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{{Infobox event
| title =
| image = Juanita dama de las nieves.jpg
| image_size = 200
| caption = Mummy Juanita's body before unwrapping of her bundle.
| date =
| time =
| place = [[Mount Ampato]], Peru
| coordinates = 116.114 .117.118
}}
'''Momia Juanita''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "[[Mummy]] Juanita"), also known as the '''Lady of Ampato''' is the well-preserved frozen body of an [[Inca Empire|Inca]] girl who was killed as an [[Human Sacrifice|offering]] to the Inca gods sometime between 1440 and 1480 when she was approximately 12–15 years old.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2011-12-15|title=Meeting A 500-Year-Old Peruvian Mummy|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/visiting-a-500yearold-per_b_1146363|access-date=2020-11-24|website=HuffPost|language=en}}</ref> She was discovered on the dormant stratovolcano [[Ampato|Mount Ampato]] (part of the [[Andes]] [[cordillera]]) in southern [[Peru]] in 1995 by [[anthropologist]] [[Johan Reinhard]] and his Peruvian climbing partner, Miguel Zárate. She is known as the Lady of Ampato because she was found on top of Mount Ampato. Her other nickname, the Ice Maiden, derives from the cold conditions and freezing temperatures that preserved her body on Mount Ampato.<ref>{{Citation|title=Inca Ice Maiden, Momia Juanita|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1hch7t1.38|work=Protection Spell|pages=61–62|publisher=University of Arkansas Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1hch7t1.38|isbn=978-1-61075-610-5|access-date=2020-10-13}}</ref>
Juanita has been on display in the [[Catholic University of Santa María]]'s Museum of Andean Sanctuaries (Museo Santuarios Andinos) in [[Arequipa, Peru]], almost continuously since 1996, and was displayed on a tour of [[Japan]] in 1999.
In 1995, [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] chose her as one of the world's top ten discoveries.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gorman|first=Christine|date=1995-11-06|title=Archaeology: RETURN OF THE ICE MAIDEN|language=en-US|work=Time|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,983667,00.html|access-date=2020-05-20|issn=0040-781X}}</ref> Between May and June 1996, she was exhibited in the headquarters of the [[National Geographic Society]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], in a specially acclimatized conservation display unit. In its June 1996 issue, ''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'' included an article dedicated to the discovery of Juanita.<ref>Reinhard, Johan: Peru’s Ice Maidens. ''National Geographic'' 189(6) (June): 62–81, 1996.</ref>
==Discovery==
In September 1995, during an ascent of [[Ampato|Mt. Ampato]] (20,700 ft, 6309 m), [[Johan Reinhard]] and Zárate found a bundle in the crater that had fallen from an Inca site on the summit due to recent ice melt and erosion from a volcano eruption.<ref name=":3" /> To their astonishment, the bundle turned out to contain the frozen body of a young girl. Juanita was found almost entirely frozen, which preserved her internal organs, hair, blood, skin, and contents of her stomach.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=NOVA Online {{!}} Ice Mummies of the Inca {{!}} The High Mummies (2)|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/peru/mummies/high2.html|access-date=2020-11-25|website=www.pbs.org}}</ref>
They also found many items that had been left as offerings to the Inca gods including llama bones, small figurines and pottery pieces. The items were strewn about the mountain slope, down which the body had fallen. These included statues, food items (maize kernels and cob), and [[Spondylus|spondylus shells]], which originate from ocean ecosystems.<ref name=":02" /> These have been connected to rain ceremonies throughout the [[Inca Empire|Incan Empire]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Reinhard|first=Johan|title=The Ice Maiden: Incan Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes|url=https://archive.org/details/discoveringincai00rein|url-access=registration|publisher=National Geographic|year=1998|location=Washington D.C.}}</ref> The clothing she wore resembled textiles from the elite from Cuzco, the Inca capital. As Juanita is the closest discovered sacrifice to Cuzco and was found with textiles of the wealthy, archaeologists believe that this could suggest she came from a noble Cuzco family.<ref name=":5" />
The body and the items were quickly transported to Arequipa to prevent thawing of the frozen specimen. The body was initially kept in a special refrigerator at the Catholic University.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mummy Juanita: The Sacrifice of the Inca Ice Maiden|url=https://www.ancient-origins.net/history/mummy-juanita-sacrifice-inca-ice-maiden-009800|website=Ancient Origins|accessdate=2018-11-12}}</ref> Juanita's body was transported to the United States for a CT scan in 1996 and was then exhibited in Japan in 1999.<ref name=":3" /> She is considered one of the most well-preserved mummies in the Andes.
Two more ice mummies, a young girl and a boy, were discovered in an archaeological expedition led by Dr. Reinhard and Prof. José Antonio Chávez in October 1995, and they recovered another female mummy on Ampato in December 1997. Volcanic ash from the nearby erupting volcano of [[Sabancaya]] induced ice melt in the area. This caused the Incan burial sites to collapse down into a gully or crater where they were soon discovered by Reinhard and his team. Reinhard published a detailed account of the discovery in his 2006 book entitled, ''The Ice Maiden: Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes''.
==Scientific analysis==
===Body===
As Reinhard and Zárate struggled on Ampato's summit to lift the heavy bundle containing Juanita's body, they realized that her body mass had probably been increased by freezing of the flesh. When initially weighed in [[Arequipa]], the bundle containing "Juanita" weighed over 90 pounds (40.82 kilos). Their realization turned out to be correct; Juanita is almost entirely frozen, making her a substantial scientific find. Like only a few other high-altitude Inca mummies, Juanita was found frozen and thus her remains and garments were not [[Desiccation|desiccated]] like those of mummies found in other parts of the world. She was mummified by freezing conditions on the mountain top, instead of being artificially mummified, as is the case with Egyptian mummies. Her skin, organs, tissues, blood, hair, stomach contents, and garments are extremely well-preserved, offering scientists a rare glimpse into Inca culture during the reign of the [[Sapa Inca]] [[Pachacuti]] (reigned 1438–1471/1472).
Analysis of her stomach contents revealed that she ate a meal of [[vegetable]]s six to eight hours before her death.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ice Maiden Virtual Autopsy|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/|work=Andes Expedition – Searching For Inca Secrets|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=2011-05-19|year=1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623075348/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/|archive-date=2011-06-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some evidence suggests that she may have come from a noble Cusco family. [[Isotope analysis|Stable isotopic analysis]] of other child sacrifices in the area has found changes in diet within the last year of life to indicate whether they originated from common families.<ref name=":0" /> This is usually indicated by the amount of meat protein consumed. Noble families would consume meat regularly whereas this may not be the case for a non-noble family. Since there is no specific analysis of Juanita it is inconclusive if she came from a noble family or not. However, analysis of similar child sacrifices in the region all indicate that at six months before their death they were in Cusco, likely for a ceremony before making their journey to the mountains.<ref name=":0" />
=== Adornments and grave goods ===
Juanita was wrapped in a brightly coloured burial tapestry (or "aksu"). Her head was adorned with a cap made from the feathers of a red [[macaw]], and she wore a lively woollen [[alpaca]] shawl fastened with a silver clasp. She was fully clothed in garments resembling the finest textiles from the Inca capital city of [[Cusco]]. These accoutrements were almost perfectly preserved, providing valuable insight into sacred Inca textiles and on how the Inca nobility dressed. Found with her in the burial tapestry was a collection of grave goods: bowls, pins, and figurines made of gold, silver, and shell.
===Genetic analysis===
According to the [[Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR), the closest kin they could find in the database in 1996 were the [[Ngöbe–Buglé people|Ngobe people]] of [[Panama]], but the later research has shown her to share genetic patterns found in people from the [[Andes]]. Scientists at TIGR examined two mitochondrial [[DNA]] D loop sequences and found that [[Hypervariable region]] 1 (HV1) was consistent with [[Haplogroup A (mtDNA)|mitochondrial haplogroup A2]], one of the four Native American gene groups. Hypervariable region 2 (HV2) included a unique sequence not found in any of the current mitochondrial DNA databases.<ref>{{cite web|title=DNA: The Key to the Mystery|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower3.html|work=Andes Expedition – Searching For Inca Secrets|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=2011-05-19|year=1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014063112/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower3.html|archive-date=2012-10-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> Her [[haplotype]] is 16111T, 16223T, 16290T, 16319A.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ancient DNA|url=http://www.isogg.org/ancientdna.htm|website=www.isogg.org|publisher=International Society of Genetic Genealogy|accessdate=2015-04-05|date=2005-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403114037/http://www.isogg.org/ancientdna.htm|archive-date=2015-04-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> In accordance with the [[genetic map|genetic world map]] and genetic patterns, her HV2 DNA sequence was also related with the ancient races originally from [[Taiwan]] and [[Korea]], which supports the theory that [[Paleo-Indians]] had [[Pacific]] links.<ref>[https://www.sal.org.uk/salon/archive/issue?no=169&f=1&fs=section1&cs=td Tests on 'Ice Maiden' reveal Pacific links], Society of Antiquaries of London, 2007. (169).</ref><ref>[https://ncffa.org/Web%20Files/Curriculum%20Guide/F%20%20Genes%20and%20Disease.pdf The Ice Maiden], Genes and Disease</ref><ref>Saydí María Negrón Romero, [http://www.libreroonline.com/peru/libros/44930/negron-romero-saydi-maria/presenting-peru-machupicchu.html Presenting Peru & Machupicchu], [http://richardchang.tw/2016/09/12/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E9%A2%A8%E6%A0%BC%EF%BC%9A%E3%80%90%E7%A7%98%E9%AD%AF%E7%B4%80%E8%A1%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%B8%89%EF%BC%89%E7%95%99%E8%91%97%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E8%A1%80%E6%B6%B2%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%98%E9%AD%AF/ p.114]</ref>
== Preparation for death ==
Through extracting DNA from Mummy Juanita's well-preserved hair, scientists were able to logically determine her diet prior to the sacrifice. The analysis of her hair indicates that Juanita was eating foods such as animal protein and maize. These foods were the diet of the elite, unlike the standard Inca diet of vegetables.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Stice|first=Joel|date=2017-09-08|title=Meet The Inca Ice Maiden, Perhaps The Best-Preserved Mummy In Human History|url=https://allthatsinteresting.com/mummy-juanita-lady-of-ampato|access-date=2020-11-25|website=All That's Interesting|language=en-US}}</ref>
The final six to eight weeks of life for a sacrificed Incan child consisted of heavy use of drugs and alcohol. With a combination of coca and chicha alcohol, the children would be in a highly intoxicated psychological state. Markers in Juanita's hair indicate that she was given coca and alcohol prior to her death, suggesting that she was in a state of near unconsciousness.<ref name=":4" />
==Cause of death==
Radiologist [[Elliot K. Fishman]] concluded that she was killed by [[blunt trauma]] to the head. He observed that her cracked right eye socket and the two-inch fracture in her skull are injuries "typical of someone who has been hit by a [[baseball bat]]." The blow caused a massive [[hemorrhage]], filling her skull with [[blood]] and pushing her brain to one side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fatal Head Injury: Cracked Eye Socket and Skull Fracture|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower6.html|work=Andes Expedition – Searching For Inca Secrets|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=2011-05-19|year=1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014063549/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower6.html|archive-date=2012-10-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> Death by trauma to the head was a common technique of sacrificing children in this era, along with strangulation and suffocation (burying alive).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wikipedia Child Sacrifice in pre-Colombian cultures|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_sacrifice_in_pre-Columbian_cultures}}</ref>{{Circular reference|date=May 2020}}
== Capacocha ==
The ritual sacrifice called Capacocha (or Qhapaq hucha) was a key component to the Inca Empire. This ritual, which usually involved the sacrifice of children, was for celebratory events. These events included an annual or biennial event in the Incan calendar, the death of an emperor, the birth of a royal son, or a victory in battle, and were performed to prevent natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions, droughts, earthquakes, and epidemics.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=M. A.|first=Anthropology|last2=B. Ed.|first2=Illinois State University|last3=Twitter|first3=Twitter|title=High Altitude Sacrifice of Children in the Inca Capacocha Ceremony|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/capacocha-ceremony-inca-child-sacrifices-170318|access-date=2020-11-24|website=ThoughtCo|language=en}}</ref> Beyond celebratory events and sacrifice for prevention, child sacrifice represented military and political expansion for the culture along with the empire’s ability to use coercion and control.
As tribute payment, Inca rulers ordered boys and girls between the ages of 12 and 16 to sacrifice. Evidence of strontium analysis suggests that children were picked from several different geographical areas, taken to the Inca capital, and undergo months of travel to the sacred location of the death.<ref name=":2" /> Archaeologists have discovered through biochemical analysis that coca (the primary source of cocaine) and alcohol were commonly found in the children's systems.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-07-29|title=Inca Child Sacrifice Victims Were Drugged|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/7/130729-inca-mummy-maiden-sacrifice-coca-alcohol-drug-mountain-andes-children/|access-date=2020-11-24|website=National Geographic News|language=en}}</ref> Although archaeologists are unsure of why drugs and alcohol were used, some suggest that it was to put the chosen children in a stupor prior to death.
== Connecting climate and culture ==
Juanita was killed as a practice of [[capacocha]], or child sacrifice, to appease Inca Gods, or ''Apus''. This practice often involves sacrificing a child at a [[huaca]], or ceremonial shrine in a significant spiritual location, in this case Mt. [[Ampato]]. Children were selected as they were considered pure beings and worthy of giving to the [[Inca mythology|Inca Gods]]. These children, like Juanita, once sacrificed become messengers to the ''Apu(s)'' and act as negotiators for the people. The people in turn would worship the sacrificed children in unison with the gods. Ceremonial offerings happened annually, seasonally, or upon special occasions.<ref name=":02"/>
Juanita and several others were likely sacrificed to appease the Gods after volcanic eruptions on the nearby [[Misti]] (1440-1450) and [[Sabancaya]] (1466) volcanos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chavez Chavez|first=Jose Antonio|date=2001|title=INVESTIGACIONES ARQUEOLÓGICAS DE ALTA MONTAÑA EN EL SUR DEL PERÚ|journal=Chungará (Arica) [online]|volume=33|issue=2|pages=283–288}}</ref> [[Types of volcanic eruptions|Volcanic eruptions]] cause irregularities in climate that can last between 3–5 years depending on location and intensity. In these circumstances, [[precipitation]] patterns are altered due to particulate presence in the air. These periods are usually indicated by abnormal dryness or wetness. Overall, research has indicated that volcanic eruptions lead to a general trend of drought or less precipitation. Particulate from the explosions can also contaminate water supply and air quality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Iles|first1=Carley E.|last2=Hegerl|first2=Gabriele C.|last3=Schurer|first3=Andrew P.|last4=Zhang|first4=Xuebin|date=2013-08-27|title=The effect of volcanic eruptions on global precipitation: VOLCANOES AND PRECIPITATION|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres|language=en|volume=118|issue=16|pages=8770–8786|doi=10.1002/jgrd.50678|hdl=1842/9918|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This is further depicted by Reinhard's observations and understandings from the field site, "the sacrifices were made either during a lengthy period of extreme drought, during (or just after) volcanic eruptions or both. Only in such periods could the ground have been unfrozen enough to allow the Incas to build the sites and bury the offerings as they did. And this factor could explain their importance. Droughts and volcanic ash would kill off pasturage and pollute and deplete the water sources so critical to the villagers below".<ref name=":02" />
It is probable that Juanita was sacrificed in response to climatic irregularities to placate the Gods in return for water.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Gelles|first=Paul H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjgujDaCeHAC&q=Juan+de+Ulloa+Mogollon+1586&pg=PA75|title=Water and Power in Highland Peru: The Cultural Politics of Irrigation and Development|date=2000|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-2807-6|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":02" /> Incan belief at the time was that mountains (and their spirits) controlled weather and water and, thus, were intertwined with the villages below. The prosperity of the crops and people depended on the approval of the mountain [[deity]] to provide water for their consumption and irrigation. Water is a life-giving source and was perceived to be connected with femininity and fertility. Therefore, the mountains that provided water were attributed to be female deities by the Incas.<ref name=":1" /> In Southern Peru, it was believed that sacrificing a young female would appease the Mountain deity who would in turn provide a consistent water supply to the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reinhard|first=Johan|date=November 1985|title=Sacred Mountains: An Ethno-Archaeological Study of High Andean Ruins|journal=Mountain Research and Development|volume=5|issue=4|pages=299–317|doi=10.2307/3673292|jstor=3673292|issn=0276-4741}}</ref>
Others have suggested that child sacrifice could in part be used as a political strategy by Incan leaders to ensure control over the empire. Sacrifices during this time of empire expansion would infix a combination of respect and fear while further embedding devotion.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=A. S.|last2=Taylor|first2=T.|last3=Ceruti|first3=M. C.|last4=Chavez|first4=J. A.|last5=Reinhard|first5=J.|last6=Grimes|first6=V.|last7=Meier-Augenstein|first7=W.|last8=Cartmell|first8=L.|last9=Stern|first9=B.|last10=Richards|first10=M. P.|last11=Worobey|first11=M.|date=2007-10-08|title=Stable isotope and DNA evidence for ritual sequences in Inca child sacrifice|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=104|issue=42|pages=16456–16461|doi=10.1073/pnas.0704276104|pmid=17923675|pmc=2034262|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Children of Llullaillaco]]
*[[Chinchorro mummies]]
*"[[Inca Mummy Girl]]"
*[[List of unsolved murders (before 1900)|List of unsolved murders]]
*[[Ötzi|Ötzi the Iceman]]
*[[Pazyryk burials#Ice Maiden|Pazyryk Ice Maiden]]
*[[Plomo Mummy]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite journal|author=Reinhard, Johan|title=Sharp Eyes of Science Probe the Mummies of Peru|journal=National Geographic|volume=191|issue=1|date=January 1997|pages=36–43}}
*{{cite book|author=Reinhard, Johan|title=Discovering the Inca Ice Maiden|publisher=National Geographic Society|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1998|isbn=9780792271420|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/discoveringincai00rein}}
*{{cite journal|author=Reinhard, Johan|title=New Inca Mummies|journal=National Geographic|volume=194|issue=1|date=July 1998|pages=128–135}}
*{{cite book|author=Reinhard, Johan|title=Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes|year=2005|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=9780792268383|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/icemaidenincamum0000rein}}
==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121014063018/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/ Andes Expedition: Searching For Inca Secrets] on [[National Geographic]]
*{{cite web|url=http://www.ucsm.edu.pe/museo-santuarios-andinos/|title=El Museo Santuarios Andinos|trans-title= Andean Sanctuaries Museum|language=es|publisher=[[Catholic University of Santa María]]}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mummy Juanita}}
[[Category:15th-century births]]
[[Category:15th-century deaths]]
[[Category:15th-century indigenous people of the Americas]]
[[Category:15th-century nobility]]
[[Category:15th-century women]]
[[Category:1995 archaeological discoveries]]
[[Category:Archaeological discoveries in Peru]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Peru]]
[[Category:Deaths by beating]]
[[Category:Human remains (archaeological)]]
[[Category:Human sacrifice]]
[[Category:Inca Empire people]]
[[Category:Andean mummies|Juanita]]
[[Category:People from Arequipa Region]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '
== Preparation for death ==
Through extracting DNA from Mummy Juanita's well-preserved hair, scientists were able to logically determine her diet prior to the sacrifice. The analysis of her hair indicates that Juanita was eating foods such as animal protein and maize. These foods were the diet of the elite, unlike the standard Inca diet of vegetables.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Stice|first=Joel|date=2017-09-08|title=Meet The Inca Ice Maiden, Perhaps The Best-Preserved Mummy In Human History|url=https://allthatsinteresting.com/mummy-juanita-lady-of-ampato|access-date=2020-11-25|website=All That's Interesting|language=en-US}}</ref>
The final six to eight weeks of life for a sacrificed Incan child consisted of heavy use of drugs and alcohol. With a combination of coca and chicha alcohol, the children would be in a highly intoxicated psychological state. Markers in Juanita's hair indicate that she was given coca and alcohol prior to her death, suggesting that she was in a state of near unconsciousness.<ref name=":4" />
==Cause of death==
Radiologist [[Elliot K. Fishman]] concluded that she was killed by [[blunt trauma]] to the head. He observed that her cracked right eye socket and the two-inch fracture in her skull are injuries "typical of someone who has been hit by a [[baseball bat]]." The blow caused a massive [[hemorrhage]], filling her skull with [[blood]] and pushing her brain to one side.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fatal Head Injury: Cracked Eye Socket and Skull Fracture|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower6.html|work=Andes Expedition – Searching For Inca Secrets|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=2011-05-19|year=1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014063549/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower6.html|archive-date=2012-10-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> Death by trauma to the head was a common technique of sacrificing children in this era, along with strangulation and suffocation (burying alive).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wikipedia Child Sacrifice in pre-Colombian cultures|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_sacrifice_in_pre-Columbian_cultures}}</ref>{{Circular reference|date=May 2020}}
== Capacocha ==
The ritual sacrifice called Capacocha (or Qhapaq hucha) was a key component to the Inca Empire. This ritual, which usually involved the sacrifice of children, was for celebratory events. These events included an annual or biennial event in the Incan calendar, the death of an emperor, the birth of a royal son, or a victory in battle, and were performed to prevent natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions, droughts, earthquakes, and epidemics.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=M. A.|first=Anthropology|last2=B. Ed.|first2=Illinois State University|last3=Twitter|first3=Twitter|title=High Altitude Sacrifice of Children in the Inca Capacocha Ceremony|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/capacocha-ceremony-inca-child-sacrifices-170318|access-date=2020-11-24|website=ThoughtCo|language=en}}</ref> Beyond celebratory events and sacrifice for prevention, child sacrifice represented military and political expansion for the culture along with the empire’s ability to use coercion and control.
As tribute payment, Inca rulers ordered boys and girls between the ages of 12 and 16 to sacrifice. Evidence of strontium analysis suggests that children were picked from several different geographical areas, taken to the Inca capital, and undergo months of travel to the sacred location of the death.<ref name=":2" /> Archaeologists have discovered through biochemical analysis that coca (the primary source of cocaine) and alcohol were commonly found in the children's systems.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-07-29|title=Inca Child Sacrifice Victims Were Drugged|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/7/130729-inca-mummy-maiden-sacrifice-coca-alcohol-drug-mountain-andes-children/|access-date=2020-11-24|website=National Geographic News|language=en}}</ref> Although archaeologists are unsure of why drugs and alcohol were used, some suggest that it was to put the chosen children in a stupor prior to death.
== Connecting climate and culture ==
Juanita was killed as a practice of [[capacocha]], or child sacrifice, to appease Inca Gods, or ''Apus''. This practice often involves sacrificing a child at a [[huaca]], or ceremonial shrine in a significant spiritual location, in this case Mt. [[Ampato]]. Children were selected as they were considered pure beings and worthy of giving to the [[Inca mythology|Inca Gods]]. These children, like Juanita, once sacrificed become messengers to the ''Apu(s)'' and act as negotiators for the people. The people in turn would worship the sacrificed children in unison with the gods. Ceremonial offerings happened annually, seasonally, or upon special occasions.<ref name=":02"/>
Juanita and several others were likely sacrificed to appease the Gods after volcanic eruptions on the nearby [[Misti]] (1440-1450) and [[Sabancaya]] (1466) volcanos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chavez Chavez|first=Jose Antonio|date=2001|title=INVESTIGACIONES ARQUEOLÓGICAS DE ALTA MONTAÑA EN EL SUR DEL PERÚ|journal=Chungará (Arica) [online]|volume=33|issue=2|pages=283–288}}</ref> [[Types of volcanic eruptions|Volcanic eruptions]] cause irregularities in climate that can last between 3–5 years depending on location and intensity. In these circumstances, [[precipitation]] patterns are altered due to particulate presence in the air. These periods are usually indicated by abnormal dryness or wetness. Overall, research has indicated that volcanic eruptions lead to a general trend of drought or less precipitation. Particulate from the explosions can also contaminate water supply and air quality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Iles|first1=Carley E.|last2=Hegerl|first2=Gabriele C.|last3=Schurer|first3=Andrew P.|last4=Zhang|first4=Xuebin|date=2013-08-27|title=The effect of volcanic eruptions on global precipitation: VOLCANOES AND PRECIPITATION|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres|language=en|volume=118|issue=16|pages=8770–8786|doi=10.1002/jgrd.50678|hdl=1842/9918|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This is further depicted by Reinhard's observations and understandings from the field site, "the sacrifices were made either during a lengthy period of extreme drought, during (or just after) volcanic eruptions or both. Only in such periods could the ground have been unfrozen enough to allow the Incas to build the sites and bury the offerings as they did. And this factor could explain their importance. Droughts and volcanic ash would kill off pasturage and pollute and deplete the water sources so critical to the villagers below".<ref name=":02" />
It is probable that Juanita was sacrificed in response to climatic irregularities to placate the Gods in return for water.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Gelles|first=Paul H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjgujDaCeHAC&q=Juan+de+Ulloa+Mogollon+1586&pg=PA75|title=Water and Power in Highland Peru: The Cultural Politics of Irrigation and Development|date=2000|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-2807-6|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":02" /> Incan belief at the time was that mountains (and their spirits) controlled weather and water and, thus, were intertwined with the villages below. The prosperity of the crops and people depended on the approval of the mountain [[deity]] to provide water for their consumption and irrigation. Water is a life-giving source and was perceived to be connected with femininity and fertility. Therefore, the mountains that provided water were attributed to be female deities by the Incas.<ref name=":1" /> In Southern Peru, it was believed that sacrificing a young female would appease the Mountain deity who would in turn provide a consistent water supply to the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reinhard|first=Johan|date=November 1985|title=Sacred Mountains: An Ethno-Archaeological Study of High Andean Ruins|journal=Mountain Research and Development|volume=5|issue=4|pages=299–317|doi=10.2307/3673292|jstor=3673292|issn=0276-4741}}</ref>
Others have suggested that child sacrifice could in part be used as a political strategy by Incan leaders to ensure control over the empire. Sacrifices during this time of empire expansion would infix a combination of respect and fear while further embedding devotion.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=A. S.|last2=Taylor|first2=T.|last3=Ceruti|first3=M. C.|last4=Chavez|first4=J. A.|last5=Reinhard|first5=J.|last6=Grimes|first6=V.|last7=Meier-Augenstein|first7=W.|last8=Cartmell|first8=L.|last9=Stern|first9=B.|last10=Richards|first10=M. P.|last11=Worobey|first11=M.|date=2007-10-08|title=Stable isotope and DNA evidence for ritual sequences in Inca child sacrifice|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=104|issue=42|pages=16456–16461|doi=10.1073/pnas.0704276104|pmid=17923675|pmc=2034262|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Children of Llullaillaco]]
*[[Chinchorro mummies]]
*"[[Inca Mummy Girl]]"
*[[List of unsolved murders (before 1900)|List of unsolved murders]]
*[[Ötzi|Ötzi the Iceman]]
*[[Pazyryk burials#Ice Maiden|Pazyryk Ice Maiden]]
*[[Plomo Mummy]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite journal|author=Reinhard, Johan|title=Sharp Eyes of Science Probe the Mummies of Peru|journal=National Geographic|volume=191|issue=1|date=January 1997|pages=36–43}}
*{{cite book|author=Reinhard, Johan|title=Discovering the Inca Ice Maiden|publisher=National Geographic Society|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1998|isbn=9780792271420|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/discoveringincai00rein}}
*{{cite journal|author=Reinhard, Johan|title=New Inca Mummies|journal=National Geographic|volume=194|issue=1|date=July 1998|pages=128–135}}
*{{cite book|author=Reinhard, Johan|title=Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes|year=2005|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=9780792268383|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/icemaidenincamum0000rein}}
==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121014063018/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/ Andes Expedition: Searching For Inca Secrets] on [[National Geographic]]
*{{cite web|url=http://www.ucsm.edu.pe/museo-santuarios-andinos/|title=El Museo Santuarios Andinos|trans-title= Andean Sanctuaries Museum|language=es|publisher=[[Catholic University of Santa María]]}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mummy Juanita}}
[[Category:15th-century births]]
[[Category:15th-century deaths]]
[[Category:15th-century indigenous people of the Americas]]
[[Category:15th-century nobility]]
[[Category:15th-century women]]
[[Category:1995 archaeological discoveries]]
[[Category:Archaeological discoveries in Peru]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Peru]]
[[Category:Deaths by beating]]
[[Category:Human remains (archaeological)]]
[[Category:Human sacrifice]]
[[Category:Inca Empire people]]
[[Category:Andean mummies|Juanita]]
[[Category:People from Arequipa Region]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,40 +1,2 @@
-<!------Please DO NOT tag this article as a copyvio until you have read the notice on the talk page of this article. Thank you. !----->
-{{Infobox event
-| title =
-| image = Juanita dama de las nieves.jpg
-| image_size = 200
-| caption = Mummy Juanita's body before unwrapping of her bundle.
-| date =
-| time =
-| place = [[Mount Ampato]], Peru
-| coordinates = 116.114 .117.118
-}}
-'''Momia Juanita''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "[[Mummy]] Juanita"), also known as the '''Lady of Ampato''' is the well-preserved frozen body of an [[Inca Empire|Inca]] girl who was killed as an [[Human Sacrifice|offering]] to the Inca gods sometime between 1440 and 1480 when she was approximately 12–15 years old.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2011-12-15|title=Meeting A 500-Year-Old Peruvian Mummy|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/visiting-a-500yearold-per_b_1146363|access-date=2020-11-24|website=HuffPost|language=en}}</ref> She was discovered on the dormant stratovolcano [[Ampato|Mount Ampato]] (part of the [[Andes]] [[cordillera]]) in southern [[Peru]] in 1995 by [[anthropologist]] [[Johan Reinhard]] and his Peruvian climbing partner, Miguel Zárate. She is known as the Lady of Ampato because she was found on top of Mount Ampato. Her other nickname, the Ice Maiden, derives from the cold conditions and freezing temperatures that preserved her body on Mount Ampato.<ref>{{Citation|title=Inca Ice Maiden, Momia Juanita|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1hch7t1.38|work=Protection Spell|pages=61–62|publisher=University of Arkansas Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1hch7t1.38|isbn=978-1-61075-610-5|access-date=2020-10-13}}</ref>
-
-Juanita has been on display in the [[Catholic University of Santa María]]'s Museum of Andean Sanctuaries (Museo Santuarios Andinos) in [[Arequipa, Peru]], almost continuously since 1996, and was displayed on a tour of [[Japan]] in 1999.
-
-In 1995, [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] chose her as one of the world's top ten discoveries.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gorman|first=Christine|date=1995-11-06|title=Archaeology: RETURN OF THE ICE MAIDEN|language=en-US|work=Time|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,983667,00.html|access-date=2020-05-20|issn=0040-781X}}</ref> Between May and June 1996, she was exhibited in the headquarters of the [[National Geographic Society]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], in a specially acclimatized conservation display unit. In its June 1996 issue, ''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'' included an article dedicated to the discovery of Juanita.<ref>Reinhard, Johan: Peru’s Ice Maidens. ''National Geographic'' 189(6) (June): 62–81, 1996.</ref>
-
-==Discovery==
-In September 1995, during an ascent of [[Ampato|Mt. Ampato]] (20,700 ft, 6309 m), [[Johan Reinhard]] and Zárate found a bundle in the crater that had fallen from an Inca site on the summit due to recent ice melt and erosion from a volcano eruption.<ref name=":3" /> To their astonishment, the bundle turned out to contain the frozen body of a young girl. Juanita was found almost entirely frozen, which preserved her internal organs, hair, blood, skin, and contents of her stomach.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=NOVA Online {{!}} Ice Mummies of the Inca {{!}} The High Mummies (2)|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/peru/mummies/high2.html|access-date=2020-11-25|website=www.pbs.org}}</ref>
-
-They also found many items that had been left as offerings to the Inca gods including llama bones, small figurines and pottery pieces. The items were strewn about the mountain slope, down which the body had fallen. These included statues, food items (maize kernels and cob), and [[Spondylus|spondylus shells]], which originate from ocean ecosystems.<ref name=":02" /> These have been connected to rain ceremonies throughout the [[Inca Empire|Incan Empire]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Reinhard|first=Johan|title=The Ice Maiden: Incan Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes|url=https://archive.org/details/discoveringincai00rein|url-access=registration|publisher=National Geographic|year=1998|location=Washington D.C.}}</ref> The clothing she wore resembled textiles from the elite from Cuzco, the Inca capital. As Juanita is the closest discovered sacrifice to Cuzco and was found with textiles of the wealthy, archaeologists believe that this could suggest she came from a noble Cuzco family.<ref name=":5" />
-
-The body and the items were quickly transported to Arequipa to prevent thawing of the frozen specimen. The body was initially kept in a special refrigerator at the Catholic University.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mummy Juanita: The Sacrifice of the Inca Ice Maiden|url=https://www.ancient-origins.net/history/mummy-juanita-sacrifice-inca-ice-maiden-009800|website=Ancient Origins|accessdate=2018-11-12}}</ref> Juanita's body was transported to the United States for a CT scan in 1996 and was then exhibited in Japan in 1999.<ref name=":3" /> She is considered one of the most well-preserved mummies in the Andes.
-
-Two more ice mummies, a young girl and a boy, were discovered in an archaeological expedition led by Dr. Reinhard and Prof. José Antonio Chávez in October 1995, and they recovered another female mummy on Ampato in December 1997. Volcanic ash from the nearby erupting volcano of [[Sabancaya]] induced ice melt in the area. This caused the Incan burial sites to collapse down into a gully or crater where they were soon discovered by Reinhard and his team. Reinhard published a detailed account of the discovery in his 2006 book entitled, ''The Ice Maiden: Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes''.
-
-==Scientific analysis==
-
-===Body===
-As Reinhard and Zárate struggled on Ampato's summit to lift the heavy bundle containing Juanita's body, they realized that her body mass had probably been increased by freezing of the flesh. When initially weighed in [[Arequipa]], the bundle containing "Juanita" weighed over 90 pounds (40.82 kilos). Their realization turned out to be correct; Juanita is almost entirely frozen, making her a substantial scientific find. Like only a few other high-altitude Inca mummies, Juanita was found frozen and thus her remains and garments were not [[Desiccation|desiccated]] like those of mummies found in other parts of the world. She was mummified by freezing conditions on the mountain top, instead of being artificially mummified, as is the case with Egyptian mummies. Her skin, organs, tissues, blood, hair, stomach contents, and garments are extremely well-preserved, offering scientists a rare glimpse into Inca culture during the reign of the [[Sapa Inca]] [[Pachacuti]] (reigned 1438–1471/1472).
-
-Analysis of her stomach contents revealed that she ate a meal of [[vegetable]]s six to eight hours before her death.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ice Maiden Virtual Autopsy|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/|work=Andes Expedition – Searching For Inca Secrets|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=2011-05-19|year=1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623075348/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/|archive-date=2011-06-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some evidence suggests that she may have come from a noble Cusco family. [[Isotope analysis|Stable isotopic analysis]] of other child sacrifices in the area has found changes in diet within the last year of life to indicate whether they originated from common families.<ref name=":0" /> This is usually indicated by the amount of meat protein consumed. Noble families would consume meat regularly whereas this may not be the case for a non-noble family. Since there is no specific analysis of Juanita it is inconclusive if she came from a noble family or not. However, analysis of similar child sacrifices in the region all indicate that at six months before their death they were in Cusco, likely for a ceremony before making their journey to the mountains.<ref name=":0" />
-
-=== Adornments and grave goods ===
-Juanita was wrapped in a brightly coloured burial tapestry (or "aksu"). Her head was adorned with a cap made from the feathers of a red [[macaw]], and she wore a lively woollen [[alpaca]] shawl fastened with a silver clasp. She was fully clothed in garments resembling the finest textiles from the Inca capital city of [[Cusco]]. These accoutrements were almost perfectly preserved, providing valuable insight into sacred Inca textiles and on how the Inca nobility dressed. Found with her in the burial tapestry was a collection of grave goods: bowls, pins, and figurines made of gold, silver, and shell.
-
-===Genetic analysis===
-According to the [[Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR), the closest kin they could find in the database in 1996 were the [[Ngöbe–Buglé people|Ngobe people]] of [[Panama]], but the later research has shown her to share genetic patterns found in people from the [[Andes]]. Scientists at TIGR examined two mitochondrial [[DNA]] D loop sequences and found that [[Hypervariable region]] 1 (HV1) was consistent with [[Haplogroup A (mtDNA)|mitochondrial haplogroup A2]], one of the four Native American gene groups. Hypervariable region 2 (HV2) included a unique sequence not found in any of the current mitochondrial DNA databases.<ref>{{cite web|title=DNA: The Key to the Mystery|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower3.html|work=Andes Expedition – Searching For Inca Secrets|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=2011-05-19|year=1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014063112/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower3.html|archive-date=2012-10-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> Her [[haplotype]] is 16111T, 16223T, 16290T, 16319A.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ancient DNA|url=http://www.isogg.org/ancientdna.htm|website=www.isogg.org|publisher=International Society of Genetic Genealogy|accessdate=2015-04-05|date=2005-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403114037/http://www.isogg.org/ancientdna.htm|archive-date=2015-04-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> In accordance with the [[genetic map|genetic world map]] and genetic patterns, her HV2 DNA sequence was also related with the ancient races originally from [[Taiwan]] and [[Korea]], which supports the theory that [[Paleo-Indians]] had [[Pacific]] links.<ref>[https://www.sal.org.uk/salon/archive/issue?no=169&f=1&fs=section1&cs=td Tests on 'Ice Maiden' reveal Pacific links], Society of Antiquaries of London, 2007. (169).</ref><ref>[https://ncffa.org/Web%20Files/Curriculum%20Guide/F%20%20Genes%20and%20Disease.pdf The Ice Maiden], Genes and Disease</ref><ref>Saydí María Negrón Romero, [http://www.libreroonline.com/peru/libros/44930/negron-romero-saydi-maria/presenting-peru-machupicchu.html Presenting Peru & Machupicchu], [http://richardchang.tw/2016/09/12/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E9%A2%A8%E6%A0%BC%EF%BC%9A%E3%80%90%E7%A7%98%E9%AD%AF%E7%B4%80%E8%A1%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%B8%89%EF%BC%89%E7%95%99%E8%91%97%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E8%A1%80%E6%B6%B2%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%98%E9%AD%AF/ p.114]</ref>
== Preparation for death ==
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0 => '<!------Please DO NOT tag this article as a copyvio until you have read the notice on the talk page of this article. Thank you. !----->',
1 => '{{Infobox event',
2 => '| title = ',
3 => '| image = Juanita dama de las nieves.jpg',
4 => '| image_size = 200',
5 => '| caption = Mummy Juanita's body before unwrapping of her bundle.',
6 => '| date = ',
7 => '| time = ',
8 => '| place = [[Mount Ampato]], Peru',
9 => '| coordinates = 116.114 .117.118',
10 => '}}',
11 => ''''Momia Juanita''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "[[Mummy]] Juanita"), also known as the '''Lady of Ampato''' is the well-preserved frozen body of an [[Inca Empire|Inca]] girl who was killed as an [[Human Sacrifice|offering]] to the Inca gods sometime between 1440 and 1480 when she was approximately 12–15 years old.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2011-12-15|title=Meeting A 500-Year-Old Peruvian Mummy|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/visiting-a-500yearold-per_b_1146363|access-date=2020-11-24|website=HuffPost|language=en}}</ref> She was discovered on the dormant stratovolcano [[Ampato|Mount Ampato]] (part of the [[Andes]] [[cordillera]]) in southern [[Peru]] in 1995 by [[anthropologist]] [[Johan Reinhard]] and his Peruvian climbing partner, Miguel Zárate. She is known as the Lady of Ampato because she was found on top of Mount Ampato. Her other nickname, the Ice Maiden, derives from the cold conditions and freezing temperatures that preserved her body on Mount Ampato.<ref>{{Citation|title=Inca Ice Maiden, Momia Juanita|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1hch7t1.38|work=Protection Spell|pages=61–62|publisher=University of Arkansas Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1hch7t1.38|isbn=978-1-61075-610-5|access-date=2020-10-13}}</ref>',
12 => '',
13 => 'Juanita has been on display in the [[Catholic University of Santa María]]'s Museum of Andean Sanctuaries (Museo Santuarios Andinos) in [[Arequipa, Peru]], almost continuously since 1996, and was displayed on a tour of [[Japan]] in 1999.',
14 => '',
15 => 'In 1995, [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] chose her as one of the world's top ten discoveries.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gorman|first=Christine|date=1995-11-06|title=Archaeology: RETURN OF THE ICE MAIDEN|language=en-US|work=Time|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,983667,00.html|access-date=2020-05-20|issn=0040-781X}}</ref> Between May and June 1996, she was exhibited in the headquarters of the [[National Geographic Society]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], in a specially acclimatized conservation display unit. In its June 1996 issue, ''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'' included an article dedicated to the discovery of Juanita.<ref>Reinhard, Johan: Peru’s Ice Maidens. ''National Geographic'' 189(6) (June): 62–81, 1996.</ref>',
16 => '',
17 => '==Discovery==',
18 => 'In September 1995, during an ascent of [[Ampato|Mt. Ampato]] (20,700 ft, 6309 m), [[Johan Reinhard]] and Zárate found a bundle in the crater that had fallen from an Inca site on the summit due to recent ice melt and erosion from a volcano eruption.<ref name=":3" /> To their astonishment, the bundle turned out to contain the frozen body of a young girl. Juanita was found almost entirely frozen, which preserved her internal organs, hair, blood, skin, and contents of her stomach.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=NOVA Online {{!}} Ice Mummies of the Inca {{!}} The High Mummies (2)|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/peru/mummies/high2.html|access-date=2020-11-25|website=www.pbs.org}}</ref>',
19 => '',
20 => 'They also found many items that had been left as offerings to the Inca gods including llama bones, small figurines and pottery pieces. The items were strewn about the mountain slope, down which the body had fallen. These included statues, food items (maize kernels and cob), and [[Spondylus|spondylus shells]], which originate from ocean ecosystems.<ref name=":02" /> These have been connected to rain ceremonies throughout the [[Inca Empire|Incan Empire]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Reinhard|first=Johan|title=The Ice Maiden: Incan Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes|url=https://archive.org/details/discoveringincai00rein|url-access=registration|publisher=National Geographic|year=1998|location=Washington D.C.}}</ref> The clothing she wore resembled textiles from the elite from Cuzco, the Inca capital. As Juanita is the closest discovered sacrifice to Cuzco and was found with textiles of the wealthy, archaeologists believe that this could suggest she came from a noble Cuzco family.<ref name=":5" />',
21 => '',
22 => 'The body and the items were quickly transported to Arequipa to prevent thawing of the frozen specimen. The body was initially kept in a special refrigerator at the Catholic University.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mummy Juanita: The Sacrifice of the Inca Ice Maiden|url=https://www.ancient-origins.net/history/mummy-juanita-sacrifice-inca-ice-maiden-009800|website=Ancient Origins|accessdate=2018-11-12}}</ref> Juanita's body was transported to the United States for a CT scan in 1996 and was then exhibited in Japan in 1999.<ref name=":3" /> She is considered one of the most well-preserved mummies in the Andes.',
23 => '',
24 => 'Two more ice mummies, a young girl and a boy, were discovered in an archaeological expedition led by Dr. Reinhard and Prof. José Antonio Chávez in October 1995, and they recovered another female mummy on Ampato in December 1997. Volcanic ash from the nearby erupting volcano of [[Sabancaya]] induced ice melt in the area. This caused the Incan burial sites to collapse down into a gully or crater where they were soon discovered by Reinhard and his team. Reinhard published a detailed account of the discovery in his 2006 book entitled, ''The Ice Maiden: Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes''.',
25 => '',
26 => '==Scientific analysis==',
27 => '',
28 => '===Body===',
29 => 'As Reinhard and Zárate struggled on Ampato's summit to lift the heavy bundle containing Juanita's body, they realized that her body mass had probably been increased by freezing of the flesh. When initially weighed in [[Arequipa]], the bundle containing "Juanita" weighed over 90 pounds (40.82 kilos). Their realization turned out to be correct; Juanita is almost entirely frozen, making her a substantial scientific find. Like only a few other high-altitude Inca mummies, Juanita was found frozen and thus her remains and garments were not [[Desiccation|desiccated]] like those of mummies found in other parts of the world. She was mummified by freezing conditions on the mountain top, instead of being artificially mummified, as is the case with Egyptian mummies. Her skin, organs, tissues, blood, hair, stomach contents, and garments are extremely well-preserved, offering scientists a rare glimpse into Inca culture during the reign of the [[Sapa Inca]] [[Pachacuti]] (reigned 1438–1471/1472).',
30 => '',
31 => 'Analysis of her stomach contents revealed that she ate a meal of [[vegetable]]s six to eight hours before her death.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ice Maiden Virtual Autopsy|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/|work=Andes Expedition – Searching For Inca Secrets|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=2011-05-19|year=1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623075348/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/|archive-date=2011-06-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some evidence suggests that she may have come from a noble Cusco family. [[Isotope analysis|Stable isotopic analysis]] of other child sacrifices in the area has found changes in diet within the last year of life to indicate whether they originated from common families.<ref name=":0" /> This is usually indicated by the amount of meat protein consumed. Noble families would consume meat regularly whereas this may not be the case for a non-noble family. Since there is no specific analysis of Juanita it is inconclusive if she came from a noble family or not. However, analysis of similar child sacrifices in the region all indicate that at six months before their death they were in Cusco, likely for a ceremony before making their journey to the mountains.<ref name=":0" />',
32 => '',
33 => '=== Adornments and grave goods ===',
34 => 'Juanita was wrapped in a brightly coloured burial tapestry (or "aksu"). Her head was adorned with a cap made from the feathers of a red [[macaw]], and she wore a lively woollen [[alpaca]] shawl fastened with a silver clasp. She was fully clothed in garments resembling the finest textiles from the Inca capital city of [[Cusco]]. These accoutrements were almost perfectly preserved, providing valuable insight into sacred Inca textiles and on how the Inca nobility dressed. Found with her in the burial tapestry was a collection of grave goods: bowls, pins, and figurines made of gold, silver, and shell.',
35 => '',
36 => '===Genetic analysis===',
37 => 'According to the [[Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR), the closest kin they could find in the database in 1996 were the [[Ngöbe–Buglé people|Ngobe people]] of [[Panama]], but the later research has shown her to share genetic patterns found in people from the [[Andes]]. Scientists at TIGR examined two mitochondrial [[DNA]] D loop sequences and found that [[Hypervariable region]] 1 (HV1) was consistent with [[Haplogroup A (mtDNA)|mitochondrial haplogroup A2]], one of the four Native American gene groups. Hypervariable region 2 (HV2) included a unique sequence not found in any of the current mitochondrial DNA databases.<ref>{{cite web|title=DNA: The Key to the Mystery|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower3.html|work=Andes Expedition – Searching For Inca Secrets|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=2011-05-19|year=1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014063112/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower3.html|archive-date=2012-10-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> Her [[haplotype]] is 16111T, 16223T, 16290T, 16319A.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ancient DNA|url=http://www.isogg.org/ancientdna.htm|website=www.isogg.org|publisher=International Society of Genetic Genealogy|accessdate=2015-04-05|date=2005-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403114037/http://www.isogg.org/ancientdna.htm|archive-date=2015-04-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> In accordance with the [[genetic map|genetic world map]] and genetic patterns, her HV2 DNA sequence was also related with the ancient races originally from [[Taiwan]] and [[Korea]], which supports the theory that [[Paleo-Indians]] had [[Pacific]] links.<ref>[https://www.sal.org.uk/salon/archive/issue?no=169&f=1&fs=section1&cs=td Tests on 'Ice Maiden' reveal Pacific links], Society of Antiquaries of London, 2007. (169).</ref><ref>[https://ncffa.org/Web%20Files/Curriculum%20Guide/F%20%20Genes%20and%20Disease.pdf The Ice Maiden], Genes and Disease</ref><ref>Saydí María Negrón Romero, [http://www.libreroonline.com/peru/libros/44930/negron-romero-saydi-maria/presenting-peru-machupicchu.html Presenting Peru & Machupicchu], [http://richardchang.tw/2016/09/12/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E9%A2%A8%E6%A0%BC%EF%BC%9A%E3%80%90%E7%A7%98%E9%AD%AF%E7%B4%80%E8%A1%8C%EF%BC%88%E4%B8%89%EF%BC%89%E7%95%99%E8%91%97%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E8%A1%80%E6%B6%B2%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%98%E9%AD%AF/ p.114]</ref>'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Preparation_for_death"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Preparation for death</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Cause_of_death"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Cause of death</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Capacocha"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Capacocha</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Connecting_climate_and_culture"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Connecting climate and culture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Preparation_for_death">Preparation for death</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mummy_Juanita&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Preparation for death">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Through extracting DNA from Mummy Juanita's well-preserved hair, scientists were able to logically determine her diet prior to the sacrifice. The analysis of her hair indicates that Juanita was eating foods such as animal protein and maize. These foods were the diet of the elite, unlike the standard Inca diet of vegetables.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>The final six to eight weeks of life for a sacrificed Incan child consisted of heavy use of drugs and alcohol. With a combination of coca and chicha alcohol, the children would be in a highly intoxicated psychological state. Markers in Juanita's hair indicate that she was given coca and alcohol prior to her death, suggesting that she was in a state of near unconsciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Cause_of_death">Cause of death</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mummy_Juanita&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Cause of death">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Radiologist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elliot_K._Fishman" title="Elliot K. Fishman">Elliot K. Fishman</a> concluded that she was killed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blunt_trauma" title="Blunt trauma">blunt trauma</a> to the head. He observed that her cracked right eye socket and the two-inch fracture in her skull are injuries "typical of someone who has been hit by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baseball_bat" title="Baseball bat">baseball bat</a>." The blow caused a massive <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhage">hemorrhage</a>, filling her skull with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> and pushing her brain to one side.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> Death by trauma to the head was a common technique of sacrificing children in this era, along with strangulation and suffocation (burying alive).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Wikipedia_and_sources_that_mirror_or_use_it" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This claim cites another Wikipedia article. Articles need references to reliable third-party sources. (May 2020)">circular reference</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Capacocha">Capacocha</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mummy_Juanita&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Capacocha">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The ritual sacrifice called Capacocha (or Qhapaq hucha) was a key component to the Inca Empire. This ritual, which usually involved the sacrifice of children, was for celebratory events. These events included an annual or biennial event in the Incan calendar, the death of an emperor, the birth of a royal son, or a victory in battle, and were performed to prevent natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions, droughts, earthquakes, and epidemics.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup> Beyond celebratory events and sacrifice for prevention, child sacrifice represented military and political expansion for the culture along with the empire’s ability to use coercion and control.
</p><p>As tribute payment, Inca rulers ordered boys and girls between the ages of 12 and 16 to sacrifice. Evidence of strontium analysis suggests that children were picked from several different geographical areas, taken to the Inca capital, and undergo months of travel to the sacred location of the death.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a></sup> Archaeologists have discovered through biochemical analysis that coca (the primary source of cocaine) and alcohol were commonly found in the children's systems.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Although archaeologists are unsure of why drugs and alcohol were used, some suggest that it was to put the chosen children in a stupor prior to death.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Connecting_climate_and_culture">Connecting climate and culture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mummy_Juanita&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Connecting climate and culture">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Juanita was killed as a practice of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capacocha" title="Capacocha">capacocha</a>, or child sacrifice, to appease Inca Gods, or <i>Apus</i>. This practice often involves sacrificing a child at a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huaca" title="Huaca">huaca</a>, or ceremonial shrine in a significant spiritual location, in this case Mt. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ampato" title="Ampato">Ampato</a>. Children were selected as they were considered pure beings and worthy of giving to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca Gods</a>. These children, like Juanita, once sacrificed become messengers to the <i>Apu(s)</i> and act as negotiators for the people. The people in turn would worship the sacrificed children in unison with the gods. Ceremonial offerings happened annually, seasonally, or upon special occasions.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Juanita and several others were likely sacrificed to appease the Gods after volcanic eruptions on the nearby <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Misti" title="Misti">Misti</a> (1440-1450) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sabancaya" title="Sabancaya">Sabancaya</a> (1466) volcanos.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">Volcanic eruptions</a> cause irregularities in climate that can last between 3–5 years depending on location and intensity. In these circumstances, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> patterns are altered due to particulate presence in the air. These periods are usually indicated by abnormal dryness or wetness. Overall, research has indicated that volcanic eruptions lead to a general trend of drought or less precipitation. Particulate from the explosions can also contaminate water supply and air quality.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> This is further depicted by Reinhard's observations and understandings from the field site, "the sacrifices were made either during a lengthy period of extreme drought, during (or just after) volcanic eruptions or both. Only in such periods could the ground have been unfrozen enough to allow the Incas to build the sites and bury the offerings as they did. And this factor could explain their importance. Droughts and volcanic ash would kill off pasturage and pollute and deplete the water sources so critical to the villagers below".<sup id="cite_ref-:02_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>It is probable that Juanita was sacrificed in response to climatic irregularities to placate the Gods in return for water.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-6">[6]</a></sup> Incan belief at the time was that mountains (and their spirits) controlled weather and water and, thus, were intertwined with the villages below. The prosperity of the crops and people depended on the approval of the mountain <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deity</a> to provide water for their consumption and irrigation. Water is a life-giving source and was perceived to be connected with femininity and fertility. Therefore, the mountains that provided water were attributed to be female deities by the Incas.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9">[9]</a></sup> In Southern Peru, it was believed that sacrificing a young female would appease the Mountain deity who would in turn provide a consistent water supply to the region.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Others have suggested that child sacrifice could in part be used as a political strategy by Incan leaders to ensure control over the empire. Sacrifices during this time of empire expansion would infix a combination of respect and fear while further embedding devotion.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mummy_Juanita&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Children_of_Llullaillaco" title="Children of Llullaillaco">Children of Llullaillaco</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinchorro_mummies" title="Chinchorro mummies">Chinchorro mummies</a></li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inca_Mummy_Girl" title="Inca Mummy Girl">Inca Mummy Girl</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_unsolved_murders_(before_1900)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of unsolved murders (before 1900)">List of unsolved murders</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%96tzi" title="Ötzi">Ötzi the Iceman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pazyryk_burials#Ice_Maiden" title="Pazyryk burials">Pazyryk Ice Maiden</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plomo_Mummy" title="Plomo Mummy">Plomo Mummy</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mummy_Juanita&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<li id="cite_note-:4-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFStice2017" class="citation web cs1">Stice, Joel (2017-09-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://allthatsinteresting.com/mummy-juanita-lady-of-ampato">"Meet The Inca Ice Maiden, Perhaps The Best-Preserved Mummy In Human History"</a>. <i>All That's Interesting</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=All+That%27s+Interesting&rft.atitle=Meet+The+Inca+Ice+Maiden%2C+Perhaps+The+Best-Preserved+Mummy+In+Human+History&rft.date=2017-09-08&rft.aulast=Stice&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fallthatsinteresting.com%2Fmummy-juanita-lady-of-ampato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121014063549/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower6.html">"Fatal Head Injury: Cracked Eye Socket and Skull Fracture"</a>. <i>Andes Expedition – Searching For Inca Secrets</i>. National Geographic. 1997. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/autopsy/lower6.html">the original</a> on 2012-10-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-05-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Andes+Expedition+%E2%80%93+Searching+For+Inca+Secrets&rft.atitle=Fatal+Head+Injury%3A+Cracked+Eye+Socket+and+Skull+Fracture&rft.date=1997&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Ffeatures%2F97%2Fandes%2Fautopsy%2Flower6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_sacrifice_in_pre-Columbian_cultures">"Wikipedia Child Sacrifice in pre-Colombian cultures"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wikipedia+Child+Sacrifice+in+pre-Colombian+cultures&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FChild_sacrifice_in_pre-Columbian_cultures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:2-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFM._A.B._Ed.Twitter" class="citation web cs1">M. A., Anthropology; B. Ed., Illinois State University; Twitter, Twitter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/capacocha-ceremony-inca-child-sacrifices-170318">"High Altitude Sacrifice of Children in the Inca Capacocha Ceremony"</a>. <i>ThoughtCo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ThoughtCo&rft.atitle=High+Altitude+Sacrifice+of+Children+in+the+Inca+Capacocha+Ceremony&rft.aulast=M.+A.&rft.aufirst=Anthropology&rft.au=B.+Ed.%2C+Illinois+State+University&rft.au=Twitter%2C+Twitter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Fcapacocha-ceremony-inca-child-sacrifices-170318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/7/130729-inca-mummy-maiden-sacrifice-coca-alcohol-drug-mountain-andes-children/">"Inca Child Sacrifice Victims Were Drugged"</a>. <i>National Geographic News</i>. 2013-07-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+News&rft.atitle=Inca+Child+Sacrifice+Victims+Were+Drugged&rft.date=2013-07-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2013%2F7%2F130729-inca-mummy-maiden-sacrifice-coca-alcohol-drug-mountain-andes-children%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:02-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>:02</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFChavez_Chavez2001" class="citation journal cs1">Chavez Chavez, Jose Antonio (2001). "INVESTIGACIONES ARQUEOLÓGICAS DE ALTA MONTAÑA EN EL SUR DEL PERÚ". <i>Chungará (Arica) [online]</i>. <b>33</b> (2): 283–288.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chungar%C3%A1+%28Arica%29+%5Bonline%5D&rft.atitle=INVESTIGACIONES+ARQUEOL%C3%93GICAS+DE+ALTA+MONTA%C3%91A+EN+EL+SUR+DEL+PER%C3%9A&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=283-288&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Chavez+Chavez&rft.aufirst=Jose+Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFIlesHegerlSchurerZhang2013" class="citation journal cs1">Iles, Carley E.; Hegerl, Gabriele C.; Schurer, Andrew P.; Zhang, Xuebin (2013-08-27). "The effect of volcanic eruptions on global precipitation: VOLCANOES AND PRECIPITATION". <i>Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres</i>. <b>118</b> (16): 8770–8786. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjgrd.50678">10.1002/jgrd.50678</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//hdl.handle.net/1842%2F9918">1842/9918</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research%3A+Atmospheres&rft.atitle=The+effect+of+volcanic+eruptions+on+global+precipitation%3A+VOLCANOES+AND+PRECIPITATION&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=8770-8786&rft.date=2013-08-27&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1842%2F9918&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjgrd.50678&rft.aulast=Iles&rft.aufirst=Carley+E.&rft.au=Hegerl%2C+Gabriele+C.&rft.au=Schurer%2C+Andrew+P.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Xuebin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:1-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFGelles2000" class="citation book cs1">Gelles, Paul H. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SjgujDaCeHAC&q=Juan+de+Ulloa+Mogollon+1586&pg=PA75"><i>Water and Power in Highland Peru: The Cultural Politics of Irrigation and Development</i></a>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-2807-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-2807-6"><bdi>978-0-8135-2807-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+and+Power+in+Highland+Peru%3A+The+Cultural+Politics+of+Irrigation+and+Development&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-2807-6&rft.aulast=Gelles&rft.aufirst=Paul+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSjgujDaCeHAC%26q%3DJuan%2Bde%2BUlloa%2BMogollon%2B1586%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFReinhard1985" class="citation journal cs1">Reinhard, Johan (November 1985). "Sacred Mountains: An Ethno-Archaeological Study of High Andean Ruins". <i>Mountain Research and Development</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 299–317. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3673292">10.2307/3673292</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/0276-4741">0276-4741</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.jstor.org/stable/3673292">3673292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mountain+Research+and+Development&rft.atitle=Sacred+Mountains%3A+An+Ethno-Archaeological+Study+of+High+Andean+Ruins&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=299-317&rft.date=1985-11&rft.issn=0276-4741&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3673292%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3673292&rft.aulast=Reinhard&rft.aufirst=Johan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWilsonTaylorCerutiChavez2007" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, A. S.; Taylor, T.; Ceruti, M. C.; Chavez, J. A.; Reinhard, J.; Grimes, V.; Meier-Augenstein, W.; Cartmell, L.; Stern, B.; Richards, M. P.; Worobey, M. (2007-10-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2034262">"Stable isotope and DNA evidence for ritual sequences in Inca child sacrifice"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>104</b> (42): 16456–16461. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0704276104">10.1073/pnas.0704276104</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2034262">2034262</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17923675">17923675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Stable+isotope+and+DNA+evidence+for+ritual+sequences+in+Inca+child+sacrifice&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=42&rft.pages=16456-16461&rft.date=2007-10-08&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2034262%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17923675&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0704276104&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=A.+S.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+T.&rft.au=Ceruti%2C+M.+C.&rft.au=Chavez%2C+J.+A.&rft.au=Reinhard%2C+J.&rft.au=Grimes%2C+V.&rft.au=Meier-Augenstein%2C+W.&rft.au=Cartmell%2C+L.&rft.au=Stern%2C+B.&rft.au=Richards%2C+M.+P.&rft.au=Worobey%2C+M.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2034262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFReinhard,_Johan1997" class="citation journal cs1">Reinhard, Johan (January 1997). "Sharp Eyes of Science Probe the Mummies of Peru". <i>National Geographic</i>. <b>191</b> (1): 36–43.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Sharp+Eyes+of+Science+Probe+the+Mummies+of+Peru&rft.volume=191&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36-43&rft.date=1997-01&rft.au=Reinhard%2C+Johan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFReinhard,_Johan1998" class="citation book cs1">Reinhard, Johan (1998). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/discoveringincai00rein"><i>Discovering the Inca Ice Maiden</i></a></span>. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780792271420" title="Special:BookSources/9780792271420"><bdi>9780792271420</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovering+the+Inca+Ice+Maiden&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780792271420&rft.au=Reinhard%2C+Johan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiscoveringincai00rein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFReinhard,_Johan1998" class="citation journal cs1">Reinhard, Johan (July 1998). "New Inca Mummies". <i>National Geographic</i>. <b>194</b> (1): 128–135.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=New+Inca+Mummies&rft.volume=194&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=128-135&rft.date=1998-07&rft.au=Reinhard%2C+Johan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFReinhard,_Johan2005" class="citation book cs1">Reinhard, Johan (2005). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/icemaidenincamum0000rein"><i>Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes</i></a></span>. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780792268383" title="Special:BookSources/9780792268383"><bdi>9780792268383</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inca+Mummies%2C+Mountain+Gods%2C+and+Sacred+Sites+in+the+Andes&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780792268383&rft.au=Reinhard%2C+Johan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ficemaidenincamum0000rein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mummy_Juanita&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121014063018/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/97/andes/">Andes Expedition: Searching For Inca Secrets</a> on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucsm.edu.pe/museo-santuarios-andinos/">"El Museo Santuarios Andinos"</a> [Andean Sanctuaries Museum] (in Spanish). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa" title="Catholic University of Santa María">Catholic University of Santa María</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=El+Museo+Santuarios+Andinos&rft.pub=Catholic+University+of+Santa+Mar%C3%ADa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucsm.edu.pe%2Fmuseo-santuarios-andinos%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMummy+Juanita" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1739815/">Faceted Application of Subject Terminology</a></span></li></ul>
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' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1630607630 |
