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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Seed of the coffee plant}}
{{Hatnote|This article is about the coffee bean seed. For the coffee chain, see [[The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf]].}}{{Infobox beverage|name=Coffee beans|image=Roasted coffee beans.jpg|caption=Roasted coffee beans|type=|origin=|introduced=|color=|region=[[Horn of Africa]]<ref>Souza, Richard M. (2008) ''Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee''. Springer. p. 3. {{ISBN|978-1-4020-8720-2}}</ref>
and [[South Arabia]]<ref name="Wein34">{{harvnb|Weinberg|Bealer|2001|pages=3–4}}</ref>}}A '''coffee bean''' is a seed of the ''[[Coffea]]'' plant and the source for [[coffee]]. It is the [[drupe|pip]] inside the red or purple fruit often referred to as a cherry. Just like ordinary cherries, the coffee fruit is also a so-called stone fruit. Even though the coffee beans are not technically beans, they are referred to as such because of their resemblance to [[bean|true beans]]. The fruits; cherries or berries, most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides together. A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, instead of the usual two. This is called a "[[peaberry]]". The peaberry occurs only between 10% and 15% of the time, and it is a fairly common (yet scientifically unproven) belief that they have more flavour than normal coffee beans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ilovebuttercoffee.com/peaberry-coffee-beans/|title=Peaberry Coffee Beans: Speciality Coffee Drinkers Guide|work=ilovebuttercoffee.com|access-date=1 Dec 2016}}</ref> Like [[Brazil nut]]s (a seed) and white rice, coffee beans consist mostly of [[endosperm]].<ref>{{cite web
| title = Arabica and Robusta Coffee Plant
| publisher = Coffee Research Institute
| url = http://www.coffeeresearch.org/agriculture/coffeeplant.htm
| access-date = 25 August 2011}}</ref>
The two most economically important varieties of coffee plant are the [[Coffea arabica|Arabica]] and the [[Robusta coffee|Robusta]]; ~60% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and ~40% is Robusta.<ref name="CoffeeProduction">{{cite web |title=Coffee: World Markets and Trade |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture – Foreign Agricultural Service |date=June 16, 2017 |url=http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/fas/tropprod//2010s/2017/tropprod-06-16-2017.pdf |access-date=December 8, 2017}}</ref> Arabica beans consist of 0.8–1.4% [[caffeine]] and Robusta beans consist of 1.7–4.0% caffeine.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Botanical Aspects
|publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]]
|url=http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp
|access-date=25 August 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003123956/http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp
|archive-date=3 October 2011
}}</ref> As [[coffee]] is one of the world's most widely consumed beverages, coffee beans are a major [[cash crop]] and an important [[export]] product, accounting for over 50% of some developing nations' foreign exchange earnings.<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Story of Coffee
|publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]]
|url=http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp
|access-date=25 August 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003124016/http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp
|archive-date=3 October 2011
}}</ref> In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth USD 19.9 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Voora, V., Bermudez, S., and Larrea, C.|first=|date=2019|title=Global Market Report: Coffee|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref>
==History==
{{Main article|History of coffee}}
===Significant dates===
*According to legend, the coffee plant was discovered in [[Ethiopia]] by a [[goat herder]] named [[Kaldi]] around 850 AD, who observed increased physical activity in his goats after they consumed coffee beans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The history of coffee|url=https://www.ncausa.org/about-coffee/history-of-coffee|access-date=2020-06-24|publisher=National Coffee Association of the United States}}</ref>
*The first coffee plant was found in the mountains of [[Yemen]]. Then by 1500, it was exported to the rest of the world through the port of [[Mocha, Yemen]].
*First cultivation in India ([[Chikmagalur]]) – 1600
*First cultivation in Europe (also first cultivation outside of East Africa/Arabia) – 1616
*First cultivation in Java – 1699
*First cultivation in Caribbean ([[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], [[Jamaica]], [[Puerto Rico]]) – 1715–1730
*First cultivation in South America – 1730
*First cultivation in Dutch East Indies – 1720
*The plants were first introduced in the Americas around 1723.
*Roasted beans first sold on retail market (Pittsburgh) – 1865
*Important spray-drying techniques developed in 1950s, which along with freeze drying are a method to create instant coffee
===Distribution===
[[File:Bean belt (top 20 coffee producers 2011).svg|thumb|The bean belt in yellow: The 20 largest producers (2011) are in green.]]
[[Coffee production in Brazil| Brazil produces]] about 45% of the world's total coffee exports, with most grown in Brazil. The United States imports more coffee than any other nation. As of 2015, Americans consumed approximately 400 million cups of coffee per day, making the United States the leading consumer of coffee in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coffee Statistics 2015|url=http://www.e-importz.com/coffee-statistics.php|website=E-Imports|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref>
{{anchor|Bean belt}}[[Coffea|Coffee plants]] grow within a defined area between the Tropics of [[Tropic of Cancer|Cancer]] and [[Tropic of Capricorn|Capricorn]], termed the bean belt or coffee belt.<ref>{{cite web|last=Klos |first=Beth|title=The Coffee Bean – Not a Fiend|url=http://www.brighamandwomens.org/Patients_Visitors/pcs/nutrition/services/healtheweightforwomen/special_topics/intelihealth1106.aspx|website=www.brighamandwomens.org|access-date=16 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Eija |last=Soin |title=Land use change patterns and livelihood dynamics on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania |journal=Agricultural Systems |volume=85 |issue=3 |date=September 2005 |pages=306–323 |doi=10.1016/j.agsy.2005.06.013|url=https://zenodo.org/record/895944 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Lamb HH |title=Climate: present, past and future |year=1977 |volume=2 |page=681 |isbn=0-06-473881-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sevey |first=Glenn C. |title=Bean Culture: A Practical Treatise on the Production and Marketing of Beans |url=https://archive.org/details/beanculturepract00severich |year=1907 |publisher=Orange Judd Company |asin=B000863SS2}}</ref>
==Etymology==
The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] suggests that the [[European languages]] generally appear to have gotten the name from [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''kahveh'', about 1600, perhaps through [[Italian language|Italian]] ''caffè''. [[Arabic|Arab]] ''qahwah'', in Turkish pronounced ''kahveh'', the name of the [[infusion]] or [[beverage]]; said by [[Arab]] [[lexicographer]]s to have originally meant "[[wine]]" or some type of wine, and to be a derivative of a [[verb]]-[[root (linguistics)|root]] ''qahiya'' "to have no [[appetite]]". Another common theory is that the name derives from [[Kaffa Province, Ethiopia]], where the species may have originated.<ref>Souza, Richard M. (2008) ''Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee''. Springer. p. 3. {{ISBN|978-1-4020-8720-2}}</ref>
==Coffee plant==
[[File:Singararutang coffee flower.jpg|thumb|right|The flower of a Singararutang coffee tree]]
[[File:Coffee berries 1.jpg|thumb|right|Coffee berries]]
The coffee tree averages from {{convert|5|–|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height. As the tree gets older, it produces less fruit and slowly loses any pest- and disease-resistance.
Coffee plants are often grown in rows a few feet apart (depending on the desired density chosen by the farmer). Some farmers plant other trees, such as shade trees or other cash-crop trees, such as orange trees around them or plant the coffee on the sides of hills, because they need specific conditions to flourish. Ideally, Arabica coffee beans are grown at temperatures between {{convert|15|and|24|C|F}} and Robusta at {{convert|24|-|30|C|F}} and receive between {{convert|150|and|300|cm|in|abbr=on}} of rainfall per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://productsyoucantrefuse.com/major-coffee-producer-country-map/|title=Major coffee producers|publisher=productsyoucantrefuse.com|date=2015|access-date=25 September 2015}}</ref> Heavy rain is needed in the beginning of the season when the fruit is developing and less later in the season as it ripens.
Two lesser known species grown for consumption are ''[[Coffea liberica]]'' and ''[[Coffea racemosa]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/videos/tv/2015/01/05/spc-inside-africa-mozambique-conservation-c.cnn|title=Rare coffee plant could help communities |format=video|publisher=edition.cnn.com}}</ref>
===Processing===
{{Further|Processing of coffee}}
When the fruit is ripe, it is almost always handpicked, using either "selective picking", where only the ripe fruit is removed, or "strip-picking", where all of the fruit is removed from a limb all at once. Selective picking is often used to produce higher quality coffee because the cherries are picked at their ripest. Strip-picking is indiscriminate and will harvest unripe, ripe, and over-ripe fruit. To improve quality after strip-picking, the harvest must be sorted.
The [[Asian palm civet]] eats coffee berries and excretes the beans. Because the civet prefers the taste of the ripest cherries, the civet selectively harvests the cherries. Its digestive system then processes the beans by breaking down the mucilage and pulp surrounding the seed. Once the seeds are excreted by the civet, they can be harvested, processed and sold as a [[niche product]]. Once they are finally processed, these beans are called ''[[kopi luwak]]'', and are often marketed as a rare and expensive coffee.
Two methods are primarily used to process coffee berries. The first, "wet" or "washed" process, has historically usually been carried out in Central America and areas of Africa. The flesh of the cherries is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented – soaked in water for about two days. This softens the mucilage, which is a sticky pulp residue that is still attached to the seeds. Then this mucilage is washed off with water.
The "dry processing" method, cheaper and simpler, was historically used for lower-quality beans in Brazil and much of Africa, but now brings a premium when done well. Twigs and other foreign objects are separated from the berries and the fruit is then spread out in the sun on concrete, bricks or raised beds for 2–3 weeks, turned regularly for even drying.
==Composition==
[[File:Coffee cherry cross section.JPG|thumb|Coffee cherry cross-section]]
The term "green coffee bean" refers to unroasted mature or immature coffee beans. These have been processed by wet or dry methods to remove the outer pulp and [[mucilage]] and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Nonvolatile and volatile compounds in green coffee beans, such as [[caffeine]], [[Plant defense against herbivory|deter]] many insects and animals from [[Seed predation|eating them]]. Further, both nonvolatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee bean when it is roasted. Nonvolatile [[nitrogen]]ous compounds (including [[alkaloid]]s, [[trigonelline]], proteins, and free [[amino acid]]s) and [[carbohydrate]]s are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee and for its biological action. Since the mid 2000s, [[green coffee extract]] has been sold as a nutritional supplement and has been clinically studied for its [[chlorogenic acid]] content and for its [[lipolytic]] and weight-loss properties.
===Nonvolatile alkaloids===
[[File:Coffea canephora W2 IMG 2430.jpg|thumb|190px|Immature ''[[Coffea canephora]]'' berries on a tree in [[Goa]], [[India]]]]
[[Caffeine]] (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is the [[alkaloid]] most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1.0% and 2.5% by weight of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Clifford, MN |author2=Kazi, M | year = 1987 | title = The influence of coffee bean maturity on the content of chlorogenic acids, caffeine, and trigonelline | journal = Food Chemistry | volume = 26 | pages = 59–69 | doi=10.1016/0308-8146(87)90167-1}}</ref> Lower concentrations of [[theophylline]], [[theobromine]], [[paraxanthine]], [[liberine]], and [[methylliberine]] can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in [[green tea]], is reduced during the roasting process, usually about 15 minutes at {{convert|230|C|F}}, whereas the concentrations of most other alkaloids are not changed.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, [[citric acid]], or [[tartaric acid]], all of which are present in green coffee beans. For example, {{convert|1|g|oz|abbr=on}} of caffeine dissolves in {{convert|46|ml|USfloz|abbr=on}} of water at room temperature, and {{convert|5.5|ml|USfloz|abbr=on}} at {{convert|80|C|F}}.<ref>''[[The Merck Index]]'', 13th Edition</ref> The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}
[[Trigonelline]] (''N''-methyl-nicotinate) is a derivative of [[vitamin B6|vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]] that is not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0.6% and 1.0%. At a roasting temperature of {{convert|230|C|F}}, 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to [[niacin|nicotinic acid]], leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trigonelline in Coffee|url=https://www.coffeechemistry.com/trigonelline-in-coffee|access-date=2021-06-25|website=www.coffeechemistry.com|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Varnam|first=A. H.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40941014|title=Beverages : technology, chemistry and microbiology|date=1999|publisher=Aspen|others=Jane P. Sutherland|isbn=0-8342-1310-9|location=Gaithersburg, Maryland|oclc=40941014}}</ref>
===Proteins and amino acids===
[[Protein]]s account for 8% to 12% of dried green coffee beans. A majority of the proteins are of the 11-S storage kind<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baú |first1=Sandra M. T. |last2=Mazzafera |first2=Paulo |last3=Santoro |first3=Luiz G. |title=Seed storage proteins in coffee |journal=Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal |date=2001 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1590/S0103-31312001000100004 |doi-access=free }}</ref> (alpha – component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11-S storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature, thus are an additional source of bitter components due to generation of [[Maillard reaction]] products.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Montavon P, Duruz E, Rumo G, Pratz G |title=Evolution of green coffee protein profiles with maturation and relationship to coffee cup quality |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=51 |issue=8 |pages=2328–34 |date=April 2003 |pmid=12670177 |doi=10.1021/jf020831j }}</ref> High temperature and oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11-S storage proteins of green coffee beans to low-molecular-weight [[peptide]]s and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include [[enzyme]]s, such as [[catalase]] and [[polyphenol oxidase]], which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid/g robusta coffee and up to 4.5 mg amino acid/g arabica coffee). In ''Coffea arabica'', [[alanine]] is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg/g, followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in ''C. robusta'', alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF01192946 |pmid=8067059| title = Analysis of free amino acids in green coffee beans| journal = Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung| volume = 199|issue=1| pages = 22–25| year = 1994| last1 = Arnold | first1 = U. | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = E. | last3 = Kühn | first3 = R. | last4 = Möschwitzer | first4 = U. |s2cid=36134388}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Murkovic M, Derler K |title=Analysis of amino acids and carbohydrates in green coffee |journal=J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods |volume=69 |issue=1–2 |pages=25–32 |date=November 2006 |pmid=16563515 |doi=10.1016/j.jbbm.2006.02.001 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/890497}}</ref> The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste, making it impossible to prepare a desirable beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as: [[isoleucine]] 81 mg/kg, [[leucine]] 100 mg/kg, [[valine]] 93 mg/kg, [[tyrosine]] 81 mg/kg, [[phenylalanine]] 133 mg/kg. The concentration of [[gamma-Aminobutyric acid|gamma-aminobutyric acid]] (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg/kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from [[Tanzania]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Teutsch |first=I. A. |year=2004 |title=Einfluss der Rohkaffeeverarbeitung auf Aromastoffveränderungen in gerösteten Kaffeebohnen sowie im Kaffeebetränk |type=PhD |publisher=Department of Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Germany |url=http://www.deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=97339305x&dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=97339305x.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=July 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids; the amino acids in green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products (reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha-amino group of the amino acids). Further, [[diketopiperazine]]s, e.g. cyclo(proline-proline), cyclo(proline-leucine), and cyclo(proline-isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee.<ref>{{cite thesis |title= Bittere Diketopiperazine und chlorogensäurederivate in Roestkaffee |last=Ginz |first=M. |url = http://www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00001257 |year=2001 |type=PhD |publisher=Technical University Carolo-Wilhelminia, Brunswig, Germany}}</ref> The bitter flavor of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg/liter of water. The content of diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 to 30 mg, which is responsible for its [[Bitterness (taste)|bitterness]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso
|title=How to make the perfect espresso
|access-date=March 17, 2016
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324222246/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso
|archive-date=24 March 2016
|url-status=dead
|first=Amy
|last=Fleming
|date=9 May 2012
|work=[[The Guardian]]
}}</ref>
===Carbohydrates===
Carbohydrates make up about 50% of the dry weight of green coffee beans. The carbohydrate fraction of green coffee is dominated by [[polysaccharide]]s, such as [[arabinogalactan]], [[galactomannan]], and [[cellulose]], contributing to the tasteless flavor of green coffee. Arabinogalactan makes up to 17% of dry weight of green coffee beans, with a molecular weight of 90 kDa to 200 kDa. It is composed of beta-1-3-linked [[Galactose|galactan]] main chains, with frequent members of [[arabinose]] (pentose) and [[galactose]] (hexose) residues at the side chains comprising immunomodulating properties by stimulating the cellular defense system (Th-1 response) of the body. Mature brown to yellow coffee beans contain fewer residues of galactose and arabinose at the side chain of the polysaccharides, making the green coffee bean more resistant to physical breakdown and less soluble in water.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Redgwell RJ, Curti D, Rogers J, Nicolas P, Fischer M |s2cid=3011043 |title=Changes to the galactose/mannose ratio in galactomannans during coffee bean (''Coffea arabica'' L.) development: implications for in vivo modification of galactomannan synthesis |journal=Planta |volume=217 |issue=2 |pages=316–26 |date=June 2003 |pmid=12783340 |doi=10.1007/s00425-003-1003-x }}</ref> The molecular weight of the arabinogalactan in coffee is higher than in most other plants, improving the cellular defense system of the digestive tract compared to arabinogalactan with lower molecular weight.<ref>Gotoda, N and Iwai, K. (2006) "Arabinogalactan isolated from coffee seeds indicates immunomodulating properties", pp. 116–20 in ''Association for Science and Information on Coffee'', (ASIC) 21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France</ref> Free [[monosaccharide]]s are present in mature brown to yellow-green coffee beans. The free part of monosaccharides contains [[sucrose]] (gluco-fructose) up to 9000 mg/100g of arabica green coffee bean, a lower amount in robustas, i.e. 4500 mg/100g. In arabica green coffee beans, the content of free glucose was 30 to 38 mg/100g, free fructose 23 to 30 mg/100g; free galactose 35 mg/100g and [[D-Mannitol|mannitol]] 50 mg/100g dried coffee beans, respectively. Mannitol is a powerful scavenger for [[hydroxyl radical]]s, which are generated during the [[Lipid peroxidation|peroxidation]] of lipids in biological membranes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tressel |first1=R. |last2=Holzer |first2=M. |last3=Kamperschroer |first3=H. |year=1983 |chapter=Bildung von Aromastoffenin Roestkaffee in Abhaengigkeit vom Gehalt an freien Aminosaeren und reduzierenden Zuckern |title=10th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Salvador, Bahia 11 October to 14 Oct |publisher=ASIC |pages=279–92}}</ref>
===Lipids===
The lipids found in green coffee include: [[linoleic acid]], [[palmitic acid]], [[oleic acid]], [[stearic acid]], [[arachidic acid]], [[Terpene|diterpenes]], [[triglyceride]]s, [[Unsaturated fatty acids|unsaturated]] long-chain [[fatty acid]]s, [[ester]]s, and [[amide]]s. The total content of lipids in dried green coffee is between 11.7 and 14 g/100 g.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roffi |first1=J. |last2=Corte dos Santos |first2=A. |last3=Mexia |first3=J. T. |last4=Busson |first4=F. |last5=Miagrot |first5=M. |year=1973 |chapter=Café verts et torrefiesde l Angola |title=Etude chimique, 5th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Lisboa, 14 June to 19 June 1971 |publisher=ASIC |pages=179–200}}</ref> Lipids are present on the surface and in the interior matrix of green coffee beans. On the surface, they include derivatives of carboxylic acid-5-hydroxytryptamides with an amide bond to fatty acids (unsaturated C6 to C24) making up to 3% of total lipid content or 1200 to 1400 microgram/g dried green coffee bean. Such compounds form a wax-like cover on the surface of the coffee bean (200 to 300 mg lipids/100 g dried green coffee bean) protecting the interior matrix against oxidation and insects. Further, such molecules have antioxidative activity due to their chemical structure.<ref>{{cite book |author=Clifford MN |chapter=Chemical and physical aspects of green coffee and coffee products|veditors=Clifford MN, Wilson KC |title=Coffee: botany, biochemistry, and production of beans and beverage |publisher=Croom Helm AVI |location=London |year=1985 |pages=305–74 |isbn=0-7099-0787-7 }}</ref> Lipids of the interior tissue are triglycerides, linoleic acid (46% of total free lipids), palmitic acid (30% to 35% of total free lipids), and esters. Arabica beans have a higher content of lipids (13.5 to 17.4 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans) than robustas (9.8 to 10.7 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans). The content of diterpenes is about 20% of the lipid fraction. The diterpenes found in green coffee include [[cafestol]], [[kahweol]] and [[16-O-methylcafestol]]. Some of these diterpenes have been shown in ''[[in vitro]]'' experiments to protect liver tissue against chemical oxidation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee KJ, Jeong HG |title=Protective effects of kahweol and cafestol against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress and DNA damage |journal=Toxicol. Lett. |volume=173 |issue=2 |pages=80–87 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17689207 |doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2007.06.008 }}</ref> In coffee oil from green coffee beans the diterpenes are [[esterification|esterified]] with saturated long chain [[fatty acid]]s.
===Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids===
[[Chlorogenic acid]]s belong to a group of compounds known as [[phenolic acid]]s, which are [[antioxidant]]s. The content of chlorogenic acids in dried green coffee beans of arabica is 65 mg/g and of robusta 140 mg/g, depending on the timing of harvesting.{{Cite book|title=Nutraceuticals (Second Edition) Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity|last=Garg|first=Satish K.|year=2021|pages=725-748|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128210383000422}} At roasting temperature, more than 70% of chlorogenic acids are destroyed, leaving a residue less than 30 mg/g in the roasted coffee bean. In contrast to green coffee, green tea contains an average of 85 mg/g polyphenols. These chlorogenic acids could be a valuable, inexpensive source of antioxidants. Chlorogenic acids are homologous compounds comprising [[caffeic acid]], [[ferulic acid]] and [[3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid]], which are connected by an ester bond to the [[hydroxyl]] groups of [[quinic acid]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Clifford |first=M. N. |chapter=Chlorogenic acids – their characterisation, transformation during roasting, and potential dietary significance |publisher=Association for Science and Information on Coffee, (ASIC) |title=21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France |chapter-url=http://asic-cafe.org/en/system/files/C301_2006.pdf |pages=36–49}}</ref> The antioxidant capacity of chlorogenic acid is more potent than of [[ascorbic acid]] (vitamin C) or mannitol, which is a selective hydroxy-radical scavenger.<ref>{{cite book |chapter = Anti-oxidant activities of chlorogenic acid |last1=Morishita |first1=H. |last2=Kido |first2=R. | chapter-url=http://asic-cafe.org/en/system/files/16_092.pdf |year=1995 |title=16th international colloqu. Chem. Coffee, Kyoto 9–14th April}}</ref> Chlorogenic acids have a bitter taste in low concentrations such as 50 mg/l water. At higher concentrations of 1 g/l water, they have a sour taste. Chlorogenic acids increase the solubility of caffeine and are important modulators of taste.
===Volatile compounds===
Volatile compounds of green coffee beans include short-chain fatty acids, [[aldehyde]]s, and nitrogen-containing aromatic molecules, such as derivatives of [[pyrazine]]s (green-herbeaceous-earthy odor). Briefly, such volatile compounds are responsible for the less pleasing odor and taste of green coffee versus roasted coffee. Commercial success was realized by Starbucks in creating Green Bean Refreshers using a process that primarily isolates the caffeine from the green beans but does not actually use steeped liquid from the beans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.starbucks.com/promo/refreshers|title=Starbucks Refreshers™ Beverages|work=Starbucks Coffee Company|access-date=28 January 2016}}</ref> Many consumers experiment with creating green bean "extract" by steeping green coffee beans in hot water. Often, the recommended times of steeping (20 minutes to 1 hour) extract too much caffeine to provide a pleasant taste. A steeping time of 12 minutes or under provides a more palatable liquid that can be used as a base for a drink containing more of the nutrients and less caffeine that using just isolated caffeine extract.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lenscoffee.com/how-to-make-your-own-green-coffee-bean-beverages|title=Len's Coffee: How to make your own green coffee bean extract|access-date=28 January 2016}}</ref> The alkaline stock base that results can be paired with acidic or fruity extracts, with or without sweetener, to mask the vegetable-like taste of the extract.
When green coffee beans are roasted, other molecules with the typical pleasant aroma of coffee are generated, which are not present in fresh green coffee. During roasting, the major part of the unpleasant-tasting volatile compounds are neutralised. Unfortunately, other important molecules such as antioxidants and vitamins present in green coffee are destroyed. Volatile compounds with nauseating odor for humans have been identified, including [[acetic acid]] (pungent, unpleasant odor), [[propionic acid]] (odor of sour milk, or butter), [[butyric acid|butanoic acid]] (odor of rancid butter, present in green coffee with 2 mg/100g coffee beans), [[Valeric acid|pentanoic acid]] (unpleasant fruity flavor, present in green coffee at 40 mg/100 g in coffee beans), [[hexanoic acid]] (fatty-rancid odor), [[heptanoic acid]] (fatty odor), [[Caprylic acid|octanoic acid]] (repulsive oily rancid odor); [[nonanoic acid]] (mild nut-like fatty odor); [[decanoic acid]] (sour repulsive odor), and derivatives of such fatty acids – [[3-methyl-valeric acid]] (sour, green-herbaceous, unpleasant odor), [[acetaldehyde]] (pungent-nauseating odor, even when highly diluted, present in dried green coffee beans at concentrations of about 5 mg/kg), [[propanal]] (choking effect on respiratory system, penetrating-nauseating), [[butyraldehyde|butanal]] (nauseating effect, present in dried green coffee beans at 2 to 7mg/kg), or [[pentanal]] (very repulsive nauseating effect).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bessière-Thomas |first1=Yvonne |first2=Ivon |last2=Flament |title=Coffee flavor chemistry |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester |year=2002 |isbn=0-471-72038-0}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Coffee beans}}{{Portal|Coffee|Agriculture|Drink}}
{{Coffee|nocat=1}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Coffee bean}}
[[Category:Coffee]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]
[[Category:Crops]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Seed of the coffee plant}}
{{Hatnote|This article is about the coffee bean seed. For the coffee chain, see [[The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf]].}}{{Infobox beverage|name=Coffee beans|image=Roasted coffee beans.jpg|caption=Roasted coffee beans|type=|origin=|introduced=|color=|region=[[Horn of Africa]]<ref>Souza, Richard M. (2008) ''Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee''. Springer. p. 3. {{ISBN|978-1-4020-8720-2}}</ref>
and [[South Arabia]]<ref name="Wein34">{{harvnb|Weinberg|Bealer|2001|pages=3–4}}</ref>}}A '''coffee bean''' is a seed of the ''[[Coffea]]'' plant and the source for [[coffee]]. It is the [[drupe|pip]] inside the red or purple fruit often referred to as a cherry. Just like ordinary cherries, the coffee fruit is also a so-called stone fruit. Even though the coffee beans are not technically beans, they are referred to as such because of their resemblance to [[bean|true beans]]. The fruits; cherries or berries, most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides together. A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, instead of the usual two. This is called a "[[peaberry]]". The peaberry occurs only between 10% and 15% of the time, and it is a fairly common (yet scientifically unproven) belief that they have more flavour than normal coffee beans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ilovebuttercoffee.com/peaberry-coffee-beans/|title=Peaberry Coffee Beans: Speciality Coffee Drinkers Guide|work=ilovebuttercoffee.com|access-date=1 Dec 2016}}</ref> Like [[Brazil nut]]s (a seed) and white rice, coffee beans consist mostly of [[endosperm]].<ref>{{cite web
| title = Arabica and Robusta Coffee Plant
| publisher = Coffee Research Institute
| url = http://www.coffeeresearch.org/agriculture/coffeeplant.htm
| access-date = 25 August 2011}}</ref>
The two most economically important varieties of coffee plant are the [[Coffea arabica|Arabica]] and the [[Robusta coffee|Robusta]]; ~60% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and ~40% is Robusta.<ref name="CoffeeProduction">{{cite web |title=Coffee: World Markets and Trade |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture – Foreign Agricultural Service |date=June 16, 2017 |url=http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/fas/tropprod//2010s/2017/tropprod-06-16-2017.pdf |access-date=December 8, 2017}}</ref> Arabica beans consist of 0.8–1.4% [[caffeine]] and Robusta beans consist of 1.7–4.0% caffeine.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Botanical Aspects
|publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]]
|url=http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp
|access-date=25 August 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003123956/http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp
|archive-date=3 October 2011
}}</ref> As [[coffee]] is one of the world's most widely consumed beverages, coffee beans are a major [[cash crop]] and an important [[export]] product, accounting for over 50% of some developing nations' foreign exchange earnings.<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Story of Coffee
|publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]]
|url=http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp
|access-date=25 August 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003124016/http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp
|archive-date=3 October 2011
}}</ref> In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth USD 19.9 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Voora, V., Bermudez, S., and Larrea, C.|first=|date=2019|title=Global Market Report: Coffee|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref>
==History==
{{Main article|History of coffee}}
===Significant dates===
*According to legend, the coffee plant was discovered in [[Ethiopia]] by a [[goat herder]] named [[Kaldi]] around 850 AD, who observed increased physical activity in his goats after they consumed coffee beans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The history of coffee|url=https://www.ncausa.org/about-coffee/history-of-coffee|access-date=2020-06-24|publisher=National Coffee Association of the United States}}</ref>
*The first coffee plant was found in the mountains of [[Yemen]]. Then by 1500, it was exported to the rest of the world through the port of [[Mocha, Yemen]].
*First cultivation in India ([[Chikmagalur]]) – 1600
*First cultivation in Europe (also first cultivation outside of East Africa/Arabia) – 1616
*First cultivation in Java – 1699
*First cultivation in Caribbean ([[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], [[Jamaica]], [[Puerto Rico]]) – 1715–1730
*First cultivation in South America – 1730
*First cultivation in Dutch East Indies – 1720
*The plants were first introduced in the Americas around 1723.
*Roasted beans first sold on retail market (Pittsburgh) – 1865
*Important spray-drying techniques developed in 1950s, which along with freeze drying are a method to create instant coffee
== Bean Belt ==
[[File:Bean belt (top 20 coffee producers 2011).svg|thumb|The bean belt in yellow: The 20 largest producers (2011) are in green.]]The “bean belt” or “coffee belt” is the specific area around the globe that has the major coffee-growing regions on the planet. It lies between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, 23.5 degrees north and south of the equator. From north to south, the coffee belt is of approximately 5100 km.
The coffee belt crosses through the five continents, around 70 countries which have tropical climates that provide rich environments that are perfect for growing coffee. Only 44 of those 70 produce coffee in significant quantities.
Whilst coffee is able to grow outside of the coffee belt, the coffee that is produced outside of the belt is nowhere near as good, as those regions lack the fundamentals essential for the coffee plant. The ten major [[specialty coffee]] producers within the bean belt are Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia, India, Mexico, Guatemala, Perú, and Honduras. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Artusi|first=Nicolás|title=Manual del café|publisher=Editorial Planeta|year=2019|location=Buenos Aires, Argentina}}</ref>
===Distribution===
[[Coffea|Coffee plants]] grow within a defined area between the Tropics of [[Tropic of Cancer|Cancer]] and [[Tropic of Capricorn|Capricorn]], termed the bean belt or coffee belt. The bean belt is divided into three major coffee-growing regions: The Americas, Africa, and Asia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Easto|first=Jessica|title=Craft Coffee: A Manual|publisher=Sunset Books|year=2017|location=Chicago|pages=p 113}}</ref>
'''The Americas'''
In North America, [[Coffee production in Mexico|Mexico]] is the 9th exporter of coffee in the world. Production is mainly concentrated in the south-central to southern regions of the country and grows particularly well in the coastal region near the border of Guatemala. Mexico cultivates coffee on about 760,000 hectares across 12 different states. Most coffee farms in Mexico are small (less than 25 hectares) and organized into cooperatives that specialize in organic coffee.
In Central and South America, coffee-growing regions like [[Coffee production in Guatemala|Guatemala]] and [[Coffee production in Colombia|Colombia]] have the rugged landscapes and rich volcanic soil favorable to growing coffee. Colombia’s coffee, famous for the quality and flavor of its beans, is the 3rd largest exporter of coffee in the world behind Vietnam. Colombia also competes with Vietnam for the title of the second-most productive coffee country in the world. As of 2016, nearly 40 percent of all Colombian coffee exports were specialty grade.
Coffee from the highlands of Guatemala is considered to be among the finest coffees in the world, with its bold acidity and body. One of the country’s most famous regions, Antigua, is nestled among three volcanoes, which provide coffee’s favorite mineral-rich soil. Guatemalan coffees that are sold to roasters under regional names must meet the corresponding flavor guidelines set forth by the Asociación Nacional del Café, the national coffee authority that has been supporting farmers since 1960.
[[Coffee production in Costa Rica|Costa Rican coffee]] is generally grown and processed with extreme care, which makes it a favorite in the United States (about half of all Costa Rican coffee makes its way to the US specialty market). Costa Rica’s most famous region, Tarrazú, produces nearly a third of the country’s total coffee output and uses highly advanced production techniques, which result in extremely clean coffees at scale.
In [[Coffee production in Honduras|Honduras]], in the past 10 years, more and more small holders and exporters have entered the specialty coffee market. In 2016, more than 95 small producers collectively cultivated 94 percent of the country’s coffee, and today, it is the largest producer and exporter of coffee in Central America. Typical Honduran coffees are mild and medium-bodied, and the best tend to be highly complex and juicy.
[[Coffee production in Peru|Peru]] does not have the same kind of name recognition in the coffee world as other South American countries, especially those like Brazil and Colombia that benefit from robust national coffee organizations. However, Peruvian coffee has that bright acidity of high-grown coffee—the Andes Mountains run the length of the country, encompassing nearly 28 microclimates.
But the world’s largest supplier of coffee is [[Coffee production in Brazil|Brazil]]—with plantations covering around 10,000 square miles, mostly located in the southeastern states—a title the country has held for the last 150 years. Brazil is the biggest coffee producer in the world, accounting for about 30 percent of the world’s coffee, and it churns out everything from low-grade commercial coffee to fine specialty beans.
'''Africa'''
[[Coffee production in Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] is considered to be the motherland of the coffee plant. Ethiopia is Africa’s first coffee-growing region (and first consumer as well). The production reaches up to 860 million pounds, still mostly cultivated and dried by hand, and falls under the strict watch of The Coffee and Tea Authority, determined to avoid market concentration. Ethiopia is one of specialty coffee’s most respected origins and has some of the finest coffees in all the land.
Ethiopia’s neighboring country, [[Coffee production in Kenya|Kenya]], was introduced to coffee-growing by the French at the turn of the 19th century. While Kenyan production may be considered confidential, with only 51,000 tons per year, it is a major actor of the coffee scene and is much sought-after worldwide. Kenya is another heavy-hitting origin known for some of the highest-quality coffees in the world.
'''Asia'''
Continuing our trip along the bean belt, let’s move to Asia and its two major coffee-growing regions: [[Coffee production in Vietnam|Vietnam]] and [[Coffee production in Indonesia|Indonesia]].
Vietnam was on the coffee cultivation map in the 19th century and had established its plantation system as an economic force. The Vietnam war interrupted the production, which eventually resumed, though fairly low. In the mid-1980s, the permission to privately own coffee farms again gave a boost to the industry. Ever since, Vietnam production has been growing steadily, up to 3 billion pounds in 2014, right behind Brazil.
Java and Sumatra are two Indonesian islands famous for the quality of their coffee. The production of coffee in Java started in the 17th century, initiated by the Dutch, who began to export it to the rest of the world. Java also produces a significant amount of kopi luwak, the most expensive coffee in the world, which is processed in the intestines of an animal called a civet and then collected as droppings. Sumatra is an island in western Indonesia. Much of the coffee produced here is processed with the Giling Basah method, which results in earthy flavors, such as herbs, mushrooms, and spices. This coffee has low acidity and is often quite smooth; it might be a good option for those of you who don’t care for acidic qualities all that much.
==Etymology==
The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] suggests that the [[European languages]] generally appear to have gotten the name from [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''kahveh'', about 1600, perhaps through [[Italian language|Italian]] ''caffè''. [[Arabic|Arab]] ''qahwah'', in Turkish pronounced ''kahveh'', the name of the [[infusion]] or [[beverage]]; said by [[Arab]] [[lexicographer]]s to have originally meant "[[wine]]" or some type of wine, and to be a derivative of a [[verb]]-[[root (linguistics)|root]] ''qahiya'' "to have no [[appetite]]". Another common theory is that the name derives from [[Kaffa Province, Ethiopia]], where the species may have originated.<ref>Souza, Richard M. (2008) ''Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee''. Springer. p. 3. {{ISBN|978-1-4020-8720-2}}</ref>
==Coffee plant==
[[File:Singararutang coffee flower.jpg|thumb|right|The flower of a Singararutang coffee tree]]
[[File:Coffee berries 1.jpg|thumb|right|Coffee berries]]
The coffee tree averages from {{convert|5|–|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height. As the tree gets older, it produces less fruit and slowly loses any pest- and disease-resistance.
Coffee plants are often grown in rows a few feet apart (depending on the desired density chosen by the farmer). Some farmers plant other trees, such as shade trees or other cash-crop trees, such as orange trees around them or plant the coffee on the sides of hills, because they need specific conditions to flourish. Ideally, Arabica coffee beans are grown at temperatures between {{convert|15|and|24|C|F}} and Robusta at {{convert|24|-|30|C|F}} and receive between {{convert|150|and|300|cm|in|abbr=on}} of rainfall per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://productsyoucantrefuse.com/major-coffee-producer-country-map/|title=Major coffee producers|publisher=productsyoucantrefuse.com|date=2015|access-date=25 September 2015}}</ref> Heavy rain is needed in the beginning of the season when the fruit is developing and less later in the season as it ripens.
Two lesser known species grown for consumption are ''[[Coffea liberica]]'' and ''[[Coffea racemosa]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/videos/tv/2015/01/05/spc-inside-africa-mozambique-conservation-c.cnn|title=Rare coffee plant could help communities |format=video|publisher=edition.cnn.com}}</ref>
===Processing===
{{Further|Processing of coffee}}
When the fruit is ripe, it is almost always handpicked, using either "selective picking", where only the ripe fruit is removed, or "strip-picking", where all of the fruit is removed from a limb all at once. Selective picking is often used to produce higher quality coffee because the cherries are picked at their ripest. Strip-picking is indiscriminate and will harvest unripe, ripe, and over-ripe fruit. To improve quality after strip-picking, the harvest must be sorted.
The [[Asian palm civet]] eats coffee berries and excretes the beans. Because the civet prefers the taste of the ripest cherries, the civet selectively harvests the cherries. Its digestive system then processes the beans by breaking down the mucilage and pulp surrounding the seed. Once the seeds are excreted by the civet, they can be harvested, processed and sold as a [[niche product]]. Once they are finally processed, these beans are called ''[[kopi luwak]]'', and are often marketed as a rare and expensive coffee.
Two methods are primarily used to process coffee berries. The first, "wet" or "washed" process, has historically usually been carried out in Central America and areas of Africa. The flesh of the cherries is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented – soaked in water for about two days. This softens the mucilage, which is a sticky pulp residue that is still attached to the seeds. Then this mucilage is washed off with water.
The "dry processing" method, cheaper and simpler, was historically used for lower-quality beans in Brazil and much of Africa, but now brings a premium when done well. Twigs and other foreign objects are separated from the berries and the fruit is then spread out in the sun on concrete, bricks or raised beds for 2–3 weeks, turned regularly for even drying.
==Composition==
[[File:Coffee cherry cross section.JPG|thumb|Coffee cherry cross-section]]
The term "green coffee bean" refers to unroasted mature or immature coffee beans. These have been processed by wet or dry methods to remove the outer pulp and [[mucilage]] and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Nonvolatile and volatile compounds in green coffee beans, such as [[caffeine]], [[Plant defense against herbivory|deter]] many insects and animals from [[Seed predation|eating them]]. Further, both nonvolatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee bean when it is roasted. Nonvolatile [[nitrogen]]ous compounds (including [[alkaloid]]s, [[trigonelline]], proteins, and free [[amino acid]]s) and [[carbohydrate]]s are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee and for its biological action. Since the mid 2000s, [[green coffee extract]] has been sold as a nutritional supplement and has been clinically studied for its [[chlorogenic acid]] content and for its [[lipolytic]] and weight-loss properties.
===Nonvolatile alkaloids===
[[File:Coffea canephora W2 IMG 2430.jpg|thumb|190px|Immature ''[[Coffea canephora]]'' berries on a tree in [[Goa]], [[India]]]]
[[Caffeine]] (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is the [[alkaloid]] most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1.0% and 2.5% by weight of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Clifford, MN |author2=Kazi, M | year = 1987 | title = The influence of coffee bean maturity on the content of chlorogenic acids, caffeine, and trigonelline | journal = Food Chemistry | volume = 26 | pages = 59–69 | doi=10.1016/0308-8146(87)90167-1}}</ref> Lower concentrations of [[theophylline]], [[theobromine]], [[paraxanthine]], [[liberine]], and [[methylliberine]] can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in [[green tea]], is reduced during the roasting process, usually about 15 minutes at {{convert|230|C|F}}, whereas the concentrations of most other alkaloids are not changed.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, [[citric acid]], or [[tartaric acid]], all of which are present in green coffee beans. For example, {{convert|1|g|oz|abbr=on}} of caffeine dissolves in {{convert|46|ml|USfloz|abbr=on}} of water at room temperature, and {{convert|5.5|ml|USfloz|abbr=on}} at {{convert|80|C|F}}.<ref>''[[The Merck Index]]'', 13th Edition</ref> The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}
[[Trigonelline]] (''N''-methyl-nicotinate) is a derivative of [[vitamin B6|vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]] that is not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0.6% and 1.0%. At a roasting temperature of {{convert|230|C|F}}, 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to [[niacin|nicotinic acid]], leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trigonelline in Coffee|url=https://www.coffeechemistry.com/trigonelline-in-coffee|access-date=2021-06-25|website=www.coffeechemistry.com|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Varnam|first=A. H.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40941014|title=Beverages : technology, chemistry and microbiology|date=1999|publisher=Aspen|others=Jane P. Sutherland|isbn=0-8342-1310-9|location=Gaithersburg, Maryland|oclc=40941014}}</ref>
===Proteins and amino acids===
[[Protein]]s account for 8% to 12% of dried green coffee beans. A majority of the proteins are of the 11-S storage kind<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baú |first1=Sandra M. T. |last2=Mazzafera |first2=Paulo |last3=Santoro |first3=Luiz G. |title=Seed storage proteins in coffee |journal=Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal |date=2001 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1590/S0103-31312001000100004 |doi-access=free }}</ref> (alpha – component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11-S storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature, thus are an additional source of bitter components due to generation of [[Maillard reaction]] products.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Montavon P, Duruz E, Rumo G, Pratz G |title=Evolution of green coffee protein profiles with maturation and relationship to coffee cup quality |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=51 |issue=8 |pages=2328–34 |date=April 2003 |pmid=12670177 |doi=10.1021/jf020831j }}</ref> High temperature and oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11-S storage proteins of green coffee beans to low-molecular-weight [[peptide]]s and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include [[enzyme]]s, such as [[catalase]] and [[polyphenol oxidase]], which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid/g robusta coffee and up to 4.5 mg amino acid/g arabica coffee). In ''Coffea arabica'', [[alanine]] is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg/g, followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in ''C. robusta'', alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF01192946 |pmid=8067059| title = Analysis of free amino acids in green coffee beans| journal = Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung| volume = 199|issue=1| pages = 22–25| year = 1994| last1 = Arnold | first1 = U. | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = E. | last3 = Kühn | first3 = R. | last4 = Möschwitzer | first4 = U. |s2cid=36134388}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Murkovic M, Derler K |title=Analysis of amino acids and carbohydrates in green coffee |journal=J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods |volume=69 |issue=1–2 |pages=25–32 |date=November 2006 |pmid=16563515 |doi=10.1016/j.jbbm.2006.02.001 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/890497}}</ref> The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste, making it impossible to prepare a desirable beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as: [[isoleucine]] 81 mg/kg, [[leucine]] 100 mg/kg, [[valine]] 93 mg/kg, [[tyrosine]] 81 mg/kg, [[phenylalanine]] 133 mg/kg. The concentration of [[gamma-Aminobutyric acid|gamma-aminobutyric acid]] (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg/kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from [[Tanzania]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Teutsch |first=I. A. |year=2004 |title=Einfluss der Rohkaffeeverarbeitung auf Aromastoffveränderungen in gerösteten Kaffeebohnen sowie im Kaffeebetränk |type=PhD |publisher=Department of Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Germany |url=http://www.deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=97339305x&dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=97339305x.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=July 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids; the amino acids in green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products (reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha-amino group of the amino acids). Further, [[diketopiperazine]]s, e.g. cyclo(proline-proline), cyclo(proline-leucine), and cyclo(proline-isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee.<ref>{{cite thesis |title= Bittere Diketopiperazine und chlorogensäurederivate in Roestkaffee |last=Ginz |first=M. |url = http://www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00001257 |year=2001 |type=PhD |publisher=Technical University Carolo-Wilhelminia, Brunswig, Germany}}</ref> The bitter flavor of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg/liter of water. The content of diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 to 30 mg, which is responsible for its [[Bitterness (taste)|bitterness]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso
|title=How to make the perfect espresso
|access-date=March 17, 2016
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324222246/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso
|archive-date=24 March 2016
|url-status=dead
|first=Amy
|last=Fleming
|date=9 May 2012
|work=[[The Guardian]]
}}</ref>
===Carbohydrates===
Carbohydrates make up about 50% of the dry weight of green coffee beans. The carbohydrate fraction of green coffee is dominated by [[polysaccharide]]s, such as [[arabinogalactan]], [[galactomannan]], and [[cellulose]], contributing to the tasteless flavor of green coffee. Arabinogalactan makes up to 17% of dry weight of green coffee beans, with a molecular weight of 90 kDa to 200 kDa. It is composed of beta-1-3-linked [[Galactose|galactan]] main chains, with frequent members of [[arabinose]] (pentose) and [[galactose]] (hexose) residues at the side chains comprising immunomodulating properties by stimulating the cellular defense system (Th-1 response) of the body. Mature brown to yellow coffee beans contain fewer residues of galactose and arabinose at the side chain of the polysaccharides, making the green coffee bean more resistant to physical breakdown and less soluble in water.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Redgwell RJ, Curti D, Rogers J, Nicolas P, Fischer M |s2cid=3011043 |title=Changes to the galactose/mannose ratio in galactomannans during coffee bean (''Coffea arabica'' L.) development: implications for in vivo modification of galactomannan synthesis |journal=Planta |volume=217 |issue=2 |pages=316–26 |date=June 2003 |pmid=12783340 |doi=10.1007/s00425-003-1003-x }}</ref> The molecular weight of the arabinogalactan in coffee is higher than in most other plants, improving the cellular defense system of the digestive tract compared to arabinogalactan with lower molecular weight.<ref>Gotoda, N and Iwai, K. (2006) "Arabinogalactan isolated from coffee seeds indicates immunomodulating properties", pp. 116–20 in ''Association for Science and Information on Coffee'', (ASIC) 21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France</ref> Free [[monosaccharide]]s are present in mature brown to yellow-green coffee beans. The free part of monosaccharides contains [[sucrose]] (gluco-fructose) up to 9000 mg/100g of arabica green coffee bean, a lower amount in robustas, i.e. 4500 mg/100g. In arabica green coffee beans, the content of free glucose was 30 to 38 mg/100g, free fructose 23 to 30 mg/100g; free galactose 35 mg/100g and [[D-Mannitol|mannitol]] 50 mg/100g dried coffee beans, respectively. Mannitol is a powerful scavenger for [[hydroxyl radical]]s, which are generated during the [[Lipid peroxidation|peroxidation]] of lipids in biological membranes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tressel |first1=R. |last2=Holzer |first2=M. |last3=Kamperschroer |first3=H. |year=1983 |chapter=Bildung von Aromastoffenin Roestkaffee in Abhaengigkeit vom Gehalt an freien Aminosaeren und reduzierenden Zuckern |title=10th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Salvador, Bahia 11 October to 14 Oct |publisher=ASIC |pages=279–92}}</ref>
===Lipids===
The lipids found in green coffee include: [[linoleic acid]], [[palmitic acid]], [[oleic acid]], [[stearic acid]], [[arachidic acid]], [[Terpene|diterpenes]], [[triglyceride]]s, [[Unsaturated fatty acids|unsaturated]] long-chain [[fatty acid]]s, [[ester]]s, and [[amide]]s. The total content of lipids in dried green coffee is between 11.7 and 14 g/100 g.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roffi |first1=J. |last2=Corte dos Santos |first2=A. |last3=Mexia |first3=J. T. |last4=Busson |first4=F. |last5=Miagrot |first5=M. |year=1973 |chapter=Café verts et torrefiesde l Angola |title=Etude chimique, 5th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Lisboa, 14 June to 19 June 1971 |publisher=ASIC |pages=179–200}}</ref> Lipids are present on the surface and in the interior matrix of green coffee beans. On the surface, they include derivatives of carboxylic acid-5-hydroxytryptamides with an amide bond to fatty acids (unsaturated C6 to C24) making up to 3% of total lipid content or 1200 to 1400 microgram/g dried green coffee bean. Such compounds form a wax-like cover on the surface of the coffee bean (200 to 300 mg lipids/100 g dried green coffee bean) protecting the interior matrix against oxidation and insects. Further, such molecules have antioxidative activity due to their chemical structure.<ref>{{cite book |author=Clifford MN |chapter=Chemical and physical aspects of green coffee and coffee products|veditors=Clifford MN, Wilson KC |title=Coffee: botany, biochemistry, and production of beans and beverage |publisher=Croom Helm AVI |location=London |year=1985 |pages=305–74 |isbn=0-7099-0787-7 }}</ref> Lipids of the interior tissue are triglycerides, linoleic acid (46% of total free lipids), palmitic acid (30% to 35% of total free lipids), and esters. Arabica beans have a higher content of lipids (13.5 to 17.4 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans) than robustas (9.8 to 10.7 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans). The content of diterpenes is about 20% of the lipid fraction. The diterpenes found in green coffee include [[cafestol]], [[kahweol]] and [[16-O-methylcafestol]]. Some of these diterpenes have been shown in ''[[in vitro]]'' experiments to protect liver tissue against chemical oxidation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee KJ, Jeong HG |title=Protective effects of kahweol and cafestol against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress and DNA damage |journal=Toxicol. Lett. |volume=173 |issue=2 |pages=80–87 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17689207 |doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2007.06.008 }}</ref> In coffee oil from green coffee beans the diterpenes are [[esterification|esterified]] with saturated long chain [[fatty acid]]s.
===Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids===
[[Chlorogenic acid]]s belong to a group of compounds known as [[phenolic acid]]s, which are [[antioxidant]]s. The content of chlorogenic acids in dried green coffee beans of arabica is 65 mg/g and of robusta 140 mg/g, depending on the timing of harvesting.{{Cite book|title=Nutraceuticals (Second Edition) Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity|last=Garg|first=Satish K.|year=2021|pages=725-748|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128210383000422}} At roasting temperature, more than 70% of chlorogenic acids are destroyed, leaving a residue less than 30 mg/g in the roasted coffee bean. In contrast to green coffee, green tea contains an average of 85 mg/g polyphenols. These chlorogenic acids could be a valuable, inexpensive source of antioxidants. Chlorogenic acids are homologous compounds comprising [[caffeic acid]], [[ferulic acid]] and [[3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid]], which are connected by an ester bond to the [[hydroxyl]] groups of [[quinic acid]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Clifford |first=M. N. |chapter=Chlorogenic acids – their characterisation, transformation during roasting, and potential dietary significance |publisher=Association for Science and Information on Coffee, (ASIC) |title=21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France |chapter-url=http://asic-cafe.org/en/system/files/C301_2006.pdf |pages=36–49}}</ref> The antioxidant capacity of chlorogenic acid is more potent than of [[ascorbic acid]] (vitamin C) or mannitol, which is a selective hydroxy-radical scavenger.<ref>{{cite book |chapter = Anti-oxidant activities of chlorogenic acid |last1=Morishita |first1=H. |last2=Kido |first2=R. | chapter-url=http://asic-cafe.org/en/system/files/16_092.pdf |year=1995 |title=16th international colloqu. Chem. Coffee, Kyoto 9–14th April}}</ref> Chlorogenic acids have a bitter taste in low concentrations such as 50 mg/l water. At higher concentrations of 1 g/l water, they have a sour taste. Chlorogenic acids increase the solubility of caffeine and are important modulators of taste.
===Volatile compounds===
Volatile compounds of green coffee beans include short-chain fatty acids, [[aldehyde]]s, and nitrogen-containing aromatic molecules, such as derivatives of [[pyrazine]]s (green-herbeaceous-earthy odor). Briefly, such volatile compounds are responsible for the less pleasing odor and taste of green coffee versus roasted coffee. Commercial success was realized by Starbucks in creating Green Bean Refreshers using a process that primarily isolates the caffeine from the green beans but does not actually use steeped liquid from the beans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.starbucks.com/promo/refreshers|title=Starbucks Refreshers™ Beverages|work=Starbucks Coffee Company|access-date=28 January 2016}}</ref> Many consumers experiment with creating green bean "extract" by steeping green coffee beans in hot water. Often, the recommended times of steeping (20 minutes to 1 hour) extract too much caffeine to provide a pleasant taste. A steeping time of 12 minutes or under provides a more palatable liquid that can be used as a base for a drink containing more of the nutrients and less caffeine that using just isolated caffeine extract.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lenscoffee.com/how-to-make-your-own-green-coffee-bean-beverages|title=Len's Coffee: How to make your own green coffee bean extract|access-date=28 January 2016}}</ref> The alkaline stock base that results can be paired with acidic or fruity extracts, with or without sweetener, to mask the vegetable-like taste of the extract.
When green coffee beans are roasted, other molecules with the typical pleasant aroma of coffee are generated, which are not present in fresh green coffee. During roasting, the major part of the unpleasant-tasting volatile compounds are neutralised. Unfortunately, other important molecules such as antioxidants and vitamins present in green coffee are destroyed. Volatile compounds with nauseating odor for humans have been identified, including [[acetic acid]] (pungent, unpleasant odor), [[propionic acid]] (odor of sour milk, or butter), [[butyric acid|butanoic acid]] (odor of rancid butter, present in green coffee with 2 mg/100g coffee beans), [[Valeric acid|pentanoic acid]] (unpleasant fruity flavor, present in green coffee at 40 mg/100 g in coffee beans), [[hexanoic acid]] (fatty-rancid odor), [[heptanoic acid]] (fatty odor), [[Caprylic acid|octanoic acid]] (repulsive oily rancid odor); [[nonanoic acid]] (mild nut-like fatty odor); [[decanoic acid]] (sour repulsive odor), and derivatives of such fatty acids – [[3-methyl-valeric acid]] (sour, green-herbaceous, unpleasant odor), [[acetaldehyde]] (pungent-nauseating odor, even when highly diluted, present in dried green coffee beans at concentrations of about 5 mg/kg), [[propanal]] (choking effect on respiratory system, penetrating-nauseating), [[butyraldehyde|butanal]] (nauseating effect, present in dried green coffee beans at 2 to 7mg/kg), or [[pentanal]] (very repulsive nauseating effect).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bessière-Thomas |first1=Yvonne |first2=Ivon |last2=Flament |title=Coffee flavor chemistry |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester |year=2002 |isbn=0-471-72038-0}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Coffee beans}}{{Portal|Coffee|Agriculture|Drink}}
{{Coffee|nocat=1}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Coffee bean}}
[[Category:Coffee]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]
[[Category:Crops]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -39,11 +39,46 @@
*Roasted beans first sold on retail market (Pittsburgh) – 1865
*Important spray-drying techniques developed in 1950s, which along with freeze drying are a method to create instant coffee
+
+== Bean Belt ==
+[[File:Bean belt (top 20 coffee producers 2011).svg|thumb|The bean belt in yellow: The 20 largest producers (2011) are in green.]]The “bean belt” or “coffee belt” is the specific area around the globe that has the major coffee-growing regions on the planet. It lies between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, 23.5 degrees north and south of the equator. From north to south, the coffee belt is of approximately 5100 km.
+
+The coffee belt crosses through the five continents, around 70 countries which have tropical climates that provide rich environments that are perfect for growing coffee. Only 44 of those 70 produce coffee in significant quantities.
+
+Whilst coffee is able to grow outside of the coffee belt, the coffee that is produced outside of the belt is nowhere near as good, as those regions lack the fundamentals essential for the coffee plant. The ten major [[specialty coffee]] producers within the bean belt are Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia, India, Mexico, Guatemala, Perú, and Honduras. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Artusi|first=Nicolás|title=Manual del café|publisher=Editorial Planeta|year=2019|location=Buenos Aires, Argentina}}</ref>
===Distribution===
-[[File:Bean belt (top 20 coffee producers 2011).svg|thumb|The bean belt in yellow: The 20 largest producers (2011) are in green.]]
+[[Coffea|Coffee plants]] grow within a defined area between the Tropics of [[Tropic of Cancer|Cancer]] and [[Tropic of Capricorn|Capricorn]], termed the bean belt or coffee belt. The bean belt is divided into three major coffee-growing regions: The Americas, Africa, and Asia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Easto|first=Jessica|title=Craft Coffee: A Manual|publisher=Sunset Books|year=2017|location=Chicago|pages=p 113}}</ref>
+
+'''The Americas'''
+
+In North America, [[Coffee production in Mexico|Mexico]] is the 9th exporter of coffee in the world. Production is mainly concentrated in the south-central to southern regions of the country and grows particularly well in the coastal region near the border of Guatemala. Mexico cultivates coffee on about 760,000 hectares across 12 different states. Most coffee farms in Mexico are small (less than 25 hectares) and organized into cooperatives that specialize in organic coffee.
+
+In Central and South America, coffee-growing regions like [[Coffee production in Guatemala|Guatemala]] and [[Coffee production in Colombia|Colombia]] have the rugged landscapes and rich volcanic soil favorable to growing coffee. Colombia’s coffee, famous for the quality and flavor of its beans, is the 3rd largest exporter of coffee in the world behind Vietnam. Colombia also competes with Vietnam for the title of the second-most productive coffee country in the world. As of 2016, nearly 40 percent of all Colombian coffee exports were specialty grade.
+
+Coffee from the highlands of Guatemala is considered to be among the finest coffees in the world, with its bold acidity and body. One of the country’s most famous regions, Antigua, is nestled among three volcanoes, which provide coffee’s favorite mineral-rich soil. Guatemalan coffees that are sold to roasters under regional names must meet the corresponding flavor guidelines set forth by the Asociación Nacional del Café, the national coffee authority that has been supporting farmers since 1960.
+
+[[Coffee production in Costa Rica|Costa Rican coffee]] is generally grown and processed with extreme care, which makes it a favorite in the United States (about half of all Costa Rican coffee makes its way to the US specialty market). Costa Rica’s most famous region, Tarrazú, produces nearly a third of the country’s total coffee output and uses highly advanced production techniques, which result in extremely clean coffees at scale.
+
+In [[Coffee production in Honduras|Honduras]], in the past 10 years, more and more small holders and exporters have entered the specialty coffee market. In 2016, more than 95 small producers collectively cultivated 94 percent of the country’s coffee, and today, it is the largest producer and exporter of coffee in Central America. Typical Honduran coffees are mild and medium-bodied, and the best tend to be highly complex and juicy.
+
+[[Coffee production in Peru|Peru]] does not have the same kind of name recognition in the coffee world as other South American countries, especially those like Brazil and Colombia that benefit from robust national coffee organizations. However, Peruvian coffee has that bright acidity of high-grown coffee—the Andes Mountains run the length of the country, encompassing nearly 28 microclimates.
+
+But the world’s largest supplier of coffee is [[Coffee production in Brazil|Brazil]]—with plantations covering around 10,000 square miles, mostly located in the southeastern states—a title the country has held for the last 150 years. Brazil is the biggest coffee producer in the world, accounting for about 30 percent of the world’s coffee, and it churns out everything from low-grade commercial coffee to fine specialty beans.
+
+
+'''Africa'''
+
+[[Coffee production in Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] is considered to be the motherland of the coffee plant. Ethiopia is Africa’s first coffee-growing region (and first consumer as well). The production reaches up to 860 million pounds, still mostly cultivated and dried by hand, and falls under the strict watch of The Coffee and Tea Authority, determined to avoid market concentration. Ethiopia is one of specialty coffee’s most respected origins and has some of the finest coffees in all the land.
+
+Ethiopia’s neighboring country, [[Coffee production in Kenya|Kenya]], was introduced to coffee-growing by the French at the turn of the 19th century. While Kenyan production may be considered confidential, with only 51,000 tons per year, it is a major actor of the coffee scene and is much sought-after worldwide. Kenya is another heavy-hitting origin known for some of the highest-quality coffees in the world.
+
+
+'''Asia'''
+
+Continuing our trip along the bean belt, let’s move to Asia and its two major coffee-growing regions: [[Coffee production in Vietnam|Vietnam]] and [[Coffee production in Indonesia|Indonesia]].
-[[Coffee production in Brazil| Brazil produces]] about 45% of the world's total coffee exports, with most grown in Brazil. The United States imports more coffee than any other nation. As of 2015, Americans consumed approximately 400 million cups of coffee per day, making the United States the leading consumer of coffee in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coffee Statistics 2015|url=http://www.e-importz.com/coffee-statistics.php|website=E-Imports|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref>
+Vietnam was on the coffee cultivation map in the 19th century and had established its plantation system as an economic force. The Vietnam war interrupted the production, which eventually resumed, though fairly low. In the mid-1980s, the permission to privately own coffee farms again gave a boost to the industry. Ever since, Vietnam production has been growing steadily, up to 3 billion pounds in 2014, right behind Brazil.
-{{anchor|Bean belt}}[[Coffea|Coffee plants]] grow within a defined area between the Tropics of [[Tropic of Cancer|Cancer]] and [[Tropic of Capricorn|Capricorn]], termed the bean belt or coffee belt.<ref>{{cite web|last=Klos |first=Beth|title=The Coffee Bean – Not a Fiend|url=http://www.brighamandwomens.org/Patients_Visitors/pcs/nutrition/services/healtheweightforwomen/special_topics/intelihealth1106.aspx|website=www.brighamandwomens.org|access-date=16 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Eija |last=Soin |title=Land use change patterns and livelihood dynamics on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania |journal=Agricultural Systems |volume=85 |issue=3 |date=September 2005 |pages=306–323 |doi=10.1016/j.agsy.2005.06.013|url=https://zenodo.org/record/895944 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Lamb HH |title=Climate: present, past and future |year=1977 |volume=2 |page=681 |isbn=0-06-473881-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sevey |first=Glenn C. |title=Bean Culture: A Practical Treatise on the Production and Marketing of Beans |url=https://archive.org/details/beanculturepract00severich |year=1907 |publisher=Orange Judd Company |asin=B000863SS2}}</ref>
+Java and Sumatra are two Indonesian islands famous for the quality of their coffee. The production of coffee in Java started in the 17th century, initiated by the Dutch, who began to export it to the rest of the world. Java also produces a significant amount of kopi luwak, the most expensive coffee in the world, which is processed in the intestines of an animal called a civet and then collected as droppings. Sumatra is an island in western Indonesia. Much of the coffee produced here is processed with the Giling Basah method, which results in earthy flavors, such as herbs, mushrooms, and spices. This coffee has low acidity and is often quite smooth; it might be a good option for those of you who don’t care for acidic qualities all that much.
==Etymology==
' |
New page size (new_size) | 36298 |
Old page size (old_size) | 30878 |
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Lines added in edit (added_lines) | [
0 => '',
1 => '== Bean Belt ==',
2 => '[[File:Bean belt (top 20 coffee producers 2011).svg|thumb|The bean belt in yellow: The 20 largest producers (2011) are in green.]]The “bean belt” or “coffee belt” is the specific area around the globe that has the major coffee-growing regions on the planet. It lies between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, 23.5 degrees north and south of the equator. From north to south, the coffee belt is of approximately 5100 km.',
3 => '',
4 => 'The coffee belt crosses through the five continents, around 70 countries which have tropical climates that provide rich environments that are perfect for growing coffee. Only 44 of those 70 produce coffee in significant quantities.',
5 => '',
6 => 'Whilst coffee is able to grow outside of the coffee belt, the coffee that is produced outside of the belt is nowhere near as good, as those regions lack the fundamentals essential for the coffee plant. The ten major [[specialty coffee]] producers within the bean belt are Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia, India, Mexico, Guatemala, Perú, and Honduras. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Artusi|first=Nicolás|title=Manual del café|publisher=Editorial Planeta|year=2019|location=Buenos Aires, Argentina}}</ref>',
7 => '[[Coffea|Coffee plants]] grow within a defined area between the Tropics of [[Tropic of Cancer|Cancer]] and [[Tropic of Capricorn|Capricorn]], termed the bean belt or coffee belt. The bean belt is divided into three major coffee-growing regions: The Americas, Africa, and Asia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Easto|first=Jessica|title=Craft Coffee: A Manual|publisher=Sunset Books|year=2017|location=Chicago|pages=p 113}}</ref>',
8 => '',
9 => ''''The Americas'''',
10 => '',
11 => 'In North America, [[Coffee production in Mexico|Mexico]] is the 9th exporter of coffee in the world. Production is mainly concentrated in the south-central to southern regions of the country and grows particularly well in the coastal region near the border of Guatemala. Mexico cultivates coffee on about 760,000 hectares across 12 different states. Most coffee farms in Mexico are small (less than 25 hectares) and organized into cooperatives that specialize in organic coffee.',
12 => '',
13 => 'In Central and South America, coffee-growing regions like [[Coffee production in Guatemala|Guatemala]] and [[Coffee production in Colombia|Colombia]] have the rugged landscapes and rich volcanic soil favorable to growing coffee. Colombia’s coffee, famous for the quality and flavor of its beans, is the 3rd largest exporter of coffee in the world behind Vietnam. Colombia also competes with Vietnam for the title of the second-most productive coffee country in the world. As of 2016, nearly 40 percent of all Colombian coffee exports were specialty grade.',
14 => '',
15 => 'Coffee from the highlands of Guatemala is considered to be among the finest coffees in the world, with its bold acidity and body. One of the country’s most famous regions, Antigua, is nestled among three volcanoes, which provide coffee’s favorite mineral-rich soil. Guatemalan coffees that are sold to roasters under regional names must meet the corresponding flavor guidelines set forth by the Asociación Nacional del Café, the national coffee authority that has been supporting farmers since 1960.',
16 => '',
17 => '[[Coffee production in Costa Rica|Costa Rican coffee]] is generally grown and processed with extreme care, which makes it a favorite in the United States (about half of all Costa Rican coffee makes its way to the US specialty market). Costa Rica’s most famous region, Tarrazú, produces nearly a third of the country’s total coffee output and uses highly advanced production techniques, which result in extremely clean coffees at scale.',
18 => '',
19 => 'In [[Coffee production in Honduras|Honduras]], in the past 10 years, more and more small holders and exporters have entered the specialty coffee market. In 2016, more than 95 small producers collectively cultivated 94 percent of the country’s coffee, and today, it is the largest producer and exporter of coffee in Central America. Typical Honduran coffees are mild and medium-bodied, and the best tend to be highly complex and juicy.',
20 => '',
21 => '[[Coffee production in Peru|Peru]] does not have the same kind of name recognition in the coffee world as other South American countries, especially those like Brazil and Colombia that benefit from robust national coffee organizations. However, Peruvian coffee has that bright acidity of high-grown coffee—the Andes Mountains run the length of the country, encompassing nearly 28 microclimates.',
22 => '',
23 => 'But the world’s largest supplier of coffee is [[Coffee production in Brazil|Brazil]]—with plantations covering around 10,000 square miles, mostly located in the southeastern states—a title the country has held for the last 150 years. Brazil is the biggest coffee producer in the world, accounting for about 30 percent of the world’s coffee, and it churns out everything from low-grade commercial coffee to fine specialty beans.',
24 => '',
25 => '',
26 => ''''Africa'''',
27 => '',
28 => '[[Coffee production in Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] is considered to be the motherland of the coffee plant. Ethiopia is Africa’s first coffee-growing region (and first consumer as well). The production reaches up to 860 million pounds, still mostly cultivated and dried by hand, and falls under the strict watch of The Coffee and Tea Authority, determined to avoid market concentration. Ethiopia is one of specialty coffee’s most respected origins and has some of the finest coffees in all the land.',
29 => '',
30 => 'Ethiopia’s neighboring country, [[Coffee production in Kenya|Kenya]], was introduced to coffee-growing by the French at the turn of the 19th century. While Kenyan production may be considered confidential, with only 51,000 tons per year, it is a major actor of the coffee scene and is much sought-after worldwide. Kenya is another heavy-hitting origin known for some of the highest-quality coffees in the world.',
31 => '',
32 => '',
33 => ''''Asia'''',
34 => '',
35 => 'Continuing our trip along the bean belt, let’s move to Asia and its two major coffee-growing regions: [[Coffee production in Vietnam|Vietnam]] and [[Coffee production in Indonesia|Indonesia]].',
36 => 'Vietnam was on the coffee cultivation map in the 19th century and had established its plantation system as an economic force. The Vietnam war interrupted the production, which eventually resumed, though fairly low. In the mid-1980s, the permission to privately own coffee farms again gave a boost to the industry. Ever since, Vietnam production has been growing steadily, up to 3 billion pounds in 2014, right behind Brazil.',
37 => 'Java and Sumatra are two Indonesian islands famous for the quality of their coffee. The production of coffee in Java started in the 17th century, initiated by the Dutch, who began to export it to the rest of the world. Java also produces a significant amount of kopi luwak, the most expensive coffee in the world, which is processed in the intestines of an animal called a civet and then collected as droppings. Sumatra is an island in western Indonesia. Much of the coffee produced here is processed with the Giling Basah method, which results in earthy flavors, such as herbs, mushrooms, and spices. This coffee has low acidity and is often quite smooth; it might be a good option for those of you who don’t care for acidic qualities all that much.'
] |
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1 => '[[Coffee production in Brazil| Brazil produces]] about 45% of the world's total coffee exports, with most grown in Brazil. The United States imports more coffee than any other nation. As of 2015, Americans consumed approximately 400 million cups of coffee per day, making the United States the leading consumer of coffee in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coffee Statistics 2015|url=http://www.e-importz.com/coffee-statistics.php|website=E-Imports|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref>',
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Seed of the coffee plant</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the coffee bean seed. For the coffee chain, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Coffee_Bean_%26_Tea_Leaf" title="The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf">The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf</a>.</div><table class="infobox hrecipe hproduct"><caption class="infobox-title fn ingredient">Coffee beans</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Roasted coffee beans.jpg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg/220px-Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg/330px-Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg/440px-Roasted_coffee_beans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Roasted coffee beans</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region of origin</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabia</a><sup id="cite_ref-Wein34_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wein34-2">[2]</a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table><p>A <b>coffee bean</b> is a seed of the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea" title="Coffea">Coffea</a></i> plant and the source for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>. It is the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drupe" title="Drupe">pip</a> inside the red or purple fruit often referred to as a cherry. Just like ordinary cherries, the coffee fruit is also a so-called stone fruit. Even though the coffee beans are not technically beans, they are referred to as such because of their resemblance to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">true beans</a>. The fruits; cherries or berries, most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides together. A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, instead of the usual two. This is called a "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peaberry" title="Peaberry">peaberry</a>". The peaberry occurs only between 10% and 15% of the time, and it is a fairly common (yet scientifically unproven) belief that they have more flavour than normal coffee beans.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brazil_nut" title="Brazil nut">Brazil nuts</a> (a seed) and white rice, coffee beans consist mostly of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">endosperm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The two most economically important varieties of coffee plant are the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_arabica" title="Coffea arabica">Arabica</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robusta_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Robusta coffee">Robusta</a>; ~60% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and ~40% is Robusta.<sup id="cite_ref-CoffeeProduction_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CoffeeProduction-5">[5]</a></sup> Arabica beans consist of 0.8–1.4% <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a> and Robusta beans consist of 1.7–4.0% caffeine.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> As <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a> is one of the world's most widely consumed beverages, coffee beans are a major <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crop</a> and an important <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Export" title="Export">export</a> product, accounting for over 50% of some developing nations' foreign exchange earnings.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> In 2017, 70% of total coffee production was exported, worth USD 19.9 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Significant_dates"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Significant dates</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Bean_Belt"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Bean Belt</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Distribution"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Distribution</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Etymology"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Coffee_plant"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Coffee plant</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Processing"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Processing</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Composition"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Composition</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Nonvolatile_alkaloids"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Nonvolatile alkaloids</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Proteins_and_amino_acids"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Proteins and amino acids</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Carbohydrates"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Carbohydrates</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Lipids"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Lipids</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Nonvolatile_chlorogenic_acids"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Volatile_compounds"><span class="tocnumber">5.6</span> <span class="toctext">Volatile compounds</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_coffee" title="History of coffee">History of coffee</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Significant_dates">Significant dates</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Significant dates">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>According to legend, the coffee plant was discovered in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Goat_herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Goat herder">goat herder</a> named <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaldi" title="Kaldi">Kaldi</a> around 850 AD, who observed increased physical activity in his goats after they consumed coffee beans.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup></li>
<li>The first coffee plant was found in the mountains of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>. Then by 1500, it was exported to the rest of the world through the port of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mocha,_Yemen" title="Mocha, Yemen">Mocha, Yemen</a>.</li>
<li>First cultivation in India (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chikmagalur" title="Chikmagalur">Chikmagalur</a>) – 1600</li>
<li>First cultivation in Europe (also first cultivation outside of East Africa/Arabia) – 1616</li>
<li>First cultivation in Java – 1699</li>
<li>First cultivation in Caribbean (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>) – 1715–1730</li>
<li>First cultivation in South America – 1730</li>
<li>First cultivation in Dutch East Indies – 1720</li>
<li>The plants were first introduced in the Americas around 1723.</li>
<li>Roasted beans first sold on retail market (Pittsburgh) – 1865</li>
<li>Important spray-drying techniques developed in 1950s, which along with freeze drying are a method to create instant coffee</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bean_Belt">Bean Belt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bean Belt">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Bean_belt_(top_20_coffee_producers_2011).svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg/220px-Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg/330px-Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg/440px-Bean_belt_%28top_20_coffee_producers_2011%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="914" data-file-height="403" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Bean_belt_(top_20_coffee_producers_2011).svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The bean belt in yellow: The 20 largest producers (2011) are in green.</div></div></div><p>The “bean belt” or “coffee belt”  is the specific area around the globe that has the major coffee-growing regions on the planet. It lies between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, 23.5 degrees north and south of the equator. From north to south, the coffee belt is of approximately 5100 km.
</p><p>The coffee belt crosses through the five continents, around 70 countries which have tropical climates that provide rich environments that are perfect for growing coffee. Only 44 of those 70 produce coffee in significant quantities.
</p><p>Whilst coffee is able to grow outside of the coffee belt, the coffee that is produced outside of the belt is nowhere near as good, as those regions lack the fundamentals essential for the coffee plant. The ten major <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Specialty_coffee" title="Specialty coffee">specialty coffee</a> producers within the bean belt are Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia, India, Mexico, Guatemala, Perú, and Honduras. <sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Distribution">Distribution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Distribution">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea" title="Coffea">Coffee plants</a> grow within a defined area between the Tropics of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer" title="Tropic of Cancer">Cancer</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn" title="Tropic of Capricorn">Capricorn</a>, termed the bean belt or coffee belt. The bean belt is divided into three major coffee-growing regions: The Americas, Africa, and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p><b>The Americas</b>
</p><p>In North America, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Mexico" title="Coffee production in Mexico">Mexico</a> is the 9th exporter of coffee in the world. Production is mainly concentrated in the south-central to southern regions of the country and grows particularly well in the coastal region near the border of Guatemala. Mexico cultivates coffee on about 760,000 hectares across 12 different states. Most coffee farms in Mexico are small (less than 25 hectares) and organized into cooperatives that specialize in organic coffee.
</p><p>In Central and South America, coffee-growing regions like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Guatemala" title="Coffee production in Guatemala">Guatemala</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Colombia" title="Coffee production in Colombia">Colombia</a> have the rugged landscapes and rich volcanic soil favorable to growing coffee. Colombia’s coffee, famous for the quality and flavor of its beans, is the 3rd largest exporter of coffee in the world behind Vietnam. Colombia also competes with Vietnam for the title of the second-most productive coffee country in the world. As of 2016, nearly 40 percent of all Colombian coffee exports were specialty grade.
</p><p>Coffee from the highlands of Guatemala is considered to be among the finest coffees in the world, with its bold acidity and body. One of the country’s most famous regions, Antigua, is nestled among three volcanoes, which provide coffee’s favorite mineral-rich soil. Guatemalan coffees that are sold to roasters under regional names must meet the corresponding flavor guidelines set forth by the Asociación Nacional del Café, the national coffee authority that has been supporting farmers since 1960.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Costa_Rica" title="Coffee production in Costa Rica">Costa Rican coffee</a> is generally grown and processed with extreme care, which makes it a favorite in the United States (about half of all Costa Rican coffee makes its way to the US specialty market). Costa Rica’s most famous region, Tarrazú, produces nearly a third of the country’s total coffee output and uses highly advanced production techniques, which result in extremely clean coffees at scale.
</p><p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Honduras" title="Coffee production in Honduras">Honduras</a>, in the past 10 years, more and more small holders and exporters have entered the specialty coffee market. In 2016, more than 95 small producers collectively cultivated 94 percent of the country’s coffee, and today, it is the largest producer and exporter of coffee in Central America. Typical Honduran coffees are mild and medium-bodied, and the best tend to be highly complex and juicy.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Peru" title="Coffee production in Peru">Peru</a> does not have the same kind of name recognition in the coffee world as other South American countries, especially those like Brazil and Colombia that benefit from robust national coffee organizations. However, Peruvian coffee has that bright acidity of high-grown coffee—the Andes Mountains run the length of the country, encompassing nearly 28 microclimates.
</p><p>But the world’s largest supplier of coffee is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Brazil" title="Coffee production in Brazil">Brazil</a>—with plantations covering around 10,000 square miles, mostly located in the southeastern states—a title the country has held for the last 150 years. Brazil is the biggest coffee producer in the world, accounting for about 30 percent of the world’s coffee, and it churns out everything from low-grade commercial coffee to fine specialty beans.
</p><p><br />
<b>Africa</b>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Ethiopia" title="Coffee production in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> is considered to be the motherland of the coffee plant. Ethiopia is Africa’s first coffee-growing region (and first consumer as well). The production reaches up to 860 million pounds, still mostly cultivated and dried by hand, and falls under the strict watch of The Coffee and Tea Authority, determined to avoid market concentration. Ethiopia is one of specialty coffee’s most respected origins and has some of the finest coffees in all the land.
</p><p>Ethiopia’s neighboring country, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Kenya" title="Coffee production in Kenya">Kenya</a>, was introduced to coffee-growing by the French at the turn of the 19th century. While Kenyan production may be considered confidential, with only 51,000 tons per year, it is a major actor of the coffee scene and is much sought-after worldwide.  Kenya is another heavy-hitting origin known for some of the highest-quality coffees in the world.
</p><p><br />
<b>Asia</b>
</p><p>Continuing our trip along the bean belt, let’s move to Asia and its two major coffee-growing regions: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Vietnam" title="Coffee production in Vietnam">Vietnam</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Indonesia" title="Coffee production in Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.
</p><p>Vietnam was on the coffee cultivation map in the 19th century and had established its plantation system as an economic force. The Vietnam war interrupted the production, which eventually resumed, though fairly low. In the mid-1980s, the permission to privately own coffee farms again gave a boost to the industry. Ever since, Vietnam production has been growing steadily, up to 3 billion pounds in 2014, right behind Brazil.
</p><p>Java and Sumatra are two Indonesian islands famous for the quality of their coffee. The production of coffee in Java started in the 17th century, initiated by the Dutch, who began to export it to the rest of the world. Java also produces a significant amount of kopi luwak, the most expensive coffee in the world, which is processed in the intestines of an animal called a civet and then collected as droppings. Sumatra is an island in western Indonesia. Much of the coffee produced here is processed with the Giling Basah method, which results in earthy flavors, such as herbs, mushrooms, and spices. This coffee has low acidity and is often quite smooth; it might be a good option for those of you who don’t care for acidic qualities all that much.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> suggests that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="European languages">European languages</a> generally appear to have gotten the name from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> <i>kahveh</i>, about 1600, perhaps through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <i>caffè</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arab</a> <i>qahwah</i>, in Turkish pronounced <i>kahveh</i>, the name of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Infusion" title="Infusion">infusion</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Beverage">beverage</a>; said by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lexicographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexicographer">lexicographers</a> to have originally meant "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>" or some type of wine, and to be a derivative of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a>-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a> <i>qahiya</i> "to have no <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appetite" title="Appetite">appetite</a>". Another common theory is that the name derives from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaffa_Province,_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaffa Province, Ethiopia">Kaffa Province, Ethiopia</a>, where the species may have originated.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Coffee_plant">Coffee plant</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Coffee plant">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg/220px-Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg/330px-Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg/440px-Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1381" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Singararutang_coffee_flower.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The flower of a Singararutang coffee tree</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coffee_berries_1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coffee_berries_1.jpg/220px-Coffee_berries_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coffee_berries_1.jpg/330px-Coffee_berries_1.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coffee_berries_1.jpg/440px-Coffee_berries_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coffee_berries_1.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Coffee berries</div></div></div>
<p>The coffee tree averages from 5–10 m (16–33 ft) in height. As the tree gets older, it produces less fruit and slowly loses any pest- and disease-resistance.
</p><p>Coffee plants are often grown in rows a few feet apart (depending on the desired density chosen by the farmer). Some farmers plant other trees, such as shade trees or other cash-crop trees, such as orange trees around them or plant the coffee on the sides of hills, because they need specific conditions to flourish. Ideally, Arabica coffee beans are grown at temperatures between 15 and 24 °C (59 and 75 °F) and Robusta at 24–30 °C (75–86 °F) and receive between 150 and 300 cm (59 and 118 in) of rainfall per year.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> Heavy rain is needed in the beginning of the season when the fruit is developing and less later in the season as it ripens.
</p><p>Two lesser known species grown for consumption are <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_liberica" title="Coffea liberica">Coffea liberica</a></i> and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_racemosa" title="Coffea racemosa">Coffea racemosa</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Processing">Processing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Processing">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Processing_of_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Processing of coffee">Processing of coffee</a></div>
<p>When the fruit is ripe, it is almost always handpicked, using either "selective picking", where only the ripe fruit is removed, or "strip-picking", where all of the fruit is removed from a limb all at once. Selective picking is often used to produce higher quality coffee because the cherries are picked at their ripest. Strip-picking is indiscriminate and will harvest unripe, ripe, and over-ripe fruit. To improve quality after strip-picking, the harvest must be sorted.
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asian_palm_civet" title="Asian palm civet">Asian palm civet</a> eats coffee berries and excretes the beans. Because the civet prefers the taste of the ripest cherries, the civet selectively harvests the cherries. Its digestive system then processes the beans by breaking down the mucilage and pulp surrounding the seed. Once the seeds are excreted by the civet, they can be harvested, processed and sold as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niche_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche product">niche product</a>. Once they are finally processed, these beans are called <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kopi_luwak" title="Kopi luwak">kopi luwak</a></i>, and are often marketed as a rare and expensive coffee.
</p><p>Two methods are primarily used to process coffee berries. The first, "wet" or "washed" process, has historically usually been carried out in Central America and areas of Africa. The flesh of the cherries is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented – soaked in water for about two days. This softens the mucilage, which is a sticky pulp residue that is still attached to the seeds. Then this mucilage is washed off with water.
</p><p>The "dry processing" method, cheaper and simpler, was historically used for lower-quality beans in Brazil and much of Africa, but now brings a premium when done well. Twigs and other foreign objects are separated from the berries and the fruit is then spread out in the sun on concrete, bricks or raised beds for 2–3 weeks, turned regularly for even drying.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Composition">Composition</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Composition">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG/220px-Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG/330px-Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG/440px-Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coffee_cherry_cross_section.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Coffee cherry cross-section</div></div></div>
<p>The term "green coffee bean" refers to unroasted mature or immature coffee beans. These have been processed by wet or dry methods to remove the outer pulp and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mucilage" title="Mucilage">mucilage</a> and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Nonvolatile and volatile compounds in green coffee beans, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">deter</a> many insects and animals from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seed_predation" title="Seed predation">eating them</a>. Further, both nonvolatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee bean when it is roasted. Nonvolatile <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogenous</a> compounds (including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloids</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trigonelline" title="Trigonelline">trigonelline</a>, proteins, and free <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee and for its biological action. Since the mid 2000s, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_coffee_extract" title="Green coffee extract">green coffee extract</a> has been sold as a nutritional supplement and has been clinically studied for its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chlorogenic_acid" title="Chlorogenic acid">chlorogenic acid</a> content and for its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lipolytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipolytic">lipolytic</a> and weight-loss properties.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nonvolatile_alkaloids">Nonvolatile alkaloids</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nonvolatile alkaloids">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:192px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg/190px-Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="174" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg/285px-Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg/380px-Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg 2x" data-file-width="657" data-file-height="600" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Coffea_canephora_W2_IMG_2430.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Immature <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_canephora" title="Coffea canephora">Coffea canephora</a></i> berries on a tree in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></div></div></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a> (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloid</a> most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1.0% and 2.5% by weight of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> Lower concentrations of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theophylline" title="Theophylline">theophylline</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theobromine" title="Theobromine">theobromine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paraxanthine" title="Paraxanthine">paraxanthine</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberine" title="Liberine">liberine</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Methylliberine" title="Methylliberine">methylliberine</a> can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_tea" title="Green tea">green tea</a>, is reduced during the roasting process, usually about 15 minutes at 230 °C (446 °F), whereas the concentrations of most other alkaloids are not changed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric acid</a>, or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tartaric_acid" title="Tartaric acid">tartaric acid</a>, all of which are present in green coffee beans. For example, 1 g (0.035 oz) of caffeine dissolves in 46 ml (1.6 US fl oz) of water at room temperature, and 5.5 ml (0.19 US fl oz) at 80 °C (176 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trigonelline" title="Trigonelline">Trigonelline</a> (<i>N</i>-methyl-nicotinate) is a derivative of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vitamin_B6" title="Vitamin B6">vitamin B<sub>6</sub></a> that is not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0.6% and 1.0%. At a roasting temperature of 230 °C (446 °F), 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niacin" title="Niacin">nicotinic acid</a>, leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Proteins_and_amino_acids">Proteins and amino acids</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Proteins and amino acids">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a> account for 8% to 12% of dried green coffee beans. A majority of the proteins are of the 11-S storage kind<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> (alpha – component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11-S storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature, thus are an additional source of bitter components due to generation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maillard_reaction" title="Maillard reaction">Maillard reaction</a> products.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> High temperature and oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11-S storage proteins of green coffee beans to low-molecular-weight <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a> and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catalase" title="Catalase">catalase</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polyphenol_oxidase" title="Polyphenol oxidase">polyphenol oxidase</a>, which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid/g robusta coffee and up to 4.5 mg amino acid/g arabica coffee). In <i>Coffea arabica</i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">alanine</a> is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg/g, followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in <i>C. robusta</i>, alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste, making it impossible to prepare a desirable beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isoleucine" title="Isoleucine">isoleucine</a> 81 mg/kg, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leucine" title="Leucine">leucine</a> 100 mg/kg, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Valine" title="Valine">valine</a> 93 mg/kg, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a> 81 mg/kg, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">phenylalanine</a> 133 mg/kg. The concentration of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">gamma-aminobutyric acid</a> (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg/kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids; the amino acids in green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products (reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha-amino group of the amino acids). Further, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diketopiperazine" title="Diketopiperazine">diketopiperazines</a>, e.g. cyclo(proline-proline), cyclo(proline-leucine), and cyclo(proline-isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> The bitter flavor of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg/liter of water. The content of diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 to 30 mg, which is responsible for its <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bitterness_(taste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bitterness (taste)">bitterness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Carbohydrates">Carbohydrates</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Carbohydrates">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Carbohydrates make up about 50% of the dry weight of green coffee beans. The carbohydrate fraction of green coffee is dominated by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabinogalactan" title="Arabinogalactan">arabinogalactan</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galactomannan" title="Galactomannan">galactomannan</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, contributing to the tasteless flavor of green coffee. Arabinogalactan makes up to 17% of dry weight of green coffee beans, with a molecular weight of 90 kDa to 200 kDa. It is composed of beta-1-3-linked <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">galactan</a> main chains, with frequent members of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabinose" title="Arabinose">arabinose</a> (pentose) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">galactose</a> (hexose) residues at the side chains comprising immunomodulating properties by stimulating the cellular defense system (Th-1 response) of the body. Mature brown to yellow coffee beans contain fewer residues of galactose and arabinose at the side chain of the polysaccharides, making the green coffee bean more resistant to physical breakdown and less soluble in water.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> The molecular weight of the arabinogalactan in coffee is higher than in most other plants, improving the cellular defense system of the digestive tract compared to arabinogalactan with lower molecular weight.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> Free <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharides</a> are present in mature brown to yellow-green coffee beans. The free part of monosaccharides contains <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> (gluco-fructose) up to 9000 mg/100g of arabica green coffee bean, a lower amount in robustas, i.e. 4500 mg/100g. In arabica green coffee beans, the content of free glucose was 30 to 38 mg/100g, free fructose 23 to 30 mg/100g; free galactose 35 mg/100g and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/D-Mannitol" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Mannitol">mannitol</a> 50 mg/100g dried coffee beans, respectively. Mannitol is a powerful scavenger for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hydroxyl_radical" title="Hydroxyl radical">hydroxyl radicals</a>, which are generated during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lipid_peroxidation" title="Lipid peroxidation">peroxidation</a> of lipids in biological membranes.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Lipids">Lipids</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Lipids">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The lipids found in green coffee include: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Linoleic_acid" title="Linoleic acid">linoleic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palmitic_acid" title="Palmitic acid">palmitic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oleic_acid" title="Oleic acid">oleic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stearic_acid" title="Stearic acid">stearic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arachidic_acid" title="Arachidic acid">arachidic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Terpene" title="Terpene">diterpenes</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Triglyceride" title="Triglyceride">triglycerides</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unsaturated_fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsaturated fatty acids">unsaturated</a> long-chain <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">esters</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amide" title="Amide">amides</a>. The total content of lipids in dried green coffee is between 11.7 and 14 g/100 g.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> Lipids are present on the surface and in the interior matrix of green coffee beans. On the surface, they include derivatives of carboxylic acid-5-hydroxytryptamides with an amide bond to fatty acids (unsaturated C6 to C24) making up to 3% of total lipid content or 1200 to 1400 microgram/g dried green coffee bean. Such compounds form a wax-like cover on the surface of the coffee bean (200 to 300 mg lipids/100 g dried green coffee bean) protecting the interior matrix against oxidation and insects. Further, such molecules have antioxidative activity due to their chemical structure.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> Lipids of the interior tissue are triglycerides, linoleic acid (46% of total free lipids), palmitic acid (30% to 35% of total free lipids), and esters. Arabica beans have a higher content of lipids (13.5 to 17.4 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans) than robustas (9.8 to 10.7 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans). The content of diterpenes is about 20% of the lipid fraction. The diterpenes found in green coffee include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cafestol" title="Cafestol">cafestol</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kahweol" title="Kahweol">kahweol</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/16-O-methylcafestol" class="mw-redirect" title="16-O-methylcafestol">16-O-methylcafestol</a>. Some of these diterpenes have been shown in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i> experiments to protect liver tissue against chemical oxidation.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> In coffee oil from green coffee beans the diterpenes are <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esterification" class="mw-redirect" title="Esterification">esterified</a> with saturated long chain <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a>.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nonvolatile_chlorogenic_acids">Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Nonvolatile chlorogenic acids">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chlorogenic_acid" title="Chlorogenic acid">Chlorogenic acids</a> belong to a group of compounds known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phenolic_acid" title="Phenolic acid">phenolic acids</a>, which are <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidants</a>. The content of chlorogenic acids in dried green coffee beans of arabica is 65 mg/g and of robusta 140 mg/g, depending on the timing of harvesting.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFGarg2021" class="citation book cs1">Garg, Satish K. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128210383000422"><i>Nutraceuticals (Second Edition) Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity</i></a>. pp. 725–748.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nutraceuticals+%28Second+Edition%29+Efficacy%2C+Safety+and+Toxicity&rft.pages=725-748&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Garg&rft.aufirst=Satish+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB9780128210383000422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span> At roasting temperature, more than 70% of chlorogenic acids are destroyed, leaving a residue less than 30 mg/g in the roasted coffee bean. In contrast to green coffee, green tea contains an average of 85 mg/g polyphenols. These chlorogenic acids could be a valuable, inexpensive source of antioxidants. Chlorogenic acids are homologous compounds comprising <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeic_acid" title="Caffeic acid">caffeic acid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ferulic_acid" title="Ferulic acid">ferulic acid</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/3,4-dimethoxycinnamic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid">3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid</a>, which are connected by an ester bond to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> groups of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quinic_acid" title="Quinic acid">quinic acid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> The antioxidant capacity of chlorogenic acid is more potent than of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ascorbic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascorbic acid">ascorbic acid</a> (vitamin C) or mannitol, which is a selective hydroxy-radical scavenger.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> Chlorogenic acids have a bitter taste in low concentrations such as 50 mg/l water. At higher concentrations of 1 g/l water, they have a sour taste. Chlorogenic acids increase the solubility of caffeine and are important modulators of taste.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Volatile_compounds">Volatile compounds</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Volatile compounds">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Volatile compounds of green coffee beans include short-chain fatty acids, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehydes</a>, and nitrogen-containing aromatic molecules, such as derivatives of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyrazine" title="Pyrazine">pyrazines</a> (green-herbeaceous-earthy odor). Briefly, such volatile compounds are responsible for the less pleasing odor and taste of green coffee versus roasted coffee. Commercial success was realized by Starbucks in creating Green Bean Refreshers using a process that primarily isolates the caffeine from the green beans but does not actually use steeped liquid from the beans.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> Many consumers experiment with creating green bean "extract" by steeping green coffee beans in hot water. Often, the recommended times of steeping (20 minutes to 1 hour) extract too much caffeine to provide a pleasant taste. A steeping time of 12 minutes or under provides a more palatable liquid that can be used as a base for a drink containing more of the nutrients and less caffeine that using just isolated caffeine extract.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> The alkaline stock base that results can be paired with acidic or fruity extracts, with or without sweetener, to mask the vegetable-like taste of the extract.
</p><p>When green coffee beans are roasted, other molecules with the typical pleasant aroma of coffee are generated, which are not present in fresh green coffee. During roasting, the major part of the unpleasant-tasting volatile compounds are neutralised. Unfortunately, other important molecules such as antioxidants and vitamins present in green coffee are destroyed. Volatile compounds with nauseating odor for humans have been identified, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> (pungent, unpleasant odor), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Propionic_acid" title="Propionic acid">propionic acid</a> (odor of sour milk, or butter), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Butyric_acid" title="Butyric acid">butanoic acid</a> (odor of rancid butter, present in green coffee with 2 mg/100g coffee beans), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Valeric_acid" title="Valeric acid">pentanoic acid</a> (unpleasant fruity flavor, present in green coffee at 40 mg/100 g in coffee beans), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hexanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexanoic acid">hexanoic acid</a> (fatty-rancid odor), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heptanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Heptanoic acid">heptanoic acid</a> (fatty odor), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caprylic_acid" title="Caprylic acid">octanoic acid</a> (repulsive oily rancid odor); <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonanoic acid">nonanoic acid</a> (mild nut-like fatty odor); <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Decanoic acid">decanoic acid</a> (sour repulsive odor), and derivatives of such fatty acids – <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=3-methyl-valeric_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3-methyl-valeric acid (page does not exist)">3-methyl-valeric acid</a> (sour, green-herbaceous, unpleasant odor), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a> (pungent-nauseating odor, even when highly diluted, present in dried green coffee beans at concentrations of about 5 mg/kg), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Propanal" class="mw-redirect" title="Propanal">propanal</a> (choking effect on respiratory system, penetrating-nauseating), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Butyraldehyde" title="Butyraldehyde">butanal</a> (nauseating effect, present in dried green coffee beans at 2 to 7mg/kg), or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pentanal" title="Pentanal">pentanal</a> (very repulsive nauseating effect).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Souza, Richard M. (2008) <i>Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee</i>. Springer. p. 3. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8720-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8720-2">978-1-4020-8720-2</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Wein34-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wein34_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeinbergBealer2001">Weinberg & Bealer 2001</a>, pp. 3–4<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWeinbergBealer2001 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ilovebuttercoffee.com/peaberry-coffee-beans/">"Peaberry Coffee Beans: Speciality Coffee Drinkers Guide"</a>. <i>ilovebuttercoffee.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 Dec</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ilovebuttercoffee.com&rft.atitle=Peaberry+Coffee+Beans%3A+Speciality+Coffee+Drinkers+Guide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Filovebuttercoffee.com%2Fpeaberry-coffee-beans%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coffeeresearch.org/agriculture/coffeeplant.htm">"Arabica and Robusta Coffee Plant"</a>. Coffee Research Institute<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arabica+and+Robusta+Coffee+Plant&rft.pub=Coffee+Research+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coffeeresearch.org%2Fagriculture%2Fcoffeeplant.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-CoffeeProduction-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CoffeeProduction_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/fas/tropprod//2010s/2017/tropprod-06-16-2017.pdf">"Coffee: World Markets and Trade"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. United States Department of Agriculture – Foreign Agricultural Service. June 16, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 8,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Coffee%3A+World+Markets+and+Trade&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Agriculture+%E2%80%93+Foreign+Agricultural+Service&rft.date=2017-06-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusda.mannlib.cornell.edu%2Fusda%2Ffas%2Ftropprod%2F%2F2010s%2F2017%2Ftropprod-06-16-2017.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111003123956/http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp">"Botanical Aspects"</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Coffee_Organization" title="International Coffee Organization">International Coffee Organization</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp">the original</a> on 3 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Botanical+Aspects&rft.pub=International+Coffee+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdev.ico.org%2Fbotanical.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111003124016/http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp">"The Story of Coffee"</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Coffee_Organization" title="International Coffee Organization">International Coffee Organization</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp">the original</a> on 3 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Coffee&rft.pub=International+Coffee+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdev.ico.org%2Fcoffee_story.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFVoora,_V.,_Bermudez,_S.,_and_Larrea,_C.2019" class="citation web cs1">Voora, V., Bermudez, S., and Larrea, C. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/coffee-coverage/">"Global Market Report: Coffee"</a>. <i>State of Sustainability Initiatives</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=State+of+Sustainability+Initiatives&rft.atitle=Global+Market+Report%3A+Coffee&rft.date=2019&rft.au=Voora%2C+V.%2C+Bermudez%2C+S.%2C+and+Larrea%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iisd.org%2Fssi%2Fcommodities%2Fcoffee-coverage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncausa.org/about-coffee/history-of-coffee">"The history of coffee"</a>. National Coffee Association of the United States<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+history+of+coffee&rft.pub=National+Coffee+Association+of+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncausa.org%2Fabout-coffee%2Fhistory-of-coffee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFArtusi2019" class="citation book cs1">Artusi, Nicolás (2019). <i>Manual del café</i>. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Planeta.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manual+del+caf%C3%A9&rft.place=Buenos+Aires%2C+Argentina&rft.pub=Editorial+Planeta&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Artusi&rft.aufirst=Nicol%C3%A1s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFEasto2017" class="citation book cs1">Easto, Jessica (2017). <i>Craft Coffee: A Manual</i>. Chicago: Sunset Books. pp. p 113.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Craft+Coffee%3A+A+Manual&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=p+113&rft.pub=Sunset+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Easto&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|pages=</code> has extra text (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#extra_text_pages" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Souza, Richard M. (2008) <i>Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee</i>. Springer. p. 3. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8720-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8720-2">978-1-4020-8720-2</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://productsyoucantrefuse.com/major-coffee-producer-country-map/">"Major coffee producers"</a>. productsyoucantrefuse.com. 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Major+coffee+producers&rft.pub=productsyoucantrefuse.com&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fproductsyoucantrefuse.com%2Fmajor-coffee-producer-country-map%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/videos/tv/2015/01/05/spc-inside-africa-mozambique-conservation-c.cnn">"Rare coffee plant could help communities"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(video)</span>. edition.cnn.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rare+coffee+plant+could+help+communities&rft.pub=edition.cnn.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2Fvideos%2Ftv%2F2015%2F01%2F05%2Fspc-inside-africa-mozambique-conservation-c.cnn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFClifford,_MNKazi,_M1987" class="citation journal cs1">Clifford, MN; Kazi, M (1987). "The influence of coffee bean maturity on the content of chlorogenic acids, caffeine, and trigonelline". <i>Food Chemistry</i>. <b>26</b>: 59–69. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0308-8146%2887%2990167-1">10.1016/0308-8146(87)90167-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Food+Chemistry&rft.atitle=The+influence+of+coffee+bean+maturity+on+the+content+of+chlorogenic+acids%2C+caffeine%2C+and+trigonelline&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=59-69&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0308-8146%2887%2990167-1&rft.au=Clifford%2C+MN&rft.au=Kazi%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Merck_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="The Merck Index">The Merck Index</a></i>, 13th Edition</span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coffeechemistry.com/trigonelline-in-coffee">"Trigonelline in Coffee"</a>. <i>www.coffeechemistry.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.coffeechemistry.com&rft.atitle=Trigonelline+in+Coffee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.coffeechemistry.com%2Ftrigonelline-in-coffee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFVarnam1999" class="citation book cs1">Varnam, A. H. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40941014"><i>Beverages : technology, chemistry and microbiology</i></a>. Jane P. Sutherland. Gaithersburg, Maryland: Aspen. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8342-1310-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8342-1310-9"><bdi>0-8342-1310-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/40941014">40941014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beverages+%3A+technology%2C+chemistry+and+microbiology&rft.place=Gaithersburg%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Aspen&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40941014&rft.isbn=0-8342-1310-9&rft.aulast=Varnam&rft.aufirst=A.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F40941014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBaúMazzaferaSantoro2001" class="citation journal cs1">Baú, Sandra M. T.; Mazzafera, Paulo; Santoro, Luiz G. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS0103-31312001000100004">"Seed storage proteins in coffee"</a>. <i>Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 33–40. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS0103-31312001000100004">10.1590/S0103-31312001000100004</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+Brasileira+de+Fisiologia+Vegetal&rft.atitle=Seed+storage+proteins+in+coffee&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-40&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2FS0103-31312001000100004&rft.aulast=Ba%C3%BA&rft.aufirst=Sandra+M.+T.&rft.au=Mazzafera%2C+Paulo&rft.au=Santoro%2C+Luiz+G.&rft_id=%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1590%252FS0103-31312001000100004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMontavonDuruzRumoPratz2003" class="citation journal cs1">Montavon P, Duruz E, Rumo G, Pratz G (April 2003). "Evolution of green coffee protein profiles with maturation and relationship to coffee cup quality". <i>J. Agric. Food Chem</i>. <b>51</b> (8): 2328–34. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjf020831j">10.1021/jf020831j</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12670177">12670177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Agric.+Food+Chem.&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+green+coffee+protein+profiles+with+maturation+and+relationship+to+coffee+cup+quality&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=2328-34&rft.date=2003-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fjf020831j&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12670177&rft.aulast=Montavon&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Duruz%2C+E&rft.au=Rumo%2C+G&rft.au=Pratz%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFArnoldLudwigKühnMöschwitzer1994" class="citation journal cs1">Arnold, U.; Ludwig, E.; Kühn, R.; Möschwitzer, U. (1994). "Analysis of free amino acids in green coffee beans". <i>Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung</i>. <b>199</b> (1): 22–25. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01192946">10.1007/BF01192946</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8067059">8067059</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36134388">36134388</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Lebensmittel-Untersuchung+und+-Forschung&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+free+amino+acids+in+green+coffee+beans&rft.volume=199&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-25&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36134388%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8067059&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01192946&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=U.&rft.au=Ludwig%2C+E.&rft.au=K%C3%BChn%2C+R.&rft.au=M%C3%B6schwitzer%2C+U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMurkovicDerler2006" class="citation journal cs1">Murkovic M, Derler K (November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/890497">"Analysis of amino acids and carbohydrates in green coffee"</a>. <i>J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods</i>. <b>69</b> (1–2): 25–32. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jbbm.2006.02.001">10.1016/j.jbbm.2006.02.001</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16563515">16563515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Biochem.+Biophys.+Methods&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+amino+acids+and+carbohydrates+in+green+coffee&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=25-32&rft.date=2006-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jbbm.2006.02.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16563515&rft.aulast=Murkovic&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Derler%2C+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F890497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTeutsch2004" class="citation thesis cs1">Teutsch, I. A. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=97339305x&dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=97339305x.pdf"><i>Einfluss der Rohkaffeeverarbeitung auf Aromastoffveränderungen in gerösteten Kaffeebohnen sowie im Kaffeebetränk</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (PhD). Department of Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Germany.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Einfluss+der+Rohkaffeeverarbeitung+auf+Aromastoffver%C3%A4nderungen+in+ger%C3%B6steten+Kaffeebohnen+sowie+im+Kaffeebetr%C3%A4nk&rft.inst=Department+of+Chemistry%2C+Technical+University+Munich%2C+Germany&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Teutsch&rft.aufirst=I.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deposit.ddb.de%2Fcgi-bin%2Fdokserv%3Fidn%3D97339305x%26dok_var%3Dd1%26dok_ext%3Dpdf%26filename%3D97339305x.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link since July 2021">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFGinz2001" class="citation thesis cs1">Ginz, M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00001257"><i>Bittere Diketopiperazine und chlorogensäurederivate in Roestkaffee</i></a> (PhD). Technical University Carolo-Wilhelminia, Brunswig, Germany.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Bittere+Diketopiperazine+und+chlorogens%C3%A4urederivate+in+Roestkaffee&rft.inst=Technical+University+Carolo-Wilhelminia%2C+Brunswig%2C+Germany&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Ginz&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digibib.tu-bs.de%2F%3Fdocid%3D00001257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFleming2012" class="citation news cs1">Fleming, Amy (9 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160324222246/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso">"How to make the perfect espresso"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/may/09/how-to-make-the-perfect-espresso">the original</a> on 24 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 17,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=How+to+make+the+perfect+espresso&rft.date=2012-05-09&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Flifeandstyle%2F2012%2Fmay%2F09%2Fhow-to-make-the-perfect-espresso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRedgwellCurtiRogersNicolas2003" class="citation journal cs1">Redgwell RJ, Curti D, Rogers J, Nicolas P, Fischer M (June 2003). "Changes to the galactose/mannose ratio in galactomannans during coffee bean (<i>Coffea arabica</i> L.) development: implications for in vivo modification of galactomannan synthesis". <i>Planta</i>. <b>217</b> (2): 316–26. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00425-003-1003-x">10.1007/s00425-003-1003-x</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12783340">12783340</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3011043">3011043</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Planta&rft.atitle=Changes+to+the+galactose%2Fmannose+ratio+in+galactomannans+during+coffee+bean+%28Coffea+arabica+L.%29+development%3A+implications+for+in+vivo+modification+of+galactomannan+synthesis&rft.volume=217&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=316-26&rft.date=2003-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3011043%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12783340&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00425-003-1003-x&rft.aulast=Redgwell&rft.aufirst=RJ&rft.au=Curti%2C+D&rft.au=Rogers%2C+J&rft.au=Nicolas%2C+P&rft.au=Fischer%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gotoda, N and Iwai, K. (2006) "Arabinogalactan isolated from coffee seeds indicates immunomodulating properties", pp. 116–20 in <i>Association for Science and Information on Coffee</i>, (ASIC) 21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France</span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTresselHolzerKamperschroer1983" class="citation book cs1">Tressel, R.; Holzer, M.; Kamperschroer, H. (1983). "Bildung von Aromastoffenin Roestkaffee in Abhaengigkeit vom Gehalt an freien Aminosaeren und reduzierenden Zuckern". <i>10th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Salvador, Bahia 11 October to 14 Oct</i>. ASIC. pp. 279–92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bildung+von+Aromastoffenin+Roestkaffee+in+Abhaengigkeit+vom+Gehalt+an+freien+Aminosaeren+und+reduzierenden+Zuckern&rft.btitle=10th+International+Colloquium+Chemicum+Coffee%2C+Salvador%2C+Bahia+11+October+to+14+Oct&rft.pages=279-92&rft.pub=ASIC&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Tressel&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Holzer%2C+M.&rft.au=Kamperschroer%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRoffiCorte_dos_SantosMexiaBusson1973" class="citation book cs1">Roffi, J.; Corte dos Santos, A.; Mexia, J. T.; Busson, F.; Miagrot, M. (1973). "Café verts et torrefiesde l Angola". <i>Etude chimique, 5th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Lisboa, 14 June to 19 June 1971</i>. ASIC. pp. 179–200.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caf%C3%A9+verts+et+torrefiesde+l+Angola&rft.btitle=Etude+chimique%2C+5th+International+Colloquium+Chemicum+Coffee%2C+Lisboa%2C+14+June+to+19+June+1971&rft.pages=179-200&rft.pub=ASIC&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Roffi&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Corte+dos+Santos%2C+A.&rft.au=Mexia%2C+J.+T.&rft.au=Busson%2C+F.&rft.au=Miagrot%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFClifford_MN1985" class="citation book cs1">Clifford MN (1985). "Chemical and physical aspects of green coffee and coffee products". In Clifford MN, Wilson KC (eds.). <i>Coffee: botany, biochemistry, and production of beans and beverage</i>. London: Croom Helm AVI. pp. 305–74. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7099-0787-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7099-0787-7"><bdi>0-7099-0787-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chemical+and+physical+aspects+of+green+coffee+and+coffee+products&rft.btitle=Coffee%3A+botany%2C+biochemistry%2C+and+production+of+beans+and+beverage&rft.place=London&rft.pages=305-74&rft.pub=Croom+Helm+AVI&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-7099-0787-7&rft.au=Clifford+MN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLeeJeong2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lee KJ, Jeong HG (September 2007). "Protective effects of kahweol and cafestol against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress and DNA damage". <i>Toxicol. Lett</i>. <b>173</b> (2): 80–87. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.toxlet.2007.06.008">10.1016/j.toxlet.2007.06.008</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17689207">17689207</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Toxicol.+Lett.&rft.atitle=Protective+effects+of+kahweol+and+cafestol+against+hydrogen+peroxide-induced+oxidative+stress+and+DNA+damage&rft.volume=173&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=80-87&rft.date=2007-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.toxlet.2007.06.008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17689207&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=KJ&rft.au=Jeong%2C+HG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFClifford" class="citation book cs1">Clifford, M. N. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asic-cafe.org/en/system/files/C301_2006.pdf">"Chlorogenic acids – their characterisation, transformation during roasting, and potential dietary significance"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France</i>. Association for Science and Information on Coffee, (ASIC). pp. 36–49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chlorogenic+acids+%E2%80%93+their+characterisation%2C+transformation+during+roasting%2C+and+potential+dietary+significance&rft.btitle=21st+International+Conference+on+Coffee+Science%2C+11%E2%80%9315+September+2006%2C+Montpellier%2C+France&rft.pages=36-49&rft.pub=Association+for+Science+and+Information+on+Coffee%2C+%28ASIC%29&rft.aulast=Clifford&rft.aufirst=M.+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fasic-cafe.org%2Fen%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2FC301_2006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMorishitaKido1995" class="citation book cs1">Morishita, H.; Kido, R. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asic-cafe.org/en/system/files/16_092.pdf">"Anti-oxidant activities of chlorogenic acid"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>16th international colloqu. Chem. Coffee, Kyoto 9–14th April</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anti-oxidant+activities+of+chlorogenic+acid&rft.btitle=16th+international+colloqu.+Chem.+Coffee%2C+Kyoto+9%E2%80%9314th+April&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Morishita&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Kido%2C+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fasic-cafe.org%2Fen%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2F16_092.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.starbucks.com/promo/refreshers">"Starbucks Refreshers™ Beverages"</a>. <i>Starbucks Coffee Company</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Starbucks+Coffee+Company&rft.atitle=Starbucks+Refreshers%E2%84%A2+Beverages&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.starbucks.com%2Fpromo%2Frefreshers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lenscoffee.com/how-to-make-your-own-green-coffee-bean-beverages">"Len's Coffee: How to make your own green coffee bean extract"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Len%27s+Coffee%3A+How+to+make+your+own+green+coffee+bean+extract&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flenscoffee.com%2Fhow-to-make-your-own-green-coffee-bean-beverages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBessière-ThomasFlament2002" class="citation book cs1">Bessière-Thomas, Yvonne; Flament, Ivon (2002). <i>Coffee flavor chemistry</i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-72038-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-72038-0"><bdi>0-471-72038-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coffee+flavor+chemistry&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-471-72038-0&rft.aulast=Bessi%C3%A8re-Thomas&rft.aufirst=Yvonne&rft.au=Flament%2C+Ivon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoffee+bean" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Coffee_bean&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul>
<li><span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Emblem-relax.svg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Emblem-relax.svg/28px-Emblem-relax.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Emblem-relax.svg/42px-Emblem-relax.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Emblem-relax.svg/56px-Emblem-relax.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="60" /></a></span><span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Coffee" title="Portal:Coffee">Coffee portal</a></span></li>
<li><span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Veranotrigo.jpg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Veranotrigo.jpg/32px-Veranotrigo.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Veranotrigo.jpg/48px-Veranotrigo.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Veranotrigo.jpg/64px-Veranotrigo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span><span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Agriculture" title="Portal:Agriculture">Agriculture portal</a></span></li>
<li><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/16px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/24px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/33px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="239" data-file-height="408" /></span><span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Drink" title="Portal:Drink">Drink portal</a></span></li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Coffee" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r992953826">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Coffee" title="Template:Coffee"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;;text-decoration:inherit;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Coffee" title="Template talk:Coffee"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;;text-decoration:inherit;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Coffee&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;;text-decoration:inherit;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Coffee" class="hrecipe fn ingredient" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">Coffee</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economics_of_coffee" title="Economics of coffee">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fair_trade_coffee" title="Fair trade coffee">Fair trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_coffee" title="History of coffee">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Coffee_Day" title="International Coffee Day">International Coffee Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Single-origin_coffee" title="Single-origin coffee">Single-origin coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_wave_of_coffee" title="Third wave of coffee">Third wave of coffee</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="11" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG" class="image" title="A cup of coffee"><img alt="A cup of coffee" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG/120px-A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG/180px-A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG/240px-A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><div style="height:5px"></div><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r936637989"/><div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portal plainlist tright">
<ul>
<li><span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Emblem-relax.svg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Emblem-relax.svg/28px-Emblem-relax.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Emblem-relax.svg/42px-Emblem-relax.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Emblem-relax.svg/56px-Emblem-relax.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="60" /></a></span><span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Coffee" title="Portal:Coffee">Coffee portal</a></span></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Production</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production" title="Coffee production">Coffee production</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_countries_by_coffee_production" title="List of countries by coffee production">List of countries by coffee production</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_roasting" title="Coffee roasting">Coffee roasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_wastewater" title="Coffee wastewater">Coffee wastewater</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decaffeination" title="Decaffeination">Decaffeination</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Home_roasting_coffee" title="Home roasting coffee">Home roasting</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea" title="Coffea">Species</a> and <br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffee_varieties" title="List of coffee varieties">varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_arabica" title="Coffea arabica">Arabica</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benguet_coffee" title="Benguet coffee">Benguet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jamaican_Blue_Mountain_Coffee" title="Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee">Blue Mountain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guadeloupe_Bonifieur" title="Guadeloupe Bonifieur">Bonifieur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bourbon_coffee" title="Bourbon coffee">Bourbon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geisha_(coffee)" title="Geisha (coffee)">Geisha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kona_coffee" title="Kona coffee">Kona</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maracaturra_coffee" title="Maracaturra coffee">Maracaturra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maragogipe_Coffee" title="Maragogipe Coffee">Maragogipe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molokai_coffee" title="Molokai coffee">Molokai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/S795_coffee" title="S795 coffee">S795</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sagada_coffee" title="Sagada coffee">Sagada</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_charrieriana" title="Coffea charrieriana">Charrieriana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_liberica" title="Coffea liberica">Liberica</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kapeng_barako" title="Kapeng barako">Barako</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffea_racemosa" title="Coffea racemosa">Racemosa</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robusta_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Robusta coffee">Robusta</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kahawa_Sug" title="Kahawa Sug">Sulu</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cafestol" title="Cafestol">Cafestol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeic_acid" title="Caffeic acid">Caffeic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coffee bean</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Furan-2-ylmethanethiol" title="Furan-2-ylmethanethiol">Furan-2-ylmethanethiol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kahweol" title="Kahweol">Kahweol</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_preparation" title="Coffee preparation">Preparation</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabic_coffee" title="Arabic coffee">Arabic coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jebena" title="Jebena">Jebena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brewed_coffee" title="Brewed coffee">Brewed coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cezve" title="Cezve">Cezve</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chorreador" title="Chorreador">Chorreador</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffeemaker" title="Coffeemaker">Coffeemaker</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_brew_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold brew coffee">Cold brew</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Espresso" title="Espresso">Espresso</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doppio" title="Doppio">doppio</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lungo" title="Lungo">lungo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ristretto" title="Ristretto">ristretto</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Espresso_machine" title="Espresso machine">Espresso machine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_press" title="French press">French press</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Instant_coffee" title="Instant coffee">Instant coffee</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_syrup" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffee syrup">Coffee syrup</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Knockbox" title="Knockbox">Knockbox</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moka_pot" title="Moka pot">Moka pot</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_percolator" title="Coffee percolator">Percolator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_coffee" title="Turkish coffee">Turkish coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vacuum_coffee_maker" title="Vacuum coffee maker">Vacuum maker</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Single-serve_coffee_container" title="Single-serve coffee container">Single-serve coffee container</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffee_drinks" title="List of coffee drinks">Coffee drinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Affogato" title="Affogato">Affogato</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_Americano" title="Caffè Americano">Americano</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beaten_coffee" title="Beaten coffee">Beaten coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bica_(coffee)" title="Bica (coffee)">Bica</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bicerin" title="Bicerin">Bicerin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Russian" title="Black Russian">Black Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vietnamese_iced_coffee" title="Vietnamese iced coffee">Cà phê sữa đá</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_au_lait" title="Café au lait">Café au lait</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_de_olla" title="Café de olla">Café de olla</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_con_leche" title="Café con leche">Café con leche</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_crema" title="Caffè crema">Caffè crema</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cuban_espresso" title="Cuban espresso">Café Cubano</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_mocha" title="Caffè mocha">Caffè mocha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Touba" title="Café Touba">Café Touba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_corretto" title="Caffè corretto">Caffè corretto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_com_cheirinho" title="Café com cheirinho">Café com cheirinho</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_macchiato" title="Caffè macchiato">Caffè macchiato</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cappuccino" title="Cappuccino">Cappuccino</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carajillo" title="Carajillo">Carajillo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_cabinet" title="Coffee cabinet">Coffee cabinet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_milk" title="Coffee milk">Coffee milk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cortado" title="Cortado">Cortado</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dalgona_coffee" title="Dalgona coffee">Dalgona coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Espresso" title="Espresso">Espresso</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flat_white" title="Flat white">Flat white</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frappuccino" title="Frappuccino">Frappuccino</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gal%C3%A3o" title="Galão">Galão</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffee_drinks#Garoto" title="List of coffee drinks">Garoto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frapp%C3%A9_coffee" title="Frappé coffee">Greek frappé coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iced_coffee" title="Iced coffee">Iced coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_filter_coffee" title="Indian filter coffee">Indian filter coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ipoh_white_coffee" title="Ipoh white coffee">Ipoh white coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irish_coffee" title="Irish coffee">Irish coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karsk" title="Karsk">Karsk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kopi_(drink)" title="Kopi (drink)">Kopi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kopi_luwak" title="Kopi luwak">Kopi luwak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kopi_tubruk" title="Kopi tubruk">Kopi tubruk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kurdish_coffee" title="Kurdish coffee">Kurdish coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latte" title="Latte">Latte</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latte_macchiato" title="Latte macchiato">Latte macchiato</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liqueur_coffee" title="Liqueur coffee">Liqueur coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Long_black" title="Long black">Long black</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lungo" title="Lungo">Lungo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marocchino" title="Marocchino">Marocchino</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gassosa_al_caff%C3%A8" title="Gassosa al caffè">Gassosa al caffè</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mazagran_(drink)" title="Mazagran (drink)">Mazagran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oliang" title="Oliang">Oliang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffee_drinks#Red_eye" title="List of coffee drinks">Red eye</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ristretto" title="Ristretto">Ristretto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moretta_(coffee)" title="Moretta (coffee)">Moretta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/R%C3%BCdesheimer_Kaffee" title="Rüdesheimer Kaffee">Rüdesheimer Kaffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tenom_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenom coffee">Tenom coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_coffee" title="Turkish coffee">Turkish coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_coffee" title="White coffee">White coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Russian_(cocktail)" title="White Russian (cocktail)">White Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wiener_Melange" title="Wiener Melange">Wiener Melange</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuenyeung" title="Yuenyeung">Yuenyeung</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organization lists</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_bakery_caf%C3%A9s" title="List of bakery cafés">Bakery cafés</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffee_companies" title="List of coffee companies">Coffee companies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_coffeehouse_chains" title="List of coffeehouse chains">Coffeehouses</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lifestyle</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barista" title="Barista">Barista</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bikini_barista" title="Bikini barista">Bikini barista</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_sospeso" title="Caffè sospeso">Caffè sospeso</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Break_(work)#Coffee_break" title="Break (work)">Coffee break</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_ceremony" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffee ceremony">Coffee ceremony</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/CoffeeCon" title="CoffeeCon">CoffeeCon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_culture" title="Coffee culture">Coffee culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_cupping" title="Coffee cupping">Coffee cupping</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_palace" title="Coffee palace">Coffee palace</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">Coffeehouse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fika_(Sweden)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fika (Sweden)">Fika</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kopi_tiam" title="Kopi tiam">Kopi tiam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latte_art" title="Latte art">Latte art</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viennese_coffee_house" title="Viennese coffee house">Viennese coffee house</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_substitute" title="Coffee substitute">Substitutes</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barley_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Barley coffee">Barley coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barley_tea" title="Barley tea">Barley tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barleycup" title="Barleycup">Barleycup</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caro_(drink)" title="Caro (drink)">Caro</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chicory" title="Chicory">Chicory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dandelion_coffee" title="Dandelion coffee">Dandelion coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inka_(drink)" title="Inka (drink)">Inka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maya_nut" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya nut">Maya nut</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postum" title="Postum">Postum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qishr" title="Qishr">Qishr</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roasted_grain_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Roasted grain drink">Roasted grain drink</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serving vessels</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_cup" title="Coffee cup">Coffee cup</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_cup_sleeve" title="Coffee cup sleeve">sleeve</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cezve" title="Cezve">Cezve</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demitasse" title="Demitasse">Demitasse</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demitasse_spoon" title="Demitasse spoon">spoon</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tasse_%C3%A0_caf%C3%A9" title="Tasse à café">Tasse à café</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zarf" title="Zarf">Zarf</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Misc.</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_and_doughnuts" title="Coffee and doughnuts">Coffee and doughnuts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_bag" title="Coffee bag">Coffee bag</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_leaf_rust" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffee leaf rust">Coffee leaf rust</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gustav_III_of_Sweden%27s_coffee_experiment" title="Gustav III of Sweden's coffee experiment">King Gustav's twin experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canned_coffee" title="Canned coffee">Canned coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_vending_machine" title="Coffee vending machine">Coffee vending machine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Used_coffee_grounds" title="Used coffee grounds">Used coffee grounds</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>
<ul><li><img alt="Category" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Coffee" title="Category:Coffee">Category: Coffee</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q153697#identifiers&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q153697#identifiers&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q153697#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4162996-6">Integrated Authority File (Germany)</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.microsoft.com/v2/detail/2779801959">Microsoft Academic</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1632512567 |
