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'{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}} {{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}} {{Good article}} <!-- See [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Indian cities]] for details -->{{Infobox settlement | name = Kumbakonam | official_name = | other_name = Kumbakonam | settlement_type = Town | image_skyline = Town Hall Kumbakonam.jpg | image_alt = Town hall building | image_caption = Kumbakonam Town Hall | nickname = Cambridge of South India | pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu#India | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India | coordinates = {{coord|10.97|N|79.42|E|display=inline,title}} | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|India}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of regions of India|Region]] | subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of India|District]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Thanjavur District|Thanjavur]] | established_title = <!-- Established --> | established_date = | founder = | named_for = | government_type = Special Grade Municipality | governing_body = Kumbakonam Municipality | leader_title = Municipal Chairperson | leader_name = NIL | unit_pref = Metric | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = 12.58 | area_rank = | elevation_footnotes = | elevation_m = 24 | population_total = 140,156 | population_as_of = 2011 | population_footnotes = | population_density_km2 = auto | population_rank = | population_demonym = | demographics_type1 = Languages | demographics1_title1 = Official | timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]] | utc_offset1 = +5:30 | postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]] | postal_code = 612001-6 | area_code = (91) 435 | area_code_type = Telephone code | registration_plate = TN 68 TN 49 | website = | footnotes = | demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] }} '''Kumbakonam''' (formerly spelt as '''Coombaconum''' or '''Combaconum''')<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Combaconum|volume=6|page=750}}</ref> is a [[town]] and a special grade [[municipality]] in the [[Thanjavur district]] in the [[India]]n [[States of India|state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]]. It is located {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Thanjavur]] and {{convert|273|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Chennai]] and is the headquarters of the [[Kumbakonam taluk]] of Thanjavur district. The town is bounded by two rivers, the [[Kaveri River]] to the north and [[Arasalar River]] to the south. Kumbakonam is known as a "temple town" due to the prevalence of a number of [[Hindu temple|temples]] here and is noted for its [[Mahamaham festival]] which attracts people from all over the country. Kumbakonam dates back to the [[Sangam period]] and was ruled by the [[Early Cholas]], [[Pallavas]], [[Mutharaiyar dynasty]], [[Medieval Cholas]], [[Later Cholas]], [[Pandya]]s, the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], [[Madurai Nayaks]], [[Thanjavur Nayaks]] and the [[Thanjavur Marathas]]. It rose to be a prominent town between the 7th and 9th centuries AD, when it served as a capital of the Medieval Cholas. The town reached the zenith of its prosperity during the [[British Raj]] when it was a prominent centre of European education and Hindu culture; and it acquired the cultural name, the "[[Cambridge]] of [[South India]]". In 1866, Kumbakonam was officially constituted as a municipality, which today comprises 45 wards, making it the largest municipality and second largest local civil body in Thanjavur district. == Etymology == The name "Kumbakonam", roughly translated in English as the "Pot's Corner",<ref name="catholicp710">{{cite book|page=710|title=The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholic church, Volume 8|first=Charles George|last=Herbermann|author2=Edward Aloysius Pace |author3=Condé Bénoist Pallen |author4=Thomas Joseph Shahan |author5=John Joseph Wynne |publisher=The Catholic Encyclopedia Inc.|year=1934}}</ref> is believed to be an [[allusion]] to the mythical pot (''[[kumbha]]'') of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] god [[Brahma]] that contained the seed of all living beings on earth. The ''kumbha'' is believed to have been displaced by a ''[[pralaya]]'' (dissolution of the universe) and ultimately came to rest at the spot where the town of Kumbakonam now stands. This event is now commemorated in the Mahamaham festival held every 12 years. Kumbakonam is also known as Baskarashetram<ref name="chandrasekharendrap73">{{cite book|title=Paramacharya: life of Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi of Sri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam|last=Sastri |first= Sambamurthy S.|publisher=Jina kalan|page=73|year=1991}}</ref> and Kumbam<ref name="history_thehindu">{{cite news|title=History of Kumbakonam|url=http://www.hindu.com/br/2005/04/12/stories/2005041200121401.htm|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=12 April 2005|last=V.|first= Gnanasundaram|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> from time immemorial and as Kudanthai in ancient times.<ref name="indianadvertisingp169">{{cite book|title=The Indian advertising year book|page=169|publisher=Our India Directories and Publications.|year=1962}}</ref> Kumbakonam is also spelt as Coombaconum in the records of British India.<ref name="sottovocep146">{{cite book|title=Sotto voce: a social and political commentary, Volume 2|last=N.|first= Raghunathan|publisher=B. G. Paul|year=1970|page=146}}</ref> Kumbakonam was also formerly known by the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] name of Kudamukku.<ref name="southindianshrinesp320">[[Jagadisa P. V. Ayyar|Ayyar]] 1920, p. 320</ref> Kumbakonam is also identified with the [[Sangam age]] settlement of Kudavayil.<ref name="ancienttamilsp88">{{cite book|title=The Chronology of the Early Tamils – Based on the Synchronistic Tables of Their Kings, Chieftains and Poets Appearing in the Sangam Literature|page=88|first= Sivaraja K.N.|last= Pillai}}</ref> ==History== [[File:Kumbakonam1955.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A 1955 map of Kumbakonam municipality and surrounding areas|alt=old map of a town]] [[File:Sculpture at Nageshwara Temple - Kumbakonam - India 04.JPG|150px|thumb|right|Sculpture on the walls of [[Nageswaraswamy Temple, Kumbakonam|Nageswaran temple]]|alt=A granite sculpture on the walls of a temple]] The region around Kumbakonam was inhabited as early as the Sangam Age (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD). The present-day Kumbakonam is believed to be the site of the ancient town of Kudavayil where the [[Early Chola]] king [[Karikala]] held his court.<ref name="ancienttamilsp88" /> Some scholars identify Kumbakonam as the site of the fabled prison of Kudavayir-kottam where the Chera king Kanaikkal Irumporai was imprisoned by the Early Chola king [[Kocengannan]].<ref name="cholasp72">[[#Sastri|Sastri]] 1935, p. 72</ref> Kumbakonam is identified with the town of Malaikūrram<ref name="imperialgazetteerp20">[[#Hunter|Hunter]] 1908, Vol 16, p. 20</ref> which had served as the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] capital as early as the 7th century and with the town of Solamaligai which had also served as a Chola capital.<ref name="southindianshrinesp320" /> According to the Sinnamanur plates, Kumbakonam was the site of a battle between the [[Pallava]] king [[Sri Vallabha]] and the then [[Pandya kingdom|Pandya]] king in 859<ref name="cholasp105">[[#Sastri|Sastri]] 1935, p. 105</ref><ref name="saivaartp10">{{cite book|title=Saiva Art and Architecture|page=10|last=C. |first=Krishna Murthy|year=1985|publisher=Sundeep Prakashan}}</ref> and between the Pandya king Srimara Pandya and a confederacy of the Cholas and [[Western Ganga Dynasty|Gangas]].<ref name="southindianshrinesp320" /> Kumbakonam came into the limelight during the rule of the [[Medieval Cholas]] who ruled from the 9th century to the 12th century. The town of [[Pazhaiyaarai]], {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Kumbakonam was the capital of the Chola Empire in the 9th century.<ref name="houseofgodp178">{{cite book|title=House of God: select temples of South India|last=N. S.|first= Ramaswami|publisher=Maps and Agencies|year=1984|page=178}}</ref> Following the decline of the Chola kingdom, Kumbakonam was conquered by the Pandyas in 1290.<ref name="interdictp502">[[#Ring|Ring]] 1996, p. 502</ref> Following the demise of the Pandya kingdom in the 14th century, Kumbakonam was conquered by the [[Vijayanagar Empire]].<ref name="interdictp502" /> [[Krishnadevaraya]] (1509–29), the emperor of [[Vijayanagara]] visited the town in 1524 and is believed to have bathed in the famous [[Mahamaham tank]] during the Mahamaham festival.<ref name="interdictp502" /> Kumbakonam was ruled by the [[Madurai Nayaks]] and the [[Thanjavur Nayaks]] from 1535 to 1673 when it fell to the [[Thanjavur Marathas|Marathas]].<ref name="interdictp503">[[#Ring|Ring]] 1996, p. 503</ref> Each of these dynasties had a considerable impact on the [[demographics]] and [[culture]] of the region.<ref name="goughp30">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 30</ref><ref name="nayaksp7">[[#V.|V.]] 1942, p. 7</ref><ref name="metralcraftsmen">{{cite book|title=Metalcraftsmen of India Issue 44 of Memoir (Anthropological Survey of India) Memoir / Anthropological Survey of India; no.44|first=Meera|last= Mukherjee|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India|year=1978}}</ref><ref name="dvaitap476">[[#Krishnamurti Sarma|Sarma]] 2000, p. 476</ref><ref name="salemcityp52">{{cite book|title=Salem city: an ethnohistory (1792–1992)|page=52|last=Ka|first= Ilakkumi Nārāyaṇan|author2=T. Gangadharan |author3=N. Chandrasekar |year=1999|publisher=Vysya College}}</ref> When the Vijayanagar Empire fell in 1565, there was a mass influx of poets, musicians and cultural artists from the kingdom.<ref name="salemcityp52" /><ref name="nayaksp1">[[#V.|V.]] 1942, p. 1</ref> [[File:Kumbakonam fire accident 4.jpg|thumb|[[2004 Kumbakonam School fire|Kumbakonam school fire]] accident memorial|alt=a memorial with sculpture of children and parents|150px]] According to the chronicles of the Hindu monastic institution, the [[Kanchi matha]], the ''[[matha]]'' was temporarily transferred to Kumbakonam in the 1780s following an invasion of [[Kanchipuram]] by [[Hyder Ali]] of [[Mysore kingdom|Mysore]].<ref name="history_thehindu" /><ref name="southindianshrinesp325">[[#Ayyar|Ayyar]] 1920, p. 325</ref><ref name="southindianshrinesp326">[[#Ayyar|Ayyar]] 1920, p. 326</ref><ref name="kanchi">{{cite web|title=History of the Kanchi Shankaracharya matha and Acharaparampara|work=Sri Sankara Bhagavatpada And Sri Kanchi Kamakoti Sankaracharya Math Moolamnaya Sarvajna Peetham|url=http://www.kamakoti.org/peeth/origin.html#appendix2|publisher=Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> When [[Tipu Sultan]] invaded the east coast of South India in 1784, Kumbakonam bore the brunt of his invasion.<ref name="interdictp503" /><ref name="marathatanjorep62">{{cite book|title=The Maratha Rajas of Tanjore|last=K. R.|first= Subramaniam|year=1928}}</ref> The produce fell sharply and the economy collapsed.<ref name="interdictp503" /><ref name="marathatanjorep62" /> Kumbakonam did not recover from the calamity till the beginning of the 19th century.<ref name="marathatanjorep62" /> Kumbakonam was eventually ceded to the [[British East India Company]] in 1799 by the Thanjavur Maratha ruler [[Serfoji II]] (1777–1832)<ref name="interdictp503" /> and reached the zenith of its prosperity in the late 19th and early 20th century<ref name="tnuifslp4">[[#TNUIFSL Report|TNUIFSL Report]] 2007, p. 4</ref> when it emerged as an important center of [[Brahminical Hinduism|Brahminism]],<ref name="goughp28">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 28</ref> [[Hindu religion]] and European education in the [[Madras Presidency]].<ref name="interdictp503" /> The opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869 fostered trade contacts with the United Kingdom.<ref name="interdictp503" /> In 1877, railway lines were completed linking Kumbakonam with the ports of [[Madras]], [[Tuticorin]] and [[Nagapattinam]].<ref name="interdictp503" /> The Tanjore district court was established in Kumbakonam in 1806 and functioned from 1806 to 1863.<ref name="imperialgazetteerp21">[[#Hunter|Hunter]], p. 21</ref> Kumbakonam continued to grow even after [[Independence of India|India's independence]] though it fell behind the nearby town of Thanjavur in terms of population and administrative importance.<ref name="urbansociologyp193"> {{cite book|title=Urban Sociology in India|page=193|first=M. S. A.|last= Rao|year=1992|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=0861252969}}</ref> The [[population growth rate]] began to fall sharply after 1981.<ref name="tnuifslp4" /> This decline has been attributed to limited land area and lack of industrial potential.<ref name="tnuifslp4" /> However the peripheral areas of Kumbakonam population increased as evident from the successive census data. During the Mahamaham festival of 1992, there was a major [[Mahamaham Stampede|stampede]] in which 48 people were killed and 74 were injured.<ref name="telegraph" /><ref name="B.K.">{{Cite book |last=B.K.|first=Khanna |title=All You Wanted To Know About Disasters|year=2005 |publisher=New India Publishing Agency |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-89422-13-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GwGlBIJyNoIC&q=kumbakonam+1992&pg=PA190 }}</ref> On 16 July 2004, a [[2004 Kumbakonam School fire|devastating fire accident]] in the Sri Krishna school killed 94 children.<ref name="rediff_schoolfire">{{cite news|title=83 children killed in school fire in Kumbakonam|url=http://in.rediff.com/news/2004/jul/16tn.htm|date=16 July 2004|work=Rediff News|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref><ref name="schoolfire_thehindu">{{cite news|title=87 children die in school fire|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/07/17/stories/2004071707570100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718032139/http://www.hindu.com/2004/07/17/stories/2004071707570100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 July 2004|date=17 July 2004|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> ==Geography== [[File:Kumbakonam Cauvery.jpg|thumb|River Kaveri as viewed from bridge|alt=a river with a small brick structure in the middle]] Kumbakonam is located at {{Coord|10.97|N|79.42|E|}}.<ref name="astrop508">{{cite book|title=The Astrological magazine|page=508|publisher=Roman Publications|year=1983}}</ref> It is situated {{convert|273|km|mi|abbr=on}} south of [[Chennai]],<ref name="educationworld">{{cite book|title=Education world: the human development magazine, Volume 8, Issues 7–12|publisher=D. Thakore|year=2006}}</ref> {{convert|96|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of [[Tiruchirappalli]], and about {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} north-east of [[Thanjavur]].<ref name="indianplacenames">{{cite book|title=Studies in Indian place names|first=Madhav N.|last= Katti|publisher=Place Names Society of India|year=1980}}</ref> It lies in the region called the "Old [[River delta|delta]]" which comprises the north-western taluks of Thanjavur district that have been naturally irrigated by the waters of the Cauvery and its tributaries for centuries in contrast to the "New Delta" comprising the southern taluks that were brought under irrigation by the construction of the [[Grand Anicut]] canal and the Vadavar canal in 1934.<ref name="goughp5">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 5</ref><ref name="womenworkersp139">{{cite book|title=Limited options: women workers in rural India|page=139|last=A. V. |first=Jose|publisher=International Labour Organisation|year=1939|isbn=9221067173}}</ref> It has an average elevation of 26&nbsp;metres (85&nbsp;ft).<ref name="sindianrailwayp217">{{cite book|title=Illustrated guide to the South Indian Railway: including the Mayavaram-Mutupet, and Peralam-Karaikkal railways|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_irg2AAAAMAAJ|year=1900|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_irg2AAAAMAAJ/page/n241 217]|publisher=[[Higginbotham's]]}}</ref> The town is bounded by two rivers, the [[Cauvery River]] on the north and [[Arasalar River]] on the south.<ref name="southindianshrinesp320" /> Although the Cauvery delta is usually hot, the climate of Kumbakonam and other surrounding towns is generally healthy<ref name="bayofbengalpilotp11">{{cite book|title=The Bay of Bengal pilot|page=11|year=1910|publisher=Great Britain Hydrographic Department}}</ref> and moderate.<ref name="industrialdevelopmentp481">{{cite book|title=Industrial development potential survey of selected towns of India|page=481|publisher=Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry|year=1977}}</ref> Kumbakonam is cooler than Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu.<ref name="censusp45">{{cite book|title=Census of India, 1961: Madras|page=45|publisher=Manager of Publications|year=1962}}</ref> The maximum temperature in summer is about {{convert|40|°C|°F}} while the minimum temperature is about {{convert|20|°C|°F}}.<ref name="hydrologyp776">{{cite book|title=Hydrology and Water Resources of India|first=Sharad K.|last= Jain|author2=Pushpendra K. Agarwal |author3=Vijay P. Singh |publisher=Springer|page=776|isbn=1402051794}}</ref> Kumbakonam receives an annual rainfall of {{convert|114.78|cm|in|abbr=on}} every year.<ref name="powerp7025">{{cite book|title=Gifts of power: lordship in an early Indian state|first=James|last= Heitzman|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1997|isbn=0195639782}}</ref> The region is covered with mainly [[alluvial]] or [[Vertisol|black soil]] which is conducive for [[Paddy field|rice cultivation]].<ref name="goughp5" /> Other crops grown in Kumbakonam include [[mulberry]], [[cereals]] and [[sugarcane]].<ref name="southindiap141">[[#W.|W.]] 1988, p. 141</ref><ref name="classp17">{{cite book|title=CASTE, CLASS, AND POWER|page=17|first=André|last= Béteille|author-link=André Béteille|publisher=University of California Press|year=1971}}</ref> The town of Kumbakonam is surrounded by extensive paddy fields.<ref name="goughp5" /> Methods of irrigation were considerably improved following the opening of the [[Mettur Dam]] in 1934.<ref name="interdictp503" /><ref name="goughp5" /> The [[fauna]] of the Cauvery Delta is limited to [[cattle]] and [[goats]].<ref name="southindiap141" /> The town is situated at the western flank of the Kumbakonam-[[Shiyali]] [[ridge]] which runs along the Kollidam river<ref name="journalp31">[[#Micropalaeontology|Micropalaeontology]] 1972, p. 31</ref> basin separating the [[Ariyalur]]-[[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] depression from the [[Nagapattinam]] [[Depression (geology)|depression]].<ref name="journalp34">[[#Micropalaeontology|Micropalaeontology]] 1972, p. 34</ref><ref name="mineralexplorationp253">{{cite book|title=Mineral exploration: recent strategies|last=S.|first= Rajendran|page=253|publisher=New India Publishing|year=2007|isbn=978-8189422714}}</ref> This granular ridge projects further eastwards penetrating the Puducherry depression and forms a hard layer of [[cretaceous]] rock underneath the [[sedimentary]] [[top soil]].<ref name="mineralexplorationp253" /><ref name="geologicalsocietyp269">{{cite book|title=Journal of the Geological Society of India, Volume 46|page=269|publisher=Geological Society of India|year=1995}}</ref> ==Temples== [[File:Mahamaham Tank.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Mahamaham tank, Kumbakonam|Mahamaham tank]] – one of the most prominent landmarks of the town]] {{Main|Temples of Kumbakonam}} Kumbakonam is known for its [[Hindu temple|temples]] and ''[[matha]]''s (monasteries). There are around 188 Hindu temples within the municipal limits of Kumbakonam.<ref name="tnuifslp4" /> Apart from these, there several thousand temples around the town thereby giving the town the sobriquets "Temple Town" and "City of temples".<ref name="brihadiswarap2">{{cite book|title=Sri Brihadisvara: the great temple of Thānjavūr|last=E. K.|first= Sashadri|publisher=Nile Books|year=1998|page=2}}</ref> [[Adi Kumbeswarar Temple]] is considered to be the oldest [[Shaiva]] (the sect of the god [[Shiva]]) shrine in the town, believed to be constructed by the Cholas in the 7th century.<ref name="templesofsouthindiap57">[[#Ambujam Anantharaman|Anantharaman]] 2006, p. 57</ref> The [[Nageswaraswamy Temple, Kumbakonam|Nageswaraswamy Temple]] has a separate shrine for the Sun god [[Surya]] who is believed to have worshipped Shiva at this place.<ref name="southindianshrinesp323">[[Jagadisa P. V. Ayyar|Ayyar]] 1920, p. 323</ref> Adi Kumbeswarar temple, Nageswaraswamy temple and [[Kasi Viswanathar Temple, Kumbakonam|Kasi Viswanathar temple]] are Shiva temples in the town revered in the ''[[Tevaram]]'', a Tamil Shaiva canonical work of the 7th–8th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tirugnanasambandar|title=Muthalam Thirumurai|url=http://projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/pdf/pm0151.pdf|year=2004 |publisher=Project Madurai |location=Online |pages=14–15 }}</ref> Kumbakonam has one of the few temples dedicated to the god [[Brahma]].<ref name="southindiap137">[[#W.|W.]] 1988, p. 137</ref> [[Sarangapani temple]] is the largest [[Vaishnava]] (the sect of the god [[Vishnu]]) shrine present in Kumbakonam. The present structure of the temple having a twelve storey high tower was constructed by Nayak kings in the 15th century. It is one of the "[[Divya Desams]]", the 108 temples of Vishnu revered by the 12 [[Alvars|Alvar]] saint-poets.<ref>[[Jagadisa P. V. Ayyar|Ayyar]] 1920, p. 534</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Illustrated Guide to the South Indian Railway (Incorporated in England): Including the Tanjore District Board, Pondicherry, Peralam-Karaikkal, Travancore State, Cochin State, Coimbatore District Board, Tinnevelly-Tiruchendur, and the Nilgiri Railways|page=57| year=1926| publisher=South Indian Railway Company| location=Madras}}</ref> The [[Ramaswamy Temple, Kumbakonam|Ramaswamy temple]], which has scenes from the Hindu epic ''[[Ramayana]]'' depicted on its walls, was constructed by [[Govinda Dikshitar]], the minister of successive Nayak rulers, [[Achuthappa Nayak]] (1560–1614) and [[Raghunatha Nayak]] (1600–34).<ref name="southindianshrinesp324">[[Jagadisa P. V. Ayyar|Ayyar]] 1920, p. 324</ref><ref name="govindadikshitar">{{cite news|title=Minister, mentor and philanthropist |url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2004/03/05/stories/2004030501580600.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040801054519/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2004/03/05/stories/2004030501580600.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 August 2004|date=5 March 2004|work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> He added a commercial corridor between the temple and the older [[Chakrapani Temple, Kumbakonam|Chakrapani temple]], which in modern times is called Chinna Kadai Veethi, a commercial street in the town.<ref>{{cite book|title=Diaspora of the gods: modern Hindu temples in an urban middle-class world |year=2004|page=246|first= Joanne Punzo|last= Waghorne|isbn=0-19-515663-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QBLFbfUrsDIC&q=ramaswamy}}</ref> Pilgrims from all parts of India take a holy dip once every 12 years during the [[Mahamaham festival]] in the [[Mahamaham tank, Kumbakonam|Mahamaham tank]].<ref name="tnuifslp4" /><ref name="templesofsouthindiap57" /><ref name="govindadikshitar" /> Over 40 lakh pilgrims participated in the festival during the 2016 event which is also known as the Southern Kumbha mela.<ref name="telegraph">{{cite news|title=Hi-tech rein on pilgrims|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1040306/asp/nation/story_2973836.asp|work=The Telegraph India|date=6 March 2004|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> Govinda Dikshitar constructed the sixteen [[mandapam]]s (shrines) and stone steps around this tank.<ref name="govindadikshitar" /><ref>[[#V.|V.]] 1942, p. 120</ref> Kumbakonam also has a number of ''matha''s. The Sri Sankara matha of Kanchipuram was moved to Kumbakonam during the reign of [[Pratapsingh of Thanjavur|Pratap Singh]]<ref name="southindianshrinesp325" /> (1739–63) and remained in Kumbakonam until the 1960s. There are also two [[Vellalar]] mathas in the nearby towns of [[Dharmapuram Adheenam|Dharmapuram]] and [[Thiruppanandal Adheenam|Thiruppanandal]]<ref name="goughp42">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 42</ref> and a Raghavendra matha in Kumbakonam.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z3rAr456ngQC|title=Sages Through Ages - Volume II: India's Heritage|last=Nair|first=Kunhi|publisher=AuthorHouse|year=2007|isbn=9781420878035|pages=105|language=en}}</ref> There is also a branch of the Vaishnava [[Ahobila mutt]] in Kumbakonam.<ref name="castesandtribesp349">{{cite book|title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Volume I|page=349|first=Edgar|last= Thurston|publisher=Clarendon Press|author-link=Edgar Thurston|year=1909}}</ref> The [[Thenupuriswarar Temple]] at [[Patteeswaram]], the [[Oppiliappan Kovil]], the [[Swamimalai Murugan temple]] and the [[Airavatesvara Temple|Airavateswarar temple at Darasuram]] are located in the vicinity of Kumbakonam.<ref>{{cite web|title=Places of interest around Kumbakonam|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/abcity_Place%20of%20interest1.htm|publisher=Kumbakonam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121218223418/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/abcity_Place%20of%20interest1.htm|archive-date=18 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Airavatesvara Temple built by [[Rajaraja Chola II]] (1146–73) during 12th century is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], along with the [[Brihadeeswara Temple]] at Thanjavur, the Gangaikondacholisvaram Temple at [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]] that are referred as the Great Living Chola Temples.<ref name="unesco"/> ==Demographics== {{bar box|title=Religious census|titlebar=#ddd|left1=Religion|right1=Percent(%)|float=left|bars={{bar percent|[[Hinduism|Hindu]]|Orange|86.07}}{{bar percent|[[Islam|Muslim]]|Green|9.57}}{{bar percent|[[Christianity|Christian]]|purple|3.99}}{{bar percent|[[Sikhism|Sikh]]|yellow|0.0}}{{bar percent|[[Buddhism|Buddhist]]|Gold|0.0}}{{bar percent|[[Jainism|Jain]]|Blue|0.23}}{{bar percent|Other|grey|0.13}}}} {{Historical populations |state=collapsed |1871 |44444 |1881 |50098 |1891 |54307 |1901 |59673 |1911|64647 |1921|60700 |1931|62317 |1941|67008 |1951|91648 |1961|92581 |1971|113130 |1981|132832 |1991|139449 |2001|140021 |2011|140056 |footnote=Sources: * 1871 – 1901:<ref name="imperialgazetteerp20" /> * 1911 – 1961:<ref name="censusofindia1969">{{cite book|title=Census of India, 1961, Volume 9|last=India. Office of the Registrar General|publisher=Manager of Publications|year=1969}}</ref> * 1951 – 2001:<ref name="tnuifslp4" /> * 2011:<ref name="dashboard"/> }} According to [[2011 census of India|2011 census]], Kumbakonam had a population of 140,156 with a sex-ratio of 1,021 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929.<ref name="dashboard">{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/censusinfodashboard/index.html|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 Jan 2014}}</ref> A total of 12,791 were under the age of six, constituting 6,495 males and 6,296 females. The average literacy of the town was 83.21%, compared to the national average of 72.99%.<ref name="dashboard"/> There were a total of 9,519 workers, comprising 32 cultivators, 83 main agricultural labourers, 1,206 in house hold industries, 7,169 other workers, 1,029 marginal workers, 24 marginal cultivators, 45 marginal agricultural labourers, 212 marginal workers in household industries and 0 other marginal workers.<ref name=2011census>{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals - Kumbakonam|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=694195|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 Jan 2014}}</ref> Kumbakonam has a strong Hindu majority; but it also has sizeable Muslim and Christian populations.<ref name="goughp33" /> Among Hindus, [[Vanniyars]], [[Kallars]],<ref name="goughp30" /><ref name="goughp31">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 31</ref> [[Tamil Brahmin|Brahmins]]<ref name="goughp19">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 19</ref><ref name="goughp27">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 27</ref> and [[Dalits]]<ref name="goughp33">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 33</ref><ref name="goughp32">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 32</ref> are the numerically dominant Tamil-speaking groups.<ref name="goughp19" /> Brahmins are more numerous and affluent in Kumbakonam than in other parts of Tamil Nadu.<ref name="goughp28" /><ref name="goughp27" /><ref name="goughp103">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 103</ref> There are also large populations of [[Moopanars]],<ref name="goughp30" /> [[Konar (caste)|Konar]]s<ref name="goughp31" /> and [[Nadars]].<ref name="goughp31" /> Amongst Muslims, the [[Sunnis]] are dominant. However, there is also a significant [[Shia]] minority. Most of the Muslims are [[Marakkar|Marakkayars]] or [[Labbays]].<ref name="goughp33" /> The majority of Muslims in Kumbakonam are involved in commerce or maritime trade.<ref name="morep40">{{cite book|title=Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras 1930–1947|page=40|first=Prashanth J.B.|last= More|year=1997|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=8125011927}}</ref> Kumbakonam also has a large population of [[Protestant]] [[Christians]] largely due to the efforts of the German missionary [[Christian Friedrich Schwarz]].<ref name="goughp33" /> The Catholics in Kumbakonam are mainly affiliated to the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Kumbakonam]] which was separated from the Archdiocese of Pondicherry in 1899.<ref name="stthomasp261">{{cite book|title=The St. Thomas Christian encyclopaedia of India, Volume 1|page=261 |first1=Hambye|last1=Edward René|first2=George|last2=Menachery|year=1982}}</ref><ref name="catholicencyclopaediap229">{{cite book|title=The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholic church, Volume 12|publisher=Universal Knowledge Foundation|first=Charles George|last= Herbermann|year=1913|page=229}}</ref> The population of Kumbakonam is predominantly Tamil-speaking. The commonly used dialects is the [[Central Tamil dialect]].<ref name="languagesp730">{{cite book|title=The World's major languages|url=https://archive.org/details/worldsmajorlangu00comrrich|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University|year=1987|page=[https://archive.org/details/worldsmajorlangu00comrrich/page/730 730]|first=Bernard |last=Comrie|isbn=0195205219}}</ref> There are significant minorities speaking [[Thanjavur Marathi (language)|Thanjavur Marathi]],<ref name="dvaitap544">[[#Krishnamurti Sarma|Sarma]], p. 544</ref> [[Telugu language|Telugu]],<ref name="goughp30" /><ref name="dvaitap476" /> [[Kannada language|Kannada]]<ref name="goughp30" /><ref name="dvaitap544" /> and [[Saurashtra language|Saurashtra]] as their mother tongue.<ref name="goughp30" /><ref name="goughp29">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 29</ref><ref name="1971censusp89">{{cite book|title=Census of India, 1971: Tamil Nadu|page=89|publisher=Manager of Publications|year=1979|last1= K.|first1= Chockalingam}}</ref> [[Residential area]]s make up 32.09% of the town's total area while commercial enterprises and industrial units make up 2.75% and 1.21% respectively.<ref name="tnuifslp7">[[#TNUIFSL Report|TNUIFSL Report]] 2007, p. 7</ref> The non-urban portion of the town constitutes about 44.72% of the total area.<ref name="tnuifslp7" /> Kumbakonam has a total of 45 [[slums]] with a population of 49,117.<ref name="tnuifslp14">[[#TNUIFSL Report|TNUIFSL Report]] 2007, p. 14</ref> As per the religious census of 2011, Kumbakonam had 86.07% [[Hindus]], 9.57% [[Muslims]], 3.99% [[Christians]], 0.% [[Sikhs]], 0.% [[Buddhists]], 0.23% [[Jainism|Jains]], 0.13% following other religions and 0.% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.<ref name=religion2011>{{cite web|title=Population By Religious Community - Tamil Nadu|year=2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html|format=XLS|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|access-date=13 September 2015}}</ref> {{Clear left}} == Municipal administration and politics == {| style="clear:right; float:right; background:#ffffff; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;" class="toccolours" width="220" font-size : "90%" |- !style="background:#A8BDEC" align="center" colspan="2"|'''Municipality officials''' |- |align="center"| Chairman||Vacant<ref name="chairman">{{cite web|title=Chairman of Kumbakonam|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/who_chairpersonS1.htm|publisher=Kumbakonam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707214531/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/who_chairpersonS1.htm|archive-date=7 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="chair"/> |- |align="center"|Commissioner||Lakshmi<ref name="chair">{{cite news|title=Nine more AC bus shelters to come up in Kumbakonam|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/madurai/Nine-more-AC-bus-shelters-to-come-up-in-Kumbakonam/articleshow/19924209.cms|publisher=The Times of India|work=TNN|date=7 May 2013|access-date=2014-05-21|location=Kumbakonam}}</ref><ref name="commissioner_history">{{cite web|title=Commissioner History|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/who_commissioner.htm|publisher=Kumbakonam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121218195513/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/who_commissioner.htm|archive-date=18 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- |align="center"|Vice Chairman||Vacant<ref>{{cite web|title=Deputy Chairperson|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/who_Deputy_%20chairperson.htm|publisher=Kumbakonam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121219064359/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/who_Deputy_%20chairperson.htm|archive-date=19 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- !style="background:#A8BDEC" align="center" colspan="2"|'''Elected members''' |- |align="center"|Member of Legislative Assembly||[[G. Anbalagan]]<ref>{{cite web|title=MLA of Kumbakonam|url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/members/profile/171.htm|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|year=2011|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> |- |align="center"|Member of Parliament||[[S Ramalingam ]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Members of Lok Sabha from Tamil Nadu|url=http://www.tn.gov.in/government/loksaba?page=1|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|year=2014|access-date =26 May 2014}}</ref> |} The Kumbakonam municipality was officially constituted in the year 1866.<ref name="interdictp503" /><ref name="munipalityorigin" /> Initially, the municipality exercised its jurisdiction over an area of {{convert|7.68|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}} and its affairs were administered by a town-level committee or municipal committee.<ref name="munipalityorigin" /> Later it was constituted special-grade municipality<ref name="municipalities">{{cite web|title=List of municipalities in Tamil Nadu|url=http://www.tn.gov.in/cma/list_of_municipalities.htm|publisher=Commissionerate of Municipal Administration, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> and currently, exercises its authority over an area of {{convert|12.58|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref name="munipalityorigin" /> out of the town's total area of {{convert|64.02|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="tnuifslp7" /> It comprises 45 wards<ref name="munipalityorigin" /> and is the biggest municipality in Thanjavur district.<ref name="tnuifslp4" /> The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments: General, Engineering, Revenue, Public Health, Town planning and the Computer Wing.<ref name="organizationalchart">{{cite web|title=Commissionerate of Municipal Administration |url=http://www.tn.gov.in/cma/chart5.htm |publisher=Commissionerate of Municipal Administration |access-date=2012-11-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106103849/http://www.tn.gov.in/cma/chart5.htm |archive-date=2012-11-06 }}</ref> All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the supreme executive head.<ref name="organizationalchart" /> The legislative powers are vested in a body of 45 members, one each from each of the 45 wards.<ref name="munipalityorigin" /> The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson who is assisted by a Deputy Chairperson.<ref name="economicweeklyp2396">{{cite book|title=Economic and political weekly, Volume 30|page=2396|publisher=Sameeksha Trust|year=1995}}</ref> Kumbakonam is a part of the [[Kumbakonam (State Assembly Constituency)|Kumbakonam Legislative Assembly constituency]] and elects a member to the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]] once every five years.<ref name="delimitationcommission">{{cite web|work=Delimitation Commission of India Circular No.282/TN/2007-IV|title=Order No. 52|publisher=Delimitation Commission of India|date=13 August 2007|url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Tamilnadu/Final%20Notification%20&%20Order%20.pdf|access-date=2012-11-16|page=71}}</ref><ref name="goughp141">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 141</ref> Despite being a hub of militant [[Communism]] in the 1950s,<ref name="interdictp503" /> Kumbakonam voted for the [[Indian National Congress]] in the first five state elections held between 1952 and 1977.<ref name="goughp141" /><ref name="1952electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1952 to the Legislative Assembly of Madras|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=223}}</ref><ref name="1957electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Madras_1957.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Madras|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=5}}</ref><ref name="1962electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Madras_1962.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Madras|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=7}}</ref><ref name="1967electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Madras%201967.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Madras|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=8}}</ref><ref name="1971electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_TN_71.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1971 to the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=8}}</ref><ref name="1977electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu77.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1977 to the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=8}}</ref> The [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] won the elections in 1977<ref name="1977electionresults" /> and between 1977 and 1989, the seat was alternatively held by the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] or the Indian National Congress.<ref name="1977electionresults" /><ref name="1980electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu%201980.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1980 to the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=8}}</ref><ref name="1984electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1984/StatisticalReportTamilNadu84.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1984 to the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=8}}</ref> Since 1989, barring an interregnum of five years between 1991 and 1996,<ref name="1991electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-Tamil%20Nadu91.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1991 to the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=8}}</ref> the seat has been held by [[Ko. Si. Mani]] of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.<ref name="1989electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/StatisticalReportTamilNadu89.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1989 to the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=8}}</ref><ref name="1996electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-TN96.pdf |title=Statistical Report on General Election 1996 to the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2012-11-16 |page=9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007221700/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-TN96.pdf |archive-date=2010-10-07 }}</ref><ref name="2001electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/Stat_Rep_TN_2001.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 2001 to the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=9}}</ref><ref name="2006electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_TN_2006.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election 2006 to the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-11-16|page=9}}</ref> Kumbakonam was a part of the [[Kumbakonam (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kumbakonam Lok Sabha constituency]] from 1952 till 1977, when the constituency was disbanded.<ref name="goughp141" /><ref name="goughp142">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 142</ref> The assembly segments in the erstwhile Kumbakonam Lok Sabha constituency were included in the [[Mayiladuthurai (Lok Sabha constituency)|Mayiladuthurai Lok Sabha constituency]] and have remained so ever since.<ref name="delimitationcommission" /> Law and order in Kumbakonam in maintained by the Thanjavur sub division of the [[Tamil Nadu Police]] headed by a Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP).<ref name="Thanjavur police">{{cite web|title=District Police – Thanjavur|url=http://www.tnpolice.gov.in/PDFS/Thanjavur.pdf|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|page=3}}</ref> There are four police stations in the town, one of them being an all-women police station.<ref>{{cite web|title=Police stations in Kumbakonam|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/srv_police.htm|publisher=Kumbakonam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121218205012/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/srv_police.htm|archive-date=18 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> There are special units like prohibition enforcement, district crime, social justice and human rights, district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division headed by a Superintendent of Police (SP).<ref name="Thanjavur police" /> Suburban localities are under the jurisdiction of Swamimalai, Patteswarm, Nachiyarkovil, Tiruvidamarudhur, Thiruneelakudi police stations. Recently government has announced to establish one police station at Cholapuram by reorganizing kumbakonam Taluk, Swamimali and Thirupanandal Police station ==Economy== [[File:A man dyeing silk red in boiling water in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu.jpg|left|thumb|A man dyeing silk red in boiling water in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu]] [[File:A silk saree loom in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu.jpg|thumb|A silk saree loom in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu]] The important products of Kumbakonam include brass, bronze, copper and pewter vessels, silk and cotton cloths, sugar, [[indigo]] and pottery.<ref name="imperialgazetteerp21" /> Kumbakonam is considered to be the chief commercial centre for the Thanjavur region. In 1991, around 30% of the population was engaged in economic activity.<ref name="tnuifslp5">[[#TNUIFSL Report|TNUIFSL Report]] 2007, p. 5</ref> Rice production is an important activity in Kumbakonam.<ref name="tnuifslp5" /> Of 194 industrial units in Kumbakonam, 57 are rice and flour mills.<ref name="tnuifslp5" /> Kumbakonam is also a leading producer of [[betel leaves]] and [[betel nuts|nuts]]; the betel leaves produced in Kumbakonam are ranked amongst the best in the world in terms of quality.<ref name="tnuifslp5" /> The A. R. R. Agencies, a leading manufacturer of arecanut slices has its factory in Kumbakonam.<ref name="arrp445">{{cite book|title=Large industrial establishments in India|page=445|publisher=Manager of Publications|year=1958}}</ref> The main administrative offices of T. S. R. & Co., a cosmetic company, are also based in Kumbakonam.<ref name="indianpressp218">{{cite book|title=The Indian press year book|page=218|year=1954|publisher=Indian Press Publications|first=K. P. Vishwanatha|last= Ayyar}}</ref> Kumbakonam is also famous for its metal works.<ref name="tnuifslp5" /> The Tamil Nadu Handicraft Development Corporation had been established in the nearby town of Swamimalai in order to train bronze artisans.<ref name="tnuifslp5" /> Kumbakonam is an important silk-weaving centre and more than 5,000 families were employed either directly or indirectly in silk weaving.<ref name="tnuifslp5" /> Silk weaved in Kumbakonam is regarded as one of the finest in the subcontinent.<ref name="britannicap45">{{cite book|title=Students' Britannica India: Select essays|page=45|first=Dale |last=Hoiberg|author2=Indu Ramchandani |publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=0852297629}}</ref> They are largely used in the manufacture of [[Thirubuvanam]] silk sarees.<ref name="tnuifslp5" /> Kumbakonam was also an important salt-manufacturing area during British rule.<ref name="cataloguep866">{{cite book|title=Official descriptive and illustrated catalogue, Volume 4|page=866|publisher=Spicer Brothers|year=1851|first=Robert|last= Ellis}}</ref> The town lends its name to the [[Kumbakonam Degree Coffee]], a blend of [[coffee]] prepared using undiluted pure milk.<ref name="thehindu_20121027">{{cite news|title=Kumbakonam Degree Coffee|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Food/kumbakonam-degree-coffee/article4034194.ece|work=The Hindu|first=Olympia Shilpa|last=Gerald|date=27 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Buy Kumbakonam Degree Coffee Powder online -100% quality|url=https://www.standardcoldpressedoil.com/kumbakonam-degree-coffee-powder|access-date=2021-08-23|website=www.standardcoldpressedoil.com}}</ref> In recent times, Kumbakonam has emerged as an important manufacturer of fertilizers.<ref name="interdictp503" /> Apart from its manufactures, tourism is also a major source of income for the town. Many Lodges and resorts from budget to high end category are functioning in kumbakonam. The Hindu temples<ref name="reviewp20">{{cite book|title=Indian and foreign review, Volume 17|page=20|publisher=Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|year=1979}}</ref><ref name="tnuifslp6">[[#TNUIFSL Report|TNUIFSL Report]] 2007, p. 6</ref> and colonial-era buildings have been recognised for their tourism potential.<ref name="tourismp270">{{cite book|title=Introduction To Tourism|page=270|last=N.|first= Jayapalan|publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors|year=2001|isbn=8171569773}}</ref> The 12th-century Airavatesvara Temple in the town of Darasuram near Kumbakonam is an UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web|title=Great Living Chola Temples|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250/|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> Kumbakonam is also frequented by art collectors interested in handloom cloth and other curios.<ref name="speakingstonesp194">{{cite book|title=Speaking stones: world cultural heritage sites in India|page=194|first=Bill|last= Aitken|publisher=Eicher Goodearth Limited|year=2001|isbn=8187780002}}</ref> Banks such as the [[Axis Bank]], [[Bank of Baroda]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres">{{cite web|title=ATM Centres and Banks in Kumbakonam|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/srv_bank.htm|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712022214/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/srv_bank.htm|archive-date=12 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[IDBI Bank]], [[State Bank of India]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[Tamilnad Mercantile Bank]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[Canara Bank]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[Indian Bank]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[Indian Overseas Bank]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[Bank of India]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[Union Bank of India]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[Corporation Bank]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[Lakshmi Vilas Bank]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[ICICI Bank]],<ref name="icicibank">{{cite web|title=Specified Branches/Locations of ICICI Bank/Correspondent Bank for issue of demand drafts|publisher=ICICI Bank|url=http://www.icicibank.com/pfsuser/icicibank/ibank-nri/money2india_listdd.html#listdd_tn.htm|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> [[ING Vysya Bank]],<ref name="ingvysya">{{cite web|title=Access Points|publisher=ING Vysya Bank|url=http://www.ingvysyabank.com/scripts/Access_branch1.aspx#a197|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> [[Karur Vysya Bank]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[Punjab National Bank]],<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> [[Syndicate Bank]]<ref name="kumbakonam_atmcentres" /> and [[Vijaya Bank]] have their branches in Kumbakonam. The [[City Union Bank]] was founded in Kumbakonam in 1904 as the Kumbakonam Bank Limited and it is headquartered in the town.<ref name="sunejap380">{{cite book|title=Suneja's banking year book and who's who|year=1973|page=380|publisher=Suneja Publishers}}</ref> {{clear left}} == Transport and utility services == [[File:KumbakonamRailwayStation SouthernSide.jpg|thumb|210px|[[Kumbakonam railway station]] (southern side)|alt=railway line inside a station]] Kumbakonam is well-connected by road and rail with the rest of India. The National highway [[National Highway 32 (India)|NH-32]] connects [[Vikravandi]] - [[Manamadurai]], passes through this town. The nearest international airport is at [[Tiruchirapalli]], which is {{convert|91|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Kumbakonam.<ref name="templesofsouthindiap56">[[#Ambujam Anantharaman|Anantharaman]] 2006, p. 56</ref> The nearest seaport is located at [[Nagapattinam]] which is about {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} away. The town has around {{convert|141|km|mi|abbr=on}} of roads, 544 municipal roads<ref name="munipalityorigin">{{cite web|title=Origin of Kumbakonam Municipality|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/abus_municip1.htm|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826045108/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/abus_municip1.htm|archive-date=26 August 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> making up {{convert|122.29|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="tnuifslp13">[[#TNUIFSL Report|TNUIFSL Report]] 2007, p. 13</ref> There are also around {{convert|18.71|km|mi|abbr=on}} of [[state highways]] running through Kumbakonam.<ref name="tnuifslp13" /> Over 87% of the municipal roads are paved.<ref name="tnuifslp13" /> There are regular government and private bus services to [[Chennai]], [[Thanjavur]], [[Mannargudi]], [[Tiruchirapalli]], [[Chidambaram]], [[Thiruvarur]], Mayiladuthurai, [[Nagapattinam]], [[Coimbatore]], Palani, Tiruppur, Thoothukudi, Rameswaram, Tirechendur, Salem, Edapaddi, Vellore, Kumuli, Cumbum, Karaikudi, Pudukkottai, Neyveli, [[Madurai]], [[Sivagangai]], [[Pondicherry (city)|Puducherry]], and [[Tirunelveli]].<ref name="munipalityorigin" /> The [[Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation]] (KSRTC) and State Express Transport Corporation (Tamil Nadu)(SETC) operates daily services from [[Bangalore|Bengaluru]] and [[mysore|mysuru]] to Kumbakonam.<ref name="ksrtc">{{cite web|title=KSRTC Bus Tickets Booking Online|url=http://www.ksrtconlinebooking.in/|publisher=KSRTC|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624032433/http://www.ksrtconlinebooking.in/|archive-date=24 June 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 1 March 1972, the Cholan Roadways Corporation was established by the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]]<ref name="cholanroadways">{{cite web|title=Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation (CRC)(KUM DIV-I) Ltd., Kumbakonam|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/srv_bus.htm|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920120818/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/srv_bus.htm|archive-date=20 September 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> with its headquarters in Kumbakonam in order to improve transportation facilities in the districts of central Tamil Nadu.<ref name="tnstc_manual">{{cite web|title=Tamil Nadu State Transportation Corporation (Kumbakonam) Limited – Manual of Information|url=http://www.tn.gov.in/rti/proactive/transport/handbook-tnstc-kmb.pdf|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|pages=4–10}}</ref> The organisation acquired the fleets of buses earlier owned by private operators – Sri Ramavilas Service, Raman and Raman Limited and Sathi Vilas.<ref name="cholanroadways" /> On 1 July 1997, the organization was renamed Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation, Kumbakonam and presently forms division no. 1 of the [[Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation]].<ref name="cholanroadways" /><ref name="tnstc_manual" /> The corporation runs a reconditioning unit and a tyre re-threading unit in Kumbakonam.<ref name="tnstc_manual" /> Kumbakonam is connected by rail with most important towns and cities in South India. The Mysuru- Mayiladuthurai Express connects Kumbakonam with Mysuru and Bengaluru. There are regular express trains that connect Kumbakonam with major cities in the state like [[Chennai]], [[Coimbatore]], [[Madurai]] and [[Tiruchirapalli]].<ref name="KMUtrain"/> There are passenger trains that connect Kumbakonam with [[Thanjavur]], [[Tiruchirapalli]], [[Chidambaram]] and [[Mayiladuthurai]].<ref name="KMUtrain">{{cite web|title=Train availability at stations|url=http://www.trainenquiry.com/TrainArrivingAtStation.aspx|publisher=Indian Railways|year=2012|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> The upgrading of NH-32 from two-lane to four-line is under progress, which upon completion will greatly reduce to time of travel to Thanjavur and Chennai.<ref>{{Cite web|title=தஞ்சை – விக்கிரவாண்டி, நான்கு வழிச்சாலை|url=http://www.dailythanthi.com/amp/Districts/Chennai/2019/08/05231929/Tanjore--Vikravandi-Fourlane-road-construction-work.vpf|access-date=2020-12-31|website=Maalaimalar|language=ta}}</ref> The traditional modes of transportation are [[bullock cart]]s. It is recorded that as late as the 1950s, landlords and rich farmers travelled mostly by bullock carts with the exception of rare long journeys which they undertook by buses or motor vehicles.<ref name="goughp6">[[#Gough|Gough]] 1981, p. 6</ref> Kumbakonam has an efficient local bus transportation system. The town bus stand is located situated just opposite to the moffusil Bus Station Kumbakonam|Arignar Anna Bus Stand where the long-distance buses are stationed. There are occasional [[ferries]] that transport people and goods across the Cauvery.<ref name="watertransportp94">{{cite book|title=Water Transport Origins & Early Evolution|page=94|publisher=Cambridge University Press Archive}}</ref> Till the beginning of the 20th century, students of the Government Arts College used to cross the Cauvery on [[coracle]] ferries in order to attend college.<ref name="watertransportp94" /> Since the construction of a bridge in 1944,<ref name="calendarp5">{{cite book|title=Calendar|publisher=Government Arts College (Kumbakonam, India)|year=1975–76|page=5}}</ref> the practice of transporting men and goods by coracles has greatly diminished.<ref name="watertransportp94" /> Electricity supply to Kumbakonam is regulated and distributed by the Kumbakonam circle of [[Tamil Nadu Electricity Board]] (TNEB). Power Substaions are existing viz. Kumabakonam Urban 33/11 kV SS at Rajan Thottam, Kumbakonam Township (Nagariyam) 110 kV at Needamangalm Road, 110 kV SS at Sakottai and Patteswaram 230/110 kV. Water supply is provided by the Kumbakonam municipality from Cauvery river and Coleroon river; the distribution is managed through head works located at Valayapettai and Kudithangi, supplying {{convert|3265|kl|USgal|abbr=on}} of water to the town.<ref>{{cite web|title=Water supply to Kumbakonam|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/sal_watersupply.htm|publisher=Kumbakonam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812002843/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/sal_watersupply.htm|archive-date=12 August 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> About {{convert|18|MT|lb|abbr=on}} of solid waste is collected from the town everyday; 53% domestic wastes and 32% commercial wastes.<ref name="waste">{{cite web|title=Solid waste management in Kumbakonam|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/sal_solidwastemanagement.htm|publisher=Kumbakonam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121220033736/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/sal_solidwastemanagement.htm|archive-date=20 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The collected wastes are dumped in yards outside the town and segregated to produce organic manure.<ref name="waste" /> Kumbakonam municipality has partial underground drainage connectivity and the municipality is implementing the underground drainage to the uncovered areas.<ref name="drainage">{{cite web|title=Drainage system in Kumbakonam|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/sal_sewerage.htm|publisher=Kumbakonam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617170851/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/sal_sewerage.htm|archive-date=17 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The major sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks and public conveniences.<ref name="drainage" /> Roadside drains carry untreated sewage out of the town to let out raw into the sea or accumulate in a low-lying area.<ref name="drainage" /> Kumbakonam comes under the Cauvery River Delta Area (CRDA) of the [[Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited]] (BSNL), India's state-owned telecom and internet services provider.<ref name="BSNL">{{cite web|title=State of Rural wireline broadband|publisher=BSNL, Tamil Nadu Circle|location=Tamil Nadu|url=http://ccatn.gov.in/usofiles/usoschemes/bbtn.htm|year=2011|access-date=2012-11-16|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718161317/http://ccatn.gov.in/usofiles/usoschemes/bbtn.htm|archive-date=2013-07-18}}</ref> Apart from telecom, BSNL also provides [[broadband internet]] service.<ref name="BSNL" /> Kumbakonam is having the District Head Quarters hospital, Thanjavur District at Kumbakonam and Coronation municipal hospital, Melakaveri Urban Primary health centre, 34 private hospitals & clinics and numerous medical shops catering to the healthcare need of the town.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hospitals in Kumbakonam|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/srv_hospitals.htm|publisher=Kumbakonam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121218190812/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/srv_hospitals.htm|archive-date=18 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Education== [[File:Kumbakonam College.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Government Arts College, Kumbakonam]]|alt=campus of a college with shaded trees]] The Raja Veda Padasala, established by Govinda Dikshitar during 1542 in Kumbakonam, teaches Sanskrit vedic scriptures in specialised fields of [[Rig Veda]], [[Yajur Veda]], [[Sama Veda]], ''[[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]]'' and ''[[Shastra|Sastras]]''.<ref name="govindadikshitar" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Govinda Deekshita – Minister of the Tanjore Nayak kings|last =N.K.|first=Venkatesam Pantulu|year=1933|publisher=La;i;e Veeraraja's Andrha Vachana Bharatamu, Sabha Parvamu|location=Rajahmundry|pages=1–2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Astrological Magazine|volume=96|publisher=Raman Publications|year=2007|page=156}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Bhavan's Journal|volume=33|issue=13–24|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1987|page=60}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The voice of divinity:sayings of His Holiness Jagadguru Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Sri Sankaracharya Swamigal of Sri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, Volume 1|last=Saraswati|first=Chandrasekharendra|year=1981|publisher=Vanathi|page=168}}</ref> Kumbakonam emerged as an important centre of education in the late 19th century and was known as the "Cambridge of South India".<ref name="sindianrailwayp217" /> The Government Arts College, established in Kumbakonam in 1867, is one of the oldest educational institutions in the Madras Presidency.<ref name="hopkinsp260">{{cite book|title=Mr Hopkins' Men: Cambridge Reform and British Mathematics in the 19th Century|url=https://archive.org/details/mrhopkinsmencamb00bscp|url-access=limited|first=Alex D. D. |last=Craik|year=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/mrhopkinsmencamb00bscp/page/n289 260]|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1848001329}}</ref> It began as a provincial school on 19 October 1854, before being upgraded to a government college in 1867.<ref name="hopkinsp260" /><ref name="calendarp157">{{cite book|title=The University of Madras Calendar|page=157|year=1933|publisher=University of Madras}}</ref> It was affiliated to the [[Madras University]] in 1877.<ref name="imperialgazetteerp21" /> One of the early principals of the college was [[William Archer Porter]], a [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]] [[Wrangler (University of Cambridge)|Wrangler]], who, along with [[T. Gopala Rao]], was instrumental in its elevation to a government college.<ref name="hopkinsp260" /> He is also credited with framing the college's acclaimed educational policy.<ref name="hopkinsp261">{{cite book|title=Mr Hopkins' Men: Cambridge Reform and British Mathematics in the 19th Century|url=https://archive.org/details/mrhopkinsmencamb00bscp|url-access=limited|first=Alex D. D. |last=Craik|year=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/mrhopkinsmencamb00bscp/page/n290 261]|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1848001329}}</ref> In 1881, it became a full-fledged college and high school courses ceased to be taught.<ref name="hopkinsp261" /> Notable faculty members included [[U. V. Swaminatha Iyer]] (1855–1942)<ref name="coffeep91">{{cite book | last = Vēṅkaṭācalapati | first = Irā Ā. | title = In Those Days There was No Coffee | publisher = Yoda Press | year = 2006 | page = 91 | isbn = 9788190227278}}</ref> while the Indian mathematician [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] (1887–1920) who studied from 1904 until 1906 when he dropped out and [[V. S. Srinivasa Sastri]] (1869–1946), an Indian politician and administrator, are its notable alumni.<ref name="hopkinsp260" /> The Government Arts College for Women was started in 1963<ref name="univhandbookp161">{{cite book|title=Universities handbook, Volume 1|page=161|publisher=Association of Indian Universities|year=2006}}</ref><ref name="commonwealthunivp1117">{{cite book|title=Commonwealth universities yearbook, Volume 2|publisher=Association of Commonwealth Universities|year=1993|page=1117}}</ref> and had a total strength of 2,597 pupils in February 2006.<ref name="naacindia">{{cite web|title=Draft report of the peer team on the assessment and e-accreditation of the Government College for Women, Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu|url=http://naacindia.org/Reports/06%20Govt.%20College%20for%20Women,%20Kumbakonam,%20TN.doc|publisher=National Accredition and Assessment Council|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> The college offers various undergraduate courses and one post-graduate course and is affiliated to the [[Bharathidasan University]].<ref name="naacindia" /> Other colleges in Kumbakonam include Idhya Colleges of Arts and Sciences, Annai College of Arts and Sciences, Annai Engineering College, Mass College, Sankara Arts college, PRIST University Kumbakonam Campus, Government College Of Fine Arts and Arasu Engineering College, KSK Engineering college, As Slam Engineering college at nearby Thirumanglakudi.<ref name="colleges_tngov">{{cite web|title=Educational Institutions in Kumbakonam – Colleges|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/srv_edu1.htm|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=2012-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712022750/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/srv_edu1.htm|archive-date=12 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Shanmugha Arts, Science, Technology & Research Academy]] has a satellite campus based in Kumbakonam where all disciplines of Engineering, arts and sciences are taught.<ref name="colleges_tngov" /> The Native High School, founded in 1876,<ref name="indianreviewp210">{{cite book|title=The Indian review, Volume 27|page=210|publisher=[[G. A. Natesan]]|year=1926}}</ref> and the [[Town Higher Secondary School]], one of whose students was Srinivasa Ramanujan, were some of the oldest schools in the Madras Presidency.<ref name="jubilessp222">{{cite book|title=Jubilee yearbook and educational directory of Madras|page=222|year=1934|publisher=South India Teachers' Union}}</ref> At present, there a total of 36 government and private schools in Kumbakonam.<ref name="colleges_tngov"/> == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == {{Refbegin|3}} * {{cite report|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/CCP/Kumbakonam%20CCP-BP%20-%20Final%20Report.pdf|publisher=Commissioner of Municipal Administration, Government of Tamil Nadu|title=Conversion of City Corporate Plan to Business Plan for Kumbakonam municipality|year=2007|access-date=2012-11-16|ref=TNUIFSL Report|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/69WMKvqHU?url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/CCP/Kumbakonam%20CCP-BP%20-%20Final%20Report.pdf|archive-date=29 July 2012|url-status=dead}} * {{cite book|title=Temples of South India|first=Ambujam|last=Anantharaman|publisher=East West books|year=2006|isbn=8188661422|ref=Ambujam Anantharaman}} * {{cite book|title=South Indian shrines: illustrated|first=Jagadisa P. V. |last=Ayyar|publisher=Madras Times Printing and Pub. Co.|year=1920|ref=Ayyar}} * {{cite book|title=Rural Society in Southeast India|url=https://archive.org/details/ruralsocietyinso0000goug_68|url-access=registration|publisher=Cambridge University Press|first=Kathleen| last=Gough|author-link=Kathleen Gough|year=1981|ref=Gough}} * {{cite book|title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India 1908, Vol 16|last=Hunter|first=Sir William Wilson |publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1908|ref=Imperial Gazetteer of India}} * {{cite book|title=Proceedings of the Indian Colloquium on Micropalaeontology and Stratigraphy|publisher=Dept. of Geology, University of Lucknow|year=1972|ref=Micropalaeontology}} * {{cite book|title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania, Volume 5 of International Dictionary of Historic Places|first=Trudy|last= Ring|author2=Robert M. Salkin |author3=Sharon La Boda |publisher=Taylore & Francis|year=1996|isbn=1884964052|ref=Ring}} * {{cite book|title=A history of the Dvaita school of Vedānta and its literature: from the earliest beginnings to our own times|first=Krishnamurti B. N. |last= Sarma|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=2000|isbn=8120815750|ref=Krishnamurti Sarma}} * {{cite book | first= Nilakanta K.A| last=[[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri|Sastri]]| orig-year= 1935| year= 2000| title= The CōĻas| publisher= University of Madras | location= Madras|ref=Sastri}} * {{Cite book |last=V.|first=Vriddhagirisan|title=Nayaks of Tanjore |year=1942 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-206-0996-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GD_6ka-aYuQC&q=kumbakonam+govinda&pg=PA120|ref=V.}} * {{cite book|title=Gazetteer of South India, Volume 2|year=1989|last=W.|first= Francis|publisher=Mittal Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vERnljM1uiEC&q=brahma+temple+kumbakonam&pg=PA137|ref=W.}} {{Refend}} == Further reading == * {{cite book|title=Students' Britannica India, Volume 1|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=2000|page=259|isbn=0852297602}} == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} {{Commons category}} * {{cite web |title=Kumbakonam Municipality |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201233932/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/kumbakonam/ |archive-date=2014-02-01 }} {{Kumbakonam Topics}} {{Municipalities of Tamil Nadu}} {{Thanjavur district}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites in India]] [[Category:Cities and towns in Thanjavur district]] [[Category:Kumbakonam]]'