591891</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//openlibrary.org/books/OL7055402M">7055402M</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+directory+for+the+city+of+Buffalo&rft.place=Buffalo&rft.pub=L.P.+Crary&rft.date=1832&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35591891&rft_id=%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7055402M%23id-name%3DOL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.niagara.edu/library/buffhist/eriehome.html">History of the City of Buffalo and Erie County, 1884</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKuebler,_Albert_J.1894" class="citation cs2">Kuebler, Albert J. (1894), <i>Knights of Pythias directory and Buffalo street directory and guide ...</i>, Buffalo, N.Y: Kraft & Stern, printers, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//openlibrary.org/books/OL25229892M">25229892M</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Knights+of+Pythias+directory+and+Buffalo+street+directory+and+guide+...&rft.place=Buffalo%2C+N.Y&rft.pub=Kraft+%26+Stern%2C+printers&rft.date=1894&rft_id=%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL25229892M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.au=Kuebler%2C+Albert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Buffalo%2C+New+York" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ci.buffalo.ny.us">City of Buffalo official website</a></li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_City_of_Buffalo,_New_York" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r992953826">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:City_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Template:City of Buffalo, New York"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:City_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Template talk:City of Buffalo, New York"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:City_of_Buffalo,_New_York&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_City_of_Buffalo,_New_York" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg/23px-Flag_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg/35px-Flag_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg/46px-Flag_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></span> City of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div id="*_Metro_area_*_Western_New_York">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo%E2%80%93Niagara_Falls_metropolitan_area" title="Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area">Metro area</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_New_York" title="Western New York">Western New York</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_and_government_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Politics and government of Buffalo, New York">Government and Services</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_City_Hall" title="Buffalo City Hall">City Hall</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Common_Council" title="Buffalo Common Council">Common Council</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Fire_Department" title="Buffalo Fire Department">Fire</a></li>
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<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York_parks_system" title="Buffalo, New York parks system">Parks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Police_Department" title="Buffalo Police Department">Police</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Seal_of_Buffalo,_New_York.svg" class="image"><img alt="Seal of Buffalo, New York.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Seal_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg/100px-Seal_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Seal_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg/150px-Seal_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Seal_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg/200px-Seal_of_Buffalo%2C_New_York.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1365" data-file-height="1365" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transportation_in_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Transportation in Buffalo, New York">Transportation</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara_Frontier_Transportation_Authority" title="Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority">Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Metro_Rail" title="Buffalo Metro Rail">Metro rail</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Metropolitan_Transportation_Center" title="Buffalo Metropolitan Transportation Center">Bus transit center</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Niagara_International_Airport" title="Buffalo Niagara International Airport">Buffalo airport</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niagara_Falls_International_Airport" title="Niagara Falls International Airport">Niagara Falls airport</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amtrak" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo%E2%80%93Depew_station" title="Buffalo–Depew station">Depew station</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo%E2%80%93Exchange_Street_station" title="Buffalo–Exchange Street station">Exchange Street station</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erie_Canal" title="Erie Canal">Erie Canal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research and education</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_at_Buffalo" title="University at Buffalo">University at Buffalo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Public_Schools" title="Buffalo Public Schools">Buffalo Public Schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_State_College" title="Buffalo State College">Buffalo State College</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bryant_%26_Stratton_College" title="Bryant & Stratton College">Bryant & Stratton College</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canisius_College" title="Canisius College">Canisius College</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/D%27Youville_College" title="D'Youville College">D'Youville College</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erie_Community_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Erie Community College">Erie Community College</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medaille_College" title="Medaille College">Medaille College</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medicine and healthcare</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erie_County_Medical_Center" title="Erie County Medical Center">Erie County Medical Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buffalo_Niagara_Medical_Campus" title="Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus">Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roswell_Park_Comprehensive_Cancer_Center" title="Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center">Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaleida_Health" title="Kaleida Health">Kaleida Health</a> (Buffalo General Medical Center)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_R._Oishei_Children%E2%80%99s_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="John R. Oishei Children’s Hospital">John R. Oishei Children’s Hospital</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_at_Buffalo_School_of_Medicine_and_Biomedical_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="University at Buffalo School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences">University at Buffalo School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gates_Vascular_Institute" title="Gates Vascular Institute">Gates Vascular Institute</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hauptman-Woodward_Medical_Research_Institute" title="Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute">Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_Health" title="Catholic Health">Catholic Health</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sisters_of_Charity_Hospital_(Buffalo)" title="Sisters of Charity Hospital (Buffalo)">Sisters of Charity Hospital</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mount_St._Mary%27s_Hospital_%26_Health_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount St. Mary's Hospital & Health Center">Mount St. Mary's Hospital & Health Center</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Architecture_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Architecture of Buffalo, New York">Architecture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Buffalo" title="List of tallest buildings in Buffalo">Tallest buildings</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_Buffalo,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of Buffalo, New York">Culture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_Buffalo,_New_York" title="List of festivals in Buffalo, New York">Festivals</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Economy of Buffalo, New York">Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Flag of Buffalo, New York">Flag</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a>
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<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neighborhoods_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Neighborhoods of Buffalo, New York">Neighborhoods</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_people_from_Buffalo,_New_York" title="List of people from Buffalo, New York">Notable Buffalonians</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seal_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Seal of Buffalo, New York">Seal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sports_in_Buffalo" title="Sports in Buffalo">Sports</a></li></ul>
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